megadetector 10.0.15__py3-none-any.whl

megadetector/detection/video_utils.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1379 @@
+"""
+
+video_utils.py
+
+Utilities for splitting, rendering, and assembling videos.
+
+"""
+
+#%% Constants, imports, environment
+
+import os
+import re
+import cv2
+import glob
+import json
+
+from collections import defaultdict
+from multiprocessing.pool import ThreadPool
+from multiprocessing.pool import Pool
+from tqdm import tqdm
+from functools import partial
+from inspect import signature
+
+from megadetector.utils import path_utils
+from megadetector.utils.path_utils import clean_path
+from megadetector.utils.ct_utils import sort_list_of_dicts_by_key
+from megadetector.visualization import visualization_utils as vis_utils
+
+default_fourcc = 'h264'
+
+video_progress_bar_description = 'Processing video'
+
+#%% Path utilities
+
+VIDEO_EXTENSIONS = ('.mp4','.avi','.mpeg','.mpg','.mov','.mkv','.flv')
+
+def is_video_file(s,video_extensions=VIDEO_EXTENSIONS):
+    """
+    Checks a file's extension against a set of known video file
+    extensions to determine whether it's a video file.  Performs a
+    case-insensitive comparison.
+
+    Args:
+        s (str): filename to check for probable video-ness
+        video_extensions (list, optional): list of video file extensions
+
+    Returns:
+        bool: True if this looks like a video file, else False
+    """
+
+    ext = os.path.splitext(s)[1]
+    return ext.lower() in video_extensions
+
+
+def find_video_strings(strings):
+    """
+    Given a list of strings that are potentially video file names, looks for
+    strings that actually look like video file names (based on extension).
+
+    Args:
+        strings (list): list of strings to check for video-ness
+
+    Returns:
+        list: a subset of [strings] that looks like they are video filenames
+    """
+
+    return [s for s in strings if is_video_file(s.lower())]
+
+
+def find_videos(dirname,
+                recursive=False,
+                convert_slashes=True,
+                return_relative_paths=False):
+    """
+    Finds all files in a directory that look like video file names.
+
+    Args:
+        dirname (str): folder to search for video files
+        recursive (bool, optional): whether to search [dirname] recursively
+        convert_slashes (bool, optional): forces forward slashes in the returned files,
+            otherwise uses the native path separator
+        return_relative_paths (bool, optional): forces the returned filenames to be
+            relative to [dirname], otherwise returns absolute paths
+
+    Returns:
+        A list of filenames within [dirname] that appear to be videos
+    """
+
+    if recursive:
+        files = glob.glob(os.path.join(dirname, '**', '*.*'), recursive=True)
+    else:
+        files = glob.glob(os.path.join(dirname, '*.*'))
+
+    files = [fn for fn in files if os.path.isfile(fn)]
+
+    if return_relative_paths:
+        files = [os.path.relpath(fn,dirname) for fn in files]
+
+    if convert_slashes:
+        files = [fn.replace('\\', '/') for fn in files]
+
+    return find_video_strings(files)
+
+
+#%% Shared function for opening videos
+
+DEFAULT_BACKEND = -1
+
+# This is the order in which we'll try to open backends.
+#
+# In general, the defaults are as follows, though they vary depending
+# on what's installed:
+#
+# Windows: CAP_DSHOW or CAP_MSMF
+# Linux: CAP_FFMPEG
+# macOS: CAP_AVFOUNDATION
+#
+# Technically if the default fails, we may try the same backend again, but this
+# is rare, and it's not worth the complexity of figuring out what the system
+# default is.
+backend_id_to_name = {
+    DEFAULT_BACKEND:'default',
+    cv2.CAP_FFMPEG: 'CAP_FFMPEG',
+    cv2.CAP_DSHOW: 'CAP_DSHOW',
+    cv2.CAP_MSMF: 'CAP_MSMF',
+    cv2.CAP_AVFOUNDATION: 'CAP_AVFOUNDATION',
+    cv2.CAP_GSTREAMER: 'CAP_GSTREAMER'
+}
+
+def open_video(video_path,verbose=False):
+    """
+    Open the video at [video_path], trying multiple OpenCV backends if necessary.
+
+    Args:
+        video_path (str): the file to open
+        verbose (bool, optional): enable additional debug output
+
+    Returns:
+        (cv2.VideoCapture,image): a tuple containing (a) the open video capture device
+        (or None if no backends succeeded) and (b) the first frame of the video (or None)
+    """
+
+    if not os.path.isfile(video_path):
+        print('Video file {} not found'.format(video_path))
+        return None,None
+
+    backend_ids = backend_id_to_name.keys()
+
+    for backend_id in backend_ids:
+
+        backend_name = backend_id_to_name[backend_id]
+        if verbose:
+            print('Trying backend {}'.format(backend_name))
+
+        try:
+            if backend_id == DEFAULT_BACKEND:
+                vidcap = cv2.VideoCapture(video_path)
+            else:
+                vidcap = cv2.VideoCapture(video_path, backend_id)
+        except Exception as e:
+            if verbose:
+                print('Warning: error opening {} with backend {}: {}'.format(
+                    video_path,backend_name,str(e)))
+            continue
+
+        if not vidcap.isOpened():
+            if verbose:
+                print('Warning: isOpened() is False for {} with backend {}'.format(
+                    video_path,backend_name))
+            try:
+                vidcap.release()
+            except Exception:
+                pass
+            continue
+
+        success, image = vidcap.read()
+        if success and (image is not None):
+            if verbose:
+                print('Successfully opened {} with backend: {}'.format(
+                    video_path,backend_name))
+            return vidcap,image
+
+        print('Warning: failed to open {} with backend {}'.format(
+            video_path,backend_name))
+        try:
+            vidcap.release()
+        except Exception:
+            pass
+
+    # ...for each backend
+
+    print('Error: failed to open {} with any backend'.format(video_path))
+    return None,None
+
+# ...def open_video(...)
+
+
+#%% Functions for rendering frames to video and vice-versa
+
+# http://tsaith.github.io/combine-images-into-a-video-with-python-3-and-opencv-3.html
+
+def frames_to_video(images, fs, output_file_name, codec_spec=default_fourcc):
+    """
+    Given a list of image files and a sample rate, concatenates those images into
+    a video and writes to a new video file.
+
+    Args:
+        images (list): a list of frame file names to concatenate into a video
+        fs (float): the frame rate in fps
+        output_file_name (str): the output video file, no checking is performed to make
+            sure the extension is compatible with the codec
+        codec_spec (str, optional):  codec to use for encoding; h264 is a sensible default
+            and generally works on Windows, but when this fails (which is around 50% of the time
+            on Linux), mp4v is a good second choice
+    """
+
+    if codec_spec is None:
+        codec_spec = 'h264'
+
+    if len(images) == 0:
+        print('Warning: no frames to render')
+        return
+
+    output_dir = os.path.dirname(output_file_name)
+    if len(output_dir) > 0:
+        os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+
+    # Determine the width and height from the first image
+    frame = cv2.imread(images[0])
+    # cv2.imshow('video',frame)
+    height, width, channels = frame.shape
+
+    # Define the codec and create VideoWriter object
+    fourcc = cv2.VideoWriter_fourcc(*codec_spec)
+    out = cv2.VideoWriter(output_file_name, fourcc, fs, (width, height))
+
+    for image in images:
+        frame = cv2.imread(image)
+        out.write(frame)
+
+    out.release()
+    cv2.destroyAllWindows()
+
+
+def get_video_fs(input_video_file,verbose=False):
+    """
+    Retrieves the frame rate of [input_video_file].
+
+    Args:
+        input_video_file (str): video file for which we want the frame rate
+        verbose (bool, optional): enable additional debug output
+
+    Returns:
+        float: the frame rate of [input_video_file], or None if no frame
+            rate could be extracted
+    """
+
+    assert os.path.isfile(input_video_file), \
+        'File {} not found'.format(input_video_file)
+    vidcap,_ = open_video(input_video_file,verbose=verbose)
+    if vidcap is None:
+        if verbose:
+            print('Failed to get frame rate for {}'.format(input_video_file))
+        return None
+    fs = vidcap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FPS)
+    try:
+        vidcap.release()
+    except Exception as e:
+        print('Warning: error closing video handle for {}: {}'.format(
+            input_video_file,str(e)))
+    return fs
+
+
+def _frame_number_to_filename(frame_number):
+    """
+    Ensures that frame images are given consistent filenames.
+    """
+
+    return 'frame{:06d}.jpg'.format(frame_number)
+
+
+def _filename_to_frame_number(filename):
+    """
+    Extract the frame number from a filename that was created using
+    _frame_number_to_filename.
+
+    Args:
+        filename (str): a filename created with _frame_number_to_filename.
+
+    Returns:
+        int: the frame number extracted from [filename]
+    """
+
+    filename = os.path.basename(filename)
+    match = re.search(r'frame(\d+)\.jpg', filename)
+    if match is None:
+        raise ValueError('{} does not appear to be a frame file'.format(filename))
+    frame_number = match.group(1)
+    try:
+        frame_number = int(frame_number)
+    except Exception:
+        raise ValueError('Filename {} does not contain a valid frame number'.format(filename))
+
+    return frame_number
+
+
+def _add_frame_numbers_to_results(results):
+    """
+    Given the 'images' list from a set of MD results that was generated on video frames,
+    add a 'frame_number' field to each image, and return the list, sorted by frame number.
+    Also modifies "results" in place.
+
+    Args:
+        results (list): list of image dicts
+    """
+
+    # This indicate that this was a failure for a single video
+    if isinstance(results,dict):
+        assert 'failure' in results
+        return results
+
+    # Add video-specific fields to the results
+    for im in results:
+        fn = im['file']
+        frame_number = _filename_to_frame_number(fn)
+        im['frame_number'] = frame_number
+
+    results = sort_list_of_dicts_by_key(results,'frame_number')
+    return results
+
+
+def run_callback_on_frames(input_video_file,
+                           frame_callback,
+                           every_n_frames=None,
+                           verbose=False,
+                           frames_to_process=None,
+                           allow_empty_videos=False):
+    """
+    Calls the function frame_callback(np.array,image_id) on all (or selected) frames in
+    [input_video_file].
+
+    Args:
+        input_video_file (str): video file to process
+        frame_callback (function): callback to run on frames, should take an np.array and a string and
+            return a single value.  callback should expect two arguments: (1) a numpy array with image
+            data, in the typical PIL image orientation/channel order, and (2) a string identifier
+            for the frame, typically something like "frame0006.jpg" (even though it's not a JPEG
+            image, this is just an identifier for the frame).
+        every_n_frames (int or float, optional): sample every Nth frame starting from the first frame;
+            if this is None or 1, every frame is processed.  If this is a negative value, it's
+            interpreted as a sampling rate in seconds, which is rounded to the nearest frame sampling
+            rate. Mutually exclusive with frames_to_process.
+        verbose (bool, optional): enable additional debug console output
+        frames_to_process (list of int, optional): process this specific set of frames;
+            mutually exclusive with every_n_frames.  If all values are beyond the length
+            of the video, no frames are extracted.  Can also be a single int, specifying
+            a single frame number.
+        allow_empty_videos (bool, optional): Just print a warning if a video appears to have no
+            frames (by default, this raises an Exception).
+
+    Returns:
+        dict: dict with keys 'frame_filenames' (list), 'frame_rate' (float), 'results' (list).
+        'frame_filenames' are synthetic filenames (e.g. frame000000.jpg). Elements in
+        'results' are whatever is returned by the callback, typically dicts in the same format used in
+        the 'images' array in the MD results format.  [frame_filenames] and [results] both have
+        one element per processed frame.
+    """
+
+    assert os.path.isfile(input_video_file), 'File {} not found'.format(input_video_file)
+
+    if isinstance(frames_to_process,int):
+        frames_to_process = [frames_to_process]
+
+    if (frames_to_process is not None) and (every_n_frames is not None):
+        raise ValueError('frames_to_process and every_n_frames are mutually exclusive')
+
+    vidcap = None
+
+    try:
+
+        vidcap,image = open_video(input_video_file,verbose=verbose)
+        n_frames = int(vidcap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FRAME_COUNT))
+        frame_rate = vidcap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FPS)
+
+        if verbose:
+            print('Video {} contains {} frames at {} Hz'.format(input_video_file,n_frames,frame_rate))
+
+        frame_filenames = []
+        results = []
+
+        if (every_n_frames is not None):
+
+            if (every_n_frames < 0):
+                every_n_seconds = abs(every_n_frames)
+                every_n_frames = int(every_n_seconds * frame_rate)
+                if verbose:
+                    print('Interpreting a time sampling rate of {} hz as a frame interval of {}'.format(
+                        every_n_seconds,every_n_frames))
+            # 0 and 1 both mean "process every frame"
+            elif every_n_frames == 0:
+                every_n_frames = 1
+            elif every_n_frames > 0:
+                every_n_frames = int(every_n_frames)
+
+        # ...if every_n_frames was supplied
+
+        # frame_number = 0
+        for frame_number in range(0,n_frames):
+
+            # We've already read the first frame, when we opened the video
+            if frame_number != 0:
+                success,image = vidcap.read()
+            else:
+                success = True
+
+            if not success:
+                assert image is None
+                if verbose:
+                    print('Read terminating at frame {} of {}'.format(frame_number,n_frames))
+                break
+
+            if every_n_frames is not None:
+                if (frame_number % every_n_frames) != 0:
+                    continue
+
+            if frames_to_process is not None:
+                if frame_number > max(frames_to_process):
+                    break
+                if frame_number not in frames_to_process:
+                    continue
+
+            frame_filename_relative = _frame_number_to_filename(frame_number)
+            frame_filenames.append(frame_filename_relative)
+
+            # Convert from OpenCV conventions to PIL conventions
+            image_np = cv2.cvtColor(image, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
+
+            # Run the callback
+            frame_results = frame_callback(image_np,frame_filename_relative)
+
+            results.append(frame_results)
+
+        # ...for each frame
+
+        if len(frame_filenames) == 0:
+            if allow_empty_videos:
+                print('Warning: found no frames in file {}'.format(input_video_file))
+            else:
+                raise Exception('Error: found no frames in file {}'.format(input_video_file))
+
+        if verbose:
+            print('\nProcessed {} of {} frames for {}'.format(
+                len(frame_filenames),n_frames,input_video_file))
+
+    finally:
+
+        if vidcap is not None:
+            try:
+                vidcap.release()
+            except Exception:
+                pass
+
+    to_return = {}
+    to_return['frame_filenames'] = frame_filenames
+    to_return['frame_rate'] = frame_rate
+    to_return['results'] = results
+
+    return to_return
+
+# ...def run_callback_on_frames(...)
+
+
+def run_callback_on_frames_for_folder(input_video_folder,
+                                      frame_callback,
+                                      every_n_frames=None,
+                                      verbose=False,
+                                      recursive=True,
+                                      files_to_process_relative=None,
+                                      error_on_empty_video=False):
+    """
+    Calls the function frame_callback(np.array,image_id) on all (or selected) frames in
+    all videos in [input_video_folder].
+
+    Args:
+        input_video_folder (str): video folder to process
+        frame_callback (function): callback to run on frames, should take an np.array and a string and
+            return a single value.  callback should expect two arguments: (1) a numpy array with image
+            data, in the typical PIL image orientation/channel order, and (2) a string identifier
+            for the frame, typically something like "frame0006.jpg" (even though it's not a JPEG
+            image, this is just an identifier for the frame).
+        every_n_frames (int or float, optional): sample every Nth frame starting from the first frame;
+            if this is None or 1, every frame is processed.  If this is a negative value, it's
+            interpreted as a sampling rate in seconds, which is rounded to the nearest frame
+            sampling rate.
+        verbose (bool, optional): enable additional debug console output
+        recursive (bool, optional): recurse into [input_video_folder]
+        files_to_process_relative (list, optional): only process specific relative paths
+        error_on_empty_video (bool, optional): by default, videos with errors or no valid frames
+            are silently stored as failures; this turns them into exceptions
+
+    Returns:
+        dict: dict with keys 'video_filenames' (list of str), 'frame_rates' (list of floats),
+        'results' (list of list of dicts). 'video_filenames' will contain *relative* filenames.
+        'results' is a list (one element per video) of lists (one element per frame) of whatever the
+        callback returns, typically (but not necessarily) dicts in the MD results format.
+
+        For failed videos, the frame rate will be represented by -1, and "results"
+        will be a dict with at least the key "failure".
+    """
+
+    to_return = {'video_filenames':[],'frame_rates':[],'results':[]}
+
+    if files_to_process_relative is not None:
+        input_files_full_paths = \
+            [os.path.join(input_video_folder,fn) for fn in files_to_process_relative]
+        input_files_full_paths = [fn.replace('\\','/') for fn in input_files_full_paths]
+    else:
+        # Recursively enumerate video files
+        input_files_full_paths = find_videos(input_video_folder,
+                                            recursive=recursive,
+                                            convert_slashes=True,
+                                            return_relative_paths=False)
+
+    print('Processing {} videos from folder {}'.format(len(input_files_full_paths),input_video_folder))
+
+    if len(input_files_full_paths) == 0:
+        print('No videos to process')
+        return to_return
+
+    # Process each video
+
+    # video_fn_abs = input_files_full_paths[0]
+    for video_fn_abs in tqdm(input_files_full_paths,desc=video_progress_bar_description):
+
+        video_filename_relative = os.path.relpath(video_fn_abs,input_video_folder)
+        video_filename_relative = video_filename_relative.replace('\\','/')
+        to_return['video_filenames'].append(video_filename_relative)
+
+        try:
+
+            # video_results is a dict with fields:
+            #
+            # frame_rate
+            #
+            # results (list of objects returned by the callback, typically dicts in the MD
+            # per-image format)
+            #
+            # frame_filenames (list of frame IDs, i.e. synthetic filenames)
+            video_results = run_callback_on_frames(input_video_file=video_fn_abs,
+                                                   frame_callback=frame_callback,
+                                                   every_n_frames=every_n_frames,
+                                                   verbose=verbose,
+                                                   frames_to_process=None,
+                                                   allow_empty_videos=False)
+
+        except Exception as e:
+
+            if (not error_on_empty_video):
+                print('Warning: error processing video {}: {}'.format(
+                    video_fn_abs,str(e)
+                ))
+                to_return['frame_rates'].append(-1.0)
+                failure_result = {}
+                failure_result['failure'] = 'Failure processing video: {}'.format(str(e))
+                to_return['results'].append(failure_result)
+                continue
+            else:
+                raise
+
+        # ...try/except
+
+        to_return['frame_rates'].append(video_results['frame_rate'])
+        for r in video_results['results']:
+            assert r['file'].startswith('frame')
+            r['file'] = video_filename_relative + '/' + r['file']
+        to_return['results'].append(video_results['results'])
+
+    # ...for each video
+
+    n_videos = len(input_files_full_paths)
+    assert len(to_return['video_filenames']) == n_videos
+    assert len(to_return['frame_rates']) == n_videos
+    assert len(to_return['results']) == n_videos
+
+    return to_return
+
+# ...def run_callback_on_frames_for_folder(...)
+
+
+def video_to_frames(input_video_file,
+                    output_folder,
+                    overwrite=True,
+                    every_n_frames=None,
+                    verbose=False,
+                    quality=None,
+                    max_width=None,
+                    frames_to_extract=None,
+                    allow_empty_videos=True):
+    """
+    Renders frames from [input_video_file] to .jpg files in [output_folder].
+
+    With help from:
+
+    https://stackoverflow.com/questions/33311153/python-extracting-and-saving-video-frames
+
+    Args:
+        input_video_file (str): video file to split into frames
+        output_folder (str): folder to put frame images in
+        overwrite (bool, optional): whether to overwrite existing frame images
+        every_n_frames (int, optional): sample every Nth frame starting from the first frame;
+            if this is None or 1, every frame is extracted.  If this is a negative value, it's
+            interpreted as a sampling rate in seconds, which is rounded to the nearest frame sampling
+            rate.  Mutually exclusive with frames_to_extract.
+        verbose (bool, optional): enable additional debug console output
+        quality (int, optional): JPEG quality for frame output, from 0-100.  Defaults
+            to the opencv default (typically 95).
+        max_width (int, optional): resize frames to be no wider than [max_width]
+        frames_to_extract (list of int, optional): extract this specific set of frames;
+            mutually exclusive with every_n_frames.  If all values are beyond the length
+            of the video, no frames are extracted.  Can also be a single int, specifying
+            a single frame number.  In the special case where frames_to_extract
+            is [], this function still reads video frame rates and verifies that videos
+            are readable, but no frames are extracted.
+        allow_empty_videos (bool, optional): Just print a warning if a video appears to have
+            no frames (by default, this is an error).
+
+    Returns:
+        tuple: length-2 tuple containing (list of frame filenames,frame rate)
+    """
+
+    assert os.path.isfile(input_video_file), 'File {} not found'.format(input_video_file)
+
+    if quality is not None and quality < 0:
+        quality = None
+
+    if isinstance(frames_to_extract,int):
+        frames_to_extract = [frames_to_extract]
+
+    if (frames_to_extract is not None) and (every_n_frames is not None):
+        raise ValueError('frames_to_extract and every_n_frames are mutually exclusive')
+
+    bypass_extraction = ((frames_to_extract is not None) and (len(frames_to_extract) == 0))
+
+    if not bypass_extraction:
+        os.makedirs(output_folder,exist_ok=True)
+
+    vidcap = cv2.VideoCapture(input_video_file)
+    n_frames = int(vidcap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FRAME_COUNT))
+    fs = vidcap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FPS)
+
+    if (every_n_frames is not None) and (every_n_frames < 0):
+        every_n_seconds = abs(every_n_frames)
+        every_n_frames = int(every_n_seconds * fs)
+        if verbose:
+            print('Interpreting a time sampling rate of {} hz as a frame interval of {}'.format(
+                every_n_seconds,every_n_frames))
+
+    # If we're not over-writing, check whether all frame images already exist
+    if (not overwrite) and (not bypass_extraction):
+
+        missing_frame_number = None
+        missing_frame_filename = None
+        frame_filenames = []
+        found_existing_frame = False
+
+        for frame_number in range(0,n_frames):
+
+            if every_n_frames is not None:
+                assert frames_to_extract is None, \
+                    'Internal error: frames_to_extract and every_n_frames are exclusive'
+                if (frame_number % every_n_frames) != 0:
+                    continue
+
+            if frames_to_extract is not None:
+                assert every_n_frames is None, \
+                    'Internal error: frames_to_extract and every_n_frames are exclusive'
+                if frame_number not in frames_to_extract:
+                    continue
+
+            frame_filename = _frame_number_to_filename(frame_number)
+            frame_filename = os.path.join(output_folder,frame_filename)
+            frame_filenames.append(frame_filename)
+            if os.path.isfile(frame_filename):
+                found_existing_frame = True
+                continue
+            else:
+                missing_frame_number = frame_number
+                missing_frame_filename = frame_filename
+                break
+
+        if verbose and missing_frame_number is not None:
+            print('Missing frame {} ({}) for video {}'.format(
+                missing_frame_number,
+                missing_frame_filename,
+                input_video_file))
+
+        # OpenCV seems to over-report the number of frames by 1 in some cases, or fails
+        # to read the last frame; either way, I'm allowing one missing frame.
+        allow_last_frame_missing = True
+
+        # This doesn't have to mean literally the last frame number, it just means that if
+        # we find this frame or later, we consider the video done
+        last_expected_frame_number = n_frames-1
+        if every_n_frames is not None:
+            last_expected_frame_number -= (every_n_frames*2)
+
+        # When specific frames are requested, if anything is missing, reprocess the video
+        if (frames_to_extract is not None) and (missing_frame_number is not None):
+            pass
+
+        # If no frames are missing, or only frames very close to the end of the video are "missing",
+        # skip this video
+        elif (missing_frame_number is None) or \
+            (allow_last_frame_missing and (missing_frame_number >= last_expected_frame_number)):
+
+            if verbose:
+                print('Skipping video {}, all output frames exist'.format(input_video_file))
+            return frame_filenames,fs
+
+        else:
+
+            # If we found some frames, but not all, print a message
+            if verbose and found_existing_frame:
+                print("Rendering video {}, couldn't find frame {} ({}) of {}".format(
+                    input_video_file,
+                    missing_frame_number,
+                    missing_frame_filename,
+                    last_expected_frame_number))
+
+    # ...if we need to check whether to skip this video entirely
+
+    if verbose:
+        print('Video {} contains {} frames at {} Hz'.format(input_video_file,n_frames,fs))
+
+    frame_filenames = []
+
+    # YOLOv5 does some totally bananas monkey-patching of opencv, which causes
+    # problems  if we try to supply a third parameter to imwrite (to specify JPEG
+    # quality).  Detect  this case, and ignore the quality  parameter if it looks
+    # like imwrite has been messed with.
+    #
+    # See:
+    #
+    # https://github.com/ultralytics/yolov5/issues/7285
+    imwrite_patched = False
+    n_imwrite_parameters = None
+
+    try:
+        # calling signature() on the native cv2.imwrite function will
+        # fail, so an exception here is a good thing.  In fact I don't think
+        # there's a case where this *succeeds* and the number of parameters
+        # is wrong.
+        sig = signature(cv2.imwrite)
+        n_imwrite_parameters = len(sig.parameters)
+    except Exception:
+        pass
+
+    if (n_imwrite_parameters is not None) and (n_imwrite_parameters < 3):
+        imwrite_patched = True
+        if verbose and (quality is not None):
+            print('Warning: quality value supplied, but YOLOv5 has mucked with cv2.imwrite, ignoring quality')
+
+    # for frame_number in tqdm(range(0,n_frames)):
+    for frame_number in range(0,n_frames):
+
+        # Special handling for the case where we're just doing dummy reads
+        if bypass_extraction:
+            break
+
+        success,image = vidcap.read()
+        if not success:
+            assert image is None
+            if verbose:
+                print('Read terminating at frame {} of {}'.format(frame_number,n_frames))
+            break
+
+        if every_n_frames is not None:
+            if (frame_number % every_n_frames) != 0:
+                continue
+
+        if frames_to_extract is not None:
+            if frame_number > max(frames_to_extract):
+                break
+            if frame_number not in frames_to_extract:
+                continue
+
+        # Has resizing been requested?
+        if max_width is not None:
+
+            # image.shape is h/w/dims
+            input_shape = image.shape
+            assert input_shape[2] == 3
+            input_width = input_shape[1]
+
+            # Is resizing necessary?
+            if input_width > max_width:
+
+                scale = max_width / input_width
+                assert scale <= 1.0
+
+                # INTER_AREA is recommended for size reduction
+                image = cv2.resize(image, (0,0), fx=scale, fy=scale, interpolation=cv2.INTER_AREA)
+
+        # ...if we need to deal with resizing
+
+        frame_filename_relative = _frame_number_to_filename(frame_number)
+        frame_filename = os.path.join(output_folder,frame_filename_relative)
+        frame_filenames.append(frame_filename)
+
+        if (not overwrite) and (os.path.isfile(frame_filename)):
+            # print('Skipping frame {}'.format(frame_filename))
+            pass
+        else:
+            try:
+                if frame_filename.isascii():
+
+                    if quality is None or imwrite_patched:
+                        cv2.imwrite(os.path.normpath(frame_filename),image)
+                    else:
+                        cv2.imwrite(os.path.normpath(frame_filename),image,
+                                    [int(cv2.IMWRITE_JPEG_QUALITY), quality])
+                else:
+                    if quality is None:
+                        is_success, im_buf_arr = cv2.imencode('.jpg', image)
+                    else:
+                        encode_param = [int(cv2.IMWRITE_JPEG_QUALITY), quality]
+                        is_success, im_buf_arr = cv2.imencode('.jpg', image, encode_param)
+                    im_buf_arr.tofile(frame_filename)
+                assert os.path.isfile(frame_filename), \
+                    'Output frame {} unavailable'.format(frame_filename)
+            except KeyboardInterrupt:
+                vidcap.release()
+                raise
+            except Exception as e:
+                print('Error on frame {} of {}: {}'.format(frame_number,n_frames,str(e)))
+
+    # ...for each frame
+
+    if len(frame_filenames) == 0:
+        if allow_empty_videos:
+            print('Warning: no frames extracted from file {}'.format(input_video_file))
+        else:
+            raise Exception('Error: no frames extracted from file {}'.format(input_video_file))
+
+    if verbose:
+        print('\nExtracted {} of {} frames for {}'.format(
+            len(frame_filenames),n_frames,input_video_file))
+
+    vidcap.release()
+    return frame_filenames,fs
+
+# ...def video_to_frames(...)
+
+
+def _video_to_frames_with_per_video_frames(args):
+    """
+    Wrapper function to handle extracting a different list of frames for
+    each video in a multiprocessing context.
+
+    Takes a tuple of (relative_fn, frames_for_this_video, other_args),
+    where (other_args) contains the arguments that are the same for each
+    iteration.
+    """
+
+    relative_fn, frames_for_this_video, other_args = args
+    (input_folder, output_folder_base, every_n_frames, overwrite, verbose,
+     quality, max_width, allow_empty_videos) = other_args
+
+    return _video_to_frames_for_folder(relative_fn, input_folder, output_folder_base,
+                                       every_n_frames, overwrite, verbose, quality, max_width,
+                                       frames_for_this_video, allow_empty_videos)
+
+
+def _video_to_frames_for_folder(relative_fn,input_folder,output_folder_base,
+                                every_n_frames,overwrite,verbose,quality,max_width,
+                                frames_to_extract,allow_empty_videos):
+    """
+    Internal function to call video_to_frames for a single video in the context of
+    video_folder_to_frames;  makes sure the right output folder exists, then calls
+    video_to_frames.
+    """
+
+    input_fn_absolute = os.path.join(input_folder,relative_fn)
+    assert os.path.isfile(input_fn_absolute),\
+        'Could not find file {}'.format(input_fn_absolute)
+
+    # Create the target output folder
+    output_folder_video = os.path.join(output_folder_base,relative_fn)
+    try:
+        os.makedirs(output_folder_video,exist_ok=True)
+    except Exception:
+        output_folder_clean = clean_path(output_folder_video)
+        print('Warning: failed to create folder {}, trying {}'.format(
+            output_folder_video,output_folder_clean))
+        output_folder_video = output_folder_clean
+        os.makedirs(output_folder_video,exist_ok=True)
+
+    # Render frames
+    # input_video_file = input_fn_absolute; output_folder = output_folder_video
+    frame_filenames,fs = video_to_frames(input_fn_absolute,
+                                         output_folder_video,
+                                         overwrite=overwrite,
+                                         every_n_frames=every_n_frames,
+                                         verbose=verbose,
+                                         quality=quality,
+                                         max_width=max_width,
+                                         frames_to_extract=frames_to_extract,
+                                         allow_empty_videos=allow_empty_videos)
+
+    return frame_filenames,fs
+
+
+def video_folder_to_frames(input_folder,
+                           output_folder_base,
+                           recursive=True,
+                           overwrite=True,
+                           n_threads=1,
+                           every_n_frames=None,
+                           verbose=False,
+                           parallelization_uses_threads=True,
+                           quality=None,
+                           max_width=None,
+                           frames_to_extract=None,
+                           allow_empty_videos=False,
+                           relative_paths_to_process=None):
+    """
+    For every video file in input_folder, creates a folder within output_folder_base, and
+    renders frame of that video to images in that folder.
+
+    Args:
+        input_folder (str): folder to process
+        output_folder_base (str): root folder for output images; subfolders will be
+            created for each input video
+        recursive (bool, optional): whether to recursively process videos in [input_folder]
+        overwrite (bool, optional): whether to overwrite existing frame images
+        n_threads (int, optional): number of concurrent workers to use; set to <= 1 to disable
+            parallelism
+        every_n_frames (int or float, optional): sample every Nth frame starting from the first
+            frame; if this is None or 1, every frame is extracted.  If this is a negative value,
+            it's interpreted as a sampling rate in seconds, which is rounded to the nearest frame
+            sampling rate.  Mutually exclusive with frames_to_extract.
+        verbose (bool, optional): enable additional debug console output
+        parallelization_uses_threads (bool, optional): whether to use threads (True) or
+            processes (False) for parallelization; ignored if n_threads <= 1
+        quality (int, optional): JPEG quality for frame output, from 0-100.  Defaults
+            to the opencv default (typically 95).
+        max_width (int, optional): resize frames to be no wider than [max_width]
+        frames_to_extract (int, list of int, or dict, optional): extract this specific set of frames
+            from each video; mutually exclusive with every_n_frames.  If all values are beyond the
+            length of a video, no frames are extracted. Can also be a single int, specifying a single
+            frame number.  In the special case where frames_to_extract is [], this function still
+            reads video frame rates and verifies that videos are readable, but no frames are
+            extracted. Can be a dict mapping relative paths to lists of frame numbers to extract different
+            frames from each video.
+        allow_empty_videos (bool, optional): just print a warning if a video appears to have no
+            frames (by default, this is an error).
+        relative_paths_to_process (list, optional): only process the relative paths on this
+            list
+
+    Returns:
+        tuple: a length-3 tuple containing:
+            - list of lists of frame filenames; the Nth list of frame filenames corresponds to
+              the Nth video
+            - list of video frame rates; the Nth value corresponds to the Nth video
+            - list of video filenames
+    """
+
+    # Enumerate video files if necessary
+    if relative_paths_to_process is None:
+        if verbose:
+            print('Enumerating videos in {}'.format(input_folder))
+        input_files_full_paths = find_videos(input_folder,recursive=recursive)
+        if verbose:
+            print('Found {} videos in folder {}'.format(len(input_files_full_paths),input_folder))
+        if len(input_files_full_paths) == 0:
+            return [],[],[]
+
+        input_files_relative_paths = [os.path.relpath(s,input_folder) for s in input_files_full_paths]
+    else:
+        input_files_relative_paths = relative_paths_to_process
+        input_files_full_paths = [os.path.join(input_folder,fn) for fn in input_files_relative_paths]
+
+    input_files_relative_paths = [s.replace('\\','/') for s in input_files_relative_paths]
+
+    os.makedirs(output_folder_base,exist_ok=True)
+
+    frame_filenames_by_video = []
+    fs_by_video = []
+
+    if n_threads == 1:
+
+        # For each video
+        #
+        # input_fn_relative = input_files_relative_paths[0]
+        for input_fn_relative in tqdm(input_files_relative_paths,desc='Video to frames'):
+
+            # If frames_to_extract is a dict, get the specific frames for this video
+            if isinstance(frames_to_extract, dict):
+                frames_for_this_video = frames_to_extract.get(input_fn_relative, [])
+            else:
+                frames_for_this_video = frames_to_extract
+
+            frame_filenames,fs = \
+                _video_to_frames_for_folder(input_fn_relative,
+                                            input_folder,
+                                            output_folder_base,
+                                            every_n_frames,
+                                            overwrite,
+                                            verbose,
+                                            quality,
+                                            max_width,
+                                            frames_for_this_video,
+                                            allow_empty_videos)
+            frame_filenames_by_video.append(frame_filenames)
+            fs_by_video.append(fs)
+
+    else:
+
+        pool = None
+        results = None
+        try:
+
+            if parallelization_uses_threads:
+                print('Starting a worker pool with {} threads'.format(n_threads))
+                pool = ThreadPool(n_threads)
+            else:
+                print('Starting a worker pool with {} processes'.format(n_threads))
+                pool = Pool(n_threads)
+
+            if isinstance(frames_to_extract, dict):
+
+                # For the dict case, we need to extract different frames from each video.
+
+                # These arguments are the same for every iteration
+                other_args = (input_folder, output_folder_base, every_n_frames, overwrite,
+                              verbose, quality, max_width, allow_empty_videos)
+
+                # The filename and list of frames to extract vary with each iteration
+                args_for_pool = [(relative_fn, frames_to_extract.get(relative_fn, []), other_args)
+                                 for relative_fn in input_files_relative_paths]
+
+                results = list(tqdm(pool.imap(_video_to_frames_with_per_video_frames, args_for_pool),
+                                    total=len(args_for_pool),desc='Video to frames'))
+
+            else:
+
+                process_video_with_options = partial(_video_to_frames_for_folder,
+                                                     input_folder=input_folder,
+                                                     output_folder_base=output_folder_base,
+                                                     every_n_frames=every_n_frames,
+                                                     overwrite=overwrite,
+                                                     verbose=verbose,
+                                                     quality=quality,
+                                                     max_width=max_width,
+                                                     frames_to_extract=frames_to_extract,
+                                                     allow_empty_videos=allow_empty_videos)
+                results = list(tqdm(pool.imap(process_video_with_options, input_files_relative_paths),
+                                    total=len(input_files_relative_paths),desc='Video to frames'))
+
+            # ...if we need to pass different frames for each video
+
+        finally:
+
+            if pool is not None:
+                pool.close()
+                pool.join()
+                print('Pool closed and joined for video processing')
+
+        # ...try/finally
+
+        frame_filenames_by_video = [x[0] for x in results]
+        fs_by_video = [x[1] for x in results]
+
+    # ...if we're working on a single thread vs. multiple workers
+
+    return frame_filenames_by_video,fs_by_video,input_files_full_paths
+
+# ...def video_folder_to_frames(...)
+
+
+class FrameToVideoOptions:
+    """
+    Options controlling the conversion of frame-level results to video-level results via
+    frame_results_to_video_results()
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self):
+
+        #: One-indexed indicator of which frame-level confidence value to use to determine detection confidence
+        #: for the whole video, i.e. "1" means "use the confidence value from the highest-confidence frame"
+        self.nth_highest_confidence = 1
+
+        #: Should we include just a single representative frame result for each video (default), or
+        #: every frame that was processed?
+        self.include_all_processed_frames = False
+
+        #: What to do if a file referred to in a .json results file appears not to be a
+        #: video; can be 'error' or 'skip_with_warning'
+        self.non_video_behavior = 'error'
+
+        #: Are frame rates required?
+        self.frame_rates_are_required = False
+
+        #: Enable additional debug output
+        self.verbose = False
+
+
+def frame_results_to_video_results(input_file,
+                                   output_file,
+                                   options=None,
+                                   video_filename_to_frame_rate=None):
+    """
+    Given an MD results file produced at the *frame* level, corresponding to a directory
+    created with video_folder_to_frames, maps those frame-level results back to the
+    video level for use in Timelapse.
+
+    Preserves everything in the input .json file other than the images.
+
+    Args:
+        input_file (str): the frame-level MD results file to convert to video-level results
+        output_file (str): the .json file to which we should write video-level results
+        options (FrameToVideoOptions, optional): parameters for converting frame-level results
+            to video-level results, see FrameToVideoOptions for details
+        video_filename_to_frame_rate (dict, optional): maps (relative) video path names to frame
+            rates, used only to populate the output file
+    """
+
+    if options is None:
+        options = FrameToVideoOptions()
+
+    if options.frame_rates_are_required:
+        assert video_filename_to_frame_rate is not None, \
+            'You specified that frame rates are required, but you did not ' + \
+            'supply video_filename_to_frame_rate'
+
+    # Load results
+    with open(input_file,'r') as f:
+        input_data = json.load(f)
+
+    images = input_data['images']
+    detection_categories = input_data['detection_categories']
+
+
+    ## Break into videos
+
+    video_to_frame_info = defaultdict(list)
+
+    # im = images[0]
+    for im in tqdm(images):
+
+        fn = im['file']
+        video_name = os.path.dirname(fn)
+
+        if not is_video_file(video_name):
+
+            if options.non_video_behavior == 'error':
+                raise ValueError('{} is not a video file'.format(video_name))
+            elif options.non_video_behavior == 'skip_with_warning':
+                print('Warning: {} is not a video file'.format(video_name))
+                continue
+            else:
+                raise ValueError('Unrecognized non-video handling behavior: {}'.format(
+                    options.non_video_behavior))
+
+        # Attach video-specific fields to the output, specifically attach the frame
+        # number to both the video and each detection.
+        frame_number = _filename_to_frame_number(fn)
+        im['frame_number'] = frame_number
+        for detection in im['detections']:
+            detection['frame_number'] = frame_number
+
+        video_to_frame_info[video_name].append(im)
+
+    # ...for each frame referred to in the results file
+
+    print('Found {} unique videos in {} frame-level results'.format(
+        len(video_to_frame_info),len(images)))
+
+    output_images = []
+
+
+    ## For each video...
+
+    # video_name = list(video_to_frame_info.keys())[0]
+    for video_name in tqdm(video_to_frame_info):
+
+        # Prepare the output representation for this video
+        im_out = {}
+        im_out['file'] = video_name
+
+        if (video_filename_to_frame_rate is not None):
+
+            if video_name not in video_filename_to_frame_rate:
+
+                s = 'Could not determine frame rate for {}'.format(video_name)
+                if options.frame_rates_are_required:
+                    raise ValueError(s)
+                elif options.verbose:
+                    print('Warning: {}'.format(s))
+
+            if video_name in video_filename_to_frame_rate:
+                im_out['frame_rate'] = video_filename_to_frame_rate[video_name]
+
+        # Find all detections for this video
+        all_detections_this_video = []
+
+        frames = video_to_frame_info[video_name]
+
+        # frame = frames[0]
+        for frame in frames:
+            if ('detections' in frame) and (frame['detections'] is not None):
+                all_detections_this_video.extend(frame['detections'])
+
+        # Should we keep detections for all frames?
+        if (options.include_all_processed_frames):
+
+            im_out['detections'] = all_detections_this_video
+
+        # ...or should we keep just a canonical detection for each category?
+        else:
+
+            canonical_detections = []
+
+            # category_id = list(detection_categories.keys())[0]
+            for category_id in detection_categories:
+
+                category_detections = [det for det in all_detections_this_video if \
+                                       det['category'] == category_id]
+
+                # Find the nth-highest-confidence video to choose a confidence value
+                if len(category_detections) >= options.nth_highest_confidence:
+
+                    category_detections_by_confidence = sorted(category_detections,
+                                                               key = lambda i: i['conf'],reverse=True)
+                    canonical_detection = category_detections_by_confidence[options.nth_highest_confidence-1]
+                    canonical_detections.append(canonical_detection)
+
+            im_out['detections'] = canonical_detections
+
+            # 'max_detection_conf' is no longer included in output files by default
+            if False:
+                im_out['max_detection_conf'] = 0
+                if len(canonical_detections) > 0:
+                    confidences = [d['conf'] for d in canonical_detections]
+                    im_out['max_detection_conf'] = max(confidences)
+
+        # ...if we're keeping output for all frames / canonical frames
+
+        output_images.append(im_out)
+
+    # ...for each video
+
+    output_data = input_data
+    output_data['images'] = output_images
+    s = json.dumps(output_data,indent=1)
+
+    # Write the output file
+    with open(output_file,'w') as f:
+        f.write(s)
+
+# ...def frame_results_to_video_results(...)
+
+
+#%% Test drivers
+
+if False:
+
+    pass
+
+    #%% Constants
+
+    input_folder = r'G:\temp\usu-long\data'
+    frame_folder_base = r'g:\temp\usu-long-single-frames'
+    assert os.path.isdir(input_folder)
+
+
+    #%% Split videos into frames
+
+    frame_filenames_by_video,fs_by_video,video_filenames = \
+        video_folder_to_frames(input_folder,
+                               frame_folder_base,
+                               recursive=True,
+                               overwrite=True,
+                               n_threads=10,
+                               every_n_frames=None,
+                               verbose=True,
+                               parallelization_uses_threads=True,
+                               quality=None,
+                               max_width=None,
+                               frames_to_extract=150)
+
+
+    #%% Constants for detection tests
+
+    detected_frame_folder_base = r'e:\video_test\detected_frames'
+    rendered_videos_folder_base = r'e:\video_test\rendered_videos'
+    os.makedirs(detected_frame_folder_base,exist_ok=True)
+    os.makedirs(rendered_videos_folder_base,exist_ok=True)
+    results_file = r'results.json'
+    confidence_threshold = 0.75
+
+
+    #%% Load detector output
+
+    with open(results_file,'r') as f:
+        detection_results = json.load(f)
+    detections = detection_results['images']
+    detector_label_map = detection_results['detection_categories']
+    for d in detections:
+        d['file'] = d['file'].replace('\\','/').replace('video_frames/','')
+
+
+    #%% List image files, break into folders
+
+    frame_files = path_utils.find_images(frame_folder_base,True)
+    frame_files = [s.replace('\\','/') for s in frame_files]
+    print('Enumerated {} total frames'.format(len(frame_files)))
+
+    # Find unique folders
+    folders = set()
+    # fn = frame_files[0]
+    for fn in frame_files:
+        folders.add(os.path.dirname(fn))
+    folders = [s.replace('\\','/') for s in folders]
+    print('Found {} folders for {} files'.format(len(folders),len(frame_files)))
+
+
+    #%% Render detector frames
+
+    # folder = list(folders)[0]
+    for folder in folders:
+
+        frame_files_this_folder = [fn for fn in frame_files if folder in fn]
+        folder_relative = folder.replace((frame_folder_base + '/').replace('\\','/'),'')
+        detection_results_this_folder = [d for d in detections if folder_relative in d['file']]
+        print('Found {} detections in folder {}'.format(len(detection_results_this_folder),folder))
+        assert len(frame_files_this_folder) == len(detection_results_this_folder)
+
+        rendered_frame_output_folder = os.path.join(detected_frame_folder_base,folder_relative)
+        os.makedirs(rendered_frame_output_folder,exist_ok=True)
+
+        # d = detection_results_this_folder[0]
+        for d in tqdm(detection_results_this_folder):
+
+            input_file = os.path.join(frame_folder_base,d['file'])
+            output_file = os.path.join(detected_frame_folder_base,d['file'])
+            os.makedirs(os.path.dirname(output_file),exist_ok=True)
+            vis_utils.draw_bounding_boxes_on_file(input_file,output_file,d['detections'],
+                                                  confidence_threshold)
+
+        # ...for each file in this folder
+
+    # ...for each folder
+
+
+    #%% Render output videos
+
+    # folder = list(folders)[0]
+    for folder in tqdm(folders):
+
+        folder_relative = folder.replace((frame_folder_base + '/').replace('\\','/'),'')
+        rendered_detector_output_folder = os.path.join(detected_frame_folder_base,folder_relative)
+        assert os.path.isdir(rendered_detector_output_folder)
+
+        frame_files_relative = os.listdir(rendered_detector_output_folder)
+        frame_files_absolute = [os.path.join(rendered_detector_output_folder,s) \
+                                for s in frame_files_relative]
+
+        output_video_filename = os.path.join(rendered_videos_folder_base,folder_relative)
+        os.makedirs(os.path.dirname(output_video_filename),exist_ok=True)
+
+        original_video_filename = output_video_filename.replace(
+            rendered_videos_folder_base,input_folder)
+        assert os.path.isfile(original_video_filename)
+        fs = get_video_fs(original_video_filename)
+
+        frames_to_video(frame_files_absolute, fs, output_video_filename)
+
+    # ...for each video