aigroup-workflow 2.2.1 → 2.2.3

package/skills/ai-ml/spark-engineer/references/rdd-operations.md

@@ -1,599 +1,599 @@
-# RDD Operations
-
----
-
-## When to Use RDDs
-
-**Use RDDs when:**
-- Processing unstructured data (raw text, custom binary formats)
-- Need fine-grained control over physical data placement
-- Implementing custom partitioning logic for specific access patterns
-- Working with legacy Spark code that needs maintenance
-- Building custom data structures not expressible as DataFrames
-
-**Prefer DataFrames when:**
-- Processing structured/semi-structured data
-- Performing SQL-like operations
-- Need Catalyst optimizer benefits
-- Working with standard file formats (Parquet, JSON, ORC)
-
----
-
-## RDD Creation
-
-### From Collections
-
-```python
-# PySpark - Create RDD from Python collection
-data = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
-rdd = spark.sparkContext.parallelize(data, numSlices=4)  # 4 partitions
-
-# From key-value pairs
-pairs = [("a", 1), ("b", 2), ("c", 3)]
-pair_rdd = spark.sparkContext.parallelize(pairs)
-```
-
-```scala
-// Scala - Create RDD from collection
-val data = Seq(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
-val rdd = spark.sparkContext.parallelize(data, numSlices = 4)
-
-// From key-value pairs
-val pairs = Seq(("a", 1), ("b", 2), ("c", 3))
-val pairRdd = spark.sparkContext.parallelize(pairs)
-```
-
-### From Files
-
-```python
-# Text files - each line becomes an element
-text_rdd = spark.sparkContext.textFile("hdfs://path/to/files/*.txt")
-
-# Whole text files - each file as (filename, content) pair
-files_rdd = spark.sparkContext.wholeTextFiles("hdfs://path/to/files/")
-
-# Binary files
-binary_rdd = spark.sparkContext.binaryFiles("hdfs://path/to/files/")
-
-# Sequence files (Hadoop)
-seq_rdd = spark.sparkContext.sequenceFile("hdfs://path/to/seqfile",
-    "org.apache.hadoop.io.Text",
-    "org.apache.hadoop.io.IntWritable")
-```
-
-### From DataFrame
-
-```python
-# Convert DataFrame to RDD of Rows
-df = spark.read.parquet("s3://bucket/data/")
-row_rdd = df.rdd
-
-# Access Row fields
-result_rdd = row_rdd.map(lambda row: (row.user_id, row.amount))
-
-# Convert back to DataFrame
-from pyspark.sql import Row
-df_new = result_rdd.map(lambda x: Row(user_id=x[0], amount=x[1])).toDF()
-```
-
----
-
-## Transformations (Lazy)
-
-Transformations return a new RDD and are not executed until an action is called.
-
-### Basic Transformations
-
-```python
-# map - apply function to each element
-squares = rdd.map(lambda x: x ** 2)
-
-# flatMap - apply function returning iterator, flatten results
-words = text_rdd.flatMap(lambda line: line.split(" "))
-
-# filter - keep elements matching predicate
-evens = rdd.filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0)
-
-# distinct - remove duplicates (causes shuffle)
-unique = rdd.distinct()
-
-# sample - random sample
-sampled = rdd.sample(withReplacement=False, fraction=0.1, seed=42)
-
-# union - combine two RDDs
-combined = rdd1.union(rdd2)
-
-# intersection - elements in both RDDs (causes shuffle)
-common = rdd1.intersection(rdd2)
-
-# subtract - elements in rdd1 not in rdd2 (causes shuffle)
-diff = rdd1.subtract(rdd2)
-
-# cartesian - all pairs (expensive!)
-product = rdd1.cartesian(rdd2)
-```
-
-```scala
-// Scala transformations
-val squares = rdd.map(x => x * x)
-val words = textRdd.flatMap(line => line.split(" "))
-val evens = rdd.filter(_ % 2 == 0)
-val unique = rdd.distinct()
-val sampled = rdd.sample(withReplacement = false, fraction = 0.1, seed = 42L)
-```
-
-### MapPartitions (Efficient Batch Processing)
-
-```python
-# Process entire partition at once - more efficient than map
-# Good for: database connections, expensive initialization, batch operations
-
-def process_partition(iterator):
-    # Initialize expensive resource once per partition
-    connection = create_database_connection()
-    try:
-        for record in iterator:
-            result = connection.process(record)
-            yield result
-    finally:
-        connection.close()
-
-result_rdd = rdd.mapPartitions(process_partition)
-
-# With partition index
-def process_with_index(partition_index, iterator):
-    for record in iterator:
-        yield (partition_index, record)
-
-result_rdd = rdd.mapPartitionsWithIndex(process_with_index)
-```
-
-```scala
-// Scala mapPartitions
-val result = rdd.mapPartitions { iterator =>
-  val connection = createDatabaseConnection()
-  try {
-    iterator.map(record => connection.process(record))
-  } finally {
-    connection.close()
-  }
-}
-```
-
-### Repartition and Coalesce
-
-```python
-# repartition - increase or decrease partitions (full shuffle)
-rdd_repart = rdd.repartition(100)
-
-# coalesce - decrease partitions only (avoids full shuffle)
-rdd_coalesced = rdd.coalesce(10)  # Efficient reduction
-
-# glom - collect each partition into an array
-partitions = rdd.glom()  # RDD[Array[T]]
-```
-
-**When to use:**
-- `repartition(n)`: When increasing partitions or need even distribution
-- `coalesce(n)`: When decreasing partitions (after filter reduced data)
-
----
-
-## Pair RDD Operations
-
-Pair RDDs (key-value pairs) enable powerful transformations.
-
-### Creating Pair RDDs
-
-```python
-# From tuples
-pair_rdd = rdd.map(lambda x: (x.key, x.value))
-
-# keyBy - create pairs from existing elements
-pair_rdd = rdd.keyBy(lambda x: x.user_id)
-```
-
-### Transformations on Pair RDDs
-
-```python
-# reduceByKey - aggregate values by key (more efficient than groupByKey)
-counts = pair_rdd.reduceByKey(lambda a, b: a + b)
-
-# groupByKey - group all values for each key (shuffles all data!)
-grouped = pair_rdd.groupByKey()  # Avoid when possible
-
-# aggregateByKey - combine with different local/global combiners
-sum_count = pair_rdd.aggregateByKey(
-    zeroValue=(0, 0),  # (sum, count)
-    seqFunc=lambda acc, v: (acc[0] + v, acc[1] + 1),  # within partition
-    combFunc=lambda a, b: (a[0] + b[0], a[1] + b[1])  # across partitions
-)
-
-# combineByKey - most general aggregation
-averages = pair_rdd.combineByKey(
-    createCombiner=lambda v: (v, 1),
-    mergeValue=lambda acc, v: (acc[0] + v, acc[1] + 1),
-    mergeCombiners=lambda a, b: (a[0] + b[0], a[1] + b[1])
-).mapValues(lambda x: x[0] / x[1])
-
-# mapValues - transform values only (preserves partitioning)
-doubled = pair_rdd.mapValues(lambda v: v * 2)
-
-# flatMapValues - flatMap on values only
-expanded = pair_rdd.flatMapValues(lambda v: range(v))
-
-# keys and values
-keys_rdd = pair_rdd.keys()
-values_rdd = pair_rdd.values()
-
-# sortByKey
-sorted_rdd = pair_rdd.sortByKey(ascending=True)
-
-# join operations (all cause shuffle)
-joined = rdd1.join(rdd2)              # inner join
-left = rdd1.leftOuterJoin(rdd2)       # left outer
-right = rdd1.rightOuterJoin(rdd2)     # right outer
-full = rdd1.fullOuterJoin(rdd2)       # full outer
-cogroup = rdd1.cogroup(rdd2)          # group by key from both RDDs
-
-# subtractByKey - remove keys present in other RDD
-filtered = rdd1.subtractByKey(rdd2)
-```
-
-```scala
-// Scala pair RDD operations
-val counts = pairRdd.reduceByKey(_ + _)
-val grouped = pairRdd.groupByKey()  // Avoid when possible
-
-val averages = pairRdd.combineByKey(
-  (v: Int) => (v, 1),
-  (acc: (Int, Int), v: Int) => (acc._1 + v, acc._2 + 1),
-  (a: (Int, Int), b: (Int, Int)) => (a._1 + b._1, a._2 + b._2)
-).mapValues { case (sum, count) => sum.toDouble / count }
-
-val joined = rdd1.join(rdd2)
-```
-
-### reduceByKey vs groupByKey
-
-```python
-# BAD: groupByKey shuffles all values
-# Memory-intensive, can cause OOM
-word_counts = words.map(lambda w: (w, 1)).groupByKey().mapValues(sum)
-
-# GOOD: reduceByKey combines locally first
-# Much more efficient, less data shuffled
-word_counts = words.map(lambda w: (w, 1)).reduceByKey(lambda a, b: a + b)
-```
-
-**Spark UI Check:** Compare shuffle write sizes. `reduceByKey` should show much smaller shuffle than `groupByKey` for the same operation.
-
----
-
-## Actions (Trigger Execution)
-
-Actions return values to the driver or write to storage.
-
-### Collection Actions
-
-```python
-# collect - return all elements to driver (OOM risk!)
-all_data = rdd.collect()  # Use carefully on large RDDs
-
-# take - return first n elements
-first_10 = rdd.take(10)
-
-# takeOrdered - return smallest/largest n elements
-smallest_5 = rdd.takeOrdered(5)  # ascending
-largest_5 = rdd.takeOrdered(5, key=lambda x: -x)
-
-# takeSample - random sample
-sample = rdd.takeSample(withReplacement=False, num=100, seed=42)
-
-# first - return first element
-first = rdd.first()
-
-# top - return largest n elements
-top_5 = rdd.top(5)
-
-# count - count elements
-total = rdd.count()
-
-# countByKey - count elements per key (returns dict to driver)
-key_counts = pair_rdd.countByKey()
-
-# countByValue - count occurrences of each value
-value_counts = rdd.countByValue()
-```
-
-### Aggregation Actions
-
-```python
-# reduce - aggregate all elements
-total = rdd.reduce(lambda a, b: a + b)
-
-# fold - reduce with zero value
-total = rdd.fold(0, lambda a, b: a + b)
-
-# aggregate - combine with different types
-stats = rdd.aggregate(
-    zeroValue=(0, 0),  # (sum, count)
-    seqOp=lambda acc, v: (acc[0] + v, acc[1] + 1),
-    combOp=lambda a, b: (a[0] + b[0], a[1] + b[1])
-)
-average = stats[0] / stats[1]
-```
-
-### Output Actions
-
-```python
-# saveAsTextFile - save as text files
-rdd.saveAsTextFile("hdfs://path/output/")
-
-# saveAsSequenceFile - save as Hadoop sequence file
-pair_rdd.saveAsSequenceFile("hdfs://path/output/")
-
-# saveAsPickleFile - Python pickle format
-rdd.saveAsPickleFile("hdfs://path/output/")
-
-# foreach - apply function to each element (side effects)
-rdd.foreach(lambda x: print(x))  # Runs on executors
-
-# foreachPartition - apply function to each partition
-def save_partition(iterator):
-    connection = create_connection()
-    for record in iterator:
-        connection.save(record)
-    connection.close()
-
-rdd.foreachPartition(save_partition)
-```
-
----
-
-## Custom Partitioners
-
-### Implementing Custom Partitioner
-
-```python
-from pyspark import Partitioner
-
-class RangePartitioner(Partitioner):
-    def __init__(self, ranges):
-        """
-        ranges: list of (min, max) tuples defining partition boundaries
-        """
-        self.ranges = ranges
-
-    def numPartitions(self):
-        return len(self.ranges)
-
-    def getPartition(self, key):
-        for i, (min_val, max_val) in enumerate(self.ranges):
-            if min_val <= key < max_val:
-                return i
-        return len(self.ranges) - 1  # Default to last partition
-
-# Use custom partitioner
-ranges = [(0, 100), (100, 500), (500, 1000), (1000, float('inf'))]
-partitioner = RangePartitioner(ranges)
-partitioned_rdd = pair_rdd.partitionBy(partitioner.numPartitions(), partitioner.getPartition)
-```
-
-```scala
-// Scala custom partitioner
-import org.apache.spark.Partitioner
-
-class DomainPartitioner(numParts: Int) extends Partitioner {
-  override def numPartitions: Int = numParts
-
-  override def getPartition(key: Any): Int = {
-    val domain = key.asInstanceOf[String].split("@")(1)
-    math.abs(domain.hashCode % numPartitions)
-  }
-
-  override def equals(other: Any): Boolean = other match {
-    case p: DomainPartitioner => p.numPartitions == numPartitions
-    case _ => false
-  }
-}
-
-val partitioned = pairRdd.partitionBy(new DomainPartitioner(10))
-```
-
-### Hash Partitioner (Default)
-
-```python
-from pyspark import HashPartitioner
-
-# Repartition with hash partitioner
-partitioned_rdd = pair_rdd.partitionBy(100)  # Uses HashPartitioner
-
-# Preserve partitioning across transformations
-# mapValues and flatMapValues preserve partitioner
-preserved = partitioned_rdd.mapValues(lambda v: v * 2)
-assert preserved.partitioner == partitioned_rdd.partitioner
-
-# map does NOT preserve partitioner
-not_preserved = partitioned_rdd.map(lambda x: (x[0], x[1] * 2))
-assert not_preserved.partitioner is None
-```
-
----
-
-## Broadcast Variables and Accumulators
-
-### Broadcast Variables
-
-```python
-# Broadcast large read-only data to all executors
-lookup_table = {"a": 1, "b": 2, "c": 3}  # Small example
-lookup_broadcast = spark.sparkContext.broadcast(lookup_table)
-
-def enrich_record(record):
-    table = lookup_broadcast.value  # Access broadcast value
-    return (record, table.get(record, 0))
-
-enriched_rdd = rdd.map(enrich_record)
-
-# Clean up when done
-lookup_broadcast.unpersist()
-lookup_broadcast.destroy()
-```
-
-```scala
-// Scala broadcast
-val lookupTable = Map("a" -> 1, "b" -> 2, "c" -> 3)
-val lookupBroadcast = spark.sparkContext.broadcast(lookupTable)
-
-val enriched = rdd.map { record =>
-  val table = lookupBroadcast.value
-  (record, table.getOrElse(record, 0))
-}
-```
-
-### Accumulators
-
-```python
-# Long accumulator
-error_count = spark.sparkContext.longAccumulator("Error Count")
-
-def process_record(record):
-    try:
-        return transform(record)
-    except Exception:
-        error_count.add(1)
-        return None
-
-result_rdd = rdd.map(process_record).filter(lambda x: x is not None)
-result_rdd.count()  # Trigger execution
-
-print(f"Errors encountered: {error_count.value}")
-
-# Collection accumulator
-from pyspark import AccumulatorParam
-
-class SetAccumulatorParam(AccumulatorParam):
-    def zero(self, initial_value):
-        return set()
-
-    def addInPlace(self, v1, v2):
-        return v1.union(v2)
-
-error_types = spark.sparkContext.accumulator(set(), SetAccumulatorParam())
-
-def track_errors(record):
-    try:
-        return process(record)
-    except ValueError:
-        error_types.add({"ValueError"})
-        return None
-    except TypeError:
-        error_types.add({"TypeError"})
-        return None
-```
-
-**Caution:** Accumulators may be updated more than once if tasks are retried. Use only for debugging/monitoring, not business logic.
-
----
-
-## Performance Patterns
-
-### Avoiding Shuffle
-
-```python
-# BAD: Multiple shuffles
-result = rdd.groupByKey().mapValues(sum).reduceByKey(max)
-
-# GOOD: Single shuffle with combineByKey
-result = rdd.combineByKey(
-    createCombiner=lambda v: v,
-    mergeValue=lambda acc, v: acc + v,
-    mergeCombiners=lambda a, b: max(a, b)
-)
-
-# Co-partition related RDDs to avoid join shuffles
-partitioned_users = users.partitionBy(100)
-partitioned_orders = orders.partitionBy(100)  # Same partitioner
-joined = partitioned_users.join(partitioned_orders)  # No shuffle if same partitioner
-```
-
-### Efficient Serialization
-
-```python
-# Use Kryo serialization for better performance
-spark.conf.set("spark.serializer", "org.apache.spark.serializer.KryoSerializer")
-spark.conf.set("spark.kryo.registrationRequired", "false")
-
-# Register custom classes for Kryo (Scala)
-# spark.conf.set("spark.kryo.classesToRegister", "com.example.MyClass")
-```
-
-### Memory-Efficient Operations
-
-```python
-# Prefer iterator-based operations
-def efficient_processing(iterator):
-    for record in iterator:
-        # Process one at a time, don't collect
-        yield transform(record)
-
-result = rdd.mapPartitions(efficient_processing)
-
-# Avoid collecting large data to driver
-# BAD
-all_keys = rdd.keys().collect()  # Could be millions!
-
-# GOOD
-key_sample = rdd.keys().take(1000)  # Sample only
-```
-
----
-
-## Spark UI Analysis for RDDs
-
-### Stages Tab Metrics
-
-| Metric | What to Check |
-|--------|---------------|
-| Shuffle Write | Minimize with reduceByKey over groupByKey |
-| Shuffle Read | Large reads indicate join/aggregation overhead |
-| Spill (Memory) | Indicates partition too large for memory |
-| Spill (Disk) | Data being written to disk - increase memory |
-| GC Time | Should be < 10% of task time |
-
-### Common Issues
-
-1. **Uneven partition sizes**: Look for tasks taking much longer than others
-2. **Data skew**: One partition has much more data than others
-3. **Straggler tasks**: A few tasks taking 10x longer than median
-
-### Debugging Tips
-
-```python
-# Check partition sizes
-partition_sizes = rdd.glom().map(len).collect()
-print(f"Partition sizes: min={min(partition_sizes)}, max={max(partition_sizes)}, avg={sum(partition_sizes)/len(partition_sizes)}")
-
-# Check partitioner
-print(f"Partitioner: {rdd.partitioner}")
-print(f"Num partitions: {rdd.getNumPartitions()}")
-
-# Debug lineage
-print(rdd.toDebugString())
-```
-
----
-
-## Best Practices Summary
-
-1. **Prefer DataFrames** - Use RDDs only when DataFrame API insufficient
-2. **Use reduceByKey over groupByKey** - Combines locally first, reduces shuffle
-3. **Preserve partitioning** - Use mapValues/flatMapValues to keep partitioner
-4. **Minimize shuffles** - Co-partition related RDDs, use broadcast for small data
-5. **Use mapPartitions** - For expensive initialization (DB connections, etc.)
-6. **Avoid collect on large data** - Use take, takeSample, or foreachPartition
-7. **Broadcast lookup tables** - Avoid shuffle for small reference data
-8. **Monitor accumulators** - Use for debugging, not business logic
-9. **Check partition distribution** - Avoid skew with custom partitioners
-10. **Profile with Spark UI** - Identify shuffle, spill, and GC issues
+# RDD Operations
+
+---
+
+## When to Use RDDs
+
+**Use RDDs when:**
+- Processing unstructured data (raw text, custom binary formats)
+- Need fine-grained control over physical data placement
+- Implementing custom partitioning logic for specific access patterns
+- Working with legacy Spark code that needs maintenance
+- Building custom data structures not expressible as DataFrames
+
+**Prefer DataFrames when:**
+- Processing structured/semi-structured data
+- Performing SQL-like operations
+- Need Catalyst optimizer benefits
+- Working with standard file formats (Parquet, JSON, ORC)
+
+---
+
+## RDD Creation
+
+### From Collections
+
+```python
+# PySpark - Create RDD from Python collection
+data = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+rdd = spark.sparkContext.parallelize(data, numSlices=4)  # 4 partitions
+
+# From key-value pairs
+pairs = [("a", 1), ("b", 2), ("c", 3)]
+pair_rdd = spark.sparkContext.parallelize(pairs)
+```
+
+```scala
+// Scala - Create RDD from collection
+val data = Seq(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
+val rdd = spark.sparkContext.parallelize(data, numSlices = 4)
+
+// From key-value pairs
+val pairs = Seq(("a", 1), ("b", 2), ("c", 3))
+val pairRdd = spark.sparkContext.parallelize(pairs)
+```
+
+### From Files
+
+```python
+# Text files - each line becomes an element
+text_rdd = spark.sparkContext.textFile("hdfs://path/to/files/*.txt")
+
+# Whole text files - each file as (filename, content) pair
+files_rdd = spark.sparkContext.wholeTextFiles("hdfs://path/to/files/")
+
+# Binary files
+binary_rdd = spark.sparkContext.binaryFiles("hdfs://path/to/files/")
+
+# Sequence files (Hadoop)
+seq_rdd = spark.sparkContext.sequenceFile("hdfs://path/to/seqfile",
+    "org.apache.hadoop.io.Text",
+    "org.apache.hadoop.io.IntWritable")
+```
+
+### From DataFrame
+
+```python
+# Convert DataFrame to RDD of Rows
+df = spark.read.parquet("s3://bucket/data/")
+row_rdd = df.rdd
+
+# Access Row fields
+result_rdd = row_rdd.map(lambda row: (row.user_id, row.amount))
+
+# Convert back to DataFrame
+from pyspark.sql import Row
+df_new = result_rdd.map(lambda x: Row(user_id=x[0], amount=x[1])).toDF()
+```
+
+---
+
+## Transformations (Lazy)
+
+Transformations return a new RDD and are not executed until an action is called.
+
+### Basic Transformations
+
+```python
+# map - apply function to each element
+squares = rdd.map(lambda x: x ** 2)
+
+# flatMap - apply function returning iterator, flatten results
+words = text_rdd.flatMap(lambda line: line.split(" "))
+
+# filter - keep elements matching predicate
+evens = rdd.filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0)
+
+# distinct - remove duplicates (causes shuffle)
+unique = rdd.distinct()
+
+# sample - random sample
+sampled = rdd.sample(withReplacement=False, fraction=0.1, seed=42)
+
+# union - combine two RDDs
+combined = rdd1.union(rdd2)
+
+# intersection - elements in both RDDs (causes shuffle)
+common = rdd1.intersection(rdd2)
+
+# subtract - elements in rdd1 not in rdd2 (causes shuffle)
+diff = rdd1.subtract(rdd2)
+
+# cartesian - all pairs (expensive!)
+product = rdd1.cartesian(rdd2)
+```
+
+```scala
+// Scala transformations
+val squares = rdd.map(x => x * x)
+val words = textRdd.flatMap(line => line.split(" "))
+val evens = rdd.filter(_ % 2 == 0)
+val unique = rdd.distinct()
+val sampled = rdd.sample(withReplacement = false, fraction = 0.1, seed = 42L)
+```
+
+### MapPartitions (Efficient Batch Processing)
+
+```python
+# Process entire partition at once - more efficient than map
+# Good for: database connections, expensive initialization, batch operations
+
+def process_partition(iterator):
+    # Initialize expensive resource once per partition
+    connection = create_database_connection()
+    try:
+        for record in iterator:
+            result = connection.process(record)
+            yield result
+    finally:
+        connection.close()
+
+result_rdd = rdd.mapPartitions(process_partition)
+
+# With partition index
+def process_with_index(partition_index, iterator):
+    for record in iterator:
+        yield (partition_index, record)
+
+result_rdd = rdd.mapPartitionsWithIndex(process_with_index)
+```
+
+```scala
+// Scala mapPartitions
+val result = rdd.mapPartitions { iterator =>
+  val connection = createDatabaseConnection()
+  try {
+    iterator.map(record => connection.process(record))
+  } finally {
+    connection.close()
+  }
+}
+```
+
+### Repartition and Coalesce
+
+```python
+# repartition - increase or decrease partitions (full shuffle)
+rdd_repart = rdd.repartition(100)
+
+# coalesce - decrease partitions only (avoids full shuffle)
+rdd_coalesced = rdd.coalesce(10)  # Efficient reduction
+
+# glom - collect each partition into an array
+partitions = rdd.glom()  # RDD[Array[T]]
+```
+
+**When to use:**
+- `repartition(n)`: When increasing partitions or need even distribution
+- `coalesce(n)`: When decreasing partitions (after filter reduced data)
+
+---
+
+## Pair RDD Operations
+
+Pair RDDs (key-value pairs) enable powerful transformations.
+
+### Creating Pair RDDs
+
+```python
+# From tuples
+pair_rdd = rdd.map(lambda x: (x.key, x.value))
+
+# keyBy - create pairs from existing elements
+pair_rdd = rdd.keyBy(lambda x: x.user_id)
+```
+
+### Transformations on Pair RDDs
+
+```python
+# reduceByKey - aggregate values by key (more efficient than groupByKey)
+counts = pair_rdd.reduceByKey(lambda a, b: a + b)
+
+# groupByKey - group all values for each key (shuffles all data!)
+grouped = pair_rdd.groupByKey()  # Avoid when possible
+
+# aggregateByKey - combine with different local/global combiners
+sum_count = pair_rdd.aggregateByKey(
+    zeroValue=(0, 0),  # (sum, count)
+    seqFunc=lambda acc, v: (acc[0] + v, acc[1] + 1),  # within partition
+    combFunc=lambda a, b: (a[0] + b[0], a[1] + b[1])  # across partitions
+)
+
+# combineByKey - most general aggregation
+averages = pair_rdd.combineByKey(
+    createCombiner=lambda v: (v, 1),
+    mergeValue=lambda acc, v: (acc[0] + v, acc[1] + 1),
+    mergeCombiners=lambda a, b: (a[0] + b[0], a[1] + b[1])
+).mapValues(lambda x: x[0] / x[1])
+
+# mapValues - transform values only (preserves partitioning)
+doubled = pair_rdd.mapValues(lambda v: v * 2)
+
+# flatMapValues - flatMap on values only
+expanded = pair_rdd.flatMapValues(lambda v: range(v))
+
+# keys and values
+keys_rdd = pair_rdd.keys()
+values_rdd = pair_rdd.values()
+
+# sortByKey
+sorted_rdd = pair_rdd.sortByKey(ascending=True)
+
+# join operations (all cause shuffle)
+joined = rdd1.join(rdd2)              # inner join
+left = rdd1.leftOuterJoin(rdd2)       # left outer
+right = rdd1.rightOuterJoin(rdd2)     # right outer
+full = rdd1.fullOuterJoin(rdd2)       # full outer
+cogroup = rdd1.cogroup(rdd2)          # group by key from both RDDs
+
+# subtractByKey - remove keys present in other RDD
+filtered = rdd1.subtractByKey(rdd2)
+```
+
+```scala
+// Scala pair RDD operations
+val counts = pairRdd.reduceByKey(_ + _)
+val grouped = pairRdd.groupByKey()  // Avoid when possible
+
+val averages = pairRdd.combineByKey(
+  (v: Int) => (v, 1),
+  (acc: (Int, Int), v: Int) => (acc._1 + v, acc._2 + 1),
+  (a: (Int, Int), b: (Int, Int)) => (a._1 + b._1, a._2 + b._2)
+).mapValues { case (sum, count) => sum.toDouble / count }
+
+val joined = rdd1.join(rdd2)
+```
+
+### reduceByKey vs groupByKey
+
+```python
+# BAD: groupByKey shuffles all values
+# Memory-intensive, can cause OOM
+word_counts = words.map(lambda w: (w, 1)).groupByKey().mapValues(sum)
+
+# GOOD: reduceByKey combines locally first
+# Much more efficient, less data shuffled
+word_counts = words.map(lambda w: (w, 1)).reduceByKey(lambda a, b: a + b)
+```
+
+**Spark UI Check:** Compare shuffle write sizes. `reduceByKey` should show much smaller shuffle than `groupByKey` for the same operation.
+
+---
+
+## Actions (Trigger Execution)
+
+Actions return values to the driver or write to storage.
+
+### Collection Actions
+
+```python
+# collect - return all elements to driver (OOM risk!)
+all_data = rdd.collect()  # Use carefully on large RDDs
+
+# take - return first n elements
+first_10 = rdd.take(10)
+
+# takeOrdered - return smallest/largest n elements
+smallest_5 = rdd.takeOrdered(5)  # ascending
+largest_5 = rdd.takeOrdered(5, key=lambda x: -x)
+
+# takeSample - random sample
+sample = rdd.takeSample(withReplacement=False, num=100, seed=42)
+
+# first - return first element
+first = rdd.first()
+
+# top - return largest n elements
+top_5 = rdd.top(5)
+
+# count - count elements
+total = rdd.count()
+
+# countByKey - count elements per key (returns dict to driver)
+key_counts = pair_rdd.countByKey()
+
+# countByValue - count occurrences of each value
+value_counts = rdd.countByValue()
+```
+
+### Aggregation Actions
+
+```python
+# reduce - aggregate all elements
+total = rdd.reduce(lambda a, b: a + b)
+
+# fold - reduce with zero value
+total = rdd.fold(0, lambda a, b: a + b)
+
+# aggregate - combine with different types
+stats = rdd.aggregate(
+    zeroValue=(0, 0),  # (sum, count)
+    seqOp=lambda acc, v: (acc[0] + v, acc[1] + 1),
+    combOp=lambda a, b: (a[0] + b[0], a[1] + b[1])
+)
+average = stats[0] / stats[1]
+```
+
+### Output Actions
+
+```python
+# saveAsTextFile - save as text files
+rdd.saveAsTextFile("hdfs://path/output/")
+
+# saveAsSequenceFile - save as Hadoop sequence file
+pair_rdd.saveAsSequenceFile("hdfs://path/output/")
+
+# saveAsPickleFile - Python pickle format
+rdd.saveAsPickleFile("hdfs://path/output/")
+
+# foreach - apply function to each element (side effects)
+rdd.foreach(lambda x: print(x))  # Runs on executors
+
+# foreachPartition - apply function to each partition
+def save_partition(iterator):
+    connection = create_connection()
+    for record in iterator:
+        connection.save(record)
+    connection.close()
+
+rdd.foreachPartition(save_partition)
+```
+
+---
+
+## Custom Partitioners
+
+### Implementing Custom Partitioner
+
+```python
+from pyspark import Partitioner
+
+class RangePartitioner(Partitioner):
+    def __init__(self, ranges):
+        """
+        ranges: list of (min, max) tuples defining partition boundaries
+        """
+        self.ranges = ranges
+
+    def numPartitions(self):
+        return len(self.ranges)
+
+    def getPartition(self, key):
+        for i, (min_val, max_val) in enumerate(self.ranges):
+            if min_val <= key < max_val:
+                return i
+        return len(self.ranges) - 1  # Default to last partition
+
+# Use custom partitioner
+ranges = [(0, 100), (100, 500), (500, 1000), (1000, float('inf'))]
+partitioner = RangePartitioner(ranges)
+partitioned_rdd = pair_rdd.partitionBy(partitioner.numPartitions(), partitioner.getPartition)
+```
+
+```scala
+// Scala custom partitioner
+import org.apache.spark.Partitioner
+
+class DomainPartitioner(numParts: Int) extends Partitioner {
+  override def numPartitions: Int = numParts
+
+  override def getPartition(key: Any): Int = {
+    val domain = key.asInstanceOf[String].split("@")(1)
+    math.abs(domain.hashCode % numPartitions)
+  }
+
+  override def equals(other: Any): Boolean = other match {
+    case p: DomainPartitioner => p.numPartitions == numPartitions
+    case _ => false
+  }
+}
+
+val partitioned = pairRdd.partitionBy(new DomainPartitioner(10))
+```
+
+### Hash Partitioner (Default)
+
+```python
+from pyspark import HashPartitioner
+
+# Repartition with hash partitioner
+partitioned_rdd = pair_rdd.partitionBy(100)  # Uses HashPartitioner
+
+# Preserve partitioning across transformations
+# mapValues and flatMapValues preserve partitioner
+preserved = partitioned_rdd.mapValues(lambda v: v * 2)
+assert preserved.partitioner == partitioned_rdd.partitioner
+
+# map does NOT preserve partitioner
+not_preserved = partitioned_rdd.map(lambda x: (x[0], x[1] * 2))
+assert not_preserved.partitioner is None
+```
+
+---
+
+## Broadcast Variables and Accumulators
+
+### Broadcast Variables
+
+```python
+# Broadcast large read-only data to all executors
+lookup_table = {"a": 1, "b": 2, "c": 3}  # Small example
+lookup_broadcast = spark.sparkContext.broadcast(lookup_table)
+
+def enrich_record(record):
+    table = lookup_broadcast.value  # Access broadcast value
+    return (record, table.get(record, 0))
+
+enriched_rdd = rdd.map(enrich_record)
+
+# Clean up when done
+lookup_broadcast.unpersist()
+lookup_broadcast.destroy()
+```
+
+```scala
+// Scala broadcast
+val lookupTable = Map("a" -> 1, "b" -> 2, "c" -> 3)
+val lookupBroadcast = spark.sparkContext.broadcast(lookupTable)
+
+val enriched = rdd.map { record =>
+  val table = lookupBroadcast.value
+  (record, table.getOrElse(record, 0))
+}
+```
+
+### Accumulators
+
+```python
+# Long accumulator
+error_count = spark.sparkContext.longAccumulator("Error Count")
+
+def process_record(record):
+    try:
+        return transform(record)
+    except Exception:
+        error_count.add(1)
+        return None
+
+result_rdd = rdd.map(process_record).filter(lambda x: x is not None)
+result_rdd.count()  # Trigger execution
+
+print(f"Errors encountered: {error_count.value}")
+
+# Collection accumulator
+from pyspark import AccumulatorParam
+
+class SetAccumulatorParam(AccumulatorParam):
+    def zero(self, initial_value):
+        return set()
+
+    def addInPlace(self, v1, v2):
+        return v1.union(v2)
+
+error_types = spark.sparkContext.accumulator(set(), SetAccumulatorParam())
+
+def track_errors(record):
+    try:
+        return process(record)
+    except ValueError:
+        error_types.add({"ValueError"})
+        return None
+    except TypeError:
+        error_types.add({"TypeError"})
+        return None
+```
+
+**Caution:** Accumulators may be updated more than once if tasks are retried. Use only for debugging/monitoring, not business logic.
+
+---
+
+## Performance Patterns
+
+### Avoiding Shuffle
+
+```python
+# BAD: Multiple shuffles
+result = rdd.groupByKey().mapValues(sum).reduceByKey(max)
+
+# GOOD: Single shuffle with combineByKey
+result = rdd.combineByKey(
+    createCombiner=lambda v: v,
+    mergeValue=lambda acc, v: acc + v,
+    mergeCombiners=lambda a, b: max(a, b)
+)
+
+# Co-partition related RDDs to avoid join shuffles
+partitioned_users = users.partitionBy(100)
+partitioned_orders = orders.partitionBy(100)  # Same partitioner
+joined = partitioned_users.join(partitioned_orders)  # No shuffle if same partitioner
+```
+
+### Efficient Serialization
+
+```python
+# Use Kryo serialization for better performance
+spark.conf.set("spark.serializer", "org.apache.spark.serializer.KryoSerializer")
+spark.conf.set("spark.kryo.registrationRequired", "false")
+
+# Register custom classes for Kryo (Scala)
+# spark.conf.set("spark.kryo.classesToRegister", "com.example.MyClass")
+```
+
+### Memory-Efficient Operations
+
+```python
+# Prefer iterator-based operations
+def efficient_processing(iterator):
+    for record in iterator:
+        # Process one at a time, don't collect
+        yield transform(record)
+
+result = rdd.mapPartitions(efficient_processing)
+
+# Avoid collecting large data to driver
+# BAD
+all_keys = rdd.keys().collect()  # Could be millions!
+
+# GOOD
+key_sample = rdd.keys().take(1000)  # Sample only
+```
+
+---
+
+## Spark UI Analysis for RDDs
+
+### Stages Tab Metrics
+
+| Metric | What to Check |
+|--------|---------------|
+| Shuffle Write | Minimize with reduceByKey over groupByKey |
+| Shuffle Read | Large reads indicate join/aggregation overhead |
+| Spill (Memory) | Indicates partition too large for memory |
+| Spill (Disk) | Data being written to disk - increase memory |
+| GC Time | Should be < 10% of task time |
+
+### Common Issues
+
+1. **Uneven partition sizes**: Look for tasks taking much longer than others
+2. **Data skew**: One partition has much more data than others
+3. **Straggler tasks**: A few tasks taking 10x longer than median
+
+### Debugging Tips
+
+```python
+# Check partition sizes
+partition_sizes = rdd.glom().map(len).collect()
+print(f"Partition sizes: min={min(partition_sizes)}, max={max(partition_sizes)}, avg={sum(partition_sizes)/len(partition_sizes)}")
+
+# Check partitioner
+print(f"Partitioner: {rdd.partitioner}")
+print(f"Num partitions: {rdd.getNumPartitions()}")
+
+# Debug lineage
+print(rdd.toDebugString())
+```
+
+---
+
+## Best Practices Summary
+
+1. **Prefer DataFrames** - Use RDDs only when DataFrame API insufficient
+2. **Use reduceByKey over groupByKey** - Combines locally first, reduces shuffle
+3. **Preserve partitioning** - Use mapValues/flatMapValues to keep partitioner
+4. **Minimize shuffles** - Co-partition related RDDs, use broadcast for small data
+5. **Use mapPartitions** - For expensive initialization (DB connections, etc.)
+6. **Avoid collect on large data** - Use take, takeSample, or foreachPartition
+7. **Broadcast lookup tables** - Avoid shuffle for small reference data
+8. **Monitor accumulators** - Use for debugging, not business logic
+9. **Check partition distribution** - Avoid skew with custom partitioners
+10. **Profile with Spark UI** - Identify shuffle, spill, and GC issues