geographiclib 0.0.1

data/ext/geographiclib/Geodesic.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,1908 @@
+/**
+ * \file Geodesic.cpp
+ * \brief Implementation for GeographicLib::Geodesic class
+ *
+ * Copyright (c) Charles Karney (2009-2016) <charles@karney.com> and licensed
+ * under the MIT/X11 License.  For more information, see
+ * http://geographiclib.sourceforge.net/
+ *
+ * This is a reformulation of the geodesic problem.  The notation is as
+ * follows:
+ * - at a general point (no suffix or 1 or 2 as suffix)
+ *   - phi = latitude
+ *   - beta = latitude on auxiliary sphere
+ *   - omega = longitude on auxiliary sphere
+ *   - lambda = longitude
+ *   - alpha = azimuth of great circle
+ *   - sigma = arc length along great circle
+ *   - s = distance
+ *   - tau = scaled distance (= sigma at multiples of pi/2)
+ * - at northwards equator crossing
+ *   - beta = phi = 0
+ *   - omega = lambda = 0
+ *   - alpha = alpha0
+ *   - sigma = s = 0
+ * - a 12 suffix means a difference, e.g., s12 = s2 - s1.
+ * - s and c prefixes mean sin and cos
+ **********************************************************************/
+
+#include <GeographicLib/Geodesic.hpp>
+#include <GeographicLib/GeodesicLine.hpp>
+
+#if defined(_MSC_VER)
+// Squelch warnings about potentially uninitialized local variables and
+// constant conditional expressions
+#  pragma warning (disable: 4701 4127)
+#endif
+
+namespace GeographicLib {
+
+  using namespace std;
+
+  Geodesic::Geodesic(real a, real f)
+    : maxit2_(maxit1_ + Math::digits() + 10)
+      // Underflow guard.  We require
+      //   tiny_ * epsilon() > 0
+      //   tiny_ + epsilon() == epsilon()
+    , tiny_(sqrt(numeric_limits<real>::min()))
+    , tol0_(numeric_limits<real>::epsilon())
+      // Increase multiplier in defn of tol1_ from 100 to 200 to fix inverse
+      // case 52.784459512564 0 -52.784459512563990912 179.634407464943777557
+      // which otherwise failed for Visual Studio 10 (Release and Debug)
+    , tol1_(200 * tol0_)
+    , tol2_(sqrt(tol0_))
+    , tolb_(tol0_ * tol2_)      // Check on bisection interval
+    , xthresh_(1000 * tol2_)
+    , _a(a)
+    , _f(f)
+    , _f1(1 - _f)
+    , _e2(_f * (2 - _f))
+    , _ep2(_e2 / Math::sq(_f1)) // e2 / (1 - e2)
+    , _n(_f / ( 2 - _f))
+    , _b(_a * _f1)
+    , _c2((Math::sq(_a) + Math::sq(_b) *
+           (_e2 == 0 ? 1 :
+            Math::eatanhe(real(1), (_f < 0 ? -1 : 1) * sqrt(abs(_e2))) / _e2))
+          / 2) // authalic radius squared
+      // The sig12 threshold for "really short".  Using the auxiliary sphere
+      // solution with dnm computed at (bet1 + bet2) / 2, the relative error in
+      // the azimuth consistency check is sig12^2 * abs(f) * min(1, 1-f/2) / 2.
+      // (Error measured for 1/100 < b/a < 100 and abs(f) >= 1/1000.  For a
+      // given f and sig12, the max error occurs for lines near the pole.  If
+      // the old rule for computing dnm = (dn1 + dn2)/2 is used, then the error
+      // increases by a factor of 2.)  Setting this equal to epsilon gives
+      // sig12 = etol2.  Here 0.1 is a safety factor (error decreased by 100)
+      // and max(0.001, abs(f)) stops etol2 getting too large in the nearly
+      // spherical case.
+    , _etol2(0.1 * tol2_ /
+             sqrt( max(real(0.001), abs(_f)) * min(real(1), 1 - _f/2) / 2 ))
+  {
+    if (!(Math::isfinite(_a) && _a > 0))
+      throw GeographicErr("Major radius is not positive");
+    if (!(Math::isfinite(_b) && _b > 0))
+      throw GeographicErr("Minor radius is not positive");
+    A3coeff();
+    C3coeff();
+    C4coeff();
+  }
+
+  const Geodesic& Geodesic::WGS84() {
+    static const Geodesic wgs84(Constants::WGS84_a(), Constants::WGS84_f());
+    return wgs84;
+  }
+
+  Math::real Geodesic::SinCosSeries(bool sinp,
+                                    real sinx, real cosx,
+                                    const real c[], int n) {
+    // Evaluate
+    // y = sinp ? sum(c[i] * sin( 2*i    * x), i, 1, n) :
+    //            sum(c[i] * cos((2*i+1) * x), i, 0, n-1)
+    // using Clenshaw summation.  N.B. c[0] is unused for sin series
+    // Approx operation count = (n + 5) mult and (2 * n + 2) add
+    c += (n + sinp);            // Point to one beyond last element
+    real
+      ar = 2 * (cosx - sinx) * (cosx + sinx), // 2 * cos(2 * x)
+      y0 = n & 1 ? *--c : 0, y1 = 0;          // accumulators for sum
+    // Now n is even
+    n /= 2;
+    while (n--) {
+      // Unroll loop x 2, so accumulators return to their original role
+      y1 = ar * y0 - y1 + *--c;
+      y0 = ar * y1 - y0 + *--c;
+    }
+    return sinp
+      ? 2 * sinx * cosx * y0    // sin(2 * x) * y0
+      : cosx * (y0 - y1);       // cos(x) * (y0 - y1)
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLine Geodesic::Line(real lat1, real lon1, real azi1, unsigned caps)
+    const {
+    return GeodesicLine(*this, lat1, lon1, azi1, caps);
+  }
+
+  Math::real Geodesic::GenDirect(real lat1, real lon1, real azi1,
+                                 bool arcmode, real s12_a12, unsigned outmask,
+                                 real& lat2, real& lon2, real& azi2,
+                                 real& s12, real& m12, real& M12, real& M21,
+                                 real& S12) const {
+    // Automatically supply DISTANCE_IN if necessary
+    if (!arcmode) outmask |= DISTANCE_IN;
+    return GeodesicLine(*this, lat1, lon1, azi1, outmask)
+      .                         // Note the dot!
+      GenPosition(arcmode, s12_a12, outmask,
+                  lat2, lon2, azi2, s12, m12, M12, M21, S12);
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLine Geodesic::GenDirectLine(real lat1, real lon1, real azi1,
+                                       bool arcmode, real s12_a12,
+                                       unsigned caps) const {
+    azi1 = Math::AngNormalize(azi1);
+    real salp1, calp1;
+    // Guard against underflow in salp0.  Also -0 is converted to +0.
+    Math::sincosd(Math::AngRound(azi1), salp1, calp1);
+    // Automatically supply DISTANCE_IN if necessary
+    if (!arcmode) caps |= DISTANCE_IN;
+    return GeodesicLine(*this, lat1, lon1, azi1, salp1, calp1,
+                        caps, arcmode, s12_a12);
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLine Geodesic::DirectLine(real lat1, real lon1, real azi1, real s12,
+                                    unsigned caps) const {
+    return GenDirectLine(lat1, lon1, azi1, false, s12, caps);
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLine Geodesic::ArcDirectLine(real lat1, real lon1, real azi1,
+                                       real a12, unsigned caps) const {
+    return GenDirectLine(lat1, lon1, azi1, true, a12, caps);
+  }
+
+  Math::real Geodesic::GenInverse(real lat1, real lon1, real lat2, real lon2,
+                                  unsigned outmask, real& s12,
+                                  real& salp1, real& calp1,
+                                  real& salp2, real& calp2,
+                                  real& m12, real& M12, real& M21, real& S12)
+    const {
+    // Compute longitude difference (AngDiff does this carefully).  Result is
+    // in [-180, 180] but -180 is only for west-going geodesics.  180 is for
+    // east-going and meridional geodesics.
+    real lon12s, lon12 = Math::AngDiff(lon1, lon2, lon12s);
+    // Make longitude difference positive.
+    int lonsign = lon12 >= 0 ? 1 : -1;
+    // If very close to being on the same half-meridian, then make it so.
+    lon12 = lonsign * Math::AngRound(lon12);
+    lon12s = Math::AngRound((180 - lon12) - lonsign * lon12s);
+    real
+      lam12 = lon12 * Math::degree(),
+      slam12, clam12;
+    if (lon12 > 90) {
+      Math::sincosd(lon12s, slam12, clam12);
+      clam12 = -clam12;
+    } else
+      Math::sincosd(lon12, slam12, clam12);
+
+    // If really close to the equator, treat as on equator.
+    lat1 = Math::AngRound(Math::LatFix(lat1));
+    lat2 = Math::AngRound(Math::LatFix(lat2));
+    // Swap points so that point with higher (abs) latitude is point 1
+    // If one latitude is a nan, then it becomes lat1.
+    int swapp = abs(lat1) < abs(lat2) ? -1 : 1;
+    if (swapp < 0) {
+      lonsign *= -1;
+      swap(lat1, lat2);
+    }
+    // Make lat1 <= 0
+    int latsign = lat1 < 0 ? 1 : -1;
+    lat1 *= latsign;
+    lat2 *= latsign;
+    // Now we have
+    //
+    //     0 <= lon12 <= 180
+    //     -90 <= lat1 <= 0
+    //     lat1 <= lat2 <= -lat1
+    //
+    // longsign, swapp, latsign register the transformation to bring the
+    // coordinates to this canonical form.  In all cases, 1 means no change was
+    // made.  We make these transformations so that there are few cases to
+    // check, e.g., on verifying quadrants in atan2.  In addition, this
+    // enforces some symmetries in the results returned.
+
+    real sbet1, cbet1, sbet2, cbet2, s12x, m12x;
+
+    Math::sincosd(lat1, sbet1, cbet1); sbet1 *= _f1;
+    // Ensure cbet1 = +epsilon at poles; doing the fix on beta means that sig12
+    // will be <= 2*tiny for two points at the same pole.
+    Math::norm(sbet1, cbet1); cbet1 = max(tiny_, cbet1);
+
+    Math::sincosd(lat2, sbet2, cbet2); sbet2 *= _f1;
+    // Ensure cbet2 = +epsilon at poles
+    Math::norm(sbet2, cbet2); cbet2 = max(tiny_, cbet2);
+
+    // If cbet1 < -sbet1, then cbet2 - cbet1 is a sensitive measure of the
+    // |bet1| - |bet2|.  Alternatively (cbet1 >= -sbet1), abs(sbet2) + sbet1 is
+    // a better measure.  This logic is used in assigning calp2 in Lambda12.
+    // Sometimes these quantities vanish and in that case we force bet2 = +/-
+    // bet1 exactly.  An example where is is necessary is the inverse problem
+    // 48.522876735459 0 -48.52287673545898293 179.599720456223079643
+    // which failed with Visual Studio 10 (Release and Debug)
+
+    if (cbet1 < -sbet1) {
+      if (cbet2 == cbet1)
+        sbet2 = sbet2 < 0 ? sbet1 : -sbet1;
+    } else {
+      if (abs(sbet2) == -sbet1)
+        cbet2 = cbet1;
+    }
+
+    real
+      dn1 = sqrt(1 + _ep2 * Math::sq(sbet1)),
+      dn2 = sqrt(1 + _ep2 * Math::sq(sbet2));
+
+    real a12, sig12;
+    // index zero element of this array is unused
+    real Ca[nC_];
+
+    bool meridian = lat1 == -90 || slam12 == 0;
+
+    if (meridian) {
+
+      // Endpoints are on a single full meridian, so the geodesic might lie on
+      // a meridian.
+
+      calp1 = clam12; salp1 = slam12; // Head to the target longitude
+      calp2 = 1; salp2 = 0;           // At the target we're heading north
+
+      real
+        // tan(bet) = tan(sig) * cos(alp)
+        ssig1 = sbet1, csig1 = calp1 * cbet1,
+        ssig2 = sbet2, csig2 = calp2 * cbet2;
+
+      // sig12 = sig2 - sig1
+      sig12 = atan2(max(real(0), csig1 * ssig2 - ssig1 * csig2),
+                    csig1 * csig2 + ssig1 * ssig2);
+      {
+        real dummy;
+        Lengths(_n, sig12, ssig1, csig1, dn1, ssig2, csig2, dn2, cbet1, cbet2,
+                outmask | DISTANCE | REDUCEDLENGTH,
+                s12x, m12x, dummy, M12, M21, Ca);
+      }
+      // Add the check for sig12 since zero length geodesics might yield m12 <
+      // 0.  Test case was
+      //
+      //    echo 20.001 0 20.001 0 | GeodSolve -i
+      //
+      // In fact, we will have sig12 > pi/2 for meridional geodesic which is
+      // not a shortest path.
+      if (sig12 < 1 || m12x >= 0) {
+        // Need at least 2, to handle 90 0 90 180
+        if (sig12 < 3 * tiny_)
+          sig12 = m12x = s12x = 0;
+        m12x *= _b;
+        s12x *= _b;
+        a12 = sig12 / Math::degree();
+      } else
+        // m12 < 0, i.e., prolate and too close to anti-podal
+        meridian = false;
+    }
+
+    // somg12 > 1 marks that it needs to be calculated
+    real omg12 = 0, somg12 = 2, comg12 = 0;
+    if (!meridian &&
+        sbet1 == 0 &&   // and sbet2 == 0
+        (_f <= 0 || lon12s >= _f * 180)) {
+
+      // Geodesic runs along equator
+      calp1 = calp2 = 0; salp1 = salp2 = 1;
+      s12x = _a * lam12;
+      sig12 = omg12 = lam12 / _f1;
+      m12x = _b * sin(sig12);
+      if (outmask & GEODESICSCALE)
+        M12 = M21 = cos(sig12);
+      a12 = lon12 / _f1;
+
+    } else if (!meridian) {
+
+      // Now point1 and point2 belong within a hemisphere bounded by a
+      // meridian and geodesic is neither meridional or equatorial.
+
+      // Figure a starting point for Newton's method
+      real dnm;
+      sig12 = InverseStart(sbet1, cbet1, dn1, sbet2, cbet2, dn2,
+                           lam12, slam12, clam12,
+                           salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2, dnm,
+                           Ca);
+
+      if (sig12 >= 0) {
+        // Short lines (InverseStart sets salp2, calp2, dnm)
+        s12x = sig12 * _b * dnm;
+        m12x = Math::sq(dnm) * _b * sin(sig12 / dnm);
+        if (outmask & GEODESICSCALE)
+          M12 = M21 = cos(sig12 / dnm);
+        a12 = sig12 / Math::degree();
+        omg12 = lam12 / (_f1 * dnm);
+      } else {
+
+        // Newton's method.  This is a straightforward solution of f(alp1) =
+        // lambda12(alp1) - lam12 = 0 with one wrinkle.  f(alp) has exactly one
+        // root in the interval (0, pi) and its derivative is positive at the
+        // root.  Thus f(alp) is positive for alp > alp1 and negative for alp <
+        // alp1.  During the course of the iteration, a range (alp1a, alp1b) is
+        // maintained which brackets the root and with each evaluation of
+        // f(alp) the range is shrunk, if possible.  Newton's method is
+        // restarted whenever the derivative of f is negative (because the new
+        // value of alp1 is then further from the solution) or if the new
+        // estimate of alp1 lies outside (0,pi); in this case, the new starting
+        // guess is taken to be (alp1a + alp1b) / 2.
+        //
+        // initial values to suppress warnings (if loop is executed 0 times)
+        real ssig1 = 0, csig1 = 0, ssig2 = 0, csig2 = 0, eps = 0;
+        unsigned numit = 0;
+        // Bracketing range
+        real salp1a = tiny_, calp1a = 1, salp1b = tiny_, calp1b = -1;
+        for (bool tripn = false, tripb = false;
+             numit < maxit2_ || GEOGRAPHICLIB_PANIC;
+             ++numit) {
+          // the WGS84 test set: mean = 1.47, sd = 1.25, max = 16
+          // WGS84 and random input: mean = 2.85, sd = 0.60
+          real dv;
+          real v = Lambda12(sbet1, cbet1, dn1, sbet2, cbet2, dn2, salp1, calp1,
+                            slam12, clam12,
+                            salp2, calp2, sig12, ssig1, csig1, ssig2, csig2,
+                            eps, somg12, comg12, numit < maxit1_, dv, Ca);
+          // Reversed test to allow escape with NaNs
+          if (tripb || !(abs(v) >= (tripn ? 8 : 1) * tol0_)) break;
+          // Update bracketing values
+          if (v > 0 && (numit > maxit1_ || calp1/salp1 > calp1b/salp1b))
+            { salp1b = salp1; calp1b = calp1; }
+          else if (v < 0 && (numit > maxit1_ || calp1/salp1 < calp1a/salp1a))
+            { salp1a = salp1; calp1a = calp1; }
+          if (numit < maxit1_ && dv > 0) {
+            real
+              dalp1 = -v/dv;
+            real
+              sdalp1 = sin(dalp1), cdalp1 = cos(dalp1),
+              nsalp1 = salp1 * cdalp1 + calp1 * sdalp1;
+            if (nsalp1 > 0 && abs(dalp1) < Math::pi()) {
+              calp1 = calp1 * cdalp1 - salp1 * sdalp1;
+              salp1 = nsalp1;
+              Math::norm(salp1, calp1);
+              // In some regimes we don't get quadratic convergence because
+              // slope -> 0.  So use convergence conditions based on epsilon
+              // instead of sqrt(epsilon).
+              tripn = abs(v) <= 16 * tol0_;
+              continue;
+            }
+          }
+          // Either dv was not postive or updated value was outside legal
+          // range.  Use the midpoint of the bracket as the next estimate.
+          // This mechanism is not needed for the WGS84 ellipsoid, but it does
+          // catch problems with more eccentric ellipsoids.  Its efficacy is
+          // such for the WGS84 test set with the starting guess set to alp1 =
+          // 90deg:
+          // the WGS84 test set: mean = 5.21, sd = 3.93, max = 24
+          // WGS84 and random input: mean = 4.74, sd = 0.99
+          salp1 = (salp1a + salp1b)/2;
+          calp1 = (calp1a + calp1b)/2;
+          Math::norm(salp1, calp1);
+          tripn = false;
+          tripb = (abs(salp1a - salp1) + (calp1a - calp1) < tolb_ ||
+                   abs(salp1 - salp1b) + (calp1 - calp1b) < tolb_);
+        }
+        {
+          real dummy;
+          // Ensure that the reduced length and geodesic scale are computed in
+          // a "canonical" way, with the I2 integral.
+          unsigned lengthmask = outmask |
+            (outmask & (REDUCEDLENGTH | GEODESICSCALE) ? DISTANCE : NONE);
+          Lengths(eps, sig12, ssig1, csig1, dn1, ssig2, csig2, dn2,
+                  cbet1, cbet2, lengthmask, s12x, m12x, dummy, M12, M21, Ca);
+        }
+        m12x *= _b;
+        s12x *= _b;
+        a12 = sig12 / Math::degree();
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (outmask & DISTANCE)
+      s12 = 0 + s12x;           // Convert -0 to 0
+
+    if (outmask & REDUCEDLENGTH)
+      m12 = 0 + m12x;           // Convert -0 to 0
+
+    if (outmask & AREA) {
+      real
+        // From Lambda12: sin(alp1) * cos(bet1) = sin(alp0)
+        salp0 = salp1 * cbet1,
+        calp0 = Math::hypot(calp1, salp1 * sbet1); // calp0 > 0
+      real alp12;
+      if (calp0 != 0 && salp0 != 0) {
+        real
+          // From Lambda12: tan(bet) = tan(sig) * cos(alp)
+          ssig1 = sbet1, csig1 = calp1 * cbet1,
+          ssig2 = sbet2, csig2 = calp2 * cbet2,
+          k2 = Math::sq(calp0) * _ep2,
+          eps = k2 / (2 * (1 + sqrt(1 + k2)) + k2),
+          // Multiplier = a^2 * e^2 * cos(alpha0) * sin(alpha0).
+          A4 = Math::sq(_a) * calp0 * salp0 * _e2;
+        Math::norm(ssig1, csig1);
+        Math::norm(ssig2, csig2);
+        C4f(eps, Ca);
+        real
+          B41 = SinCosSeries(false, ssig1, csig1, Ca, nC4_),
+          B42 = SinCosSeries(false, ssig2, csig2, Ca, nC4_);
+        S12 = A4 * (B42 - B41);
+      } else
+        // Avoid problems with indeterminate sig1, sig2 on equator
+        S12 = 0;
+
+      if (!meridian) {
+        if (somg12 > 1) {
+          somg12 = sin(omg12); comg12 = cos(omg12);
+        } else
+          Math::norm(somg12, comg12);
+      }
+
+      if (!meridian &&
+          // omg12 < 3/4 * pi
+          comg12 > -real(0.7071) &&     // Long difference not too big
+          sbet2 - sbet1 < real(1.75)) { // Lat difference not too big
+        // Use tan(Gamma/2) = tan(omg12/2)
+        // * (tan(bet1/2)+tan(bet2/2))/(1+tan(bet1/2)*tan(bet2/2))
+        // with tan(x/2) = sin(x)/(1+cos(x))
+        real domg12 = 1 + comg12, dbet1 = 1 + cbet1, dbet2 = 1 + cbet2;
+        alp12 = 2 * atan2( somg12 * ( sbet1 * dbet2 + sbet2 * dbet1 ),
+                           domg12 * ( sbet1 * sbet2 + dbet1 * dbet2 ) );
+      } else {
+        // alp12 = alp2 - alp1, used in atan2 so no need to normalize
+        real
+          salp12 = salp2 * calp1 - calp2 * salp1,
+          calp12 = calp2 * calp1 + salp2 * salp1;
+        // The right thing appears to happen if alp1 = +/-180 and alp2 = 0, viz
+        // salp12 = -0 and alp12 = -180.  However this depends on the sign
+        // being attached to 0 correctly.  The following ensures the correct
+        // behavior.
+        if (salp12 == 0 && calp12 < 0) {
+          salp12 = tiny_ * calp1;
+          calp12 = -1;
+        }
+        alp12 = atan2(salp12, calp12);
+      }
+      S12 += _c2 * alp12;
+      S12 *= swapp * lonsign * latsign;
+      // Convert -0 to 0
+      S12 += 0;
+    }
+
+    // Convert calp, salp to azimuth accounting for lonsign, swapp, latsign.
+    if (swapp < 0) {
+      swap(salp1, salp2);
+      swap(calp1, calp2);
+      if (outmask & GEODESICSCALE)
+        swap(M12, M21);
+    }
+
+    salp1 *= swapp * lonsign; calp1 *= swapp * latsign;
+    salp2 *= swapp * lonsign; calp2 *= swapp * latsign;
+
+    // Returned value in [0, 180]
+    return a12;
+  }
+
+  Math::real Geodesic::GenInverse(real lat1, real lon1, real lat2, real lon2,
+                                  unsigned outmask,
+                                  real& s12, real& azi1, real& azi2,
+                                  real& m12, real& M12, real& M21, real& S12)
+    const {
+    outmask &= OUT_MASK;
+    real salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2,
+      a12 =  GenInverse(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2,
+                        outmask, s12, salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2,
+                        m12, M12, M21, S12);
+    if (outmask & AZIMUTH) {
+      azi1 = Math::atan2d(salp1, calp1);
+      azi2 = Math::atan2d(salp2, calp2);
+    }
+    return a12;
+  }
+
+  GeodesicLine Geodesic::InverseLine(real lat1, real lon1, real lat2, real lon2,
+                                     unsigned caps) const {
+    real t, salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2,
+      a12 = GenInverse(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2,
+                       // No need to specify AZIMUTH here
+                       0u, t, salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2,
+                       t, t, t, t),
+      azi1 = Math::atan2d(salp1, calp1);
+    // Ensure that a12 can be converted to a distance
+    if (caps & (OUT_MASK & DISTANCE_IN)) caps |= DISTANCE;
+    return GeodesicLine(*this, lat1, lon1, azi1, salp1, calp1, caps, true, a12);
+  }
+
+  void Geodesic::Lengths(real eps, real sig12,
+                         real ssig1, real csig1, real dn1,
+                         real ssig2, real csig2, real dn2,
+                         real cbet1, real cbet2, unsigned outmask,
+                         real& s12b, real& m12b, real& m0, real& M12, real& M21,
+                         // Scratch area of the right size
+                         real Ca[]) const {
+    // Return m12b = (reduced length)/_b; also calculate s12b = distance/_b,
+    // and m0 = coefficient of secular term in expression for reduced length.
+
+    outmask &= OUT_MASK;
+    // outmask & DISTANCE: set s12b
+    // outmask & REDUCEDLENGTH: set m12b & m0
+    // outmask & GEODESICSCALE: set M12 & M21
+
+    real m0x = 0, J12 = 0, A1 = 0, A2 = 0;
+    real Cb[nC2_ + 1];
+    if (outmask & (DISTANCE | REDUCEDLENGTH | GEODESICSCALE)) {
+      A1 = A1m1f(eps);
+      C1f(eps, Ca);
+      if (outmask & (REDUCEDLENGTH | GEODESICSCALE)) {
+        A2 = A2m1f(eps);
+        C2f(eps, Cb);
+        m0x = A1 - A2;
+        A2 = 1 + A2;
+      }
+      A1 = 1 + A1;
+    }
+    if (outmask & DISTANCE) {
+      real B1 = SinCosSeries(true, ssig2, csig2, Ca, nC1_) -
+        SinCosSeries(true, ssig1, csig1, Ca, nC1_);
+      // Missing a factor of _b
+      s12b = A1 * (sig12 + B1);
+      if (outmask & (REDUCEDLENGTH | GEODESICSCALE)) {
+        real B2 = SinCosSeries(true, ssig2, csig2, Cb, nC2_) -
+          SinCosSeries(true, ssig1, csig1, Cb, nC2_);
+        J12 = m0x * sig12 + (A1 * B1 - A2 * B2);
+      }
+    } else if (outmask & (REDUCEDLENGTH | GEODESICSCALE)) {
+      // Assume here that nC1_ >= nC2_
+      for (int l = 1; l <= nC2_; ++l)
+        Cb[l] = A1 * Ca[l] - A2 * Cb[l];
+      J12 = m0x * sig12 + (SinCosSeries(true, ssig2, csig2, Cb, nC2_) -
+                           SinCosSeries(true, ssig1, csig1, Cb, nC2_));
+    }
+    if (outmask & REDUCEDLENGTH) {
+      m0 = m0x;
+      // Missing a factor of _b.
+      // Add parens around (csig1 * ssig2) and (ssig1 * csig2) to ensure
+      // accurate cancellation in the case of coincident points.
+      m12b = dn2 * (csig1 * ssig2) - dn1 * (ssig1 * csig2) -
+        csig1 * csig2 * J12;
+    }
+    if (outmask & GEODESICSCALE) {
+      real csig12 = csig1 * csig2 + ssig1 * ssig2;
+      real t = _ep2 * (cbet1 - cbet2) * (cbet1 + cbet2) / (dn1 + dn2);
+      M12 = csig12 + (t * ssig2 - csig2 * J12) * ssig1 / dn1;
+      M21 = csig12 - (t * ssig1 - csig1 * J12) * ssig2 / dn2;
+    }
+  }
+
+  Math::real Geodesic::Astroid(real x, real y) {
+    // Solve k^4+2*k^3-(x^2+y^2-1)*k^2-2*y^2*k-y^2 = 0 for positive root k.
+    // This solution is adapted from Geocentric::Reverse.
+    real k;
+    real
+      p = Math::sq(x),
+      q = Math::sq(y),
+      r = (p + q - 1) / 6;
+    if ( !(q == 0 && r <= 0) ) {
+      real
+        // Avoid possible division by zero when r = 0 by multiplying equations
+        // for s and t by r^3 and r, resp.
+        S = p * q / 4,            // S = r^3 * s
+        r2 = Math::sq(r),
+        r3 = r * r2,
+        // The discriminant of the quadratic equation for T3.  This is zero on
+        // the evolute curve p^(1/3)+q^(1/3) = 1
+        disc = S * (S + 2 * r3);
+      real u = r;
+      if (disc >= 0) {
+        real T3 = S + r3;
+        // Pick the sign on the sqrt to maximize abs(T3).  This minimizes loss
+        // of precision due to cancellation.  The result is unchanged because
+        // of the way the T is used in definition of u.
+        T3 += T3 < 0 ? -sqrt(disc) : sqrt(disc); // T3 = (r * t)^3
+        // N.B. cbrt always returns the real root.  cbrt(-8) = -2.
+        real T = Math::cbrt(T3); // T = r * t
+        // T can be zero; but then r2 / T -> 0.
+        u += T + (T ? r2 / T : 0);
+      } else {
+        // T is complex, but the way u is defined the result is real.
+        real ang = atan2(sqrt(-disc), -(S + r3));
+        // There are three possible cube roots.  We choose the root which
+        // avoids cancellation.  Note that disc < 0 implies that r < 0.
+        u += 2 * r * cos(ang / 3);
+      }
+      real
+        v = sqrt(Math::sq(u) + q),    // guaranteed positive
+        // Avoid loss of accuracy when u < 0.
+        uv = u < 0 ? q / (v - u) : u + v, // u+v, guaranteed positive
+        w = (uv - q) / (2 * v);           // positive?
+      // Rearrange expression for k to avoid loss of accuracy due to
+      // subtraction.  Division by 0 not possible because uv > 0, w >= 0.
+      k = uv / (sqrt(uv + Math::sq(w)) + w);   // guaranteed positive
+    } else {               // q == 0 && r <= 0
+      // y = 0 with |x| <= 1.  Handle this case directly.
+      // for y small, positive root is k = abs(y)/sqrt(1-x^2)
+      k = 0;
+    }
+    return k;
+  }
+
+  Math::real Geodesic::InverseStart(real sbet1, real cbet1, real dn1,
+                                    real sbet2, real cbet2, real dn2,
+                                    real lam12, real slam12, real clam12,
+                                    real& salp1, real& calp1,
+                                    // Only updated if return val >= 0
+                                    real& salp2, real& calp2,
+                                    // Only updated for short lines
+                                    real& dnm,
+                                    // Scratch area of the right size
+                                    real Ca[]) const {
+    // Return a starting point for Newton's method in salp1 and calp1 (function
+    // value is -1).  If Newton's method doesn't need to be used, return also
+    // salp2 and calp2 and function value is sig12.
+    real
+      sig12 = -1,               // Return value
+      // bet12 = bet2 - bet1 in [0, pi); bet12a = bet2 + bet1 in (-pi, 0]
+      sbet12 = sbet2 * cbet1 - cbet2 * sbet1,
+      cbet12 = cbet2 * cbet1 + sbet2 * sbet1;
+#if defined(__GNUC__) && __GNUC__ == 4 && \
+  (__GNUC_MINOR__ < 6 || defined(__MINGW32__))
+    // Volatile declaration needed to fix inverse cases
+    // 88.202499451857 0 -88.202499451857 179.981022032992859592
+    // 89.262080389218 0 -89.262080389218 179.992207982775375662
+    // 89.333123580033 0 -89.333123580032997687 179.99295812360148422
+    // which otherwise fail with g++ 4.4.4 x86 -O3 (Linux)
+    // and g++ 4.4.0 (mingw) and g++ 4.6.1 (tdm mingw).
+    real sbet12a;
+    {
+      GEOGRAPHICLIB_VOLATILE real xx1 = sbet2 * cbet1;
+      GEOGRAPHICLIB_VOLATILE real xx2 = cbet2 * sbet1;
+      sbet12a = xx1 + xx2;
+    }
+#else
+    real sbet12a = sbet2 * cbet1 + cbet2 * sbet1;
+#endif
+    bool shortline = cbet12 >= 0 && sbet12 < real(0.5) &&
+      cbet2 * lam12 < real(0.5);
+    real somg12, comg12;
+    if (shortline) {
+      real sbetm2 = Math::sq(sbet1 + sbet2);
+      // sin((bet1+bet2)/2)^2
+      // =  (sbet1 + sbet2)^2 / ((sbet1 + sbet2)^2 + (cbet1 + cbet2)^2)
+      sbetm2 /= sbetm2 + Math::sq(cbet1 + cbet2);
+      dnm = sqrt(1 + _ep2 * sbetm2);
+      real omg12 = lam12 / (_f1 * dnm);
+      somg12 = sin(omg12); comg12 = cos(omg12);
+    } else {
+      somg12 = slam12; comg12 = clam12;
+    }
+
+    salp1 = cbet2 * somg12;
+    calp1 = comg12 >= 0 ?
+      sbet12 + cbet2 * sbet1 * Math::sq(somg12) / (1 + comg12) :
+      sbet12a - cbet2 * sbet1 * Math::sq(somg12) / (1 - comg12);
+
+    real
+      ssig12 = Math::hypot(salp1, calp1),
+      csig12 = sbet1 * sbet2 + cbet1 * cbet2 * comg12;
+
+    if (shortline && ssig12 < _etol2) {
+      // really short lines
+      salp2 = cbet1 * somg12;
+      calp2 = sbet12 - cbet1 * sbet2 *
+        (comg12 >= 0 ? Math::sq(somg12) / (1 + comg12) : 1 - comg12);
+      Math::norm(salp2, calp2);
+      // Set return value
+      sig12 = atan2(ssig12, csig12);
+    } else if (abs(_n) > real(0.1) || // Skip astroid calc if too eccentric
+               csig12 >= 0 ||
+               ssig12 >= 6 * abs(_n) * Math::pi() * Math::sq(cbet1)) {
+      // Nothing to do, zeroth order spherical approximation is OK
+    } else {
+      // Scale lam12 and bet2 to x, y coordinate system where antipodal point
+      // is at origin and singular point is at y = 0, x = -1.
+      real y, lamscale, betscale;
+      // Volatile declaration needed to fix inverse case
+      // 56.320923501171 0 -56.320923501171 179.664747671772880215
+      // which otherwise fails with g++ 4.4.4 x86 -O3
+      GEOGRAPHICLIB_VOLATILE real x;
+      real lam12x = atan2(-slam12, -clam12); // lam12 - pi
+      if (_f >= 0) {            // In fact f == 0 does not get here
+        // x = dlong, y = dlat
+        {
+          real
+            k2 = Math::sq(sbet1) * _ep2,
+            eps = k2 / (2 * (1 + sqrt(1 + k2)) + k2);
+          lamscale = _f * cbet1 * A3f(eps) * Math::pi();
+        }
+        betscale = lamscale * cbet1;
+
+        x = lam12x / lamscale;
+        y = sbet12a / betscale;
+      } else {                  // _f < 0
+        // x = dlat, y = dlong
+        real
+          cbet12a = cbet2 * cbet1 - sbet2 * sbet1,
+          bet12a = atan2(sbet12a, cbet12a);
+        real m12b, m0, dummy;
+        // In the case of lon12 = 180, this repeats a calculation made in
+        // Inverse.
+        Lengths(_n, Math::pi() + bet12a,
+                sbet1, -cbet1, dn1, sbet2, cbet2, dn2,
+                cbet1, cbet2, REDUCEDLENGTH, dummy, m12b, m0, dummy, dummy, Ca);
+        x = -1 + m12b / (cbet1 * cbet2 * m0 * Math::pi());
+        betscale = x < -real(0.01) ? sbet12a / x :
+          -_f * Math::sq(cbet1) * Math::pi();
+        lamscale = betscale / cbet1;
+        y = lam12x / lamscale;
+      }
+
+      if (y > -tol1_ && x > -1 - xthresh_) {
+        // strip near cut
+        // Need real(x) here to cast away the volatility of x for min/max
+        if (_f >= 0) {
+          salp1 = min(real(1), -real(x)); calp1 = - sqrt(1 - Math::sq(salp1));
+        } else {
+          calp1 = max(real(x > -tol1_ ? 0 : -1), real(x));
+          salp1 = sqrt(1 - Math::sq(calp1));
+        }
+      } else {
+        // Estimate alp1, by solving the astroid problem.
+        //
+        // Could estimate alpha1 = theta + pi/2, directly, i.e.,
+        //   calp1 = y/k; salp1 = -x/(1+k);  for _f >= 0
+        //   calp1 = x/(1+k); salp1 = -y/k;  for _f < 0 (need to check)
+        //
+        // However, it's better to estimate omg12 from astroid and use
+        // spherical formula to compute alp1.  This reduces the mean number of
+        // Newton iterations for astroid cases from 2.24 (min 0, max 6) to 2.12
+        // (min 0 max 5).  The changes in the number of iterations are as
+        // follows:
+        //
+        // change percent
+        //    1       5
+        //    0      78
+        //   -1      16
+        //   -2       0.6
+        //   -3       0.04
+        //   -4       0.002
+        //
+        // The histogram of iterations is (m = number of iterations estimating
+        // alp1 directly, n = number of iterations estimating via omg12, total
+        // number of trials = 148605):
+        //
+        //  iter    m      n
+        //    0   148    186
+        //    1 13046  13845
+        //    2 93315 102225
+        //    3 36189  32341
+        //    4  5396      7
+        //    5   455      1
+        //    6    56      0
+        //
+        // Because omg12 is near pi, estimate work with omg12a = pi - omg12
+        real k = Astroid(x, y);
+        real
+          omg12a = lamscale * ( _f >= 0 ? -x * k/(1 + k) : -y * (1 + k)/k );
+        somg12 = sin(omg12a); comg12 = -cos(omg12a);
+        // Update spherical estimate of alp1 using omg12 instead of lam12
+        salp1 = cbet2 * somg12;
+        calp1 = sbet12a - cbet2 * sbet1 * Math::sq(somg12) / (1 - comg12);
+      }
+    }
+    // Sanity check on starting guess.  Backwards check allows NaN through.
+    if (!(salp1 <= 0))
+      Math::norm(salp1, calp1);
+    else {
+      salp1 = 1; calp1 = 0;
+    }
+    return sig12;
+  }
+
+  Math::real Geodesic::Lambda12(real sbet1, real cbet1, real dn1,
+                                real sbet2, real cbet2, real dn2,
+                                real salp1, real calp1,
+                                real slam120, real clam120,
+                                real& salp2, real& calp2,
+                                real& sig12,
+                                real& ssig1, real& csig1,
+                                real& ssig2, real& csig2,
+                                real& eps, real& somg12, real& comg12,
+                                bool diffp, real& dlam12,
+                                // Scratch area of the right size
+                                real Ca[]) const {
+
+    if (sbet1 == 0 && calp1 == 0)
+      // Break degeneracy of equatorial line.  This case has already been
+      // handled.
+      calp1 = -tiny_;
+
+    real
+      // sin(alp1) * cos(bet1) = sin(alp0)
+      salp0 = salp1 * cbet1,
+      calp0 = Math::hypot(calp1, salp1 * sbet1); // calp0 > 0
+
+    real somg1, comg1, somg2, comg2, lam12;
+    // tan(bet1) = tan(sig1) * cos(alp1)
+    // tan(omg1) = sin(alp0) * tan(sig1) = tan(omg1)=tan(alp1)*sin(bet1)
+    ssig1 = sbet1; somg1 = salp0 * sbet1;
+    csig1 = comg1 = calp1 * cbet1;
+    Math::norm(ssig1, csig1);
+    // Math::norm(somg1, comg1); -- don't need to normalize!
+
+    // Enforce symmetries in the case abs(bet2) = -bet1.  Need to be careful
+    // about this case, since this can yield singularities in the Newton
+    // iteration.
+    // sin(alp2) * cos(bet2) = sin(alp0)
+    salp2 = cbet2 != cbet1 ? salp0 / cbet2 : salp1;
+    // calp2 = sqrt(1 - sq(salp2))
+    //       = sqrt(sq(calp0) - sq(sbet2)) / cbet2
+    // and subst for calp0 and rearrange to give (choose positive sqrt
+    // to give alp2 in [0, pi/2]).
+    calp2 = cbet2 != cbet1 || abs(sbet2) != -sbet1 ?
+      sqrt(Math::sq(calp1 * cbet1) +
+           (cbet1 < -sbet1 ?
+            (cbet2 - cbet1) * (cbet1 + cbet2) :
+            (sbet1 - sbet2) * (sbet1 + sbet2))) / cbet2 :
+      abs(calp1);
+    // tan(bet2) = tan(sig2) * cos(alp2)
+    // tan(omg2) = sin(alp0) * tan(sig2).
+    ssig2 = sbet2; somg2 = salp0 * sbet2;
+    csig2 = comg2 = calp2 * cbet2;
+    Math::norm(ssig2, csig2);
+    // Math::norm(somg2, comg2); -- don't need to normalize!
+
+    // sig12 = sig2 - sig1, limit to [0, pi]
+    sig12 = atan2(max(real(0), csig1 * ssig2 - ssig1 * csig2),
+                  csig1 * csig2 + ssig1 * ssig2);
+
+    // omg12 = omg2 - omg1, limit to [0, pi]
+    somg12 = max(real(0), comg1 * somg2 - somg1 * comg2);
+    comg12 =              comg1 * comg2 + somg1 * somg2;
+    // eta = omg12 - lam120
+    real eta = atan2(somg12 * clam120 - comg12 * slam120,
+                     comg12 * clam120 + somg12 * slam120);
+    real B312;
+    real k2 = Math::sq(calp0) * _ep2;
+    eps = k2 / (2 * (1 + sqrt(1 + k2)) + k2);
+    C3f(eps, Ca);
+    B312 = (SinCosSeries(true, ssig2, csig2, Ca, nC3_-1) -
+            SinCosSeries(true, ssig1, csig1, Ca, nC3_-1));
+    lam12 = eta - _f * A3f(eps) * salp0 * (sig12 + B312);
+
+    if (diffp) {
+      if (calp2 == 0)
+        dlam12 = - 2 * _f1 * dn1 / sbet1;
+      else {
+        real dummy;
+        Lengths(eps, sig12, ssig1, csig1, dn1, ssig2, csig2, dn2,
+                cbet1, cbet2, REDUCEDLENGTH,
+                dummy, dlam12, dummy, dummy, dummy, Ca);
+        dlam12 *= _f1 / (calp2 * cbet2);
+      }
+    }
+
+    return lam12;
+  }
+
+  Math::real Geodesic::A3f(real eps) const {
+    // Evaluate A3
+    return Math::polyval(nA3_ - 1, _A3x, eps);
+  }
+
+  void Geodesic::C3f(real eps, real c[]) const {
+    // Evaluate C3 coeffs
+    // Elements c[1] thru c[nC3_ - 1] are set
+    real mult = 1;
+    int o = 0;
+    for (int l = 1; l < nC3_; ++l) { // l is index of C3[l]
+      int m = nC3_ - l - 1;          // order of polynomial in eps
+      mult *= eps;
+      c[l] = mult * Math::polyval(m, _C3x + o, eps);
+      o += m + 1;
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == nC3x_
+  }
+
+  void Geodesic::C4f(real eps, real c[]) const {
+    // Evaluate C4 coeffs
+    // Elements c[0] thru c[nC4_ - 1] are set
+    real mult = 1;
+    int o = 0;
+    for (int l = 0; l < nC4_; ++l) { // l is index of C4[l]
+      int m = nC4_ - l - 1;          // order of polynomial in eps
+      c[l] = mult * Math::polyval(m, _C4x + o, eps);
+      o += m + 1;
+      mult *= eps;
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == nC4x_
+  }
+
+  // The static const coefficient arrays in the following functions are
+  // generated by Maxima and give the coefficients of the Taylor expansions for
+  // the geodesics.  The convention on the order of these coefficients is as
+  // follows:
+  //
+  //   ascending order in the trigonometric expansion,
+  //   then powers of eps in descending order,
+  //   finally powers of n in descending order.
+  //
+  // (For some expansions, only a subset of levels occur.)  For each polynomial
+  // of order n at the lowest level, the (n+1) coefficients of the polynomial
+  // are followed by a divisor which is applied to the whole polynomial.  In
+  // this way, the coefficients are expressible with no round off error.  The
+  // sizes of the coefficient arrays are:
+  //
+  //   A1m1f, A2m1f            = floor(N/2) + 2
+  //   C1f, C1pf, C2f, A3coeff = (N^2 + 7*N - 2*floor(N/2)) / 4
+  //   C3coeff       = (N - 1) * (N^2 + 7*N - 2*floor(N/2)) / 8
+  //   C4coeff       = N * (N + 1) * (N + 5) / 6
+  //
+  // where N = GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER
+  //         = nA1 = nA2 = nC1 = nC1p = nA3 = nC4
+
+  // The scale factor A1-1 = mean value of (d/dsigma)I1 - 1
+  Math::real Geodesic::A1m1f(real eps) {
+    // Generated by Maxima on 2015-05-05 18:08:12-04:00
+#if GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER/2 == 1
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // (1-eps)*A1-1, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      1, 0, 4,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER/2 == 2
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // (1-eps)*A1-1, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      1, 16, 0, 64,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER/2 == 3
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // (1-eps)*A1-1, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      1, 4, 64, 0, 256,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER/2 == 4
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // (1-eps)*A1-1, polynomial in eps2 of order 4
+      25, 64, 256, 4096, 0, 16384,
+    };
+#else
+#error "Bad value for GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER"
+#endif
+    GEOGRAPHICLIB_STATIC_ASSERT(sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) == nA1_/2 + 2,
+                                "Coefficient array size mismatch in A1m1f");
+    int m = nA1_/2;
+    real t = Math::polyval(m, coeff, Math::sq(eps)) / coeff[m + 1];
+    return (t + eps) / (1 - eps);
+  }
+
+  // The coefficients C1[l] in the Fourier expansion of B1
+  void Geodesic::C1f(real eps, real c[]) {
+    // Generated by Maxima on 2015-05-05 18:08:12-04:00
+#if GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 3
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      3, -8, 16,
+      // C1[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -1, 16,
+      // C1[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -1, 48,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 4
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      3, -8, 16,
+      // C1[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      1, -2, 32,
+      // C1[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -1, 48,
+      // C1[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -5, 512,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 5
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      -1, 6, -16, 32,
+      // C1[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      1, -2, 32,
+      // C1[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      9, -16, 768,
+      // C1[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -5, 512,
+      // C1[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -7, 1280,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 6
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      -1, 6, -16, 32,
+      // C1[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      -9, 64, -128, 2048,
+      // C1[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      9, -16, 768,
+      // C1[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      3, -5, 512,
+      // C1[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -7, 1280,
+      // C1[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -7, 2048,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 7
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      19, -64, 384, -1024, 2048,
+      // C1[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      -9, 64, -128, 2048,
+      // C1[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      -9, 72, -128, 6144,
+      // C1[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      3, -5, 512,
+      // C1[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      35, -56, 10240,
+      // C1[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -7, 2048,
+      // C1[7]/eps^7, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -33, 14336,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 8
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      19, -64, 384, -1024, 2048,
+      // C1[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      7, -18, 128, -256, 4096,
+      // C1[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      -9, 72, -128, 6144,
+      // C1[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      -11, 96, -160, 16384,
+      // C1[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      35, -56, 10240,
+      // C1[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      9, -14, 4096,
+      // C1[7]/eps^7, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -33, 14336,
+      // C1[8]/eps^8, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      -429, 262144,
+    };
+#else
+#error "Bad value for GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER"
+#endif
+    GEOGRAPHICLIB_STATIC_ASSERT(sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) ==
+                                (nC1_*nC1_ + 7*nC1_ - 2*(nC1_/2)) / 4,
+                                "Coefficient array size mismatch in C1f");
+    real
+      eps2 = Math::sq(eps),
+      d = eps;
+    int o = 0;
+    for (int l = 1; l <= nC1_; ++l) { // l is index of C1p[l]
+      int m = (nC1_ - l) / 2;         // order of polynomial in eps^2
+      c[l] = d * Math::polyval(m, coeff + o, eps2) / coeff[o + m + 1];
+      o += m + 2;
+      d *= eps;
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real)
+  }
+
+  // The coefficients C1p[l] in the Fourier expansion of B1p
+  void Geodesic::C1pf(real eps, real c[]) {
+    // Generated by Maxima on 2015-05-05 18:08:12-04:00
+#if GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 3
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1p[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -9, 16, 32,
+      // C1p[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      5, 16,
+      // C1p[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      29, 96,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 4
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1p[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -9, 16, 32,
+      // C1p[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -37, 30, 96,
+      // C1p[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      29, 96,
+      // C1p[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      539, 1536,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 5
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1p[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      205, -432, 768, 1536,
+      // C1p[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -37, 30, 96,
+      // C1p[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -225, 116, 384,
+      // C1p[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      539, 1536,
+      // C1p[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      3467, 7680,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 6
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1p[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      205, -432, 768, 1536,
+      // C1p[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      4005, -4736, 3840, 12288,
+      // C1p[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -225, 116, 384,
+      // C1p[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -7173, 2695, 7680,
+      // C1p[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      3467, 7680,
+      // C1p[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      38081, 61440,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 7
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1p[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      -4879, 9840, -20736, 36864, 73728,
+      // C1p[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      4005, -4736, 3840, 12288,
+      // C1p[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      8703, -7200, 3712, 12288,
+      // C1p[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -7173, 2695, 7680,
+      // C1p[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -141115, 41604, 92160,
+      // C1p[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      38081, 61440,
+      // C1p[7]/eps^7, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      459485, 516096,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 8
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C1p[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      -4879, 9840, -20736, 36864, 73728,
+      // C1p[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      -86171, 120150, -142080, 115200, 368640,
+      // C1p[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      8703, -7200, 3712, 12288,
+      // C1p[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      1082857, -688608, 258720, 737280,
+      // C1p[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -141115, 41604, 92160,
+      // C1p[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -2200311, 533134, 860160,
+      // C1p[7]/eps^7, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      459485, 516096,
+      // C1p[8]/eps^8, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      109167851, 82575360,
+    };
+#else
+#error "Bad value for GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER"
+#endif
+    GEOGRAPHICLIB_STATIC_ASSERT(sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) ==
+                                (nC1p_*nC1p_ + 7*nC1p_ - 2*(nC1p_/2)) / 4,
+                                "Coefficient array size mismatch in C1pf");
+    real
+      eps2 = Math::sq(eps),
+      d = eps;
+    int o = 0;
+    for (int l = 1; l <= nC1p_; ++l) { // l is index of C1p[l]
+      int m = (nC1p_ - l) / 2;         // order of polynomial in eps^2
+      c[l] = d * Math::polyval(m, coeff + o, eps2) / coeff[o + m + 1];
+      o += m + 2;
+      d *= eps;
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real)
+  }
+
+  // The scale factor A2-1 = mean value of (d/dsigma)I2 - 1
+  Math::real Geodesic::A2m1f(real eps) {
+    // Generated by Maxima on 2015-05-29 08:09:47-04:00
+#if GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER/2 == 1
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // (eps+1)*A2-1, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      -3, 0, 4,
+    };  // count = 3
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER/2 == 2
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // (eps+1)*A2-1, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      -7, -48, 0, 64,
+    };  // count = 4
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER/2 == 3
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // (eps+1)*A2-1, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      -11, -28, -192, 0, 256,
+    };  // count = 5
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER/2 == 4
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // (eps+1)*A2-1, polynomial in eps2 of order 4
+      -375, -704, -1792, -12288, 0, 16384,
+    };  // count = 6
+#else
+#error "Bad value for GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER"
+#endif
+    GEOGRAPHICLIB_STATIC_ASSERT(sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) == nA2_/2 + 2,
+                                "Coefficient array size mismatch in A2m1f");
+    int m = nA2_/2;
+    real t = Math::polyval(m, coeff, Math::sq(eps)) / coeff[m + 1];
+    return (t - eps) / (1 + eps);
+  }
+
+  // The coefficients C2[l] in the Fourier expansion of B2
+  void Geodesic::C2f(real eps, real c[]) {
+    // Generated by Maxima on 2015-05-05 18:08:12-04:00
+#if GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 3
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C2[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      1, 8, 16,
+      // C2[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      3, 16,
+      // C2[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      5, 48,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 4
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C2[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      1, 8, 16,
+      // C2[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      1, 6, 32,
+      // C2[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      5, 48,
+      // C2[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      35, 512,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 5
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C2[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      1, 2, 16, 32,
+      // C2[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      1, 6, 32,
+      // C2[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      15, 80, 768,
+      // C2[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      35, 512,
+      // C2[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      63, 1280,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 6
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C2[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      1, 2, 16, 32,
+      // C2[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      35, 64, 384, 2048,
+      // C2[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      15, 80, 768,
+      // C2[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      7, 35, 512,
+      // C2[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      63, 1280,
+      // C2[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      77, 2048,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 7
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C2[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      41, 64, 128, 1024, 2048,
+      // C2[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      35, 64, 384, 2048,
+      // C2[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      69, 120, 640, 6144,
+      // C2[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      7, 35, 512,
+      // C2[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      105, 504, 10240,
+      // C2[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      77, 2048,
+      // C2[7]/eps^7, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      429, 14336,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 8
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C2[1]/eps^1, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      41, 64, 128, 1024, 2048,
+      // C2[2]/eps^2, polynomial in eps2 of order 3
+      47, 70, 128, 768, 4096,
+      // C2[3]/eps^3, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      69, 120, 640, 6144,
+      // C2[4]/eps^4, polynomial in eps2 of order 2
+      133, 224, 1120, 16384,
+      // C2[5]/eps^5, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      105, 504, 10240,
+      // C2[6]/eps^6, polynomial in eps2 of order 1
+      33, 154, 4096,
+      // C2[7]/eps^7, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      429, 14336,
+      // C2[8]/eps^8, polynomial in eps2 of order 0
+      6435, 262144,
+    };
+#else
+#error "Bad value for GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER"
+#endif
+    GEOGRAPHICLIB_STATIC_ASSERT(sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) ==
+                                (nC2_*nC2_ + 7*nC2_ - 2*(nC2_/2)) / 4,
+                                "Coefficient array size mismatch in C2f");
+    real
+      eps2 = Math::sq(eps),
+      d = eps;
+    int o = 0;
+    for (int l = 1; l <= nC2_; ++l) { // l is index of C2[l]
+      int m = (nC2_ - l) / 2;         // order of polynomial in eps^2
+      c[l] = d * Math::polyval(m, coeff + o, eps2) / coeff[o + m + 1];
+      o += m + 2;
+      d *= eps;
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real)
+  }
+
+  // The scale factor A3 = mean value of (d/dsigma)I3
+  void Geodesic::A3coeff() {
+    // Generated by Maxima on 2015-05-05 18:08:13-04:00
+#if GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 3
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // A3, coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -1, 4,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1, -1, 2,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 0
+      1, 1,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 4
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // A3, coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -1, 16,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -1, -2, 8,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1, -1, 2,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 0
+      1, 1,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 5
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // A3, coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -3, 64,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -3, -1, 16,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+      3, -1, -2, 8,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1, -1, 2,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 0
+      1, 1,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 6
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // A3, coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -3, 128,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -2, -3, 64,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -1, -3, -1, 16,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+      3, -1, -2, 8,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1, -1, 2,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 0
+      1, 1,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 7
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // A3, coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -5, 256,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -5, -3, 128,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -10, -2, -3, 64,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+      5, -1, -3, -1, 16,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+      3, -1, -2, 8,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1, -1, 2,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 0
+      1, 1,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 8
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // A3, coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -25, 2048,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -15, -20, 1024,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -5, -10, -6, 256,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+      -5, -20, -4, -6, 128,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+      5, -1, -3, -1, 16,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+      3, -1, -2, 8,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1, -1, 2,
+      // A3, coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 0
+      1, 1,
+    };
+#else
+#error "Bad value for GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER"
+#endif
+    GEOGRAPHICLIB_STATIC_ASSERT(sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) ==
+                                (nA3_*nA3_ + 7*nA3_ - 2*(nA3_/2)) / 4,
+                                "Coefficient array size mismatch in A3f");
+    int o = 0, k = 0;
+    for (int j = nA3_ - 1; j >= 0; --j) { // coeff of eps^j
+      int m = min(nA3_ - j - 1, j);       // order of polynomial in n
+      _A3x[k++] = Math::polyval(m, coeff + o, _n) / coeff[o + m + 1];
+      o += m + 2;
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) && k == nA3x_
+  }
+
+  // The coefficients C3[l] in the Fourier expansion of B3
+  void Geodesic::C3coeff() {
+    // Generated by Maxima on 2015-05-05 18:08:13-04:00
+#if GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 3
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 0
+    1, 8,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -1, 1, 4,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 0
+    1, 16,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 4
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 0
+    3, 64,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 1
+    // This is a case where a leading 0 term has been inserted to maintain the
+    // pattern in the orders of the polynomials.
+    0, 1, 8,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -1, 1, 4,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 0
+    3, 64,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -3, 2, 32,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 0
+    5, 192,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 5
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+    5, 128,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 1
+    3, 3, 64,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -1, 0, 1, 8,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -1, 1, 4,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+    3, 128,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -2, 3, 64,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+    1, -3, 2, 32,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+    3, 128,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -9, 5, 192,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+    7, 512,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 6
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+    3, 128,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+    2, 5, 128,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -1, 3, 3, 64,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -1, 0, 1, 8,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -1, 1, 4,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+    5, 256,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+    1, 3, 128,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -3, -2, 3, 64,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+    1, -3, 2, 32,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+    7, 512,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -10, 9, 384,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 2
+    5, -9, 5, 192,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+    7, 512,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -14, 7, 512,
+    // C3[5], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+    21, 2560,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 7
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+    21, 1024,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+    11, 12, 512,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+    2, 2, 5, 128,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+    -5, -1, 3, 3, 64,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -1, 0, 1, 8,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -1, 1, 4,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+    27, 2048,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+    1, 5, 256,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -9, 2, 6, 256,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+    2, -3, -2, 3, 64,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+    1, -3, 2, 32,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+    3, 256,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -4, 21, 1536,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -6, -10, 9, 384,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+    -1, 5, -9, 5, 192,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+    9, 1024,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -10, 7, 512,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+    10, -14, 7, 512,
+    // C3[5], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+    9, 1024,
+    // C3[5], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -45, 21, 2560,
+    // C3[6], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+    11, 2048,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 8
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+    243, 16384,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+    10, 21, 1024,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+    3, 11, 12, 512,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+    -2, 2, 2, 5, 128,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+    -5, -1, 3, 3, 64,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -1, 0, 1, 8,
+    // C3[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -1, 1, 4,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+    187, 16384,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+    69, 108, 8192,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -2, 1, 5, 256,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+    -6, -9, 2, 6, 256,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+    2, -3, -2, 3, 64,
+    // C3[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+    1, -3, 2, 32,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+    139, 16384,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -1, 12, 1024,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -77, -8, 42, 3072,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+    10, -6, -10, 9, 384,
+    // C3[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+    -1, 5, -9, 5, 192,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+    127, 16384,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -43, 72, 8192,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+    -7, -40, 28, 2048,
+    // C3[4], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+    -7, 20, -28, 14, 1024,
+    // C3[5], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+    99, 16384,
+    // C3[5], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -15, 9, 1024,
+    // C3[5], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+    75, -90, 42, 5120,
+    // C3[6], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+    99, 16384,
+    // C3[6], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+    -99, 44, 8192,
+    // C3[7], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+    429, 114688,
+    };
+#else
+#error "Bad value for GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER"
+#endif
+    GEOGRAPHICLIB_STATIC_ASSERT(sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) ==
+                                ((nC3_-1)*(nC3_*nC3_ + 7*nC3_ - 2*(nC3_/2)))/8,
+                                "Coefficient array size mismatch in C3coeff");
+    int o = 0, k = 0;
+    for (int l = 1; l < nC3_; ++l) {        // l is index of C3[l]
+      for (int j = nC3_ - 1; j >= l; --j) { // coeff of eps^j
+        int m = min(nC3_ - j - 1, j);       // order of polynomial in n
+        _C3x[k++] = Math::polyval(m, coeff + o, _n) / coeff[o + m + 1];
+        o += m + 2;
+      }
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) && k == nC3x_
+  }
+
+  void Geodesic::C4coeff() {
+    // Generated by Maxima on 2015-05-05 18:08:13-04:00
+#if GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 3
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -2, 105,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+      16, -7, 35,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 2
+      8, -28, 70, 105,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -2, 105,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -16, 7, 315,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 0
+      4, 525,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 4
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 0
+      11, 315,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -32, -6, 315,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -32, 48, -21, 105,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 3
+      4, 24, -84, 210, 315,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -1, 105,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 1
+      64, -18, 945,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 2
+      32, -48, 21, 945,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -8, 1575,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -32, 12, 1575,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 0
+      8, 2205,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 5
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+      4, 1155,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -368, 121, 3465,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+      1088, -352, -66, 3465,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 3
+      48, -352, 528, -231, 1155,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 4
+      16, 44, 264, -924, 2310, 3465,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+      4, 1155,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 1
+      80, -99, 10395,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -896, 704, -198, 10395,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 3
+      -48, 352, -528, 231, 10395,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -8, 1925,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 1
+      384, -88, 17325,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 2
+      320, -352, 132, 17325,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -16, 8085,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -256, 88, 24255,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 0
+      64, 31185,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 6
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+      97, 15015,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1088, 156, 45045,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -224, -4784, 1573, 45045,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 3
+      -10656, 14144, -4576, -858, 45045,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 4
+      64, 624, -4576, 6864, -3003, 15015,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 5
+      100, 208, 572, 3432, -12012, 30030, 45045,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+      1, 9009,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -2944, 468, 135135,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 2
+      5792, 1040, -1287, 135135,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 3
+      5952, -11648, 9152, -2574, 135135,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 4
+      -64, -624, 4576, -6864, 3003, 135135,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+      8, 10725,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1856, -936, 225225,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -8448, 4992, -1144, 225225,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 3
+      -1440, 4160, -4576, 1716, 225225,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -136, 63063,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1024, -208, 105105,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 2
+      3584, -3328, 1144, 315315,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -128, 135135,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -2560, 832, 405405,
+      // C4[5], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 0
+      128, 99099,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 7
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+      10, 9009,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -464, 291, 45045,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -4480, 1088, 156, 45045,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+      10736, -224, -4784, 1573, 45045,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 4
+      1664, -10656, 14144, -4576, -858, 45045,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 5
+      16, 64, 624, -4576, 6864, -3003, 15015,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 6
+      56, 100, 208, 572, 3432, -12012, 30030, 45045,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+      10, 9009,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+      112, 15, 135135,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+      3840, -2944, 468, 135135,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+      -10704, 5792, 1040, -1287, 135135,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 4
+      -768, 5952, -11648, 9152, -2574, 135135,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 5
+      -16, -64, -624, 4576, -6864, 3003, 135135,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -4, 25025,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -1664, 168, 225225,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+      1664, 1856, -936, 225225,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+      6784, -8448, 4992, -1144, 225225,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 4
+      128, -1440, 4160, -4576, 1716, 225225,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+      64, 315315,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+      1792, -680, 315315,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -2048, 1024, -208, 105105,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 3
+      -1792, 3584, -3328, 1144, 315315,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -512, 405405,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+      2048, -384, 405405,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 2
+      3072, -2560, 832, 405405,
+      // C4[5], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -256, 495495,
+      // C4[5], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -2048, 640, 495495,
+      // C4[6], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 0
+      512, 585585,
+    };
+#elif GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER == 8
+    static const real coeff[] = {
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      193, 85085,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+      4192, 850, 765765,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+      20960, -7888, 4947, 765765,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+      12480, -76160, 18496, 2652, 765765,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 4
+      -154048, 182512, -3808, -81328, 26741, 765765,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 5
+      3232, 28288, -181152, 240448, -77792, -14586, 765765,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 6
+      96, 272, 1088, 10608, -77792, 116688, -51051, 255255,
+      // C4[0], coeff of eps^0, polynomial in n of order 7
+      588, 952, 1700, 3536, 9724, 58344, -204204, 510510, 765765,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      349, 2297295,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -1472, 510, 459459,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -39840, 1904, 255, 2297295,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+      52608, 65280, -50048, 7956, 2297295,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 4
+      103744, -181968, 98464, 17680, -21879, 2297295,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 5
+      -1344, -13056, 101184, -198016, 155584, -43758, 2297295,
+      // C4[1], coeff of eps^1, polynomial in n of order 6
+      -96, -272, -1088, -10608, 77792, -116688, 51051, 2297295,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      464, 1276275,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -928, -612, 3828825,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+      64256, -28288, 2856, 3828825,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+      -126528, 28288, 31552, -15912, 3828825,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 4
+      -41472, 115328, -143616, 84864, -19448, 3828825,
+      // C4[2], coeff of eps^2, polynomial in n of order 5
+      160, 2176, -24480, 70720, -77792, 29172, 3828825,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -16, 97461,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -16384, 1088, 5360355,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -2560, 30464, -11560, 5360355,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+      35840, -34816, 17408, -3536, 1786785,
+      // C4[3], coeff of eps^3, polynomial in n of order 4
+      7168, -30464, 60928, -56576, 19448, 5360355,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      128, 2297295,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+      26624, -8704, 6891885,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+      -77824, 34816, -6528, 6891885,
+      // C4[4], coeff of eps^4, polynomial in n of order 3
+      -32256, 52224, -43520, 14144, 6891885,
+      // C4[5], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -6784, 8423415,
+      // C4[5], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+      24576, -4352, 8423415,
+      // C4[5], coeff of eps^5, polynomial in n of order 2
+      45056, -34816, 10880, 8423415,
+      // C4[6], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      -1024, 3318315,
+      // C4[6], coeff of eps^6, polynomial in n of order 1
+      -28672, 8704, 9954945,
+      // C4[7], coeff of eps^7, polynomial in n of order 0
+      1024, 1640925,
+    };
+#else
+#error "Bad value for GEOGRAPHICLIB_GEODESIC_ORDER"
+#endif
+    GEOGRAPHICLIB_STATIC_ASSERT(sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) ==
+                                (nC4_ * (nC4_ + 1) * (nC4_ + 5)) / 6,
+                                "Coefficient array size mismatch in C4coeff");
+    int o = 0, k = 0;
+    for (int l = 0; l < nC4_; ++l) {        // l is index of C4[l]
+      for (int j = nC4_ - 1; j >= l; --j) { // coeff of eps^j
+        int m = nC4_ - j - 1;               // order of polynomial in n
+        _C4x[k++] = Math::polyval(m, coeff + o, _n) / coeff[o + m + 1];
+        o += m + 2;
+      }
+    }
+    // Post condition: o == sizeof(coeff) / sizeof(real) && k == nC4x_
+  }
+
+} // namespace GeographicLib