geographiclib 0.0.1

data/ext/geographiclib/GeodesicExact.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,927 @@
+/**
+ * \file GeodesicExact.cpp
+ * \brief Implementation for GeographicLib::GeodesicExact class
+ *
+ * Copyright (c) Charles Karney (2012-2016) <charles@karney.com> and licensed
+ * under the MIT/X11 License.  For more information, see
+ * http://geographiclib.sourceforge.net/
+ *
+ * This is a reformulation of the geodesic problem.  The notation is as
+ * follows:
+ * - at a general point (no suffix or 1 or 2 as suffix)
+ *   - phi = latitude
+ *   - beta = latitude on auxiliary sphere
+ *   - omega = longitude on auxiliary sphere
+ *   - lambda = longitude
+ *   - alpha = azimuth of great circle
+ *   - sigma = arc length along great circle
+ *   - s = distance
+ *   - tau = scaled distance (= sigma at multiples of pi/2)
+ * - at northwards equator crossing
+ *   - beta = phi = 0
+ *   - omega = lambda = 0
+ *   - alpha = alpha0
+ *   - sigma = s = 0
+ * - a 12 suffix means a difference, e.g., s12 = s2 - s1.
+ * - s and c prefixes mean sin and cos
+ **********************************************************************/
+
+#include <GeographicLib/GeodesicExact.hpp>
+#include <GeographicLib/GeodesicLineExact.hpp>
+
+#if defined(_MSC_VER)
+// Squelch warnings about potentially uninitialized local variables and
+// constant conditional expressions
+#  pragma warning (disable: 4701 4127)
+#endif
+
+namespace GeographicLib {
+
+  using namespace std;
+
+  GeodesicExact::GeodesicExact(real a, real f)
+    : maxit2_(maxit1_ + Math::digits() + 10)
+      // Underflow guard.  We require
+      //   tiny_ * epsilon() > 0
+      //   tiny_ + epsilon() == epsilon()
+    , tiny_(sqrt(numeric_limits<real>::min()))
+    , tol0_(numeric_limits<real>::epsilon())
+      // Increase multiplier in defn of tol1_ from 100 to 200 to fix inverse
+      // case 52.784459512564 0 -52.784459512563990912 179.634407464943777557
+      // which otherwise failed for Visual Studio 10 (Release and Debug)
+    , tol1_(200 * tol0_)
+    , tol2_(sqrt(tol0_))
+    , tolb_(tol0_ * tol2_)      // Check on bisection interval
+    , xthresh_(1000 * tol2_)
+    , _a(a)
+    , _f(f)
+    , _f1(1 - _f)
+    , _e2(_f * (2 - _f))
+    , _ep2(_e2 / Math::sq(_f1)) // e2 / (1 - e2)
+    , _n(_f / ( 2 - _f))
+    , _b(_a * _f1)
+      // The Geodesic class substitutes atanh(sqrt(e2)) for asinh(sqrt(ep2)) in
+      // the definition of _c2.  The latter is more accurate for very oblate
+      // ellipsoids (which the Geodesic class does not attempt to handle).  Of
+      // course, the area calculation in GeodesicExact is still based on a
+      // series and so only holds for moderately oblate (or prolate)
+      // ellipsoids.
+    , _c2((Math::sq(_a) + Math::sq(_b) *
+           (_f == 0 ? 1 :
+            (_f > 0 ? Math::asinh(sqrt(_ep2)) : atan(sqrt(-_e2))) /
+            sqrt(abs(_e2))))/2) // authalic radius squared
+      // The sig12 threshold for "really short".  Using the auxiliary sphere
+      // solution with dnm computed at (bet1 + bet2) / 2, the relative error in
+      // the azimuth consistency check is sig12^2 * abs(f) * min(1, 1-f/2) / 2.
+      // (Error measured for 1/100 < b/a < 100 and abs(f) >= 1/1000.  For a
+      // given f and sig12, the max error occurs for lines near the pole.  If
+      // the old rule for computing dnm = (dn1 + dn2)/2 is used, then the error
+      // increases by a factor of 2.)  Setting this equal to epsilon gives
+      // sig12 = etol2.  Here 0.1 is a safety factor (error decreased by 100)
+      // and max(0.001, abs(f)) stops etol2 getting too large in the nearly
+      // spherical case.
+    , _etol2(0.1 * tol2_ /
+             sqrt( max(real(0.001), abs(_f)) * min(real(1), 1 - _f/2) / 2 ))
+  {
+    if (!(Math::isfinite(_a) && _a > 0))
+      throw GeographicErr("Major radius is not positive");
+    if (!(Math::isfinite(_b) && _b > 0))
+      throw GeographicErr("Minor radius is not positive");
+    C4coeff();
+  }
+
+  const GeodesicExact& GeodesicExact::WGS84() {
+    static const GeodesicExact wgs84(Constants::WGS84_a(),
+                                     Constants::WGS84_f());
+    return wgs84;
+  }
+
+  Math::real GeodesicExact::CosSeries(real sinx, real cosx,
+                                      const real c[], int n) {
+    // Evaluate
+    // y = sum(c[i] * cos((2*i+1) * x), i, 0, n-1)
+    // using Clenshaw summation.
+    // Approx operation count = (n + 5) mult and (2 * n + 2) add
+    c += n ;                    // Point to one beyond last element
+    real
+      ar = 2 * (cosx - sinx) * (cosx + sinx), // 2 * cos(2 * x)
+      y0 = n & 1 ? *--c : 0, y1 = 0;          // accumulators for sum
+    // Now n is even
+    n /= 2;
+    while (n--) {
+      // Unroll loop x 2, so accumulators return to their original role
+      y1 = ar * y0 - y1 + *--c;
+      y0 = ar * y1 - y0 + *--c;
+    }
+    return cosx * (y0 - y1);    // cos(x) * (y0 - y1)
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLineExact GeodesicExact::Line(real lat1, real lon1, real azi1,
+                                        unsigned caps) const {
+    return GeodesicLineExact(*this, lat1, lon1, azi1, caps);
+  }
+
+  Math::real GeodesicExact::GenDirect(real lat1, real lon1, real azi1,
+                                      bool arcmode, real s12_a12,
+                                      unsigned outmask,
+                                      real& lat2, real& lon2, real& azi2,
+                                      real& s12, real& m12,
+                                      real& M12, real& M21,
+                                      real& S12) const {
+    // Automatically supply DISTANCE_IN if necessary
+    if (!arcmode) outmask |= DISTANCE_IN;
+    return GeodesicLineExact(*this, lat1, lon1, azi1, outmask)
+      .                         // Note the dot!
+      GenPosition(arcmode, s12_a12, outmask,
+                  lat2, lon2, azi2, s12, m12, M12, M21, S12);
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLineExact GeodesicExact::GenDirectLine(real lat1, real lon1,
+                                                 real azi1,
+                                                 bool arcmode, real s12_a12,
+                                                 unsigned caps) const {
+    azi1 = Math::AngNormalize(azi1);
+    real salp1, calp1;
+    // Guard against underflow in salp0.  Also -0 is converted to +0.
+    Math::sincosd(Math::AngRound(azi1), salp1, calp1);
+    // Automatically supply DISTANCE_IN if necessary
+    if (!arcmode) caps |= DISTANCE_IN;
+    return GeodesicLineExact(*this, lat1, lon1, azi1, salp1, calp1,
+                             caps, arcmode, s12_a12);
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLineExact GeodesicExact::DirectLine(real lat1, real lon1,
+                                              real azi1, real s12,
+                                              unsigned caps) const {
+    return GenDirectLine(lat1, lon1, azi1, false, s12, caps);
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLineExact GeodesicExact::ArcDirectLine(real lat1, real lon1,
+                                                 real azi1, real a12,
+                                                 unsigned caps) const {
+    return GenDirectLine(lat1, lon1, azi1, true, a12, caps);
+  }
+
+  Math::real GeodesicExact::GenInverse(real lat1, real lon1,
+                                       real lat2, real lon2,
+                                       unsigned outmask, real& s12,
+                                       real& salp1, real& calp1,
+                                       real& salp2, real& calp2,
+                                       real& m12, real& M12, real& M21,
+                                       real& S12) const {
+    // Compute longitude difference (AngDiff does this carefully).  Result is
+    // in [-180, 180] but -180 is only for west-going geodesics.  180 is for
+    // east-going and meridional geodesics.
+    real lon12s, lon12 = Math::AngDiff(lon1, lon2, lon12s);
+    // Make longitude difference positive.
+    int lonsign = lon12 >= 0 ? 1 : -1;
+    // If very close to being on the same half-meridian, then make it so.
+    lon12 = lonsign * Math::AngRound(lon12);
+    lon12s = Math::AngRound((180 - lon12) - lonsign * lon12s);
+    real
+      lam12 = lon12 * Math::degree(),
+      slam12, clam12;
+    if (lon12 > 90) {
+      Math::sincosd(lon12s, slam12, clam12);
+      clam12 = -clam12;
+    } else
+      Math::sincosd(lon12, slam12, clam12);
+
+    // If really close to the equator, treat as on equator.
+    lat1 = Math::AngRound(Math::LatFix(lat1));
+    lat2 = Math::AngRound(Math::LatFix(lat2));
+    // Swap points so that point with higher (abs) latitude is point 1
+    // If one latitude is a nan, then it becomes lat1.
+    int swapp = abs(lat1) < abs(lat2) ? -1 : 1;
+    if (swapp < 0) {
+      lonsign *= -1;
+      swap(lat1, lat2);
+    }
+    // Make lat1 <= 0
+    int latsign = lat1 < 0 ? 1 : -1;
+    lat1 *= latsign;
+    lat2 *= latsign;
+    // Now we have
+    //
+    //     0 <= lon12 <= 180
+    //     -90 <= lat1 <= 0
+    //     lat1 <= lat2 <= -lat1
+    //
+    // longsign, swapp, latsign register the transformation to bring the
+    // coordinates to this canonical form.  In all cases, 1 means no change was
+    // made.  We make these transformations so that there are few cases to
+    // check, e.g., on verifying quadrants in atan2.  In addition, this
+    // enforces some symmetries in the results returned.
+
+    real sbet1, cbet1, sbet2, cbet2, s12x, m12x;
+    // Initialize for the meridian.  No longitude calculation is done in this
+    // case to let the parameter default to 0.
+    EllipticFunction E(-_ep2);
+
+    Math::sincosd(lat1, sbet1, cbet1); sbet1 *= _f1;
+    // Ensure cbet1 = +epsilon at poles; doing the fix on beta means that sig12
+    // will be <= 2*tiny for two points at the same pole.
+    Math::norm(sbet1, cbet1); cbet1 = max(tiny_, cbet1);
+
+    Math::sincosd(lat2, sbet2, cbet2); sbet2 *= _f1;
+    // Ensure cbet2 = +epsilon at poles
+    Math::norm(sbet2, cbet2); cbet2 = max(tiny_, cbet2);
+
+    // If cbet1 < -sbet1, then cbet2 - cbet1 is a sensitive measure of the
+    // |bet1| - |bet2|.  Alternatively (cbet1 >= -sbet1), abs(sbet2) + sbet1 is
+    // a better measure.  This logic is used in assigning calp2 in Lambda12.
+    // Sometimes these quantities vanish and in that case we force bet2 = +/-
+    // bet1 exactly.  An example where is is necessary is the inverse problem
+    // 48.522876735459 0 -48.52287673545898293 179.599720456223079643
+    // which failed with Visual Studio 10 (Release and Debug)
+
+    if (cbet1 < -sbet1) {
+      if (cbet2 == cbet1)
+        sbet2 = sbet2 < 0 ? sbet1 : -sbet1;
+    } else {
+      if (abs(sbet2) == -sbet1)
+        cbet2 = cbet1;
+    }
+
+    real
+      dn1 = (_f >= 0 ? sqrt(1 + _ep2 * Math::sq(sbet1)) :
+             sqrt(1 - _e2 * Math::sq(cbet1)) / _f1),
+      dn2 = (_f >= 0 ? sqrt(1 + _ep2 * Math::sq(sbet2)) :
+             sqrt(1 - _e2 * Math::sq(cbet2)) / _f1);
+
+    real a12, sig12;
+
+    bool meridian = lat1 == -90 || slam12 == 0;
+
+    if (meridian) {
+
+      // Endpoints are on a single full meridian, so the geodesic might lie on
+      // a meridian.
+
+      calp1 = clam12; salp1 = slam12; // Head to the target longitude
+      calp2 = 1; salp2 = 0;           // At the target we're heading north
+
+      real
+        // tan(bet) = tan(sig) * cos(alp)
+        ssig1 = sbet1, csig1 = calp1 * cbet1,
+        ssig2 = sbet2, csig2 = calp2 * cbet2;
+
+      // sig12 = sig2 - sig1
+      sig12 = atan2(max(real(0), csig1 * ssig2 - ssig1 * csig2),
+                    csig1 * csig2 + ssig1 * ssig2);
+      {
+        real dummy;
+        Lengths(E, sig12, ssig1, csig1, dn1, ssig2, csig2, dn2,
+                cbet1, cbet2, outmask | REDUCEDLENGTH,
+                s12x, m12x, dummy, M12, M21);
+      }
+      // Add the check for sig12 since zero length geodesics might yield m12 <
+      // 0.  Test case was
+      //
+      //    echo 20.001 0 20.001 0 | GeodSolve -i
+      //
+      // In fact, we will have sig12 > pi/2 for meridional geodesic which is
+      // not a shortest path.
+      if (sig12 < 1 || m12x >= 0) {
+        // Need at least 2, to handle 90 0 90 180
+        if (sig12 < 3 * tiny_)
+          sig12 = m12x = s12x = 0;
+        m12x *= _b;
+        s12x *= _b;
+        a12 = sig12 / Math::degree();
+      } else
+        // m12 < 0, i.e., prolate and too close to anti-podal
+        meridian = false;
+    }
+
+    // somg12 > 1 marks that it needs to be calculated
+    real omg12 = 0, somg12 = 2, comg12 = 0;
+    if (!meridian &&
+        sbet1 == 0 &&   // and sbet2 == 0
+        (_f <= 0 || lon12s >= _f * 180)) {
+
+      // Geodesic runs along equator
+      calp1 = calp2 = 0; salp1 = salp2 = 1;
+      s12x = _a * lam12;
+      sig12 = omg12 = lam12 / _f1;
+      m12x = _b * sin(sig12);
+      if (outmask & GEODESICSCALE)
+        M12 = M21 = cos(sig12);
+      a12 = lon12 / _f1;
+
+    } else if (!meridian) {
+
+      // Now point1 and point2 belong within a hemisphere bounded by a
+      // meridian and geodesic is neither meridional or equatorial.
+
+      // Figure a starting point for Newton's method
+      real dnm;
+      sig12 = InverseStart(E, sbet1, cbet1, dn1, sbet2, cbet2, dn2,
+                           lam12, slam12, clam12,
+                           salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2, dnm);
+
+      if (sig12 >= 0) {
+        // Short lines (InverseStart sets salp2, calp2, dnm)
+        s12x = sig12 * _b * dnm;
+        m12x = Math::sq(dnm) * _b * sin(sig12 / dnm);
+        if (outmask & GEODESICSCALE)
+          M12 = M21 = cos(sig12 / dnm);
+        a12 = sig12 / Math::degree();
+        omg12 = lam12 / (_f1 * dnm);
+      } else {
+
+        // Newton's method.  This is a straightforward solution of f(alp1) =
+        // lambda12(alp1) - lam12 = 0 with one wrinkle.  f(alp) has exactly one
+        // root in the interval (0, pi) and its derivative is positive at the
+        // root.  Thus f(alp) is positive for alp > alp1 and negative for alp <
+        // alp1.  During the course of the iteration, a range (alp1a, alp1b) is
+        // maintained which brackets the root and with each evaluation of
+        // f(alp) the range is shrunk, if possible.  Newton's method is
+        // restarted whenever the derivative of f is negative (because the new
+        // value of alp1 is then further from the solution) or if the new
+        // estimate of alp1 lies outside (0,pi); in this case, the new starting
+        // guess is taken to be (alp1a + alp1b) / 2.
+        //
+        // initial values to suppress warnings (if loop is executed 0 times)
+        real ssig1 = 0, csig1 = 0, ssig2 = 0, csig2 = 0;
+        unsigned numit = 0;
+        // Bracketing range
+        real salp1a = tiny_, calp1a = 1, salp1b = tiny_, calp1b = -1;
+        for (bool tripn = false, tripb = false;
+             numit < maxit2_ || GEOGRAPHICLIB_PANIC;
+             ++numit) {
+          // 1/4 meridan = 10e6 m and random input.  max err is estimated max
+          // error in nm (checking solution of inverse problem by direct
+          // solution).  iter is mean and sd of number of iterations
+          //
+          //           max   iter
+          // log2(b/a) err mean  sd
+          //    -7     387 5.33 3.68
+          //    -6     345 5.19 3.43
+          //    -5     269 5.00 3.05
+          //    -4     210 4.76 2.44
+          //    -3     115 4.55 1.87
+          //    -2      69 4.35 1.38
+          //    -1      36 4.05 1.03
+          //     0      15 0.01 0.13
+          //     1      25 5.10 1.53
+          //     2      96 5.61 2.09
+          //     3     318 6.02 2.74
+          //     4     985 6.24 3.22
+          //     5    2352 6.32 3.44
+          //     6    6008 6.30 3.45
+          //     7   19024 6.19 3.30
+          real dv;
+          real v = Lambda12(sbet1, cbet1, dn1, sbet2, cbet2, dn2, salp1, calp1,
+                            slam12, clam12,
+                            salp2, calp2, sig12, ssig1, csig1, ssig2, csig2,
+                            E, somg12, comg12, numit < maxit1_, dv);
+          // Reversed test to allow escape with NaNs
+          if (tripb || !(abs(v) >= (tripn ? 8 : 1) * tol0_)) break;
+          // Update bracketing values
+          if (v > 0 && (numit > maxit1_ || calp1/salp1 > calp1b/salp1b))
+            { salp1b = salp1; calp1b = calp1; }
+          else if (v < 0 && (numit > maxit1_ || calp1/salp1 < calp1a/salp1a))
+            { salp1a = salp1; calp1a = calp1; }
+          if (numit < maxit1_ && dv > 0) {
+            real
+              dalp1 = -v/dv;
+            real
+              sdalp1 = sin(dalp1), cdalp1 = cos(dalp1),
+              nsalp1 = salp1 * cdalp1 + calp1 * sdalp1;
+            if (nsalp1 > 0 && abs(dalp1) < Math::pi()) {
+              calp1 = calp1 * cdalp1 - salp1 * sdalp1;
+              salp1 = nsalp1;
+              Math::norm(salp1, calp1);
+              // In some regimes we don't get quadratic convergence because
+              // slope -> 0.  So use convergence conditions based on epsilon
+              // instead of sqrt(epsilon).
+              tripn = abs(v) <= 16 * tol0_;
+              continue;
+            }
+          }
+          // Either dv was not postive or updated value was outside legal
+          // range.  Use the midpoint of the bracket as the next estimate.
+          // This mechanism is not needed for the WGS84 ellipsoid, but it does
+          // catch problems with more eccentric ellipsoids.  Its efficacy is
+          // such for the WGS84 test set with the starting guess set to alp1 =
+          // 90deg:
+          // the WGS84 test set: mean = 5.21, sd = 3.93, max = 24
+          // WGS84 and random input: mean = 4.74, sd = 0.99
+          salp1 = (salp1a + salp1b)/2;
+          calp1 = (calp1a + calp1b)/2;
+          Math::norm(salp1, calp1);
+          tripn = false;
+          tripb = (abs(salp1a - salp1) + (calp1a - calp1) < tolb_ ||
+                   abs(salp1 - salp1b) + (calp1 - calp1b) < tolb_);
+        }
+        {
+          real dummy;
+          Lengths(E, sig12, ssig1, csig1, dn1, ssig2, csig2, dn2,
+                  cbet1, cbet2, outmask, s12x, m12x, dummy, M12, M21);
+        }
+        m12x *= _b;
+        s12x *= _b;
+        a12 = sig12 / Math::degree();
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (outmask & DISTANCE)
+      s12 = 0 + s12x;           // Convert -0 to 0
+
+    if (outmask & REDUCEDLENGTH)
+      m12 = 0 + m12x;           // Convert -0 to 0
+
+    if (outmask & AREA) {
+      real
+        // From Lambda12: sin(alp1) * cos(bet1) = sin(alp0)
+        salp0 = salp1 * cbet1,
+        calp0 = Math::hypot(calp1, salp1 * sbet1); // calp0 > 0
+      real alp12;
+      if (calp0 != 0 && salp0 != 0) {
+        real
+          // From Lambda12: tan(bet) = tan(sig) * cos(alp)
+          ssig1 = sbet1, csig1 = calp1 * cbet1,
+          ssig2 = sbet2, csig2 = calp2 * cbet2,
+          k2 = Math::sq(calp0) * _ep2,
+          eps = k2 / (2 * (1 + sqrt(1 + k2)) + k2),
+          // Multiplier = a^2 * e^2 * cos(alpha0) * sin(alpha0).
+          A4 = Math::sq(_a) * calp0 * salp0 * _e2;
+        Math::norm(ssig1, csig1);
+        Math::norm(ssig2, csig2);
+        real C4a[nC4_];
+        C4f(eps, C4a);
+        real
+          B41 = CosSeries(ssig1, csig1, C4a, nC4_),
+          B42 = CosSeries(ssig2, csig2, C4a, nC4_);
+        S12 = A4 * (B42 - B41);
+      } else
+        // Avoid problems with indeterminate sig1, sig2 on equator
+        S12 = 0;
+
+      if (!meridian) {
+        if (somg12 > 1) {
+          somg12 = sin(omg12); comg12 = cos(omg12);
+        } else
+          Math::norm(somg12, comg12);
+      }
+
+      if (!meridian &&
+          // omg12 < 3/4 * pi
+          comg12 > -real(0.7071) &&     // Long difference not too big
+          sbet2 - sbet1 < real(1.75)) { // Lat difference not too big
+        // Use tan(Gamma/2) = tan(omg12/2)
+        // * (tan(bet1/2)+tan(bet2/2))/(1+tan(bet1/2)*tan(bet2/2))
+        // with tan(x/2) = sin(x)/(1+cos(x))
+        real domg12 = 1 + comg12, dbet1 = 1 + cbet1, dbet2 = 1 + cbet2;
+        alp12 = 2 * atan2( somg12 * ( sbet1 * dbet2 + sbet2 * dbet1 ),
+                           domg12 * ( sbet1 * sbet2 + dbet1 * dbet2 ) );
+      } else {
+        // alp12 = alp2 - alp1, used in atan2 so no need to normalize
+        real
+          salp12 = salp2 * calp1 - calp2 * salp1,
+          calp12 = calp2 * calp1 + salp2 * salp1;
+        // The right thing appears to happen if alp1 = +/-180 and alp2 = 0, viz
+        // salp12 = -0 and alp12 = -180.  However this depends on the sign
+        // being attached to 0 correctly.  The following ensures the correct
+        // behavior.
+        if (salp12 == 0 && calp12 < 0) {
+          salp12 = tiny_ * calp1;
+          calp12 = -1;
+        }
+        alp12 = atan2(salp12, calp12);
+      }
+      S12 += _c2 * alp12;
+      S12 *= swapp * lonsign * latsign;
+      // Convert -0 to 0
+      S12 += 0;
+    }
+
+    // Convert calp, salp to azimuth accounting for lonsign, swapp, latsign.
+    if (swapp < 0) {
+      swap(salp1, salp2);
+      swap(calp1, calp2);
+      if (outmask & GEODESICSCALE)
+        swap(M12, M21);
+    }
+
+    salp1 *= swapp * lonsign; calp1 *= swapp * latsign;
+    salp2 *= swapp * lonsign; calp2 *= swapp * latsign;
+
+    // Returned value in [0, 180]
+    return a12;
+  }
+
+  Math::real GeodesicExact::GenInverse(real lat1, real lon1,
+                                       real lat2, real lon2,
+                                       unsigned outmask,
+                                       real& s12, real& azi1, real& azi2,
+                                       real& m12, real& M12, real& M21,
+                                       real& S12)
+    const {
+    outmask &= OUT_MASK;
+    real salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2,
+      a12 =  GenInverse(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2,
+                        outmask, s12, salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2,
+                        m12, M12, M21, S12);
+    if (outmask & AZIMUTH) {
+      azi1 = Math::atan2d(salp1, calp1);
+      azi2 = Math::atan2d(salp2, calp2);
+    }
+    return a12;
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLineExact GeodesicExact::InverseLine(real lat1, real lon1,
+                                               real lat2, real lon2,
+                                               unsigned caps) const {
+    real t, salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2,
+      a12 = GenInverse(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2,
+                       // No need to specify AZIMUTH here
+                       0u, t, salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2,
+                       t, t, t, t),
+      azi1 = Math::atan2d(salp1, calp1);
+    // Ensure that a12 can be converted to a distance
+    if (caps & (OUT_MASK & DISTANCE_IN)) caps |= DISTANCE;
+    return GeodesicLineExact(*this, lat1, lon1, azi1, salp1, calp1, caps,
+                             true, a12);
+  }
+
+  void GeodesicExact::Lengths(const EllipticFunction& E,
+                              real sig12,
+                              real ssig1, real csig1, real dn1,
+                              real ssig2, real csig2, real dn2,
+                              real cbet1, real cbet2, unsigned outmask,
+                              real& s12b, real& m12b, real& m0,
+                              real& M12, real& M21) const {
+    // Return m12b = (reduced length)/_b; also calculate s12b = distance/_b,
+    // and m0 = coefficient of secular term in expression for reduced length.
+
+    outmask &= OUT_ALL;
+    // outmask & DISTANCE: set s12b
+    // outmask & REDUCEDLENGTH: set m12b & m0
+    // outmask & GEODESICSCALE: set M12 & M21
+
+    // It's OK to have repeated dummy arguments,
+    // e.g., s12b = m0 = M12 = M21 = dummy
+
+    if (outmask & DISTANCE)
+      // Missing a factor of _b
+      s12b = E.E() / (Math::pi() / 2) *
+        (sig12 + (E.deltaE(ssig2, csig2, dn2) - E.deltaE(ssig1, csig1, dn1)));
+    if (outmask & (REDUCEDLENGTH | GEODESICSCALE)) {
+      real
+        m0x = - E.k2() * E.D() / (Math::pi() / 2),
+        J12 = m0x *
+        (sig12 + (E.deltaD(ssig2, csig2, dn2) - E.deltaD(ssig1, csig1, dn1)));
+      if (outmask & REDUCEDLENGTH) {
+        m0 = m0x;
+        // Missing a factor of _b.  Add parens around (csig1 * ssig2) and
+        // (ssig1 * csig2) to ensure accurate cancellation in the case of
+        // coincident points.
+        m12b = dn2 * (csig1 * ssig2) - dn1 * (ssig1 * csig2) -
+          csig1 * csig2 * J12;
+      }
+      if (outmask & GEODESICSCALE) {
+        real csig12 = csig1 * csig2 + ssig1 * ssig2;
+        real t = _ep2 * (cbet1 - cbet2) * (cbet1 + cbet2) / (dn1 + dn2);
+        M12 = csig12 + (t * ssig2 - csig2 * J12) * ssig1 / dn1;
+        M21 = csig12 - (t * ssig1 - csig1 * J12) * ssig2 / dn2;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  Math::real GeodesicExact::Astroid(real x, real y) {
+    // Solve k^4+2*k^3-(x^2+y^2-1)*k^2-2*y^2*k-y^2 = 0 for positive root k.
+    // This solution is adapted from Geocentric::Reverse.
+    real k;
+    real
+      p = Math::sq(x),
+      q = Math::sq(y),
+      r = (p + q - 1) / 6;
+    if ( !(q == 0 && r <= 0) ) {
+      real
+        // Avoid possible division by zero when r = 0 by multiplying equations
+        // for s and t by r^3 and r, resp.
+        S = p * q / 4,            // S = r^3 * s
+        r2 = Math::sq(r),
+        r3 = r * r2,
+        // The discriminant of the quadratic equation for T3.  This is zero on
+        // the evolute curve p^(1/3)+q^(1/3) = 1
+        disc = S * (S + 2 * r3);
+      real u = r;
+      if (disc >= 0) {
+        real T3 = S + r3;
+        // Pick the sign on the sqrt to maximize abs(T3).  This minimizes loss
+        // of precision due to cancellation.  The result is unchanged because
+        // of the way the T is used in definition of u.
+        T3 += T3 < 0 ? -sqrt(disc) : sqrt(disc); // T3 = (r * t)^3
+        // N.B. cbrt always returns the real root.  cbrt(-8) = -2.
+        real T = Math::cbrt(T3); // T = r * t
+        // T can be zero; but then r2 / T -> 0.
+        u += T + (T ? r2 / T : 0);
+      } else {
+        // T is complex, but the way u is defined the result is real.
+        real ang = atan2(sqrt(-disc), -(S + r3));
+        // There are three possible cube roots.  We choose the root which
+        // avoids cancellation.  Note that disc < 0 implies that r < 0.
+        u += 2 * r * cos(ang / 3);
+      }
+      real
+        v = sqrt(Math::sq(u) + q),    // guaranteed positive
+        // Avoid loss of accuracy when u < 0.
+        uv = u < 0 ? q / (v - u) : u + v, // u+v, guaranteed positive
+        w = (uv - q) / (2 * v);           // positive?
+      // Rearrange expression for k to avoid loss of accuracy due to
+      // subtraction.  Division by 0 not possible because uv > 0, w >= 0.
+      k = uv / (sqrt(uv + Math::sq(w)) + w);   // guaranteed positive
+    } else {               // q == 0 && r <= 0
+      // y = 0 with |x| <= 1.  Handle this case directly.
+      // for y small, positive root is k = abs(y)/sqrt(1-x^2)
+      k = 0;
+    }
+    return k;
+  }
+
+  Math::real GeodesicExact::InverseStart(EllipticFunction& E,
+                                         real sbet1, real cbet1, real dn1,
+                                         real sbet2, real cbet2, real dn2,
+                                         real lam12, real slam12, real clam12,
+                                         real& salp1, real& calp1,
+                                         // Only updated if return val >= 0
+                                         real& salp2, real& calp2,
+                                         // Only updated for short lines
+                                         real& dnm)
+    const {
+    // Return a starting point for Newton's method in salp1 and calp1 (function
+    // value is -1).  If Newton's method doesn't need to be used, return also
+    // salp2 and calp2 and function value is sig12.
+    real
+      sig12 = -1,               // Return value
+      // bet12 = bet2 - bet1 in [0, pi); bet12a = bet2 + bet1 in (-pi, 0]
+      sbet12 = sbet2 * cbet1 - cbet2 * sbet1,
+      cbet12 = cbet2 * cbet1 + sbet2 * sbet1;
+#if defined(__GNUC__) && __GNUC__ == 4 && \
+  (__GNUC_MINOR__ < 6 || defined(__MINGW32__))
+    // Volatile declaration needed to fix inverse cases
+    // 88.202499451857 0 -88.202499451857 179.981022032992859592
+    // 89.262080389218 0 -89.262080389218 179.992207982775375662
+    // 89.333123580033 0 -89.333123580032997687 179.99295812360148422
+    // which otherwise fail with g++ 4.4.4 x86 -O3 (Linux)
+    // and g++ 4.4.0 (mingw) and g++ 4.6.1 (tdm mingw).
+    real sbet12a;
+    {
+      GEOGRAPHICLIB_VOLATILE real xx1 = sbet2 * cbet1;
+      GEOGRAPHICLIB_VOLATILE real xx2 = cbet2 * sbet1;
+      sbet12a = xx1 + xx2;
+    }
+#else
+    real sbet12a = sbet2 * cbet1 + cbet2 * sbet1;
+#endif
+    bool shortline = cbet12 >= 0 && sbet12 < real(0.5) &&
+      cbet2 * lam12 < real(0.5);
+    real somg12, comg12;
+    if (shortline) {
+      real sbetm2 = Math::sq(sbet1 + sbet2);
+      // sin((bet1+bet2)/2)^2
+      // =  (sbet1 + sbet2)^2 / ((sbet1 + sbet2)^2 + (cbet1 + cbet2)^2)
+      sbetm2 /= sbetm2 + Math::sq(cbet1 + cbet2);
+      dnm = sqrt(1 + _ep2 * sbetm2);
+      real omg12 = lam12 / (_f1 * dnm);
+      somg12 = sin(omg12); comg12 = cos(omg12);
+    } else {
+      somg12 = slam12; comg12 = clam12;
+    }
+
+    salp1 = cbet2 * somg12;
+    calp1 = comg12 >= 0 ?
+      sbet12 + cbet2 * sbet1 * Math::sq(somg12) / (1 + comg12) :
+      sbet12a - cbet2 * sbet1 * Math::sq(somg12) / (1 - comg12);
+
+    real
+      ssig12 = Math::hypot(salp1, calp1),
+      csig12 = sbet1 * sbet2 + cbet1 * cbet2 * comg12;
+
+    if (shortline && ssig12 < _etol2) {
+      // really short lines
+      salp2 = cbet1 * somg12;
+      calp2 = sbet12 - cbet1 * sbet2 *
+        (comg12 >= 0 ? Math::sq(somg12) / (1 + comg12) : 1 - comg12);
+      Math::norm(salp2, calp2);
+      // Set return value
+      sig12 = atan2(ssig12, csig12);
+    } else if (abs(_n) > real(0.1) || // Skip astroid calc if too eccentric
+               csig12 >= 0 ||
+               ssig12 >= 6 * abs(_n) * Math::pi() * Math::sq(cbet1)) {
+      // Nothing to do, zeroth order spherical approximation is OK
+    } else {
+      // Scale lam12 and bet2 to x, y coordinate system where antipodal point
+      // is at origin and singular point is at y = 0, x = -1.
+      real y, lamscale, betscale;
+      // Volatile declaration needed to fix inverse case
+      // 56.320923501171 0 -56.320923501171 179.664747671772880215
+      // which otherwise fails with g++ 4.4.4 x86 -O3
+      GEOGRAPHICLIB_VOLATILE real x;
+      real lam12x = atan2(-slam12, -clam12); // lam12 - pi
+      if (_f >= 0) {            // In fact f == 0 does not get here
+        // x = dlong, y = dlat
+        {
+          real k2 = Math::sq(sbet1) * _ep2;
+          E.Reset(-k2, -_ep2, 1 + k2, 1 + _ep2);
+          lamscale = _e2/_f1 * cbet1 * 2 * E.H();
+        }
+        betscale = lamscale * cbet1;
+
+        x = lam12x / lamscale;
+        y = sbet12a / betscale;
+      } else {                  // _f < 0
+        // x = dlat, y = dlong
+        real
+          cbet12a = cbet2 * cbet1 - sbet2 * sbet1,
+          bet12a = atan2(sbet12a, cbet12a);
+        real m12b, m0, dummy;
+        // In the case of lon12 = 180, this repeats a calculation made in
+        // Inverse.
+        Lengths(E, Math::pi() + bet12a,
+                sbet1, -cbet1, dn1, sbet2, cbet2, dn2,
+                cbet1, cbet2, REDUCEDLENGTH, dummy, m12b, m0, dummy, dummy);
+        x = -1 + m12b / (cbet1 * cbet2 * m0 * Math::pi());
+        betscale = x < -real(0.01) ? sbet12a / x :
+          -_f * Math::sq(cbet1) * Math::pi();
+        lamscale = betscale / cbet1;
+        y = lam12x / lamscale;
+      }
+
+      if (y > -tol1_ && x > -1 - xthresh_) {
+        // strip near cut
+        // Need real(x) here to cast away the volatility of x for min/max
+        if (_f >= 0) {
+          salp1 = min(real(1), -real(x)); calp1 = - sqrt(1 - Math::sq(salp1));
+        } else {
+          calp1 = max(real(x > -tol1_ ? 0 : -1), real(x));
+          salp1 = sqrt(1 - Math::sq(calp1));
+        }
+      } else {
+        // Estimate alp1, by solving the astroid problem.
+        //
+        // Could estimate alpha1 = theta + pi/2, directly, i.e.,
+        //   calp1 = y/k; salp1 = -x/(1+k);  for _f >= 0
+        //   calp1 = x/(1+k); salp1 = -y/k;  for _f < 0 (need to check)
+        //
+        // However, it's better to estimate omg12 from astroid and use
+        // spherical formula to compute alp1.  This reduces the mean number of
+        // Newton iterations for astroid cases from 2.24 (min 0, max 6) to 2.12
+        // (min 0 max 5).  The changes in the number of iterations are as
+        // follows:
+        //
+        // change percent
+        //    1       5
+        //    0      78
+        //   -1      16
+        //   -2       0.6
+        //   -3       0.04
+        //   -4       0.002
+        //
+        // The histogram of iterations is (m = number of iterations estimating
+        // alp1 directly, n = number of iterations estimating via omg12, total
+        // number of trials = 148605):
+        //
+        //  iter    m      n
+        //    0   148    186
+        //    1 13046  13845
+        //    2 93315 102225
+        //    3 36189  32341
+        //    4  5396      7
+        //    5   455      1
+        //    6    56      0
+        //
+        // Because omg12 is near pi, estimate work with omg12a = pi - omg12
+        real k = Astroid(x, y);
+        real
+          omg12a = lamscale * ( _f >= 0 ? -x * k/(1 + k) : -y * (1 + k)/k );
+        somg12 = sin(omg12a); comg12 = -cos(omg12a);
+        // Update spherical estimate of alp1 using omg12 instead of lam12
+        salp1 = cbet2 * somg12;
+        calp1 = sbet12a - cbet2 * sbet1 * Math::sq(somg12) / (1 - comg12);
+      }
+    }
+    // Sanity check on starting guess.  Backwards check allows NaN through.
+    if (!(salp1 <= 0))
+      Math::norm(salp1, calp1);
+    else {
+      salp1 = 1; calp1 = 0;
+    }
+    return sig12;
+  }
+
+  Math::real GeodesicExact::Lambda12(real sbet1, real cbet1, real dn1,
+                                     real sbet2, real cbet2, real dn2,
+                                     real salp1, real calp1,
+                                     real slam120, real clam120,
+                                     real& salp2, real& calp2,
+                                     real& sig12,
+                                     real& ssig1, real& csig1,
+                                     real& ssig2, real& csig2,
+                                     EllipticFunction& E,
+                                     real& somg12, real& comg12,
+                                     bool diffp, real& dlam12) const
+    {
+
+    if (sbet1 == 0 && calp1 == 0)
+      // Break degeneracy of equatorial line.  This case has already been
+      // handled.
+      calp1 = -tiny_;
+
+    real
+      // sin(alp1) * cos(bet1) = sin(alp0)
+      salp0 = salp1 * cbet1,
+      calp0 = Math::hypot(calp1, salp1 * sbet1); // calp0 > 0
+
+    real somg1, comg1, somg2, comg2, cchi1, cchi2, lam12;
+    // tan(bet1) = tan(sig1) * cos(alp1)
+    // tan(omg1) = sin(alp0) * tan(sig1) = tan(omg1)=tan(alp1)*sin(bet1)
+    ssig1 = sbet1; somg1 = salp0 * sbet1;
+    csig1 = comg1 = calp1 * cbet1;
+    // Without normalization we have schi1 = somg1.
+    cchi1 = _f1 * dn1 * comg1;
+    Math::norm(ssig1, csig1);
+    // Math::norm(somg1, comg1); -- don't need to normalize!
+    // Math::norm(schi1, cchi1); -- don't need to normalize!
+
+    // Enforce symmetries in the case abs(bet2) = -bet1.  Need to be careful
+    // about this case, since this can yield singularities in the Newton
+    // iteration.
+    // sin(alp2) * cos(bet2) = sin(alp0)
+    salp2 = cbet2 != cbet1 ? salp0 / cbet2 : salp1;
+    // calp2 = sqrt(1 - sq(salp2))
+    //       = sqrt(sq(calp0) - sq(sbet2)) / cbet2
+    // and subst for calp0 and rearrange to give (choose positive sqrt
+    // to give alp2 in [0, pi/2]).
+    calp2 = cbet2 != cbet1 || abs(sbet2) != -sbet1 ?
+      sqrt(Math::sq(calp1 * cbet1) +
+           (cbet1 < -sbet1 ?
+            (cbet2 - cbet1) * (cbet1 + cbet2) :
+            (sbet1 - sbet2) * (sbet1 + sbet2))) / cbet2 :
+      abs(calp1);
+    // tan(bet2) = tan(sig2) * cos(alp2)
+    // tan(omg2) = sin(alp0) * tan(sig2).
+    ssig2 = sbet2; somg2 = salp0 * sbet2;
+    csig2 = comg2 = calp2 * cbet2;
+    // Without normalization we have schi2 = somg2.
+    cchi2 = _f1 * dn2 * comg2;
+    Math::norm(ssig2, csig2);
+    // Math::norm(somg2, comg2); -- don't need to normalize!
+    // Math::norm(schi2, cchi2); -- don't need to normalize!
+
+    // sig12 = sig2 - sig1, limit to [0, pi]
+    sig12 = atan2(max(real(0), csig1 * ssig2 - ssig1 * csig2),
+                  csig1 * csig2 + ssig1 * ssig2);
+
+    // omg12 = omg2 - omg1, limit to [0, pi]
+    somg12 = max(real(0), comg1 * somg2 - somg1 * comg2);
+    comg12 =              comg1 * comg2 + somg1 * somg2;
+    real k2 = Math::sq(calp0) * _ep2;
+    E.Reset(-k2, -_ep2, 1 + k2, 1 + _ep2);
+    // chi12 = chi2 - chi1, limit to [0, pi]
+    real
+      schi12 = max(real(0), cchi1 * somg2 - somg1 * cchi2),
+      cchi12 = cchi1 * cchi2 + somg1 * somg2;
+    // eta = chi12 - lam120
+    real eta = atan2(schi12 * clam120 - cchi12 * slam120,
+                     cchi12 * clam120 + schi12 * slam120);
+
+    lam12 = eta -
+      _e2/_f1 * salp0 * E.H() / (Math::pi() / 2) *
+      (sig12 + (E.deltaH(ssig2, csig2, dn2) - E.deltaH(ssig1, csig1, dn1)));
+
+    if (diffp) {
+      if (calp2 == 0)
+        dlam12 = - 2 * _f1 * dn1 / sbet1;
+      else {
+        real dummy;
+        Lengths(E, sig12, ssig1, csig1, dn1, ssig2, csig2, dn2,
+                cbet1, cbet2, REDUCEDLENGTH,
+                dummy, dlam12, dummy, dummy, dummy);
+        dlam12 *= _f1 / (calp2 * cbet2);
+      }
+    }
+
+    return lam12;
+  }
+
+  void GeodesicExact::C4f(real eps, real c[]) const {
+    // Evaluate C4 coeffs
+    // Elements c[0] thru c[nC4_ - 1] are set
+    real mult = 1;
+    int o = 0;
+    for (int l = 0; l < nC4_; ++l) { // l is index of C4[l]
+      int m = nC4_ - l - 1;          // order of polynomial in eps
+      c[l] = mult * Math::polyval(m, _C4x + o, eps);
+      o += m + 1;
+      mult *= eps;
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == nC4x_
+    if  (!(o == nC4x_))
+      throw GeographicErr("C4 misalignment");
+  }
+
+} // namespace GeographicLib