roebe 0.5.187

data/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi

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+#!/usr/bin/ruby -w
+# Encoding: UTF-8
+# frozen_string_literal: true
+# =========================================================================== #
+# http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi
+# =========================================================================== #
+require 'cyberweb/autoinclude'
+
+english('Cognitive Biology') {
+created_on '06.05.2023' # Saturday.
+autoextend
+ruby_favicon
+default_template ''
+body_css_class 'mar0px s2px padt2px VERDANAs'
+body_css_style 'background-color: #d3d2d1;'
+default_font_size
+default_hyperlinks
+
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === CSS_CLASSES_FOR_HYPERLINKS
+# =========================================================================== #
+CSS_CLASSES_FOR_HYPERLINKS = 'marl2em BOLD'
+
+all_hyperlinks_use_this_CSS_class(CSS_CLASSES_FOR_HYPERLINKS)
+
+doc_preferred_width('mar0px pad0px s0_8em') {
+  h1 title?,
+     'mart1px marb0_5em'
+  p_default('mars2em italic mart2em') {
+    e squote('<b>Cognition</b> is <b>the science of the mind</b>.'),
+      'mars2em italic background_shadow ind1em BLOCK center',
+      '',
+      'width: 500px;
+       text-align: center;
+       width: 50%;
+       margin: auto;
+       '
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === What is Cognitive Biology?
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'What is Cognitive Biology?'
+  p_default_le {
+    e '<b>Cognitive Biology</b> is the <b>comparative study of cognition in
+    humans and animals, at all levels</b> - from mechanistic, such as neural,
+    to adaptive.'
+    br
+    e 'It is studied in both the laboratory as well as in the field.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === What is Cognitiion?
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'What is Cognitiion?'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Cognition is <b>to comprehend and process information</b>, as well
+    as to decide what to do, including abstract decisions. Memory, that
+    is Learning, is also a part of Cognition. Emotions and Habits may
+    also be a part of Cognition.'
+    br
+    e 'Animals can learn abstract concepts as well, such as
+    <b>categories</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'Developmental questions are also important for cognition:
+    differences between a baby and an adult in regards to
+    behaviour.'
+    br
+    e 'Cognition can be distinguished into Basic Cognition (such
+    as habits or inflexible responses) and Complex (such as
+    Abstract concepts).'
+    br
+    e '<b>Reflexes</b> can also be grouped into cognition.'
+    br
+    e 'An example for <b>complex cognition</b> is learning in human beings.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Questions cognition biology seeks to answer
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Questions cognition biology seeks to answer ...'
+  p_default_le {
+    earrow 'How do animals solve problems?'
+    earrow 'Are animals rational?'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Desert Ants
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Desert Ants'
+  p_default_le {
+    dimg find_image('desert_ants'),
+         'round_black3 mar0_5em marl3em'
+    br
+    e '<b>Desert ants</b> integrate information in regards to <b>distance</b>
+    and <b>direction</b>.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Apes
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Apes'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Chimpanzee conga lines are like dances without sound.'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3pwHD0vKLCo',
+         content: 'Synchronized Chimps Dancing the Conga! (2015)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Ducks
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Ducks'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Ducks have a duck mating ritual.'
+    br
+    e 'During the course of this mating ritual, various species of
+    wild ducks perform elaborate dances. They - that is, a male
+    duck - may also display their colourful feathers.'
+    br
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === John Bowlby
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'The mother-child relationship (by John Bowlby)'
+  p_default_le {
+    e '<b>John Bowlby</b> (from the UK) postulated the <b>Attachment Theory</b>,
+    showing the importance of <b>early emotional bonds</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'This theory suggests that <b>people are born with a need to
+    forge bonds with caregivers as children</b>. These early bonds
+    may continue to have an influence on attachments throughout
+    life - the special <b>mother child relationship</b> as
+    <b>attachment</b> is an example of that.'
+    br
+    e 'John initially described the theory as a <b>lasting
+    psychological connectedness between human beings</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'An infant may eventually show a preference for a certain
+    primary caretaker.'
+    br
+    e 'An example in behaviour for this theory is when children
+    are frightened - in that event they may seek proximity from
+    their primary caregiver, in order to receive both comfort
+    and care. This can be seen in <b>humans</b> as well as in 
+    <b>apes</b>.'
+    br
+    selfy 'https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-attachment-theory-2795337',
+           css_class: CSS_CLASSES_FOR_HYPERLINKS
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Monkeys
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#monkeys
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Monkeys'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Monkeys use tools to aid themselves.'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yGA5JQNJceM',
+         content: 'Monkey Cracks Nut - what could go wrong?
+                  (2018)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Type of Complexity in Cognitive Biology
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Type of Complexity in Cognitive Biology'
+  p_default_le {
+    reset_the_counter
+    counter 'Group size (Dunbar 1992, 1998)','marl3em BOLD'
+    counter 'Social relationships (Dunbar & Shultz 2007; Emery et al. 2007)','marl3em BOLD'
+    counter 'Fission-fusion dynamics (Aureli et al. 2008)','marl3em BOLD'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Group Size and Brain Size
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Group Size and Brain Size'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'The relative size of the neocortex in primates correlates with
+    the average group size, but not with any ecological parameters
+    (Dunbar 1992)'
+    br
+    e 'The relative size of the neocortex in primates correlates directly
+    with social skills, such as <b>tactical deception</b> (Byrne 1996)
+    or <b>Social play</b> (Dunbar 2000).'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Types of Social Relationships
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Types of Social Relationships'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Aggression: Dominance'
+    br
+    lem2 '– Agonistic behaviour'
+    lem2 '– Approach/retreat'
+    br
+    e 'Affiliation: Social bonds'
+    br
+    lem2 '– Socio-positive behaviour'
+    lem2 '– Association patterns'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Pigeons and their behaviour
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#pigeons_and_their_behaviour
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Pigeons and their behaviour'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Pigeons can discriminate between pictures with and without people.
+    According to Herritoin this is a <b>complex visual concept</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'In labs studying the behaviour of pigeons one may find an <b>operant
+    learning chamber</b>, also called a Skinner box. There can even be
+    <b>fully automatized learning chamber</b> for pigeons.'
+    br
+    e 'A skinner box can also be employed for other animals, such
+    as rats:'
+    br
+    dimg 'science/animals/the_skinner_box.png',
+         'mar0_5em marl3em round_black3'
+    br
+    e '<b>Skinner</b> himself influenced the field of cognition biology
+    quite a bit. Ethologists that followed in his steps, typically
+    emphasized the application of the same objective behaviorist
+    approach to animal research lateron.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Niko Tinbergen
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#niko_tinbergen
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Niko Tinbergen'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'The famous pioneering ethologist Niko Tinbergen (<b>1963</b>)
+    emphasized four questions. The most important question was:'
+    br
+    equote 'Why does the animal do that?','marl2em'
+    br
+    e 'As Tinbergen emphasized, a complete understanding of behaviour
+    includes answers to <b>all four questions</b>.'
+    br
+    e "Tinbergen’s fourth question was: <b>How did it evolve?</b>"
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Fear conditioning
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#fear_conditioning
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Fear conditioning'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'An example of <b>fear conditioning</b> is to train a rat anticipating
+    how a certain <b>tone</b> predicts an incoming (physical) shock.' 
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Social facilitation
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Social facilitation'
+  p_default_le {
+    e "Social facilitation is a psychological concept relating to the tendency
+    for the presence of others to improve a person's performance on a task.
+    This person may show an increased level of effort and performance when in
+    the presence of others, as opposed to when they have to perform the same
+    task alone."
+    br
+    e "It thus operates on the <b>motivational level of social learning</b>."
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Dichromatic vision
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Dichromatic vision'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Marmosets show sex-linked polymorphism of colour vision.'
+    br
+    e 'Herein, all males and some females show dichromatic
+    ("red-green color-blind") vision based on two classes
+    of photoreceptor sensitive to short or medium wavelength
+    bands.'
+    br
+    e 'This is, curiously enough, not rare - these monkey species
+    tend to have both dichromatic and trichromatic individuals
+    present in the same population.'
+    br
+    e 'Trichromats have a foraging advantage for red food compared
+    with dichromats.'
+    br
+    e 'Covnersely, dichromats can perform some visual tasks better
+    than trichromates - specifically when <b>foraging in shade</b>,
+    but not in sun.'
+    br
+    e 'This may suggest that the dichromat advantage for certain
+    tasks contributes to maintenance of the colour vision
+    polymorphism in the population.'
+    br
+    e 'Another interesting thing to know about marmosets is
+    that infants are more attentive towards adults‘ foraging
+    than juveniles.'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.scielo.br/j/pn/a/8yKkThYxtbSzZYqGrJH7gRj/?lang=en',
+         content: 'Color signals in retina and lateral geniculate
+                   nucleus of marmoset monkeys (2013)'
+    abr 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2817255/',
+         content: 'A foraging advantage for dichromatic marmosets
+                  (Callithrix geoffroyi) at low light intensity
+                  (23.02.2010)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Sensitization
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Sensitization'
+  p_default_le {
+    e '<b>Sensitization</b> is an example for non-associative learning,
+    when repeated administrations of a stimulus result in a progressive
+    amplification of a response (Shettleworth, 2010)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Crows and Corvids
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#crows_and_corvids
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Crows and Corvids'
+  p_default_le {
+    e '<b>Crows</b> can crack walnuts by dropping them from heights of over
+    5 meters onto roads - sometimes even dropping these walnuts in front
+    of approaching cars. They can thus use cars to crush the nuts for
+    them, which clearly functions in obtaining food. A crows’ behavior
+    will typically match onto <b>environmental requirements</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'This making use of cars is not necessarily unique, though. Crows
+    in their natural environment may break hard-shelled prey
+    by dropping them onto a hard surface (Cristol and Switzer 1999).
+    Thus, there may be reasons pertaining to the natural environment
+    as to why this behaviour originally evolved.'
+    br
+    e 'Crows are <b>natural tool users</b> that love using objects for
+    just about anything.'
+    br
+    e "Corvids can use <b>optical barriers</b> to hide from others’
+    view at caching (Bugnyar & Kotrschal 2002, Dally et al. 2005)"
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NenEdSuL7QU',
+         content: 'Smart Crow uses cars to crack nuts in '\
+                  'Akita, Japan near Senshu Park (2010)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Instinct
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#honeybee_dance
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Instinct'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Instinct was initially described as the inherent inclination of
+    a living organism toward a particular complex behavior.'
+    br
+    e 'Instinct could thus be viewed as <b>an expression of innate
+    biological factors</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'Instinct is performed without prior experience.'
+    br
+    e 'An example of instinct among animals is the <b>
+    <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance">
+    honeybee dance</a></b>, also known as the <b>waggle</b> distance, as
+    originally discovered by <b>Karl von Frisch</b>. This dance is used
+    by bees to find food in a particularly location, making use of an array
+    of different landmarks. In other words: this dance conveys the angle
+    to a specific location, relative to the sun. It also allows honeybees
+    to share the location of various resources outside their hive.',
+    id: :honeybee_dance
+    br
+    e 'Bees can also transferr the relational rule from
+    colour-to-pattern and from pattern-to-colour.'
+    br
+    e 'The bee dance, however had, is <b>NOT</b> considered to
+    be a language.'
+    br
+    dimg 'science/animals/honeybee_waggle_dance.png',
+         'round_black3 mar0_5em marl3em'
+    dimg 'https://i.imgur.com/0T1FMDx.jpg',
+         'round_black3 mar0_5em marl1em'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Thorndike‘s puzzle box for cats
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#thorndike%E2%80%98s_puzzle_box_for_cats
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Thorndike‘s '+
+         squote('puzzle box')+
+         ' for cats'
+  p_default_le {
+    e '<b>Edward Thorndike</b> became famous for <b>placing a cat inside a
+    puzzle box</b>. He was thus the first scientist <b>to have
+    animals solve puzzles</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'In his experiments, in 1898, Thorndike built boxes, from which cats
+    could only escape in a certain way, by tampering with a mechanism at
+    the gate to the small box. With practice these cats were able to
+    escape from the box quickly, investing less and less time after 
+    each attempt. Thorndike was not convinced that the cat was able
+    to learn how to escape, though.'
+    br
+    e 'Thorndike ultimately studied <b>reinforcement</b>, which is the
+    strengthening of the probability of the occurrence of a response.
+    In his own wordes, he wrote that when an action recurs, it will
+    be more likely to recur again.'
+    br
+    e 'He created the <b>Law of Effect</b>, in 1911, and he
+    could demonstrate how animals solve simple physical
+    problems.'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhNxeYYyCSQ',
+         content: 'Edward Thorndike cats experiment (behavioral psychology) (2021)'
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fanm--WyQJo',
+         content: 'Puzzle box (Thorndike) (2011)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Perceptual grouping and the various Gestalt laws
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#perceptual_grouping_and_the_various_gestalt_laws
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Perceptual grouping and the various Gestalt laws'
+  p_default_le {
+    e '<b>Perceptual grouping</b> demonstrates several simple grouping
+    rules that may influence our perception.'
+    br
+    e 'Examples of such rules include <b>proximity</b>, <b>similarity</b>,
+    <b>good continuation</b> and <b>connectedness</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'For instance, proximity refers to grouping objects according
+    to spatial nearness. Similarity refers to grouping based on
+    repetition of similar features such as colour or shape.'
+    br
+    e 'These Gestalt principles make the grouped objects appear to
+    <i>belong together</i> and be processed as a whole, and
+    therefore facilitate visual perception.'
+    br
+    e 'The difficulty of grouping depends on at least 3 factors:'
+    br; reset_the_counter
+    counter 'the relations among the objects','marl3em BOLD'
+    counter 'the consequences of actions in their presence','marl3em BOLD'
+    counter 'the perceptual capabilities of the individual','marl3em BOLD'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-32039-4',
+         content: 'Evidence for the beneficial effect of perceptual
+                   grouping on visual working memory: an empirical
+                   study on illusory contour and a meta-analytic
+                   study (2018)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Octopus
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Octopus'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Octopus are clever:'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dKWssIQplw8',
+         content: 'Octopus Intelligence Experiment Takes
+                  an Unexpected Turn (2020)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Habituation
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Habituation'
+  p_default_le {
+    e '<b>Habituation</b> is <b>a decrease in response to a benign stimulus
+    when the stimulus is presented repeatedly</b>.'
+    br
+    e '<b>Habituation</b> is <b>a type of non-associative learning</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'An example for this is the siphon reflex of <i>Aplysia</i>.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Toad behaviour
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#toad_behaviour
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Toad behaviour'
+  p_default_le {
+    dimg 'https://i.imgur.com/Z8Xnfvr.jpg',
+         'mar0_5em marl4em round_black3'
+    br
+    e '<b>Toads</b> make use of <b>retinal detectors</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'They have <b>retinal ganglion cells</b> such as
+    <b>R2, R3 and R4</b>.'
+    br
+    e "They also have <b>tectal neurons</b> such as
+    <b>T5.1</b> and <b>T5.2</b>. The response activity
+    of <b>T5.2 neurons</b> is best correlated with the toad's
+    prey-catching activity."
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === The A-not-B error
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'The A-not-B error'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'The A-not-B error was devised by <b>
+    <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget">
+    Jean Piaget</a></b> (1896-1980) to
+    investigate the development of object permanence in infancy. It is thus
+    <b>an error in object permanence tasks</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'The task involves hiding a desirable object at location A for several
+    trials; then the object will be hidden at the new location <b>B</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'The error is that infants below about 12 months try to search at 
+    the location A from where they have successfully retrieved the object
+    several times before, sometimes even when the object is visible at
+    the new location B.'
+    br
+    e 'Introducing a delay imposed between the moment the
+    toy is hidden and the reaching action is initiated
+    before allowing the infant to search increases the
+    difficulty of this task, resulting in perseveration,
+    and suggesting that short-term (working) memory
+    constraints have to be overcome in order to perform
+    the task correctly.'
+    br
+    e 'Thus, the task requires infants both to hold a retrieval plan in
+    mind, and to suppress a previously reinforced response.'
+    br
+    e "Infants have an incomplete schema of object permanence. This
+    in turn shows that the infant's cognition of the existence of
+    the object at this time still depends on the actions he makes
+    to the object. Children of 12 months or older typically do not
+    make this error anymore."
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4jW668F7HdA',
+         content: 'Piaget - The A Not B Error (Sensorimotor Stage) (2013)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Pawlow
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#pawlow
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Pawlow'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Iwan Petrowitsch Pawlow was interested in digestion and
+    secretion. He pursued a rigorous experimental approach
+    with dogs.'
+    br
+    e 'He paired two events (stimul):'
+    br; reset_the_counter
+    counter 'unconditioned stimulus (US)','marl3em BOLD'
+    counter 'conditioned stimulus (CS)','marl3em BOLD'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Imprinting
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#imprinting
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Imprinting'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'Imprinting is the learning process through which the social
+    preferences of young animals become restricted to a particular
+    stimulus or class of stimuli (Bateson 1966; Bolhuis 1991)'
+    br
+    e 'Three stages can be distinguished here:'
+    br
+    cmd '– Sensitive phase'
+    cmd '– Short presentation'
+    cmd '– High adaptive value'
+    br
+    e 'Lorenz (in 1935) studied <b>postnatal imprinting in precocial birds</b>
+    (<i class="BOLD">Nestflüchter</i>): ducks and geese specifically. He focused
+    on the mother bond. Sexual imprinting would occur during adolescence.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === The Peacock
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#the_peacock
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'The Peacock'
+  p_default_le {
+    e 'The peacock is interesting because its beautiful tail
+    is an example of an elaborate display.'
+    br
+    dimg 'https://i.imgur.com/7TyvNLB.jpg',
+         'mar0_5em round_black3 marl3em'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === The Túngara frog chuck call
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#the_t%C3%BAngara_frog_chuck_call
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'The Túngara frog chuck call'
+  p_default_le(id: 'tungara') {
+    e "Let's first show how the <b>Túngara frog</b> looks like:"
+    dimg 'https://i.imgur.com/SOMuZcb.png',
+         'mar0_5em marl3em round_black4'
+    br
+    e 'This frog is interesting, even aside from cognition biology.'
+    br
+    e 'The female will only select males that are good singers, aka
+    <b class="italic">decent croakers</b>. So, females will prefer
+    <b>complex mating calls</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'The primary mating behavior of túngara frogs is long-distance
+    mating call, consisting of two distinct call components:'
+    br; reset_the_counter
+    counter 'chuck','marl3em BOLD'
+    counter 'whine','marl3em BOLD'
+    br
+    e 'The main organ responsible for producing sound in túngara
+    frogs is the <b>larynx</b>.'
+    br
+    e '<b>Male Túngara frogs</b> typically start with the whine-sound, and
+    then add up to seven short chuck sounds.'
+    br
+    e 'This system evolved to exploit a <b>pre-busting female preference
+    for chucks</b>. The <b>chuck</b> call is higher in frequency than
+    the <b>whine</b> call. The chuck call is also more attractive to
+    females than the whine calls, so they will favour chuck calls.'
+    br
+    e 'Frogs have two components of their ear: the amphibian and the
+    basilar papillae. The chuck noise stimulates the basilar
+    papilla.'
+    br
+    e 'Interestingly these frogs may have a <b>mutualistic relationship</b>
+    with <b>tarantulas</b>, where tarantulas participate in predator
+    defense while frogs protect tarantula eggs.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Artificial Grammar Learning
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#artificial_grammar_learning
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Artificial Grammar Learning'
+  p_default_le {
+    e '<b>Chomsky</b> determined that humans have a species-typical capacity
+    for acquiring new languages, which Chomsky called <b>Universal Grammar</b>.
+    In other words: an '+squote('instinct to learn language')+'.'
+    br
+    e "Each person’s capacity to use language depends on an internal grammar.
+    This grammar can be characterized in formal, algorithmic terms."
+    br
+    e "<b>Artificial grammar learning</b> (<b>AGL</b>) is a paradigm of study
+    within cognitive psychology and linguistics. Its goal is to investigate
+    the processes that underlie human language learning by testing subjects'
+    ability to learn a made-up grammar in a laboratory setting."
+    br
+    e 'George Miller showed that it was easier to remember a structured grammar
+    sequence than a random sequence of letters.'
+    br
+    e 'Artificial grammar learning (AGL) paradigms have proven to be useful
+    when investigating how young infants break into the grammar of their
+    native language. These tasks also allow infant populations to be
+    readily compared with adults and non-human animals.'
+    br
+    e "AGL studies have also been applied to test an infants' ability to
+    learn grammatical/structural properties of a language."
+    br 
+    abr 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30554481/',
+         content: 'Behavioral and Imaging Studies of
+                   Infant Artificial Grammar Learning
+                   (15.12.2018)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Classical ethologists
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#classical_ethologists
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Classical ethologists'
+  p_default_le {
+    reset_the_counter
+    counter '<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a>','marl3em BOLD'
+    counter 'Konrad Lorenz','marl3em BOLD'
+    counter 'Karl von Frisch','marl3em BOLD'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Slogans
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # http://localhost/programming/ruby/src/roebe/lib/roebe/www/cognitive_biology/cognitive_biology.cgi#slogans
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Slogans'
+  p_default_le {
+    earrow 'Cognition refers to the mechanisms by which animals acquire,
+    process, store, and act on information from the environment.'
+    br
+    earrow 'Behaviour is <b>difficult to predict</b>.'
+    br
+    earrow 'The more complex the social life of an animal is, the better
+    individuals need to become in order to deal with problems. This,
+    in turn, has an effect on processing capacities.'
+    br
+    dimg 'https://i.imgur.com/VdUpwMg.png',
+         'mar0_5em marl3em round_black3'
+    br
+    earrow 'Socially competent individuals have more offspring that
+    survive the first year (Silk et al. 2003; Cameron et al. 2009)'
+    br
+    earrow 'The study of the animal mind is one of the most exciting areas
+    in the cognitive sciences.'
+    br
+    earrow 'The immediate function of behaviour is what it is good
+    for in the life of the individual.'
+    br 
+    earrow 'One can assume that animals might be thinking
+    because they behave so intelligently.'
+    br
+    earrow 'The philosophy of animal minds promises to help us gain a
+    deeper understanding of familiar concepts by exploring them in a
+    new context.'
+    br
+    earrow 'Scientists are often more interested in how well an animal
+    evolved to thrive in their environment, rather than in determining
+    how smart these animals really are.'
+    br
+    earrow 'For some psychologists, mental representations of the world
+    are the essence of cognition.'
+    br
+    earrow "Darwin classified animals into higher ones, such as the
+    ape, and lower ones, such as the fish, concluding that 
+    humans, with their advanced mental powers, are on top.
+    (Darwin 1874)"
+    br
+    earrow "Darwin stated that humans are similar to other species
+    in mental as well as physical characteristics - which was
+    a shock to many back when he suggested this." 
+    br
+    earrow 'The force of group selection helps to explain
+    some of the unique features of human psychology such
+    as a tendency to cooperate.'
+    br
+    earrow 'The ecological approach emphasizes studying how
+    animals use cognition in the wild, such as in
+    <b>foraging</b>.'
+    br
+    earrow 'Cognition is best understood by being studied
+    in the context of evolution and ecology.'
+    br
+    earrow "<b>Intelligent behaviour</b> may be produced by very
+    unintelligent means."
+    br
+    earrow 'Subjective phenomena cannot be observed directly
+    in animals.'
+    br
+    earrow 'Labeling behavior intelligent is both anthropomorphic
+    and anthropocentric.' 
+    br
+    earrow '<b>Animal cognition</b> as a recognized subfield did
+    not take off until the 1970s.' 
+    br
+    earrow 'A Darwinian approach to animal cognition will emphasize
+    differences as well as similarities.'
+    br
+    earrow 'The choice of which species is used for an experiment
+    is often <b>based on convenience</b> rather than on
+    evolutionary considerations.'
+    br
+    earrow 'Basic conditioning mechanisms are widespread in the
+    animal kingdom, having been found in every animal in which
+    they have been sought.' # === Papini 2008
+    br
+    earrow 'Social learning refers to <b>information from others</b>.'
+    br
+    equote 'Neurons that fire together, wire together.'
+    br
+    equote 'Animals differ in heritable ways.'
+    br
+    equote 'The field of comparative cognition initially had a 
+    a very strong bias in favor of <b>simple</b> mechanisms.'
+    br
+    equote 'The brains of many animals solve both cognitive tasks in
+    a natural, effortless manner and with an efficiency that is difficult
+    to reproduce in computational models and artificial systems'+
+    '(Herrnstein 1985)'
+    br
+    equote 'Learning is an adaptive modification of the complex,
+    physiological mechanism, whose function the behaviour of
+    animals and humans is. (Konrad Lorenz)'
+    br
+    equote 'Learning is the acquisition of knowledge. (Anthony
+    Dickinson)'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Links
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  fancy3 'Links'
+  p_default_le {
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    # === https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VKgQj9b0b2w
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VKgQj9b0b2w',
+         content: 'Tarantula and Frogs (2011)'
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    # === https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_g1PMtQyP0
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_g1PMtQyP0',
+         content: 'Animal Cognition Lecture 1 part 1 (Introduction) (2019)'
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    # === https://www.youtube.com/shorts/y1scFoZt240
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/shorts/y1scFoZt240',
+         content: 'An Unlikely Friendship (2022)'
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    # === https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOgowRy2WC0
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOgowRy2WC0',
+         content: 'An example of a Skinner Box (2011)'
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    # === https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qTXGAd1kpXY
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qTXGAd1kpXY',
+         content: 'Reading Pigeon (2018)'
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    # === https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qP1hJLepOhw
+    # ======================================================================= #
+    abr 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qP1hJLepOhw',
+         content: 'Project Orcon (2016)'
+  }
+  br
+}}