@museumwnf/the-table-is-set-data 1.0.1

package/translations/themes.en.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616":{"title":"Seasonal Cuisine","presentation":"","quote":"While the shifting lunar calendar determined the timing of religious festivities, it was the seasons of the solar calendar that defined the flavours on the table."},"1929cd0e-6d83-5217-b6f4-6dafbb13c89b":{"title":"Environment","presentation":"Over the centuries Islamic civilisation developed sustainable farming methods that balanced care for the environment with human needs. By securing reliable water supplies a variety of crops could be grown and harvested several times a year. Farmers used organic fertilisers and rotated crops to keep the soil fertile and avoid overuse. Water management and erosion control showed their dedication to protecting natural resources.  \n  \nMuslim scholars built on knowledge from Greek and Roman authors such as Theophrastus and Columella, improving techniques in farming and irrigation. Books by Ibn al-Awwam and Ibn Bassal offered advice on soil care, cultivation, and water use, ensuring these methods stayed effective over time. These agricultural innovations also shaped culinary traditions.  \n  \nDespite its origins in a single faith, the cuisine reflected a blend of diverse cultures enriched through ongoing exchanges. While changing seasons influenced the range of available ingredients, religious festivities frequently encouraged more elaborate meals.  \n  \nDifferent cooking vessels were created from various materials to enhance the flavours of ingredients. The design of serving dishes reflected the artistic tastes of communities, revealing social structure and the shared experience of dining. These connections between farming, food, and culture highlight the creativity and sustainability of Islamic traditions.","quote":""},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca":{"title":"Interfaith Hospitality","presentation":"","quote":"Shelter and food to all comers."},"238a4c4f-8bb3-584d-829b-208cef78fb0c":{"title":"Social Life","presentation":"Throughout history, food has played a central role in religious practices, serving as a medium for feasts and sacrifices that connect individuals to the divine. These communal meals become a medium to express shared beliefs and social hierarchies. As such, food acts as a powerful language that defines religions and, by extension, societies. The rituals and traditions around the table turn eating into an act of connection and create moments of intimacy and belonging.  \n  \nIn Islamic culture, certain foods, such as dates and coffee, hold profound religious and cultural significance. These foods embody values and traditions deeply rooted in the faith, symbolising gratitude, greeting, and divine provision. The symbolic meaning of food extends to the act of sharing, encapsulated in the expression \"*khubz wa meleh\"*\" (bread and salt), which signifies trust and the bonds forged through communal eating.  \n  \nFood also acts as a social bond in creating a common identity with generosity and charity at its heart. The Qur'an emphasises feeding those in need, turning the simple act of offering a meal into an expression of compassion and care that transcends the different landscapes of the Islamic world. From bustling urban gatherings inside the city walls to the warm, welcoming embrace in a Bedouin tent, food becomes a language of belonging and solidarity.","quote":""},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1":{"title":"Food Sharing as an Intimate Ritual","presentation":"","quote":"Sharing a meal goes beyond its physical meaning, it transcends into creating a social bond with guests, families and even lovers, creating an intimate bond captured in the Arabic concept of خبز وملح or “bread and salt“."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877":{"title":"Palatial Plates: Dishes and Diets of Islamic Courts","presentation":"","quote":"Islamic court cuisine featured a wide variety of dishes. Regions like Egypt excelled in culinary artistry, while Ottoman expansion introduced new dishes like vegetable stews and honey-infused desserts. Diets at the sultan’s table were often guided by court physicians, incorporating herbs and medicinal ingredients to ensure health and balance."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322":{"title":"Gender Roles in Food Production and Preparation","presentation":"","quote":"In the Islamic world, food preparation highlighted social hierarchies and gender roles. Women played key roles in cooking, from milling grains to baking bread, while elite homes employed skilled cooks. Middle-class families relied on communal ovens, and public kitchens funded by the wealthy served soldiers and the poor, making food central to both daily life and cultural identity."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902":{"title":"Food Nomadism: from the Desert Tradition to the Urban Table","presentation":"","quote":"Between the traditional rural and urban environments, the act of sharing food in gatherings highlights different cultural milieus. These traditions changed with the urbanisation of Muslim communities leaving the desert and embarking on city life."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c":{"title":"Etiquette: The Protocol of Sitting at the Table with the Sultan","presentation":"","quote":"Dining in Islamic courts adhered to strict protocols that reflected social hierarchy and decorum. Historical sources describe the sultan seated at the head of a table in the throne hall, flanked by princes according to their ranks. Tables varied in shape – long or round – and were supervised by officials like the *saqi*, a private cupbearer who served drinks. Food safety was a paramount, with tasters and gemstone vessels believed to detect poison used to protect the sultan."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a":{"title":"Gender Roles in Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, and the Food Industry","presentation":"","quote":"Men and women in the Islamic world shared roles in agriculture, animal husbandry and the food industry. Women cultivated crops, managed livestock, traded goods and owned properties like orchards and grain silos. Men focused on large-scale trade and specialised professions. Together, their contributions sustained rural and urban economies, with food production reflecting a balance of shared and distinct responsibilities essential to society."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e":{"title":"Food Symbolism in Islamic Culture","presentation":"","quote":"In Islamic culture, certain types of food hold profound significance beyond physical nourishment, serving spiritual and cultural purposes. These foods embody cultural identity, religious rituals and a deeper sense of gratitude for divine provisions."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d":{"title":"The Diversity of the Tableware","presentation":"","quote":"They explored how heat interacts with the natural qualities of food in clay, metal, or stoneware vessels, achieving the perfect combination of flavors to be served on plates that enhance the visual appeal of the dish."},"735e5e35-f62a-5302-96aa-f2e9a69130dd":{"title":"Gendered Roles","presentation":"Gender roles in food production and preparation in the Islamic world reflect a dynamic balance of responsibilities. Women were central to agriculture, cultivating crops, managing livestock and processing goods for trade. They owned agricultural properties, including date plantations and grain silos, and sold products like oil, eggs and poultry in markets, showcasing their autonomy. Men often handled labour-intensive tasks such as ploughing fields, irrigation and transporting goods. In cities, male butchers, bakers and street cooks dominated food professions, preparing and selling meats, bread and confections.  \n  \nFood preparation varied across social classes. Elite households employed both male and female servants, with women supervising kitchens in the *haramlek*. Female slave cooks during the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods were renowned for their expertise. Middle-class households relied on communal ovens, while public kitchens, funded by both men and women elites through *waqf* endowments, provided food to soldiers, students and the poor, symbolising charity and religious devotion. Women played a key role in sustaining these kitchens and ensuring communal welfare.  \n  \nBanquets highlighted social status and power. Male officers like the *saqi* (cupbearer) managed food service, ensuring drinks were properly prepared and served, while women in the *haramlek* prepared elaborate dishes. Female musicians, singers and dancers elevated courtly gatherings with their performances, enhancing cultural refinement.  \n  \nThe collaboration between men and women in food production, trade and presentation reveals a shared responsibility in shaping the culinary and social legacy of the Islamic world.","quote":""},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340":{"title":"Culinary Syncretism","presentation":"","quote":"“A cup of coffee commits one to forty years of friendship”. A Turkish proverb"},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3":{"title":"Food Rules and Recommendations","presentation":"","quote":"“He has only forbidden you carrion, blood, pig’s meat, and animals over which any name other than God’s has been invoked. But if anyone is forced to eat such things by hunger, rather than desire or excess, he commits no sin: God is most merciful and forgiving” (2:173/Al-Baqara)."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779":{"title":"Professional Roles in Food Preparation and Table Service","presentation":"","quote":"In the Islamic world, food preparation professions ranged from skilled female cooks and saqis serving courts to male-dominated street markets with bakers, butchers and vendors. Female slaves excelled as cooks in elite households, while the saqi symbolised grace and service, blending functionality and artistry in culinary roles across social and cultural settings."},"99437e6b-b376-5f86-9a58-f2f1bbf55c32":{"title":"Religion","presentation":"Theme III explores ways in which Islamic religious beliefs have shaped food practices in daily life, and examines religious guidance about what is permissible to eat, how food should be prepared, and the etiquette of sharing meals. Food traditions of Ramadan and the Eids, and the importance of the kitchen in certain Sufi spiritual training practices are also addressed.  \n  \nFood and faith in Islamic culture are closely entwined. Culinary practices encompass not only food preparation, but are expressions of spirituality, community, and ethics. This Theme looks at dietary laws, celebrations, and spiritual education, inviting viewers to explore the historical and religious aspects of food across the Islamic world. Visitors may gain a deeper understanding of how food nurtures both body and soul, and can reinforce a connection to the divine.","quote":""},"b7ef5340-5385-5a3c-a441-d738e99f2269":{"title":"Coexistence","presentation":"From the birth of Islam, many laws and frameworks were established to regulate daily interactions among communities of different religions. These measures laid the foundation for periods of coexistence, which varied in degree depending on the time, place, and political regime.  \n  \nWhile religious differences sometimes posed challenges that required careful management, they also fostered rich cultural exchanges. Beyond religious distinctions, cultures often influenced one another profoundly, creating interconnected worlds where ideas, art, and traditions were shared. Food, as a strong social and identity marker, was no exception. It played and is still playing a pivotal role in both the cohesion and differentiation of these multicultural environments.  \n  \nThis theme explores food as a social mediator, examining the practice of hospitality in which meals brought people together and facilitated connections. It highlights how interactions among interfaith communities, cultures, and traditions gave rise to thriving food industries, rich material cultures, and continuous culinary innovations.  \n  \nAcross the Islamic world, food united people more than it divided them, fostering connections that transcended differences.","quote":""},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c":{"title":"Feasts","presentation":"","quote":"Feasts were a central feature of courtly life, held daily and divided into private and public gatherings. Records from the Mamluk era describe elaborate celebrations, with up to five feasts a day and special events like weddings or circumcision ceremonies lasting several days. One grand circumcision feast reportedly continued for 40 days, showcasing the court’s opulence and capacity for large-scale hospitality."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8":{"title":"The Balance Between Food and Nature","presentation":"","quote":"As Islam expanded, a profound agricultural transformation began to take shape. By the AH 5th / 11th century it had spread from Spain to Transoxiana, reshaping production, livelihoods, urban centres, and daily life."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131":{"title":"Kitchen as a Medium of Education in Islam","presentation":"","quote":"“I was raw, I was cooked, I was burned” Mevlana/ Divan-ı Kebir."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9":{"title":"Men and Women Preparing a Table","presentation":"","quote":"Banquets in the Islamic world reflected social hierarchy and gender roles. Women often prepared meals or worked in the haramlek, while male servants attended men. Gender-segregated dining was common, and grand events featured shared dishes, luxury vessels and entertainment by musicians and dancers, showcasing the cultural and social significance of communal feasting."},"d6e87885-c723-578b-94ce-90f46d8638c0":{"title":"About","presentation":"This exhibition by Museum With No Frontiers explores the Islamic world through its rich culinary traditions. It aims to deepen understanding of Islamic culture and promote cross-cultural dialogue. What sets this exhibition apart is its unique international team of individuals from different cultures and backgrounds, a microcosm of the Museum With No Frontiers’ culturally diverse contributors.  \n  \nFood is a basic human necessity that can unite or divide, foster peace, or spark conflict. It is not merely a means of survival, but a reflection of cultural identity, personal preferences, and the dynamics of social, political, and economic power.  \n  \nIn regions where heritage threatened, highlighting the culinary traditions of the Islamic world reinforces cultural pride and resilience. It provides a platform to foster tolerance by illustrating how foods transcend borders, reflect shared histories and encourage coexistence.  \n  \nIn today’s globalised world, food culture serves as an ambassador, capable of wielding soft power to bridge divides. This exhibition celebrates food’s universal language, emphasising its role in shaping identities, preserving heritages and promoting understanding across cultures.","quote":""},"d895a076-21e8-5cd0-809f-8d8046a05a60":{"title":"Food at Islamic Courts","presentation":"During the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, from the 8th to the 13th centuries (AH 2nd to 7th centuries), various kinds of foods became popular, such as grilled kebabs, meat pies, soups, and fruit juices. These were central to the cuisine of the time, and reflect the varied culinary heritage of the Islamic world.  \n  \nThe sultan’s kitchens prepared food not only for the sultan himself, but also for the many inhabitants of the citadel. Historical accounts describe the sultan’s kitchen as having an “inextinguishable fire,” referring to its continuous operation to meet the demands of daily banquets and special celebrations. These banquets were held regularly, for marriages, circumcision ceremonies, sports events, or the dispatching of the *mahmal* (a ceremonial pilgrimage procession).  \n  \nThe Islamic court was familiar with dining tables (*sufra*) long or round. Historical records tell us that the sultan dined in grand halls like the Hall of Columns or of *iwan*. The sultan would sit at the head of the table, with princes and other dignitaries seated to his right and left according to their ranks.  \n  \nThe Ottoman caliphate, which expanded around the Mediterranean from Serbia to North Africa, introduced new culinary traditions to the western Islamic world. These included stuffed vegetables, yogurt-based dishes, rice, and sweet pastries filled with nuts and dipped in honey or syrup. The Mughal empire in India combined the spicy flavours of curry with influences from Iranian and Central Asian cuisines. In the Mughal palace of Emperor Akbar food was often prepared with chilies and served with an array of diverse ingredients.  \n  \nThe importance of food in the Islamic world is also reflected in the craftsmanship of its dinnerware. Bowls, pitchers, cups, spoons, and large plates were often intricately designed, underscoring the cultural and social significance of food in Islamic society.","quote":""},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515":{"title":"Religious Festivals, Preparation and Dishes","presentation":"","quote":"\"The day of Arafah, the day of sacrifice, the days of tashriq are (the days of) our festival, O people of Islam. These are the days of eating and drinking\" (Sunan Abi Dawud, 2419)."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606":{"title":"Preservation Methods and Innovation","presentation":"","quote":"In Islamic culture preservation techniques like drying, salting, and pickling in vinegar or brine ensured food stability, while innovations like crystallising fruits and cold storage supported culinary diversity and sustainability across regions."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782":{"title":"Food as a Bond of Communal Identity","presentation":"","quote":"“… and give food—despite their desire for it—to the poor, the orphan, and the captive.” (Al-Insan 5 - 8). In the Islamic culture, sharing food with people in need is a blessing and a social and charitable act."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4":{"title":"Duties and Roles of Court Officers Serving Rulers and Nobility","presentation":"","quote":"At Islamic courts, food and dining rituals reflected power and hierarchy, with officers like the Amir-shikar managing hunting feasts and the saqi symbolising elite service. Grand banquets reinforced authority, while specific roles ensured order and tradition. Gendered and hierarchical roles in court dining showcased the interplay of culture, politics and social status."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32":{"title":"Food-related Craftsmanship and Industries from and for the Islamic World","presentation":"","quote":"When people of diverse faiths and traditions come together, they do not merely share their knowledge; they blend their arts, crafts, and ways of life into a tapestry that reflects the richness of humanity."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/194cfe37-a3f8-5450-88aa-97dbe4d16aa6":{"contextual_description":"In the painting, a young prince sits on a carpet outdoors, respectfully extending his hands toward a holy man who gestures to share wisdom. A nearby sapling adds a natural touch.  \n  \nTo the left of the holy man is his attendant with a book, while another attendant on the prince’s right holds his belongings. In the foreground, a musician plays a sitar with a dog behind him, and a servant stands by a small table with a vase, dish, fresh fruit and a red box."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/7a30b4fe-4d76-5501-85d1-59f3431bac0b":{"contextual_description":"This miniature is the right page of a bifolium depicting a *majlis* hosted by Selim II (r. AH 974-982/1566-1574), who was most probably still Prince at the moment of this portrait.  \n  \n*Majalis* were engaging formal assembly where discussion, music, poetry, food, drinks and etiquettes shaped courtly rituals. The structured hierarchy between the attendees is evident as boon companions, courtiers, servants, and musicians face with deference a striking representation of Prince Selim (on the left folio), adhering to strict ceremonial decorum and following appropriate protocol when attending such courtly event.  \n  \nThe presence of attendants serving drinks and musicians highlight the importance of hospitality and the leisurely atmosphere of the AH 10th / AD 16th century Ottoman court."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/a2cc8afd-ade1-5cec-a55d-2a0e96edfcaf":{"contextual_description":"This miniature is the left page of a bifolium depicting a *majlis* hosted by Selim II (r. AH 974-982/1566-1574), who was most probably still Prince at the moment of this portraiture. *Majalis* were important engaging assembly where discussions, music, poetry, food, drink, and etiquette shaped courtly rituals.  \n  \nPrince Selim, looking towards his guests and servants represented on the right folio, is depicted larger than life in a royal kiosk holding delicately a cup of wine in his right hand while grabbing firmly a handkerchief, symbol of sovereignty, in his left hand. His impressive stature, conventional cross-legged position and the lavishness of his clothes accentuate this vivid expression of power.  \n  \nThe depiction of dining, entertainment, and formal conduct in Ottoman court culture underscores the importance of etiquette and ceremonial feasting within this cultural context."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/54abba0a-6240-5905-92f4-90efbd2891dd":{"contextual_description":"The manuscript *Divan-i Shahi* is a collection of poems by Amir Shahi Sabzavari, reflecting the cultural and social atmosphere of his time, often featuring feasts and celebrations.  \n  \nOn the back of the binding, a courtly celebration is depicted, with a ruler, likely Sultan Selim I, on a golden throne surrounded by members of his court in an outdoor setting. Courtiers converse while servants serve refreshments. Amir Shahi's poetry frequently mentions royal banquets and celebratory events, enriched by imagery of wine, music, and companionship that embody courtly life."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/cdc8c22b-b6d9-5ef4-9b28-ecb0769d7895":{"contextual_description":"This version of *Iyar-i Danish*, created for Emperor Akbar (1556–1605) at the Mughal court, is noteworthy for its “mirrors for princes” genre, teaching rulers effective governance through moral tales. Each chapter contains a frame narrative that illustrates a specific moral through the characters’ stories.  \n  \nMughal Emperor Akbar’s court showcased a grand, cosmopolitan culture, reflecting influences from Persian, Central Asian, Indian and Middle Eastern traditions, particularly in its culinary and social practices."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/11071ae8-c9b0-5fc9-93f7-a66247f9c11b":{"contextual_description":"A large brass tray with extensive silver inlay. The layout is a study in circles: the central motif, a geometric pattern itself derived from intersecting circles, is linked to three circles which divide the surrounding inscription into equal parts. The whole composition serves as a framework for no less than seven inscriptions, whose verticals, arranged like spokes within wheels, provide a striking and satisfying visual contrast. The largest inscription reads, “Glory to our master the sultan, the wise, the diligent, the just, the warlike king – may his victory be glorified”!"},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/beb524c9-8818-5c86-9090-3bd8be6eb4ab":{"contextual_description":"This large, elaborately-decorated vessel belongs to the so-called Alhambra vases produced in Malaga in the late AH 7th–8th / AD 13th–14th century. While its form recalls large storage jars, its monumental size, delicate handles, and lack of structural reinforcements suggest a primarily decorative function. The *khamsa* symbol and *tree of life* design may symbolise protection or royal authority."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/4fd2aa34-c599-5353-852b-d1304225a3ec":{"contextual_description":"The term *divan* refers to both a collection of poetry and the literary gatherings of poets, intellectuals and political figures, often held in rulers’ courts or wealthy patrons’ homes, featuring poetry, music and philosophical debates."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/985141db-6e8c-5665-adb3-40ea5ed30eca":{"contextual_description":"In the *Shahnameh*, the account of the Sassanid Emperor Anushirvan, or Khosrow I (reigned 531–579 AD), highlights his wisdom, justice and cultural celebrations. His reign is seen as the golden age of the Sassanid Empire, marked by feasting, artistic performances and intellectual gatherings. The court served as a venue not just for political and military discussions but also for showcasing the emperor’s intelligence and righteousness through grand feasts."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/fe8ba092-6026-5b01-916c-9fbcc1d1a6ea":{"contextual_description":"This is the largest completely preserved private house in Damascus: it occupies more than 5,500 square meters. In typical Damascene domestic architectural style, the outer appearance is simple but the interior is splendid. It includes an official or formal “male” space and a private or familial “female” space, each provided with a courtyard of flower gardens, fountains and reception rooms decorated with *ablaq* masonry, stone paste patterns and painted wooden panels."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/0b30e862-f34b-504e-8898-495a070f7174":{"contextual_description":"The two miniature paintings from the *Shahnameh* by Firdowsi depict a gathering of courtiers at the royal court. In the *Shahnameh*, the royal court serves as a focus of power and governance because this is the very place the king's powers are exercised as well as represented. The nobles, counsellors, warriors and foreign emissaries all unite in one location to comprise the microcosm of the empire.  \n  \nFeasts and banquets in the *Shahnameh* mean much more than shared food. They are opportunities for diplomacy, negotiation for honourable alliances and solidifying of ties with others."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/573ace7d-4666-51d0-8f03-555962d4fe48":{"contextual_description":"This work features an entertainment scene spanning pages 1b–2a, and on pages 2b–3a; the first section is presented in two facing medallions. It includes 27 miniature scenes illustrating various parables, adorned with *simurg* birds and floral motifs. The chapter headings are illuminated in a period-specific style.  \n  \nWhile *Tezkiretü’l Evliya* is primarily a spiritual text, it includes accounts of sufi gatherings where mystics came together for spiritual discussions, poetry and music, blending entertainment with enlightenment."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/f48f182d-761c-59e1-b49f-4d36ced38c52":{"contextual_description":"This work features ten miniature scenes centred on Timur, depicting battles, meetings and celebrations from the Timurid period. A key event in the *Zafarnāmah* is Timur’s return to Samarkand, celebrated in the Garden of *Bagh-ı Behesht*, symbolising his personal victory and the cultural significance of his reign. The festivities included feasts, music, poetry and gatherings of court and military leaders, highlighting Timur’s achievements and the garden’s representation of political success and prosperity."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/0794fcf1-0d31-5297-919b-caf885675fe1":{"contextual_description":"This citadel is one of the most important Islamic monuments in Cairo, standing proudly through the ages since its foundation by Salah al-Din (Saladin) on an outcrop of Muqattam Hill to the east of the city. A defensive fortress against the Crusaders, it also served as a residence for the rulers in times of unrest. It continued as such until 1874, when Khedive Isma’il built ‘Abidin Palace to be his seat of rule. The citadel was divided within its walls into a military area and a residential area."},"44aa7a89-e3c8-529a-978f-03b6e356816c/d4f5be4f-1f76-58ba-bcd2-8f7523accec9":{"contextual_description":"This masterpiece of medieval fortification has been the hallmark of Aleppo since the AH 6th / AD 12th century. Its entrance block alone is an impressive work. Linking the citadel to the city by a stately ramp, it also includes two massively constructed towers which conceal a U-shaped corridor that would force an attacking army to change direction six times, while exposing them to projectiles and burning liquid from gaps in the vaults above. Most of the citadel’s construction, both military as well as the palatial and religious buildings within, date to the Ayyubid al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/96d9cffa-acdf-5b4a-86c3-3465e46b12d0":{"contextual_description":"One very important aspect of the celebrations during *Surname* was the banquet (*ziyafet*). These grand feasts were not held within palace walls alone; rather, they spread to the streets to include the people in the celebrations. The banquets represented generosity and that the Sultan had the duty of looking after his people. Food distribution to the poor was common. Traditional Ottoman dishes were served in large quantities during the banquets. Gilded tableware and luxurious decorations were used to highlight the grandeur of the event."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/8fbfb7dc-edd6-5082-99da-c96ed6b94c47":{"contextual_description":"This miniature painting depicts Zahhak receiving the daughters of Jamshid, Shahrnaz and Arnavaz, who stand before him trembling with fear. Zahhak is seated on his throne, surrounded by courtiers, with a table of golden flasks before him. Attendants on the left carry dishes to present to Zahhak and his guests. The scene captures the etiquette of courtly presentations and the symbolic nature of feasts in the *Shahnameh*, emphasizing themes of hospitality, abundance, and the cultural significance of food in Persian tradition."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/2d16d08b-b9f6-537f-90a7-89a2fb78134c":{"contextual_description":"The two miniature paintings from the *Shahnameh by Firdowsi* depict a gathering of courtiers at the royal court. In the *Shahnameh*, the royal court serves as a focus of power and governance because this is the very place the king's powers are exercised as well as represented. The nobles, counsellors, warriors and foreign emissaries all cohere in one location to comprise the microcosm of the empire.  \n  \nFeasts and banquets in the *Shahnameh* mean much more than sharing food. They are opportunities for diplomacy, negotiation for honourable alliances and solidifying ties with others."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/3eac258a-2626-589c-875d-4a16ff9895da":{"contextual_description":"Mehrab, accompanied by elephants, musicians and an honour guard, greets Sam and escorts him to Kabul. Waiting for them outside the palace is Mehrab's wife, Sindukht, along with 300 female slaves, each holding a golden cup brimming with gems or musk.  \nIn her actions, Sindukht upholds the customary Persian hospitality and the way it has been extended towards heroes and leaders. The presents she offers signify her appreciation of Sam and an invitation to his hospitality, showing the respect her family has for him."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/e2a0900f-02ec-55e9-8369-9b794d5e8c85":{"contextual_description":"Faridun's mother, Faranak, sends him lavish gifts, including Arabian horses, gold, and gems, upon his enthronement. Prominent figures come to pay their respects to the new king. In a painting, Faridun sits on his throne surrounded by courtiers and angels, with his mother’'s gifts displayed before him.  \n  \nGift-giving is a central theme in Ferdowsi’s *Shahnameh*, symbolizing more than just material wealth. It reflects values of respect, honour, and social hierarchy, while also reinforcing alliances and driving narratives of heroism and loyalty."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/f4a541d8-e269-58bf-a1de-36f54789731f":{"contextual_description":"1) Gulnar and Ardashir embrace under the covers, their slippers neatly arranged below. A rope used  \nby Gulnar to lower herself from the pavilion roof is tied to a crenelation. Food and flasks of wine  \nand water are on the floor.  \n2) In the painting, the musician Barbad hides in a cypress tree, enchanting King Khusraw Parviz with his music. The Shah sits on his throne in a garden, enjoying a feast surrounded by courtiers. Nearby, two men hold a quiver of arrows and others carry a torch, indicating the scene takes place at night. A lavish spread of food and drinks is laid out before the Shah, who holds a cup."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/46c59cdd-0e46-5bf3-a8df-bd640e88389e":{"contextual_description":"*The Collection of Ottoman Pictures* is an important album created in the early 19th century illustrating various aspects of Ottoman life, culture and military attire. It includes various sketches that show everyday life and significant events in Ottoman society, with a focus on social gatherings that showcase the complexity and grandeur of the time.  \n  \nJanissaries often appeared in military settings like training drills, parades and state processions, where they displayed their uniforms and skills."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/14d21faf-9fe3-58e3-a911-ef4eb0eedbc6":{"contextual_description":"The *Mecmua-i Tesavir-i Osmaniye* (*The Collection of Ottoman Pictures*) is a AH 13th / AD 19th century album illustrating Ottoman life and culture. One notable painting shows janissaries, with one playing a musical instrument while others converse around a brazier with cooking food. The collection highlights public festivals, including Bairam celebrations (Eid), featuring feasts, prayers and entertainment, showcasing the empire’s social diversity through various ethnicities and professions."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/7d947817-bed9-585c-8fa1-b86597e08dbc":{"contextual_description":"The miniature portrays a social gathering for entertainment. A servant presents a plate of pomegranates to the person seated on the carpet in the centre. This individual is accompanied by a beautiful young boy who is clapping his hands and reciting a *ghazal* (a type of poem) while musicians provide accompaniment.  \n  \nIn the *Divan-i Hafiz* by Hafiz Shirazi, food and feasting imagery symbolise divine generosity, spiritual fulfilment and the ecstatic union with the divine. Feasts represent spiritual gatherings where seekers share wisdom and love."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/06a03ccc-4b5c-5969-a53e-8ce5c8584c3c":{"contextual_description":"The nilometer, or kiosk of the Nile (*al-Miqyas*), is a significant ancient Egyptian and Islamic architectural structure used to measure the Nile's water levels for agricultural taxes. It resembles a well with three tiers: a circular base, a larger square middle and an even larger top for stability. Water enters through three tunnels with pointed arch openings, the oldest in Islamic Egypt. Inside, a staircase encircles the well, featuring the oldest Arabic inscriptions in Kufic script. A central octagonal marble pillar displays water level measurements."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/03feb798-d473-591f-9e0c-100d508df0f3":{"contextual_description":"The hunting picnic chest is thought to have been a gift from Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria (1830–1916) to Sultan Abdülhamid II. This ornate picnic trunk contains three compartments filled with various items, including plates, flasks, glasses, candlesticks, figurines, forks, knives, penknives, and pipes, all made from metal, glass, and porcelain."},"bf8e9642-abed-5b40-9dad-cfc435f0647c/9cae6010-2feb-5ef3-9626-e60a1a656561":{"contextual_description":"A casket designed for transporting food during journeys and campaigns. Later on, a lock was added to protect the contents, as it was common practice to use poison to eliminate political opponents.  \n  \nThis particular casket is made of tin-plated copper and features intricate designs, inscriptions and a medallion adorned with geometric and floral motifs."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/34a4d0b3-465b-5619-aeee-b771e8a57a6e":{"contextual_description":"Enjoyed by the sultans and as an important aspects of royal protocols, coffee was a much valued beverage at the Ottoman court. State officials and ambassadors were welcomed with a cup of coffee served at specific moments of the hospitality protocols depending on the nature of the visit or of the person attending the meeting.  \n  \nThis coffee pot and six matching *zarfs* (cup holders) showcase how the introduction of coffee among the elite and its role in official protocols led to the development of a rich and refined paraphernalia and material culture."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/d80534ef-6152-55b1-a033-c5be13384018":{"contextual_description":"The *kahveci başı* was a high official at the Ottoman court in charge of coffee making for the sultans' consumption and for official assemblies. He was at the head of multiple attendants who would help him perform the high standards of his role. This office, introduced during the AH 10th / AD 16th century, underlies the growing importance of coffee and its role in the hospitality protocols of the court.  \n  \nOn this illustration, the *kahveci başı* is recognisable by his posture and embroidered napkin on his shoulder. He is holding a tray covered with a delicate fabric probably covering a coffee set.  \n  \nSimilar protocols were held in the harem where the concubines would endorse the role of the *kahveci başı* and his team."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/1907d94c-f763-5af1-93bb-bc2bac39b088":{"contextual_description":"This vermeil silver bowl with a pedestal foot and hinged lid exemplifies the opulence of Ottoman palace vessels. Decorated with alternating floral patterns and lamb motifs, the bowl incorporates rubies and diamonds set into gold and silver contours. The lid features a chalice design with a cherub base radiating beams. From the late 18th century, Ottoman designs shifted towards Baroque and Rococo styles, as seen in this exquisite example."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/1cffe815-0969-5f8c-9b29-54aebc0e46c5":{"contextual_description":"This exquisite dish, produced at the renowned Yıldız Royal Tile Factory, exemplifies the fusion of artistry and function in objects used within Islamic courts. Designed to serve dried fruits and nuts, its organic, leaflike structure and gilded accents evoke nature's beauty while showcasing the factory's exceptional craftsmanship. Dried fruits and nuts were integral to courtly cuisine, often symbolising hospitality and abundance during royal banquets and celebrations."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/6e4b2dba-f473-53a1-8417-cb8668ea6662":{"contextual_description":"This small Ottoman silver jug, under 10 centimetres tall, features intricate floral reliefs and partial gilding. Likely influenced by Timurid designs, it reflects the opulent dining customs of the Ottoman elite in the early AH 10 / AD 16th century."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/2546e82a-cb4f-5c7c-8197-6b3fbbd2bd8a":{"contextual_description":"This twelve-sided box, adorned with silver inlay, depicts musicians, revellers and rulers. The cover features interlocking geometric and vegetal designs, while the dome showcases kneeling figures. The intricate craftsmanship underscores the luxury and sophistication of medieval Islamic art."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/4848a5a9-c5d8-5e54-9202-a52a4e473e74":{"contextual_description":"This Ottoman jug, inspired by Timurid Iran, features dragon-headed handles and scenes of hunting and paradisiacal imagery. The blend of Ottoman, Timurid and European influences showcases the diversity of Islamic art."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/bbffbfd8-ee7b-5668-9559-4b339fa0218b":{"contextual_description":"Produced at the Yıldız Royal Tile Factory – founded in AH 1308 / AH 1891 by Sultan Abdülhamid II – this plate showcases the revival of Turkish tile art. The dark green background is adorned with a gilded *tuğra* (monogram) at its centre and bordered by an intricate gilt edge, reflecting the Factory's blend of traditional craftsmanship and modern Ottoman aesthetics."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/e027344f-b9ce-5356-9980-2436e700fdb5":{"contextual_description":"This Samanid bowl from eastern Iran features a Kufic inscription: \"Knowledge is the most noble lineage and chivalry the most intricate.\" The minimalist design, emphasising virtues and prompting conservation, reflects its ceremonial role."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/28766bf1-e1ea-5f5d-b3c1-1551b291a57c":{"contextual_description":"This shallow AH 10th / AD 16th century Ottoman bowl features gilded silver and a rich decoration of arabesque motifs, reflecting the opulence of the sultan's table."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/b80c9082-665a-54a6-b508-5b2f82e36d99":{"contextual_description":"This hemispherical bowl, with honeycomb faceting and engraved leaves, bears the earliest known *tuğra* (monogram) of Sultan Bayezid II, which served as a control stamp guaranteeing its purity of silver."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/7e8042c1-7389-530c-a36f-2965a18b2cfc":{"contextual_description":"This bowl, crafted with vibrant enamel decoration, was a prized possession of medieval Persian courts. Its intricate design, featuring seated figures, cypress trees and kufic script, exemplifies the intersection of art and utility in palatial dining traditions.  \n  \nUsed for serving delicacies during feasts, the bowl's bright colours and delicate craftsmanship reflect the opulence of courtly life. Its calligraphic band adds a layer of sophistication, often conveying blessings or poetry, enhancing the ceremonial atmosphere of royal banquets."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/5bcac6dd-cca5-5745-9f99-cf4e865aabb5":{"contextual_description":"This tile plate features cobalt blue, coral red and green slip decoration outlined in black under a transparent glaze. The symmetrical design includes tulips and carnations, with buds and stylised flowers interspersed with cobalt blue Chinese-inspired clouds. A border of white half-rosettes with red centres completed the composition, making it a fine example of Ottoman ceramic art."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/737806d7-854c-58a5-859c-ab293df1c697":{"contextual_description":"This Seljuq period ewer, with its turquoise glaze and epigraphic decoration, is a fine example of how everyday objects were transformed into artistic masterpieces in royal courts. The potters skilfully adopted forms from metalwork, blending functionality with visual appeal."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/5b881a78-e10b-57bd-b797-88494b97cd33":{"contextual_description":"This blue and white bowl, inspired by Chinese porcelain, reflects the global influences on Islamic courtly ceramics. Decorated with stylised flowers and ivy branches, it demonstrates the refinement of ottoman artisans who adapted foreign styles into their own artistic language."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/b69abf74-a56d-5d23-958a-cc291fd0412c":{"contextual_description":"The tile cup (*tankard*), adorned with tulips and carnations, embodies the Classical Ottoman style of the AH 10th / AD 16th century. Its polychrome decoration and transparent glaze illustrate the artistry of palace workshops. The motifs, rooted in nature, symbolised prosperity and beauty, aligning with the ideals of abundance and refinement that characterised the palatial dining experience."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/021837a8-90d7-548f-8661-2ec9cae42a09":{"contextual_description":"This fragmentary manuscript of the *Shahnameh* was likely produced for the Shah Abbas the Great after AH 995 / AD 1587. At the bottom, bowls with lids – likely golden or bronze – are arranged, symbolising opulent dining. On the left, a man carries another bowl, while on the right, a smaller figure offers a plate to a third man. All seemingly present food to the central figure, presumably a king, seated on a throne-like platform. This intricate composition exemplifies Persian painting's attention to detail and its ability to narrate grandeur through vivid imagery."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/454f4d63-5ff7-5eac-a1e2-c909a0b2c3bc":{"contextual_description":"This particular folio, from the *Shahname* commissioned by Shah Tahmasp I, showcases the tale of Haftvad. The story intertwines Haftvad's destiny with the rise of the Sassanid dynasty.  \n  \nThe lower left of the composition vividly portrays a group of women engaged in what appears to be a cooking activity. This scene aligns with the story's pivotal moment when Haftvad's family, particularly the women, are deceived into inadvertently destroying the magical worm. This moment serves as a cautionary tale, symbolising the fragility of power when dependent on external, mystical forces."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/cee68e67-cf70-5b95-88b3-b748bf8e5481":{"contextual_description":"This dark brown bowl, decorated with white Kufic calligraphy, dates to the AH 4th–5th / AD 10th–11th century. Produced in Nishapur and Afrasiyab, it reflects the region's mastery of ceramic craftsmanship."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/c03fadb5-eb68-537e-8b34-a1bd59736da3":{"contextual_description":"This polychrome underglaze painted dish features a foliated rim and a central medallion surrounded by floral motifs. Combining elements originally designed in court workshops, the pattern includes a wave and rock motif on the rim, inspired by Chinese decorative traditions, illustrating the cross-cultural influences in Islamic art."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/7e3571ef-a773-52aa-8f05-6b7060c9f878":{"contextual_description":"This hammered brass bowl is richly decorated with gold and silver inlay. Its rim featured lotus and floral motifs, while medallions and cartouches with knotted patterns encircle the body. The geometric design on the base, with a star-shaped interlace and floral elements, is a hallmark of the Mosul school. Likely crafted by a Mosul artisan, it bears inscriptions honouring the Mamluk Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf Qaitbay, wishing him victory and blessings."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/e6fa5a1d-53cf-51d2-91d1-212ef2761681":{"contextual_description":"Located in the heart of Fatimid Cairo, Khan al-Khalili is one of Egypt's oldest and most renowned markets. This bazaar was not only a centre of trade but also a pivotal site of culinary exchange that enriched the courts of the Islamic world. Merchants and traders from across the empire supplied spices, dried fruits, aromatic herbs and rare ingredients essential for crafting the refined dishes served at royal tables. The bustling market connected court kitchens to a vast network of resources, transforming local cuisine into a tapestry of global flavours."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/3bfad888-1468-58a9-976d-74229e599ee3":{"contextual_description":"This *lahri*, constructed during the reign of Sultan Mulay Isma'il in the AH 11th / AD 17th century, exemplifies the strategic importance of food storage for palace life and governance. This monumental grain silo, built near the royal palace in Meknès, served as a vital reserve for wheat and fodder, ensuring the sustenance of the court, royal stables and surrounding towns during times of conflict, drought or siege."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/18d35c80-4be7-52b3-ae8a-64d25b4608c2":{"contextual_description":"This coin, inscribed with the name of the Abbasid caliph and the ruler of Egypt Ahmad ibn Tulun, respectively, is a powerful symbol of sovereignty and economic authority in Islamic courts."},"2d56f50e-20ad-5149-ad19-f3994d865877/26adbee3-2ffa-5ff6-81b2-fda8c3042e01":{"contextual_description":"This Mamluk ceramic dish, gilded and intricately decorated, bears the emblem of the *saqi* (royal cupbearer), highlighting its association with ceremonial dining."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/7d947817-bed9-585c-8fa1-b86597e08dbc":{"contextual_description":"This scene encapsulates the profound significance of communal dining in the Islamic world, illustrating how food serves as a central element in social and spiritual gatherings. Within this context, the pomegranate emerges as a powerful symbol: revered in Islamic culture, it represents paradise and the abundance of divine blessings. The prophet recommends consuming pomegranates for their medicinal benefits. Sharing a pomegranate, as seen in this miniature, is also a symbol of sharing good health."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/5a9e45ec-3a6a-57e9-9ffe-9a9d29a423ab":{"contextual_description":"This mould is a symbol of sacrifice in Islamic food traditions. It is likely used to form bread or cake for children and carries layers of symbolic meaning in Islamic culture. In Islamic tradition, the ram holds a deep significance, directly tied to the story of the Prophet Abraham and his devotion to Allah. The ram mould underscores food’s role as a medium for social, cultural and spiritual expression in Islam. It also represents the act of sacrificing an animal for a guest or a visitor."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/8f2e5af6-d304-523f-89fc-a74bf4c690fb":{"contextual_description":"Decorated with a palm tree motif, the *magharif* embodies the cultural and spiritual importance of the date palm in Oman and the broader Islamic world. Dates are often consumed to break the fast during the holy month of Ramadan and reflect sustenance, sharing and hospitality in Islamic tradition. This spoon, therefore, is not a simple tool; it is a cultural artifact that conveys the deep-rooted symbolism of the date palm as a source of life, sustenance and cultural identity across the Islamic world."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/619b7707-34e7-52b5-bbe4-9281f330b615":{"contextual_description":"Wheat and olive branches depicted in this relief carry profound significance in parts of the Islamic world. Wheat, believed to have originated in the Fertile Crescent, shaped the region's dietary traditions, making bread a staple food across the Muslim world. The olive tree, blessed in Islam and central to many countries in Bilad al-Sham, symbolises a deep connection to the land, reflecting resilience, sustenance and spiritual significance in the region's culture and traditions."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/d38cdc8d-50ab-51ca-aa0b-c514b1ad25bf":{"contextual_description":"The Surah al-Anbiya states, “We made from water every living thing“ (Quran 21:30). In Islam, water is seen as a sacred blessing necessary for life and purity. The intricate decorations of these bottles reflect a reverence for water as a sacred gift from Allah and call on believers to remember their gratitude and patronage. The intricate decoration present on these bottles reflects the ritual importance of water: it is a source of both physical sustenance and spiritual purity, essential for ablution."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/5fe54284-47f7-5196-9dd2-d35541620be4":{"contextual_description":"This ewer is noteworthy in that it can be closed to protect water from spilling or evaporating, highlighting the preciousness of water in the Islamic world."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/b46064e5-a3af-56fb-a87f-2e7ed5226346":{"contextual_description":"In the Islamic world, coffee embodies a central social and cultural role. During significant celebrations such as Eid, coffee is a prominent feature in the Turkish and broader Islamic social calendar. It serves as a gesture of goodwill and a bridge between family, friends and community members. Nowadays, coffee is the first drink offered to guests in Islamic society, representing an act of hospitality and generosity."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/28268eb8-919d-5dde-86ff-af2912496925":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/0d4071fb-aaec-5b18-86a2-9da858078262":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/9f1864e5-9491-55a5-bf0b-a02353237761":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/d373c8d5-1b67-5005-8a24-7e345b9c482d":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/0098ca2c-0414-5332-acb0-92b8d05b9879":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/308683f5-0c29-52d9-8ecc-4220a4b138c7":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/047cf469-7da8-5fce-8394-0098d165850e":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/5f4da2e4-f34d-5506-9d07-d076b562b065":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/85974d27-5638-5b52-bf29-831bd89b04a2":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/b0390abf-d5ce-5ed9-9e66-6a9cfea0f213":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects would have been used in the coffee making process, which was itself symbolic of the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/57e133be-45e5-5055-870f-a3e4601038cd":{"contextual_description":"Dates, a staple food in the region, hold profound significance not only as a source of nourishment but also as a symbol of amity and welcome. Their inclusion in this collection emphasises the social norms surrounding the reception of guests and the rituals that accompany such gatherings. It symbolises sustenance, generosity and the connection to the land. Offering dates to guests signifies respect and goodwill, reinforcing the bonds of community and friendship."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/994205d5-4cbf-5123-940f-e8cf76733568":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/24ea54b6-25de-57ee-875f-6f0b14b90e2a":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/de9f4647-cf28-5202-a3b2-af567911db30":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/de7ef9c8-a874-5a74-a731-706ff01b3dc7":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/60967578-e67b-5650-8863-d65ff69f5d85":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/3245b8da-200e-522e-a847-52e0d831e68c":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/d193c99f-30e5-5130-b95c-55778b86d997":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/d24be322-6acd-5f09-bba5-434c51467072":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"6a5071c2-d01d-519b-9fc3-c51994784f7e/947a6c10-7b1e-5f39-b650-b41ad6e1bf94":{"contextual_description":"This group of objects represents the social norm followed by Arabs to offer hospitality and the welcoming of guests. The inclusion of consumable dates highlights the symbolic importance of the date-palm in its entirety."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/03e5f35c-c66b-51b7-9ec6-454f48f1f171":{"contextual_description":"During the Mamluk period in Cairo, hexagonal tables made from wood or metal became common household items. These tables played an essential role in daily life, keeping food or other items elevated from the floor. More than just practical furniture, they symbolised the heart of hospitality, where meals were shared in a communal and welcoming manner. Alongside the other related elements, they set the stage for the intimate act of dining together, an essential part of receiving guests and fostering bonds."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/40c9c27c-9666-5705-829c-003fc0869f7b":{"contextual_description":"This piece represents the act of gathering of dishes, plates and cup to be shared on a table to eat."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/83894cfa-81e2-5b6f-81e6-15a11383bd40":{"contextual_description":"Because food is eaten with the hands in Arab and Persian custom, hosts would frequently offer to pour water from this vessel into a guest’s hands in a washing ceremony."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/d2d911ee-1830-51e8-b6de-617370b412cf":{"contextual_description":"This pot is used to prepare food for the household and for guests inside the kitchen before being put in plates, on the tray and then on the table."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/6a658901-f735-5497-b535-daf515d214a6":{"contextual_description":"Samanid ceramics, known for their refined craftsmanship, often bear inscriptions that inspire conversation or offer blessings. This bowl, with its thoughtful inscription, reflects a deep appreciation for the intellectual and moral values of the time, likely serving not just as a functional object but as a symbolic piece that highlighted the ideals of wisdom and noble conduct during shared meals and gatherings. This group of objects reflects artifacts used in private settings to impress guests and elevate the dining experience."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/6e4b2dba-f473-53a1-8417-cb8668ea6662":{"contextual_description":"Samanid ceramics, known for their refined craftsmanship, often bear inscriptions that inspire conversation or offer blessings. This bowl, with its thoughtful inscription, reflects a deep appreciation for the intellectual and moral values of the time, likely serving not just as a functional object but as a symbolic piece that highlighted the ideals of wisdom and noble conduct during shared meals and gatherings. This group of objects reflects artifacts used in private settings to impress guests and elevate the dining experience."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/52902e2c-9d65-5e88-82d8-bb0fb6e2c0b5":{"contextual_description":"Samanid ceramics, known for their refined craftsmanship, often bear inscriptions that inspire conversation or offer blessings. This bowl, with its thoughtful inscription, reflects a deep appreciation for the intellectual and moral values of the time, likely serving not just as a functional object but as a symbolic piece that highlighted the ideals of wisdom and noble conduct during shared meals and gatherings. This group of objects reflects artifacts used in private settings to impress guests and elevate the dining experience."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/7ffbe563-146b-5a6a-80a9-d587e61057ac":{"contextual_description":"Samanid ceramics, known for their refined craftsmanship, often bear inscriptions that inspire conversation or offer blessings. This bowl, with its thoughtful inscription, reflects a deep appreciation for the intellectual and moral values of the time, likely serving not just as a functional object but as a symbolic piece that highlighted the ideals of wisdom and noble conduct during shared meals and gatherings. This group of objects reflects artifacts used in private settings to impress guests and elevate the dining experience."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/6467cfe9-2a50-5010-aee7-d291c5931bc4":{"contextual_description":"Everyday life in Oman is infused with the mingled scents of flowers, aromatic woods, resins, spices and herbs. Incense has long had a place in Omani society; burners may be carried from room to room, passed beneath clothing to envelop the wearer in a cloud of perfume or positioned under a pyramidal fumigator made from split date palm ribs. This incense burner is also used when receiving a guest in the house in order to create a more pleasant atmosphere."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/2cefa44b-8f4f-5d0e-a3ca-4f753c76e4cd":{"contextual_description":"This carpet exemplifies a long-standing tradition in the Islamic world of sitting on the floor to share meals, engage in conversation and partake in music and dance. The *majlis*, a private social gathering space, often centre around a carpet like this, which provides a warm and inviting environment for communal activities. The practice of sitting on the floor to eat symbolises hospitality and humility, reflecting a sense of equality among guests and hosts, warmth and mutual respect."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/7549780d-ecb6-5642-a6d9-3f256120d934":{"contextual_description":"This residential winter reception chamber (*qa'a*) exemplifies the refined social traditions of the late Ottoman period. In affluent households like this one, the reception chamber was meticulously maintained, with updates made over time to reflect changing styles and trends. These reception chambers were not only spaces of luxury but also venues for expressing community, generosity and the essential tradition of gathering around meals to connect with others."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/d849ecfd-9a7a-505c-965d-a4935140820c":{"contextual_description":"This tent symbolises the act of gathering under one roof, embodying the essence of community and hospitality. Much like the traditional Persian *iwan*, which serves as a bridge between indoor and outdoor spaces, the tent provides an intimate and shaded area for people to come together; it is a deeply social and spiritual act that fosters unity and connection. The tent’s structure not only offers a space for physical shelter but also represents the symbolic shelter of coming together in harmony."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/a914a774-7382-5948-be8b-5ac874fa52a5":{"contextual_description":"The artist beautifully captures the communal act of serving and sharing food. Such imagery highlights the significance of food as a social and ceremonial practice, often associated with hospitality and celebration. The portrayal of communal dining underscores the importance of food as a connector in both courtly and everyday life, making it a central theme in this collection. This specific scene represents the social gathering of Yusuf, Zulaikha and their friends in an intimate setting."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/4fd2aa34-c599-5353-852b-d1304225a3ec":{"contextual_description":"The *Divan* illustrates an important aspect of traditional social gatherings in the Islamic world. These gatherings often involved communal entertainment such as poetry recitations, music and storytelling in a private gathering, all in a context where food and drink played a central role. The *Divan* reflects the cultural and intellectual exchanges during these gatherings, as well as the emphasis on conviviality through shared food, drink and the pleasure of company."},"2d0d49ee-aadb-57d5-a311-4e85d98f1dc1/dabc1576-d8dc-5df2-9367-64adc3a04421":{"contextual_description":"One of the scenes in this illustrated poem depicts the gathering of two lovers with cups next to them. This serene moment represents not just a romantic connection but also the spiritual act of hospitality and nourishment. Eating together in a lush, tranquil setting reflects the cultural ideals of generosity, togetherness and love, transforming food into a medium of emotional and spiritual unity, deeply rooted in the Islamic tradition of communal harmony."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/be95323f-98c6-5d71-b3cd-1dadf17ac848":{"contextual_description":"The prophet said, “The best form of charity is to give someone water“. The fountain, an element commonly found in the Islamic world, highlights the importance of sharing water. It represents a symbol of charity and civic bond. The upper section is adorned with an engraved marble panel featuring two lines of Diwani Arabic inscriptions. The inscription honours the fountain’s builders, offering gratitude for their contribution, reflecting the high regard for public service and charitable acts in Islam."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/6f6956bf-ecf4-5382-9fcd-c9a34ccd32ea":{"contextual_description":"In this case, the *sabil* is a part of the madrasa or the Qur'anic school, used to share water with the students of Islam."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/2c3a04e9-0655-5170-a239-4b2b39590ceb":{"contextual_description":"Benefactors were responsible for the creation of these fountains. Attached to each one, on a plaque of marble or shale, in Arabic or Ottoman Turkish, is an inscription extolling the merits of the benefactor."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/2ba716cc-691c-5e7e-acf8-60db1a4864c9":{"contextual_description":"This reservoir served as a central gathering point for the residents of the Umayyad citadel. This structure symbolises the vital role of water in Islam as a unifying force that brings the community together."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/14f12e6b-e185-51db-88bc-84fdf5fe3ae3":{"contextual_description":"This complex stands as a symbol of Ottoman commitment to public welfare, embodying the Islamic ideals of charity and social responsibility. Covering 22,000 square meters, this expansive complex was meticulously designed not only for worship but also as a sanctuary for learning, health and social services. Key elements include the mosque, guesthouses, a madrasa for education, a hospital for healing, an imaret (soup kitchen) dedicated to feeding the poor and essential storerooms."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/50bdfa41-b951-59c7-88ce-ff562835c4ef":{"contextual_description":"This monument is a remarkable example of Mamluk architectural and cultural priorities, specifically designed as a refuge and communal residence for Sufi mystics. With its 100 cells spread over three floors, the Khanqah offered dedicated space for personal devotion, meditation and scholarly pursuits. The Khanqah was thus both a spiritual and social space where communal meals reinforced the bonds among residents, symbolising a collective commitment to simplicity, generosity and shared purpose."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/b266b855-544b-5f00-9f3f-8a3514ed7d0c":{"contextual_description":"This imaret stands as a remarkable example of food symbolism through charitable practice in the Islamic world. Built by Sultan Murad I in honor of his mother, Nilüfer Hatun, this structure not only serves as an architectural testament to her memory but also as a charitable institution or imaret, reflecting the Islamic values of generosity and care for the poor. Imarets, common in Ottoman architecture, provided free meals to the needy and travellers, a symbolic gesture of communal support and spiritual duty."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/c187f797-39b6-5de2-8dd7-caac1f02e5a4":{"contextual_description":"The Takiyya served as a place that provided accommodation and free meals to pilgrims, emphasising Islam's commitment to hospitality and charity. This monument highlights the importance Islam places on helping the poor and needy by offering them food, which is seen as a fundamental act of generosity and compassion. The provision of food reflects the deeply ingrained value of sharing in Islamic culture, where feeding others is not only a sign of hospitality but also a way of fulfilling religious duties of charity and care for the less fortunate."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/831bb765-488e-5858-8f3d-7fc761a5bf75":{"contextual_description":"This complex reflects the profound importance of food sharing in Islamic culture. This multifunctional complex includes a large kitchen, two ovens, two bakeries, a *sabil*, a large *khan* (inn), a mosque and a Sufi *ribat* (hospice). Each day, over 1000 meals were provided to the needy and visitors, regardless of their identity or religion, a tradition that mirrors the operations of the *zawiya* (Sufi teaching centre) and the *arbita* (Sufi hospice)."},"efb15863-4613-54f9-9175-ff58c521d782/5b621859-d989-5937-a990-794975aa6e94":{"contextual_description":"This pot would collect and measure the alms given as charity by the people of Medina in Saudi Arabia. The cylindrical jar features the *basmala* or Muslim invocation and Qur'anic verses in *thuluth* and *naskh* script. This container was used to gather the alms or the money for the poor. With *zakat* (charity) as one of the pillars of Islam, wealthy Muslims are obligated to donate alms. It shows how giving to the less fortunate is a part of connecting the Islamic community by sharing money and food."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/0882dee6-ccfb-5af8-8db8-0bb52886ee7a":{"contextual_description":"In rural northeast Syria, communal feasts are essential during major celebrations. These gatherings bring families and friends together, with the ritual of slaughtering sheep to mark the occasion. The meal itself is a communal experience, with small groups sitting in a circle on the floor. This practice, rooted in the traditions of nomadic societies that began settling in the late 19th century AD, embodies the core values of food sharing in Islamic culture, reinforcing solidarity, community bonds and hospitality."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/d6b735c7-6e95-5f66-bcd2-f2e7fe9cda56":{"contextual_description":"During large festivals and big feasts, Bedouin women gather to cook vast amounts of food in open fireplaces, typically set up under tent roofs specifically raised for the occasion."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/ed6b0c0c-26e2-5fc0-936b-8ed69b438630":{"contextual_description":"Home-made traditional bread is also prepared and shared during everyday life as well as feasts."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/8921afd1-a2d5-5c87-be0d-cd522e02f137":{"contextual_description":"Home-made traditional bread is also prepared and shared during important occasions and feasts."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/7da4dc65-a4bd-5d9c-b8aa-3929e2bd3886":{"contextual_description":"These guesthouses (known as *madafa* or *oda*) were social hubs where village men would gather to discuss matters, share stories, exchange news and share a meal or a drink. Managed by a *mukhtar* (village headman) or *shaykh* (tribal leader), the guesthouse symbolised the village’s hospitality and community spirit. Though guesthouses are no longer as commonly used, they remain a symbol of the deep-rooted customs of sharing spaces in rural environments."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/41101455-d227-5a0b-bba3-dc6f4263ee71":{"contextual_description":"In these meetings in the guest house, there is an offering of bitter coffee (*qahwa murra*), a timeless gesture of hospitality in traditional Arab culture, particularly in the Levant and the Arabian Peninsula."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/15e119b2-b5e2-5222-8119-0ba478db1816":{"contextual_description":"Only very wealthy tribal leaders or village headmen could employ a coffee cook (*qahwaji*) responsible for making the bitter coffee and serving it."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/2f44cf5b-3d72-575c-990e-2240eec70d5e":{"contextual_description":"The miniature scene depicts a “servant” presenting food to his “master,” reflecting social hierarchies and hospitality customs integral to nomadic life in the Islamic world. These theatrical miniatures not only entertained but also conveyed European perspectives on Middle Eastern traditions, sometimes romanticising or exoticising these interactions. Through scenes like this, audiences were exposed to cultural elements such as food-sharing practices, adding a layer of fascination with the distant lands and rituals depicted."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/5c0eb208-892d-52bf-8981-eb3b7a79ceee":{"contextual_description":"This settlement reflects the Khawarij's unique approach to sustaining life in a nomadic landscape, balancing the need for a settled, stable source of food and water with the surrounding arid conditions. This enduring settlement highlights the symbiosis between architecture, environmental adaptation and communal life in the Islamic world, illustrating how nomadic traditions were transformed to support sustainable urban communities in the heart of the desert."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/f508e375-5e98-533b-8972-bb3f705dc10c":{"contextual_description":"In the Islamic world, coffee houses were vibrant social spaces where life’s rituals of conversation, connection and hospitality were enacted in an urban environment. This setting captures the essence of social gatherings that revolve around shared food and drink. Traditional coffee houses offered much more than refreshments: they were urban hubs of social exchange that took place in the heart of the city where men met to sip coffee, enjoy sweet or savoury dishes and smoke water pipes, known as *narghile*."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/38a78ea2-8110-59a3-87c4-ff349e9bb456":{"contextual_description":"Coffee houses are a big part of the urbanised Islamic world; this one is in Turkey."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/2df05cb9-a0f3-5d17-aefc-834f66145de0":{"contextual_description":"This shows another example of a coffee house in the Islamic world, in this case in Tunisia."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/7c7b7a6d-e715-5d7e-9e9a-7d86dfc9c176":{"contextual_description":"This illustration portrays Muslim societies transitioning from traditional Bedouin lifestyles to urbanised living. From the perspective of the French coloniser, this shift symbolises the supposed \"progress\" brought by colonisation, contrasting the communal, urban atmosphere with the simplicity of nomadic life. This visual serves as a tool to highlight colonial views on modernisation and urban development, emphasising the coloniser's role in reshaping the social and cultural dynamics of Muslim Arab communities."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/e6fa5a1d-53cf-51d2-91d1-212ef2761681":{"contextual_description":"The *khan* is an essential part of the Muslim city or *medina*. It is not only a *suq* to sell goods, but also serves as a meeting place in the city; people gather around a coffee or a meal to share a communal space inside the urban environment. The act of dining and conversing in these public spaces reflects the deep-rooted values of alimentary conviviality and community that underscore daily life in an urban environment."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/64cab3d3-b67b-5268-a781-9afa4b8ded2e":{"contextual_description":"It is said that the tradition of *suhur* has originated in the streets of Cairo in the ninth century. This practice of waking people up to have a small meal before fasting wouldn’t have been possible in a rural setting. The concept of *suhur* revolves around a shared urbanised community structure of people where the *msaharati* would walk the streets of the city to wake people up. Such a system relied on the dense population and collective organisation found in cities."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/3362c7f5-ac5c-54b5-bd56-d5e5ce5f3965":{"contextual_description":"In tribal societies, the generosity of influential tribal chiefs is often demonstrated by the preparation and serving of vast amounts of food during significant events or celebrations. Food was customarily presented on enormous trays. In contrast to the individual plate that was introduced in the urbanised areas that emphasise personal space, individualism and formalised dining habits found in urban areas, this practice symbolises equality, trust, a strong sense of community and the deep bonds of hospitality central to the Bedouin culture."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/dba57c4c-7be0-5df8-aa4d-c65f7eb762d9":{"contextual_description":"Similar to the huge tray, these big plates are used in a traditional Moroccan setting where food is shared from a common plate."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/0e738808-6526-567e-9748-f35750ab7d12":{"contextual_description":"Similar to the huge tray, these big plates are used in a traditional Moroccan setting where food is shared from a common plate."},"39cb0400-0972-5deb-b20b-7ff5ae2ab902/175f31b1-3b5d-5869-a7f0-f1f05d945f5f":{"contextual_description":"Similar to the huge tray, these big plates are used in a traditional Tunisian setting where food is shared from a common plate."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/16a6a794-ab02-5a4c-9db3-a9eb9782f96a":{"contextual_description":"The Qur’an states in verses 2:173, 6:118, and 6:138 that the name of Allah must be mentioned when slaughtering an animal, otherwise the meat is not considered halal for a Muslim. This painting is directly related to this Islamic rule, as the sheikh is instructing his disciples to refrain from accepting meat that they do not know."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/b9daf58e-16ac-5088-b7e9-67acaab30653":{"contextual_description":"As stated in *hadith* sources such as Tirmizi, Bukhari, Abu Dawud, Ibn Hajar, and Ibn Hanbal, the Prophet Muhammad placed significant emphasis on the importance of offering food, sharing meals, and treating guests with hospitality. In this picture the Prophet Abraham requests that an old pagan priest convert to Islam so that he may offer him a meal. However, a voice from the heavens indicates that it is not appropriate to send an old man away from the table hungry. This illustrates the significance of sharing food in Islam regardless of religious affiliation."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/a2acbe5a-dea0-5b8b-baa6-87cb50639c59":{"contextual_description":"There are multiple verses in the Qur’an that advise avoidance of alcohol. For instance, Surah Maide (5:90) prohibits Muslims from consuming alcohol. However, it should be noted that not all Muslims adhere to this prohibition, and alcohol consumption is prevalent among Muslims. This work reflects the prohibition and shows that Islamic dietary rules are not always strictly followed."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/5559fbd7-7df9-55ef-a606-12f56fdd83eb":{"contextual_description":"The bowl, inscribed with the Surahs *Ikhlas* and *Felak*, may have been used in the hope of achieving healing and protection through the power of the verses inscribed upon it. It is considered an important artefact for the exhibition, as it exemplifies the interconnection between religion and food."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/d858959f-9536-50f5-af64-f0a9649bdae7":{"contextual_description":"The consumption of food and drink from bowls containing verses from the Qur’an, the most beautiful names of Allah, or religious and talismanic phrases, was believed to counter the effects of poisons, fevers, and other physical ailments. This practice is closely linked to religion, medicine, and astrology."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/0f8d91fb-4152-51d9-98fb-b66e5905239e":{"contextual_description":"The consumption of food and drink from bowls containing verses from the Qur’an, the most beautiful names of Allah, or religious and talismanic phrases, was believed to counter the effects of poisons, fevers, and other physical ailments. This practice is closely linked to religion, medicine, and astrology."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/83be1bdb-f290-5d2c-90d7-4ed2a73f1931":{"contextual_description":"The practice of washing one’s hands before and after eating is a Sunnah, or tradition, of Prophet Muhammad, as evidenced by sources such as Muslim, Bukhari, and Tirmizi. This meticulously crafted and refined item is linked to that *hadith*."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/7f2ea672-bcf2-547d-9d65-380dd6b7efa1":{"contextual_description":"The practice of washing one’s hands before and after eating is a Sunnah, or tradition, of Prophet Muhammad, as evidenced by sources such as Muslim, Bukhari, and Tirmizi. This meticulously crafted and refined item is linked to that *hadith*."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/aa909809-8909-59a0-93b9-734f8fbbac08":{"contextual_description":"The practice of washing one’s hands before and after eating is a Sunnah, or tradition, of Prophet Muhammad, as evidenced by sources such as Muslim, Bukhari, and Tirmizi. This meticulously crafted and refined item is linked to that *hadith*."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/423edaa9-5903-51ec-8463-bb8b8f296ac0":{"contextual_description":"The ablution basin was likely used for ritual washing (*wudu*) before prayers, showing the importance of being clean before engaging in spiritual activities."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/561aaeb9-370b-5fcf-a378-3e28beb72013":{"contextual_description":"The ablution basin was likely used for ritual washing (*wudu*) before prayers, showing the importance of being clean before engaging in spiritual activities."},"88243574-b43d-52e0-96f3-587fec892cd3/2805a862-fb2f-55c0-9272-3feb730b27a4":{"contextual_description":"The practice of washing one’s hands before and after eating is a Sunnah, or tradition, of Prophet Muhammad, as evidenced by sources such as Muslim, Bukhari, and Tirmizi. This meticulously crafted and refined item is linked to that *hadith*."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/b0390abf-d5ce-5ed9-9e66-6a9cfea0f213":{"contextual_description":"Coffee is important in hospitality in Turkish and Islamic cultures, especially during holidays, when families come together, and guests are served traditional drinks."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/0098ca2c-0414-5332-acb0-92b8d05b9879":{"contextual_description":"In the Islamic culture of the Middle East, offering coffee to visitors during Eids is a significant tradition that has endured for centuries. This item represents that tradition."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/2c6b0046-5dbe-5078-b0a4-738eacbaf769":{"contextual_description":"In the Islamic culture of the Middle East, offering coffee to visitors during Eids is a significant tradition that has endured for centuries. This pot is a tool used in the making of Arabic coffee."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/b46064e5-a3af-56fb-a87f-2e7ed5226346":{"contextual_description":"In the Islamic culture of the Middle East, offering coffee to visitors during Eids is a significant tradition that has endured for centuries. This pot is a tool used in the making of Arabic coffee."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/d4c6e284-7c94-52c4-a531-a092524100d3":{"contextual_description":"The item is part of coffee culture. Turkish coffee is a symbol of hospitality that conveys respect and welcome. Ornate serving items, such as cup stands, reflect the care shown to the valued guest."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/872b3206-60ff-5b21-b815-4553f5c0fe04":{"contextual_description":"The item is part of coffee culture. Turkish coffee is a symbol of hospitality that conveys respect and welcome. Ornate serving items, such as cup stands, reflect the care shown to the valued guest."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/fac44107-0b95-5e6a-b3f5-79ab69381b3a":{"contextual_description":"In the Islamic culture of the Middle East, offering coffee to visitors during Eids is a significant tradition that has endured for centuries. These traditional coffee coolers were used after the coffee was roasted. This item is also an important artefact of the preparation phase."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/a6930b97-f3d0-5d19-8d5d-d0b276d12aa8":{"contextual_description":"Coffee is important for hospitality in Turkish and Islamic culture, especially during holidays such as festivals, when families come together and guests are served traditional drinks. The pot’s beautiful design highlights its use in these special preparations, connecting it to the theme of religious celebrations and hospitality."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/5b621859-d989-5937-a990-794975aa6e94":{"contextual_description":"This bronze pot, used for collecting alms, belongs to the theme of religious celebrations and rituals of giving. During these festivals, the act of *zakat*, a core pillar of Islam, reflects the spirit of community, purification, and blessings, in which the wealthy share their surplus with those in need."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/b58b9ba6-7874-5115-9f35-baa40993e1a3":{"contextual_description":"*Hag al Layla*, celebrated in the UAE and other GCC countries on the 15th of Sha’ban, symbolises the welcome of the holy month of Ramadan. During the celebrations children visit neighbours and are offered sweets. A similar tradition is observed in Türkiye on a similar holiday. Its purpose is to delight children with sweets and to strengthen the bonds of neighbourliness and community through sharing food."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/1dd09e77-6661-5148-a52b-36cd1eade1f0":{"contextual_description":"The tradition of offering sweets to guests during festivals is common in Türkiye and reflects hospitality and celebration. This item highlights that tradition, evidence of the respect held for guests and the joy of sharing during festivals."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/a00dd24d-c31a-59f8-86ad-84c4e7b54e32":{"contextual_description":"The tradition of offering sweets to guests during festivals is common in Türkiye and reflects hospitality and celebration. This item highlights that tradition, evidence of the respect held for guests and the joy of sharing during festivals."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/3a415d0b-a38e-5ff7-919f-581cbea4734d":{"contextual_description":"The *Karagöz* and *Hacivat* shadow play has been a key feature of Ottoman and Turkish traditional entertainment, especially during religious festivals such as Ramadan. Performed by a single artist, this form of shadow play represents the diversity of Ottoman society and serves as a reflection of its multi-ethnic makeup. Its inclusion under the “Religious Festivals, Preparation, and Dishes” theme highlights its cultural significance as a form of storytelling and entertainment during occasions that foster communal gatherings and celebration."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/64cab3d3-b67b-5268-a781-9afa4b8ded2e":{"contextual_description":"In the Middle East the tradition of beating drums during Ramadan has been observed for centuries to wake people in order to eat (*suhur*) before sunrise. This item derives from that tradition."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/545766fe-6195-531e-8a40-c326e590c54d":{"contextual_description":"This mosque is especially important during religious festivals, as visiting mosques for prayer and reflection is a key tradition in Islamic culture. It is a historically significant gathering place for worship during major Islamic holidays like Eid and Ramadan, reflecting the theme of preparation for religious observance."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/310908c8-4ce4-543c-8dbf-e8a19d62860e":{"contextual_description":"On the tenth day of the month of Muharram in Türkiye, both Sunni and Alevi-Bektashi Muslims engage in the preparation and sharing of *ashura* (also known as Noah’s Pudding), a ritual dish believed to symbolise prosperity. The black cauldron, which represents the ritual of making *ashura*, occupies a particularly significant position within Bektashi culture."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/0e23a47f-83af-5545-b439-590b0ef79a78":{"contextual_description":"In Islamic culture, rose water is served to guests, particularly in Türkiye, on occasions such as the anniversary of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (Mevlid) and religious holidays. Consequently, rose water bottles, which are crafted in accordance with the social status of the owner and are intended to impress guests, hold a significant position in Islamic culture."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/a57e03f3-204f-5be8-a463-08468e71076b":{"contextual_description":"In Islamic culture, rose water is served to guests, particularly in Türkiye, on occasions such as the anniversary of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (Mevlid) and religious holidays. Consequently, rose water bottles, which are crafted in accordance with the social status of the owner and are intended to impress guests, hold a significant position in Islamic culture."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/7e6d0055-c883-5dea-b0cb-f43d608a1fd5":{"contextual_description":"In Islamic culture, rosewater is served to guests, particularly in Türkiye, on occasions such as the anniversary of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (Mevlid) and religious holidays. Consequently, rosewater bottles, which are crafted in accordance with the social status of the owner and are intended to impress guests, hold a significant position in Islamic culture."},"d8c7a0b9-0782-5614-b08e-7125add26515/f6e9c5ec-cb43-5c33-a4bb-88560b16e19c":{"contextual_description":"In Islamic culture, rose water is served to guests, particularly in Turkey, on occasions such as the anniversary of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (Mevlid) and religious holidays. Consequently, rose water bottles, which are crafted in accordance with the social status of the owner and are intended to impress guests, hold a significant position in Islamic culture."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/2c72b797-7c64-54f8-8f0e-29214eb188d2":{"contextual_description":"Similar to the Mevlevi Order, the kitchen serves as the primary location for evaluating the suitability of individuals seeking to become Bektashi disciples and for training accepted disciples."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/41ddd5ec-fdc3-5197-81ab-7a810f51aa65":{"contextual_description":"Similar to the Mevlevi Order, the kitchen serves as the primary location for evaluating the suitability of individuals seeking to become Bektashi disciples and for training accepted disciples. This image depicts a Bektashi table."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/4b21c38b-0c0e-5462-a035-ab560c3cf6ed":{"contextual_description":"The “Sufi Assembly” miniature, created in the early AH 11th / 17th century, depicts a nocturnal gathering of dervishes. The scene, enriched with Persian verses, reflects key Sufi themes of spiritual renunciation and introspection. Through its serene imagery and calligraphy, the work conveys the Sufi path of inner purification and the search for deeper truths."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/3cdc55e5-2c49-59ec-97e0-42f61639df89":{"contextual_description":"The kitchen serves as the primary location for evaluating the suitability of individuals seeking to become Mevlevi disciples and for training accepted disciples. The reproduction in Konya, home of Mevlevism, currently known as the Konya Mevlana Museum, illustrates Mevlevi training and table culture. Those who wish to join the order must spend the first few days observing in the kitchen, in the *saka postu* shown in the picture."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/6eeab8bf-b412-5c6a-ab65-b67fce73cc00":{"contextual_description":"The kitchen serves as the primary location for evaluating the suitability of individuals seeking to become Mevlevi disciples and for training accepted disciples. The reproduction in Konya, home of Mevlevism, currently known as the Konya Mevlana Museum, illustrates Mevlevi training and table culture."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/a1c8e013-d33a-5106-963c-09fba0902d22":{"contextual_description":"The kitchen serves as the primary location for evaluating the suitability of individuals seeking to become Mevlevi disciples and for training accepted disciples. The reproduction in Konya, home of Mevlevism, currently known as the Konya Mevlana Museum, illustrates Mevlevi training and table culture.  \n  \nAt the time of the Mevlana, Ateşbaz-ı Veli was responsible for the education of those who were to enter the Order. As a tribute to his memory, the small area in front of the Mevlevi hearths was named Ateşbaz-ı Veli Makamı."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/4ea91904-531f-576b-a647-6ea6c2903949":{"contextual_description":"The kitchen serves as the primary location for evaluating the suitability of individuals seeking to become Mevlevi disciples and for training accepted disciples. The reproduction in Konya, home of Mevlevism, currently known as the Konya Mevlana Museum, illustrates Mevlevi training and table culture. This image depicts a Mevlevi table."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/e46f25e2-d358-583b-816a-8d888be82943":{"contextual_description":"It is a common tradition among members of the Mevlevi order to use items bearing the Mevlevi headdress motif, including kitchen utensils. Prior to Mevlevi rituals, coffee, serving as a mental stimulant, was consumed. This coffee box comes from that cultural tradition."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/27da45d2-f7cb-5c80-bd60-5401d209f16b":{"contextual_description":"Similar to the Mevlevi Order, It is a common tradition among members of the Bektashi order to use items bearing the Bektashi headdress motif, including kitchen utensils. Prior to Bektashi rituals, coffee, serving as a mental stimulant, was consumed. This coffee box comes from that cultural tradition."},"cacd508c-ac3e-57b1-bbbe-26babcbf2131/a515fccf-2e65-5c28-bf84-ec2e5e0f64a2":{"contextual_description":"It is a common tradition among members of the Mevlevi order to use items bearing the Mevlevi headdress motif, including kitchen utensils. This highly decorated spoon is an example."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/8b9b2b66-3613-559e-97e6-8f6d49c2f8d3":{"contextual_description":"The archaeological site of Tall Abu Sarbut in the Jordan Valley reveals the intricate relationship among agriculture, economy, and environment during the Mamluk period (AH 648–923 / AD 1250–1517). As a key storage and distribution centre, the site played a pivotal role in the regional sugar industry, which relied on the fertile lands of the valley for sugarcane cultivation. This was one of several sites associated with sugar production in the Levant, renowned for the superior quality of its sugar, which drove significant demand from European markets."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/231eec88-eb2f-56e9-a820-48ed98ce7ee7":{"contextual_description":"The foggaras are an ingenious water distribution and irrigation system developed in the arid Saharan regions, notably in Gourara and Touat. Dating back to ancient times, they exemplify human creativity in overcoming harsh environmental challenges. By drilling tunnels at mountain bases to access underground water reservoirs, the foggaras channel water to the surface, sustaining agriculture in oases. The comb-like distribution structures ensure efficient water use, sustaining food production in extreme conditions."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/cd3bad9f-ec86-5f1d-8a4b-5d16c80d40e8":{"contextual_description":"This dagger belonged to Imam Saif bin Sultan (r. AH 1104–23 / AD 1692–1711), a ruler from the Yaruba dynasty in Oman. During his reign he made significant contributions to Oman’s political, cultural, and economic development. He improved water use with *aflaj* systems, expanded the cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, and sugarcane, and planted date palms and fruit trees. He also introduced new plants such as turmeric, saffron, and coffee, and promoted beekeeping to support agriculture."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/bc5ae2a9-e088-5eba-8ee2-d1a8327dbba9":{"contextual_description":"Sultan Mulay Isma‘il (r. AH 1083–1140 / AD 1672–1727) ensured a reliable water supply not only for the residents of the kasbah and public baths, but also for the lush gardens and orchards surrounding the town, which provided fresh fruits and vegetables daily. To achieve this he commissioned the construction of an artificial lake.  \nThe lake was fed by a sophisticated water management system: ten wells, dug near the Sahrij below the silo, channeled water into the lake through *norias* and a network of ceramic conduits. Additionally, fresh water from the Wadi Bufekrane supplemented this supply."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/47ef7084-b735-5fd3-b3a1-84fd153447e7":{"contextual_description":"*Norias* stand as a testament to remarkable engineering. While their origins date back to ancient times, the medieval period witnessed a notable increase in references to them in Islamic geographical writings, highlighting their improved designs and widespread adoption.  \nDesigned to lift water into aqueducts, *norias* played a crucial role in irrigation and the supply of potable water. Constructed primarily from poplar wood and supported by stone aqueducts and dams, they required regular maintenance to function effectively. At their peak, the city of Hama featured up to fifty *norias*."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/a5524031-b360-516a-94b9-64b5c0da70d0":{"contextual_description":"The development of irrigation and hydraulic systems in Al-Andalus enabled the introduction of new plant species, the expansion of arable land and a more diverse diet. It changed working methods, the agricultural cycle and the landscape.  \n  \nWaterwheels spread throughout the Iberian Peninsula. The buckets, attached by ropes at the mouth and halfway up their cylindrical body, show small technical advances: the oldest ones, with an annular or pointed bottom, gradually gave way to others with perforated bottoms that prevented their tilting and breaking while also preventing the wheel moving backwards."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/2c2b77d7-645d-58ec-ae96-f9e162b7e40e":{"contextual_description":"The prosperity of a society is deeply intertwined with effective management of essential resources like food and water. During the Abbasid era innovative engineering solutions were developed to ensure sustainable water management.  \nA remarkable example of this achievement can be found in Kairouan, where the Aghlabids, in AH 248 / AD 862, constructed a series of water reservoirs to collect rainwater from nearby valleys. They were designed not only to gather and store water, but also to purify it and distribute it freely to the city’s inhabitants, to herdsmen in the surrounding areas, and to passing caravans."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/76f91978-1dd9-516a-9684-d213a6c8617f":{"contextual_description":"A more modest yet highly effective method for acquiring water for irrigation was the use of *shadoofs*. This simple device consisted of a weighted mechanism that allowed water to be drawn from wells and efficiently poured over fields. Typically constructed with a wooden pole balanced on a pivot point, the *shadoof* used a counterweight to make lifting water easier, thereby reducing the physical strain on the user.  \nDating back to ancient times, the *shadoof* proved to be a practical solution for small-scale irrigation where larger or more complex systems, such as *norias* or aqueducts, were not feasible."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/54b7f0e6-62da-5705-8338-38899880db76":{"contextual_description":"This map highlights the intricate water supply system that sustained the Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul. Fed by natural springs, the waterway supported urban life and agriculture in surrounding areas. It reflects the careful balance between human activity and nature, showcasing how Ottoman engineers strategically optimised water distribution. The depiction of distribution centres, aqueducts, and water sources offers insights into Istanbul’s historical agricultural practices, water management, and urban development."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/06a03ccc-4b5c-5969-a53e-8ce5c8584c3c":{"contextual_description":"The Nilometer on Roda Island, Cairo, was a vital tool for measuring the annual rise of the Nile, enabling rulers to levy taxes on agricultural production. It functioned by channeling river water into a central well through tunnels, where a pillar marked the water level in cubits. These measurements determined the extent of flooding and predicted the fertility of farmlands. By linking natural cycles to economic planning, the Nilometer exemplified the balance among nature, agriculture, and the social and economic life of Egyptian society."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/951f1281-dbbc-5f98-a3cf-014f5370daa4":{"contextual_description":"A serene mid-12th / 18th century Egyptian village scene features a modest food stall, locals dining on the ground, and bundles of sugarcane awaiting sale. Historically Egypt was a significant sugar exporter. However, following the Age of Discovery, sugar production shifted to the Americas, notably Brazil and the Caribbean, where plantation systems flourished. In the 14th / 19th century, the rise of sugar beet cultivation in Europe further transformed the industry, reducing reliance on sugarcane imports and diversifying global sugar production."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/b67b8afb-d999-5d2d-be6e-8576ed419507":{"contextual_description":"Nature has always inspired people, often being a source of decorative motifs that carry symbolic meanings. In the kitchens of Muslim societies olive oil, sesame oil, and animal fats were the primary cooking oils, but poppy seeds and their oil also played a role. In this carpet, poppy blossoms have been beautifully incorporated into the decoration, reflecting the deep connection between nature and artistic expression."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/5d40138c-fd15-579f-ac94-17b5f20bf432":{"contextual_description":"Islamic scholars extensively studied zodiac signs and seasons, integrating this knowledge into agriculture, medicine, and environmental awareness. Figures like Al-Biruni, Al-Kindi, and Abu Ma‘shar examined celestial movements to understand seasonal changes, and offered guidance on optimal planting and harvesting times. Physicians such as Ibn Sina and Ali ibn Ridwan linked health to these cycles, advising dietary adjustments based on zodiac influences, fostering an understanding of harmony between celestial rhythms and life on earth."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/cd8fba2d-228b-5186-8b0b-7de20568f2fa":{"contextual_description":"Building on medicinal practices rooted in ancient Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions, practitioners from the Islamic world made significant contributions to medicine. This prescription, attributed to Shams al-Din ibn al-'Afif—a renowned physician during the reign of Mamluk Sultan al-Ashraf Barsbay (AH 825–841 / 1422–1437 CE)—demonstrates the sophisticated use of both wild and cultivated ingredients in treating celiac disease.  \nThe recipe includes wild elements like wormwood, clover dodder seeds, and bearberry, alongside cultivated staples such as almonds, fennel, and celery."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/ef4f21d7-33af-5ff7-996d-5ccaaea3b716":{"contextual_description":"Dioscorides’ treatise *De Materia Medica* profoundly influenced medical scholarship and practice until the AH 10th / AD 16th century. A renowned AH 7th / 13th century Arabic translation, *Khawass al-Ashjar*, was widely copied and distributed. This work details the preparation of medicines derived from around 500–600 plants, animals including fish and shellfish, and minerals, illustrating the intricate balance between nature and human health. It reflects a deep understanding of the interdependence between humans and their environment."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/700800b6-2c10-5e24-a705-237a31c62d25":{"contextual_description":"Guided by halal principles, hunting provided access to wild game such as gazelle, hare, and partridge, enriching the culinary diversity of the Islamic world. Medieval Islamic cookbooks often featured recipes for these meats, which were prepared with fragrant spices and herbs. This reflects a balance between sustenance, ethical practices, and an appreciation for nature’s bounty."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/1fac7c01-da10-5444-a33f-3a12dd628c73":{"contextual_description":"Hunting, a favoured sport among nobles, also became a popular theme in Islamic art, often depicted on ceramics, textiles, and in manuscripts. Beyond its recreational and symbolic significance, hunting held practical value, providing a source of sustenance. Islamic scholars engaged in detailed discussions about which game meats were permissible to eat, emphasising that animals must be hunted and killed in accordance with halal principles, reflecting a careful balance between ethics, law, and sustenance."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/7f8b6fac-6b30-5824-a2bf-23e038993079":{"contextual_description":"Fishing played a vital role in Islamic cuisine, offering a sustainable source of protein from rivers, lakes, and seas. As Islamic dietary laws allowed fish without the need for ritual slaughter, it became a convenient and adaptable food choice wherever it was accessible. Medieval Islamic cookbooks feature recipes for both fresh and preserved fish, often enhanced with spices, vinegar, and herbs, showcasing the diverse regional flavours of the Islamic world."},"c409179d-f3e3-5b3c-b6d6-f525504051a8/435ec2dc-c536-5285-95d0-64a5f0525288":{"contextual_description":"These tools are known as *baraka* (blessing) or *barkati* nails, crafted from iron and adorned with intricate inscriptions. Originating in Oman, these nails were believed to possess talismanic qualities, offering protection to property and vehicles. In constructing dhows (traditional boats), these blessed nails were hammered into the wood to provide not only structural support but also spiritual protection, ensuring a successful and safe fishing campaign."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/6595ce09-c85c-57fb-a741-2162e6cda6e3":{"contextual_description":"Markets have always been central to the exchange of agricultural and animal products, serving as vibrant hubs that connected diverse regions and communities. They not only facilitated trade, but also ensured the distribution of food across vast geographies, making goods available far from their points of origin. To sustain this network, preserving food was essential. Techniques such as salting, drying, fermenting, and the use of natural preservatives like vinegar or honey were developed, enabling perishable items to endure long journeys."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/a8a9fcd5-e67b-57bc-ab55-6eab7fbcee31":{"contextual_description":"The *Suq al-Hamidiyya*, built between AH 1303 / AD 1886 and AH 1304 / AD 1894, is the largest and most famous *suq* in Damascus, connecting the Umayyad Mosque and the Citadel. Its western section incorporates earlier structures, while the eastern part was newly built, cutting through existing buildings. Spanning 450 metres, its scale and design reflect modern principles. A vital hub for food trade, it supports the storage of fresh and preserved goods while showcasing traditional techniques. A *suq* is an integral part of culinary and cultural identity."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/5e7bf690-a47b-57aa-a614-7e49f5a1e1ad":{"contextual_description":"This type of imposing jar, known as a *khabiya*, was an essential fixture of daily life, crafted to protect vital resources like semolina, a cornerstone of Maghrebian cuisine. Milled durum wheat, semolina is central to the preparation of couscous, a dish deeply woven into the region’s culinary traditions. The *khabiya*, with its sturdy form and protective qualities, acted as a guardian, shielding semolina from pests and humidity to ensure its enduring availability."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/d25ef76d-6748-503e-965e-19925e08932f":{"contextual_description":"Drawing inspiration from the *khabiya*, a large jar designed for preserving food, *qolla* jars were indispensable in daily life, storing water, oil, and even certain foods. Crafted from porous clay, these vessels harnessed the natural process of evaporation to keep water refreshingly cool in arid climates. With their rounded forms and simple decorations, *qolla* jars preserve life’s most vital resource."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/0836e8b3-1e92-5490-be47-cb23a333e295":{"contextual_description":"The *segaa*, a traditional milk churn crafted from animal skin, represents an enduring method of transforming milk into *laban* (buttermilk). Across various geographies, similar animal skin vessels have been used for churning in dairy preservation. Flexible and durable, these churns allowed milk to be shaken or swung, separating butter from buttermilk. This process transformed perishable milk into vital food staples."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/3f2ac5c9-588a-5205-afb0-f263c732d37a":{"contextual_description":"The *jobbana*, rooted in the Arabic word *jben* (cheese), embodies Morocco’s enduring relationship with dairy preservation. This lidded jar played a vital role in curdling milk, transforming it into cheese, a practical way to extend its shelf life in the absence of refrigeration. It also safeguarded butter, protecting this essential ingredient from spoilage."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/97aa6011-23a6-5018-bb64-f830c2765b2e":{"contextual_description":"Techniques like curing in brine or dry-curing with salt and spices, often accompanied by smoking, were widely used to preserve perishable foods. Butter and meat were typically stored in large earthenware containers like this tall pottery jar with a flat base and four short handles. Its design suggests it was intended for short-distance transport, underscoring its practical function in daily life."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/b4096f8c-d608-5d20-88b1-7d4ac6fe3913":{"contextual_description":"Faience potters primarily crafted functional objects for everyday use. This pot was likely intended for storing fat or yeast, a key ingredient in bread-making. Yeast, a microorganism essential for fermentation, causes dough to rise by producing carbon dioxide, giving bread its light texture and distinctive flavour. Unlike similar stock pots, however, this example is notable for lacking two typical handles, which may suggest a unique purpose or design adaptation."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/8921afd1-a2d5-5c87-be0d-cd522e02f137":{"contextual_description":"Thicker flatbreads, 1–2 cm thick, are baked in clay ovens called *tannurs*. These ovens are crafted from clay mixed with goat hair and chaff, then fired for durability. *Tannurs* are used to bake both leavened bread, such as *khubz tannur*, made with yeast for a soft, airy texture, and unleavened bread, prepared quickly without fermentation, resulting in a denser consistency. This versatility highlights the diverse bread-making techniques tied to cultural and culinary traditions."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/bd683d8a-6b6a-5e00-9d2c-d9463e197ad6":{"contextual_description":"Salting and drying were essential methods of preservation for fish and meat. Sardines (*al-ooma*), for example, were often dried and ground into a fine powder to be eaten with rice. Additionally, they served as fertiliser and livestock fodder, evidence of their versatility in culinary and agricultural practices."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/0bcdebe9-b84e-5694-8197-9a09174b5ddc":{"contextual_description":"Some techniques can be considered inventions rather than mere preservation methods. *Qamr ad-Din*, a sun-dried apricot paste, is one such example.  \nThe apricot paste is spread onto wooden boards in the final stage of production. Left to dry under the sun for several days, the paste is ready when it can be peeled off in long, dark orange strips. These strips are then folded and taken to workshops for the second phase of preparing *Qamr ad-Din*: the dough is cleaned, cut, and packaged for the local market or export."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/e0a13327-f234-5960-9521-36db9df9c2f2":{"contextual_description":"In the production of *Qamr ad-Din*, a sun-dried apricot paste, *klabi* apricots from the Damascus oasis are used. These apricots ripen quickly and fall to the ground as soon as they are mature. This necessitates careful daily collection to ensure the fruit is promptly incorporated into the production process."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/56729493-bece-56ed-b42b-56951aceb485":{"contextual_description":"After being weighed, sorted, and washed, the apricots are treated with sulphur vapour. This process purifies and sterilises the fruit, ensuring better preservation of *Qamr ad-Din*."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/c18b30d9-cb15-56ff-ae80-f13688dc7a0e":{"contextual_description":"Traditionally, only a small amount of sugar was added to the dough. However, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, sugar began to be replaced with inexpensive glucose. Alongside sulphur treatment of the fruit, adding glucose improved preservation, making the product longer-lasting. It also produced a softer, more visually appealing paste. Over time, manufacturers gradually increased the proportion of glucose, though this came at the expense of the dough’s quality."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/217eaf31-08bf-55bc-83e3-2eb32cac93ea":{"contextual_description":"*Qamr ad-Din*, the apricot paste, can be consumed in two ways. It can be eaten raw, cut into small pieces, or prepared as a syrup, especially during Ramadan, by soaking it in water for several hours, straining, and cooling. Orange blossom or rose water is sometimes added for extra aroma. Traditionally served thick and cold, the syrup is considered an excellent energy source after a day of fasting. Some Damascenes enhance its taste further with pine nuts and ice cubes."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/d69304b7-fff5-53fd-be45-795112ba3e51":{"contextual_description":"One of the key features of Andalusian dwellings was the large earthenware vat placed in courtyards or interior rooms. These vats were used to hold oil, cereals, or water, or to store household objects.  \nThis particular vat was used to hold water. The porous nature of its unglazed clay naturally filtered and cooled the water, keeping it clean and fresh. Some vats also had aesthetic value, evident in their stamped decorations or glazing. Epigraphic motifs were often included, invoking protection of their contents."},"ee52ce40-15e6-5226-940a-be419a8f8606/fc02ecdb-689c-509d-96c1-73d4f70fdd9f":{"contextual_description":"This greyish earthenware fragment, featuring openwork at its centre, comes from a jug with a strainer. Positioned at the junction of the neck and shoulder, the slightly convex strainer filtered liquids, protecting them from insects and pollution. Its design, inscribed within a circle, depicts a gazelle-like quadruped set against a filigree background of rhombs, with incised outlines and a plain body.  \nStrainers like this, dated between the AH 2nd / AD 8th and AH 9th / AD 15th centuries, reached their peak during the Fatimid period, showcasing intricate patterns of animals such as elephants, lions, hares, birds, or fish."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/fe6faf7a-06ba-558b-9f4c-707ec582b939":{"contextual_description":"Defining time has always been essential for humanity, serving two key purposes: agricultural activities and religious rituals. The cycles of two celestial bodies—the sun and the moon—form the foundation of this understanding. This calendar exemplifies the integration of these two systems."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/adf29b71-2134-5e1e-9a4d-f53704a0c96c":{"contextual_description":"Al-Qazwini presents seasonal changes as integral to the divine order, marked by celestial movements that symbolise renewal and balance. These transitions are closely tied to lifecycles on earth, shaping agricultural activities that sustain existence. Seasons further reflect divine harmony, connecting nature with spirituality."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/440112ae-3db2-545b-b702-ceb261b78712":{"contextual_description":"Spring, the season of renewal, holds great significance in Islamic culture, symbolising the awakening of nature and abundance. In many regions, *Nowruz* and the spring equinox mark this transition, celebrated with rituals and feasts. Traditional dishes feature fresh herbs, grains, fruits, and nuts, reflecting the harmony between food and nature’s cycles. These culinary customs emphasise themes of growth, unity, and gratitude for divine blessings, highlighting the deep connection between sustenance, spirituality, and the rhythms of the natural world."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/d89fb1c9-3146-5de8-99a2-57b951cadfec":{"contextual_description":"A plate with seven compartments is closely tied to the *Nowruz* celebration, where it’s used to display the *Haft-Sin*. Each compartment holds one of seven symbolic items, traditionally starting with the Persian letter “S” and representing themes like renewal, health, love, and abundance. This ceremonial arrangement is placed on a festive table, uniting loved ones in welcoming spring and the promise of new beginnings."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/ac8f4c2f-5009-59ca-aac4-070a3f89d320":{"contextual_description":"With the end of spring rains in the Middle East and North Africa the time comes to collect *Kama’ Al Sahra’* (desert truffles, *tirmania nivea*), prized subterranean fungi. They are cherished for their earthy flavour and versatility in traditional dishes. Roasted, stewed with meat, or added to soups, they enrich the region’s culinary heritage. Celebrated for their nutritional and medicinal value, these truffles reflect the ingenuity of desert cultures in transforming nature’s rare gifts into nourishing delicacies."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/3741413d-33e8-5f1d-b41f-d9e5edb46ae0":{"contextual_description":"*Al Hammath* (*rumex vesicarius*), native to the desert regions of the Middle East, has long been cherished for its culinary and medicinal uses. Collected in early spring after the annual rains, its tangy leaves are traditionally enjoyed with white rice and dried fish. Renowned for its therapeutic properties, *Al Hammath* has also been used as a natural pain reliever."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/6e31b6a5-0ef9-5e16-a4e7-587236b9e55f":{"contextual_description":"*Dibs*, or date molasses, is a sweet, thick syrup made from ripe dates, traditionally produced during the late summer and early autumn harvest. In *medbasa* rooms, dates were stacked in palm leaf bags on grooved floors, where their natural weight pressed out the juice, which drained into pots for collection. A staple of Middle Eastern cuisine, *dibs* enriches both sweet and savoury dishes, offering deep flavour and nutritional value."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/40b7b3d6-110f-53bd-b7ba-f21a2daa4ddd":{"contextual_description":"The Islamic New Year, the Hijri New Year, marks the beginning of the lunar calendar and commemorates Prophet Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina. Since the lunar calendar is approximately eleven days shorter than the solar calendar, the date shifts each year. Many Muslims observe this day with prayer, reflection, and acts of charity. In Nabeul (Tunisia), children receive a special bowl filled with couscous, dried fruit, dates, a hard-boiled egg, and sweets, all arranged around a moulded and coloured sugar figurine of an animal (such as a rooster or a gazelle) or a figure, like a cavalier."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/310908c8-4ce4-543c-8dbf-e8a19d62860e":{"contextual_description":"The Black Cauldron, forged from six copper plates and adorned with four handles, once simmered *aşure*, a dessert prepared on the 10th of Muharram by Alevi-Bektashis to honour the martyrdom of Hz. Hussein and his kin at Karbala. Across Turkiye and the Balkans, Sunni Muslims also prepare *aşure* during Muharram, marking the Islamic New Year with a dish rooted in legend. Believed to originate from the remnants of provisions on Noah’s Ark, *aşure* symbolises remembrance, unity, and generosity, weaving spiritual devotion into culinary tradition."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/5c3c61e4-ffbb-5c1a-b5dd-4d3a7634b724":{"contextual_description":"From antiquity, the fleeting fragrance of roses has mesmerised our senses, weaving into Persian and Western Asian cuisines a hint of refinement. Revered in Islamic tradition, rose water symbolises purity, enriching sweets and drinks across the Middle East. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) preserved its ephemeral essence through steam distillation, transforming a momentary delight into a lasting treasure. For centuries it has united communities at feasts and gatherings, bridging faith and culinary art."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/ed80b77c-602e-5a8d-b638-f78573537b9e":{"contextual_description":"Safavid gardens embodied both beauty and abundance, reflecting the harmony of art, nature, and seasonal cycles. They mirrored the fruits, flowers, and herbs harvested throughout the year. Persian cuisine, rooted in this connection, celebrated vibrant flavours and colours through fresh, seasonal ingredients inspired by these gardens."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/737fbf60-e133-56f5-8570-63d02e30232b":{"contextual_description":"The almond trees in bloom create a breathtaking landscape, symbolising spring’s arrival and the renewal it brings. Almonds, along with ingredients like citrus, artichokes, and eggplants, were introduced to Southern Europe by the Arabs. These additions deeply influenced local cuisines, enriching their flavours and traditions."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/4d0d981d-349f-52f4-a2ab-5d1459e0ec83":{"contextual_description":"Ramadan is a time of deep spiritual reflection and heightened empathy marked by fasting from dawn to sunset. At *iftar*, the fast is broken with a variety of flavourful dishes that reflect rich culinary traditions. Yet Ramadan is about more than fasting and feasting—it is a period of sharing and community care. *Zakat al-Fitr*, an obligatory alms offering, is given by those who can afford it to ensure that the less fortunate can partake in the joy of Eid. Traditionally measured in staple foods such as wheat, barley, or rice, or their monetary equivalent, it fosters solidarity and supports those in need."},"1089dcf7-ccf9-5327-a627-5d187eeff616/640111f8-9215-589d-ae57-9b6b14c72da7":{"contextual_description":"The \"Age of Discovery\" changed the perception of the planet we live on, but more significantly changed farming forever. Seasons remained the same, but the foods cultivated changed. Among those newer crops were tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, and squash."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/d2d911ee-1830-51e8-b6de-617370b412cf":{"contextual_description":"Ceramic pots were the most common cooking vessels in the medieval Islamic world. They were affordable, widely available, and favoured for their versatility and practicality. These pots came in shallow or deep forms, and might be glazed or unglazed. Often mixed with temper to enhance their resistance to thermal shock, ceramic pots were ideal for boiling, baking, and other cooking techniques. In comparison to stone and metal pots, ceramic vessels were notable for their accessibility and adaptability."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/c020c6fb-530f-551f-84fa-043d63b83dd2":{"contextual_description":"Steatite’s unique properties made it ideal for cooking; soft and easy to carve, the stone hardens when exposed to heat. Its excellent heat resistance, even heat transmission, and ability to withstand thermal shock made it a favoured material for cooking. These qualities were so valued that potters sometimes crushed steatite to use as temper in ceramic vessels."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/1834d3c4-11e9-5d74-8188-dd39d4781719":{"contextual_description":"Cooking vessels were chosen for functionality and cultural significance. Soapstone pots, valued for heat resistance, were ideal for slow-cooked dishes like soups and meats in *tannur* ovens. Ceramic vessels, durable and heat-resistant, excelled in *tannur* baking. Tin-lined copper pots ensured safety for porridges needing vigorous stirring, and brass vessels were perfect for deep frying and oil-rich puddings. In some cases women produced their own pottery for kitchen use, combining practical needs with artistic expression."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/2505a1ba-73b3-5c59-9e31-57df0ebb65f4":{"contextual_description":"This tin-plated copper cauldron from the Khassaki Sultan Complex in Jerusalem reflects the practicality behind large-scale cooking in the AH 10th / AD 16th century. Serving over 1,000 people daily, the institution required durable vessels. Copper’s excellent heat conductivity made it ideal, while tin-plating ensured food safety by preventing reactions with acidic ingredients. The cauldron’s coiled copper body, secured with solid nails and reinforced handles, highlights advanced functional craftsmanship."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/12e112ae-102e-52dc-9c23-1cd5924d0a15":{"contextual_description":"The *sinija*, a large circular brass or copper tray, was central to communal dining in Islamic culture. Sometimes placed on a stool, it functioned as a low table for holding food and beverages, embodying unity and hospitality as individuals gathered around to share meals. The *sinija* facilitated practices of eating with hands and using shared dishes, reflecting values of generosity and togetherness. The *sinijas* might be adorned with floral patterns or inscriptions, blending practicality with artistic expression in Islamic culinary traditions."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/eff544fa-3365-537f-a71a-d7f26b057813":{"contextual_description":"To prepare for a meal, trays were placed on portable supports made of wood or metal. The craftsmanship and decoration of these stands often reflected the hierarchical status of their owners, with high-ranking individuals possessing intricately designed and finely crafted pieces."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/db95118a-b2af-5924-900e-4f0d51836ed9":{"contextual_description":"The foldable wooden base supports the *sinija*, the food tray traditionally placed on the ground for communal meals. While Al-Ghazali advocates eating directly from a tray on the floor, such bases, crafted from various materials, became common to enhance comfort and practicality, especially when guests were seated on the ground."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/d41e3afa-37f5-5d7b-8e28-41de50c705c0":{"contextual_description":"The *dastarkhan* was essential in defining a dining space. This cloth, laid on the ground under prepared food, often featured patterns with symbolic meanings. It served not only as a practical surface but also as a sacred space for communal dining. Here, individuals shared meals, transcending social status and reinforcing unity and hospitality."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/0b129696-eafc-560b-b213-30e711b994c2":{"contextual_description":"In medieval Islamic culture, cleanliness was central to both religious and social practices. Handwashing with an aquamanile before meals was essential, serving as an act of hospitality and a reflection of respect for communal dining and the blessings of food. This practice parallels the ritual of ablution before prayer, where physical purity symbolises spiritual readiness before God. While ablution prepares the soul for divine connection, handwashing before eating expresses gratitude and reverence for sustenance."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/7f2ea672-bcf2-547d-9d65-380dd6b7efa1":{"contextual_description":"The *aftafa-layan* is a copper jug and basin set designed for handwashing, widely used during large feasts in the Near and Middle East. The basin, topped with a decorative lid, collected water poured from the jug. Verses from renowned poets often adorned its surface, reflecting the aesthetic appeal and the cultural refinement of the time."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/92f3c790-1e24-5707-90a5-de7636ae6a64":{"contextual_description":"The presentation of food is a vital ritual in dining, where the choice of vessel is as significant as the food itself. In Morocco, the *ghotar*, a lavishly decorated large dish, serves as an elegant platform for presenting pastilla, a layered pie filled with chicken, eggs, and almonds wrapped in *warka* pastry."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/271e4068-637c-5356-98b6-691b8793327e":{"contextual_description":"Keeping food warm until it is served is essential, and a lid serves this purpose, as seen in this beautifully decorated *sarpush*. Beyond functionality, the lid becomes a canvas for intricate ornamentation. Even more significant is the social dimension of dining, highlighted by the short poem that celebrates the communal and conversational aspects of sharing a meal."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/ab9d1eea-214a-5c0b-a544-ce17d7d2ba9a":{"contextual_description":"Copper has long been a favoured material for crafting metal vessels, valued for its durability and versatility. This *sahan* (Ar. *sân*, Tr. *sahan*), a lidded copper bowl for serving food, played a significant role in the shared culture of an Ottoman Balkan urban population of various religious and ethnic backgrounds."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/f54ee7af-c4c5-5645-bc83-a2809b226eb4":{"contextual_description":"The plates used for serving food in Islamic culture evolved significantly, blending functionality with aesthetic refinement. Driven by a desire to rival Chinese porcelain, the potters achieved a major innovation: white-body pottery. This new material, made from powdered quartz, white clay, and potash, produced a hard, semi-transparent body, later known in Europe as soft-paste porcelain. Alongside material advancements, equal effort was devoted to creating captivating designs and colours. Islamic potters innovated techniques to preserve these colours under the glaze, ensuring durability and enhancing visual appeal, blending practicality with artistic mastery."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/098603c3-0e49-56ad-b8b9-002a51013b03":{"contextual_description":"Beyond functionality, tableware often serves as a medium reflecting the social character of dining. Its intricate decorations or inscribed poem invite conversation and storytelling, thus enriching the communal experience."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/32c3abce-b52b-5859-b81c-d36931609083":{"contextual_description":"In the practice of eating, the spoon emerged not only as a simple tool to carry broth from plate to lips, but also as an aesthetic object. The delicate curves of its design hint at the earthly desires of the beholder, enhancing the sensual pleasure of dining."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/573eef80-9df5-52ae-b07c-033a5afbce7d":{"contextual_description":"Liquid containers have always been an essential element of tableware. While earthenware and metal vessels were the most common, the elite, driven by societal expectations of refined taste, sought more exquisite and luxurious items. These high-status objects, often crafted with exceptional artistry, were frequently funded by taxes."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/e1cfd984-ab95-504d-832c-d7a3223ed93e":{"contextual_description":"Drinking liquids during dinner is more than a simple act; it can evolve into a ritual celebrating a ruler’s greatness. This ritual might involve collectively raising chalices in praise of the ruler’s virtues, turning the act into a symbolic gesture of loyalty. At times this reverence takes a visual form, as seen in the decoration of this tumbler, where respect is immortalised in artistry."},"6cb087a8-0f2b-5d20-968d-ab61f692867d/d42e6d41-1f69-5141-914c-b4b41da1a01f":{"contextual_description":"A bowl like this would have been produced for a sophisticated household. It is made of thin and fine white fritware with copper-coloured lustre painting over the glaze. Both the materials and the production technique were expensive. Workshops for such fine tableware existed in the AH 6th / 12th century, in Raqqa (Syria), for example.  \n  \nSuch bowls were versatile. They might hold sweets, fruits, nuts or olives, or be put on decorative display, their shimmering designs of flower petals and tendrils reflecting their owners’ wealth. In modern times these vessels are highly appreciated and sought after by museums and collectors."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/ec5ac08e-84e8-5128-a4e8-0497f72fa7d4":{"contextual_description":"This stereograph shows women in a rural setting grinding corn to cook it. In domestic rural settings, women were usually responsible for most food preparation; in this case, they would have been in charge of everything from grinding the wheat to baking the bread."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/c9676a7b-c6b5-554a-8e7f-eff83c8e76db":{"contextual_description":"A millstone such as this would have been present in every household. It was used by both men and women to grind down grains such as wheat into flour."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/170357b9-68f6-577c-8923-e87b8e881021":{"contextual_description":"This intricately woven carpet depicts various aspects of a feast. These include servants welcoming royalty, individuals preparing a variety of dishes and side dishes and kebabs and wine being served at the shah’s table. In the lower register, women are shown preparing *laban* (a type of yogurt that is a staple in the Islamic world) using a *segaa*, a traditional milk churn. This tool, still in use today, reflects the enduring techniques and cultural significance of yogurt production in the region."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/0836e8b3-1e92-5490-be47-cb23a333e295":{"contextual_description":"The *segaa* was used in order to make a type of yoghurt called *laban*, a staple food in the Islamic world. Every household would have a milk churn such as this and both men and women used it to make yoghurt. It is still used today in some parts of the Arab and Islamic world."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/e0cdc534-0273-54fc-b417-9eb979c10df9":{"contextual_description":"The folio depicts various scenes of daily life: a man harvests plants, another carries firewood, both essential for cooking. A prominent feature is a palm tree laden with dates. Traditionally, men were responsible for collecting dates from the trees, while women typically cleaned and sorted them. Both men and women often collaborated in processing dates into products like molasses *dibs* (date syrup), highlighting the shared labour involved in date production and its significance in Muslim culture and cuisine."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/5e7bf690-a47b-57aa-a614-7e49f5a1e1ad":{"contextual_description":"This large jar, known as a *khabiya*, is intended to store grain, semolina, oil or water. While most houses did not have fully furnished kitchens with ovens, they still prepared food and thus needed to store ingredients. Furthermore, especially in rural regions where agriculture played a still bigger role, harvests had to be stored as well, be they grain or transformed goods such as molasses."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/d25ef76d-6748-503e-965e-19925e08932f":{"contextual_description":"Directly inspired by the *khabiya*, this large jar was also used for food storage and preservation, especially in rural settings."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/6e31b6a5-0ef9-5e16-a4e7-587236b9e55f":{"contextual_description":"This photograph depicts a *madbasa*, a traditional facility used to produce a date syrup known as *dibs*. These facilities were typically found in areas with abundant palm tree farms. Men were traditionally responsible for harvesting dates from the trees, while women cleaned and sorted them. The production of *dibs* often involved both men and women. In rural areas, surplus food and fruits were commonly preserved in the form of sweetmeats, jams, pickled items and more. These products, including *dibs*, were sold in local markets, showing the economic significance of rural food production."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/217eaf31-08bf-55bc-83e3-2eb32cac93ea":{"contextual_description":"In rural settings, leftover fruits such as apricots were preserved as a sort of sugary paste. This apricot paste, in addition to preventing food waste, could then be sold, especially in urban markets. In rural areas, both men and women were involved in these activities, though quite often women owned and managed these fruit plantations as well as the sale of the finished product. In this picture we have an example of *qamr ad-din* (apricot paste) being sold in the Buzuriyya Market in Damascus."},"4820bede-ded6-5414-b6ec-aadb0f259f5a/0bcdebe9-b84e-5694-8197-9a09174b5ddc":{"contextual_description":"The process of drying *qamr ad-din* (apricot paste) is a later stage of production before cleaning and packaging. Coating the wooden boards with olive oil helps to easily remove the apricot paste after it has dried and adds a beautiful shine to the final product. Here we have a man doing it, however this was also very often performed by women. Furthermore, it was quite common for women to then sell that finished product in urban markets."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/170357b9-68f6-577c-8923-e87b8e881021":{"contextual_description":"This intricately woven carpet depicts various aspects of a feast. These include servants welcoming royalty, individuals preparing a variety of dishes and side dishes and kebabs and wine being served at the shah’s table. In the lower register, women are shown preparing *laban* (a type of yogurt that is a staple in the Islamic world) using a *segaa*, a traditional milk churn. This tool, still in use today, reflects the enduring techniques and cultural significance of yogurt production in the region."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/8b1e3079-a6cf-5d43-bff5-c1aa6cf24539":{"contextual_description":"Mortars were the utensils most frequently employed in grinding materials like spices and herbs that could be used for food or curatives. Their inclusion in illustrated manuscripts, such as the Arabic translation of the Greek medical treatise commonly known as *De Materia Medicia* , represents one example of their use in a medicinal context. Historically most mortars were made of wood or stone (these are no longer extant), but a great number of cast-metal examples survive from medieval Spain and Iran. Later mortars were also made of porcelain."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/68b49acf-a4d0-576f-94b5-89d24cbe3a68":{"contextual_description":"This photograph shows a woman preparing a meal by using a wooden mill. Women, generally responsible for food preparation in this setting, worked with a variety of tools. Here, the subject is using a pestle and mortar to grind wheat."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/854d9fba-f21f-5514-ae40-b340bdef101d":{"contextual_description":"The mortar is a vessel typical for two distinct but closely related processes: the preparation of food – specifically the grinding of herbs and spices – and the preparation of medicine. The wear on this particular example (the pestle, which doubtless would have been similarly decorated, has since been lost) is a testament to its heavy use by the owner. Mortars in general continue to be useful today; they can be found in kitchens around the world, still preparing herbs and spices for culinary use."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/d6b735c7-6e95-5f66-bcd2-f2e7fe9cda56":{"contextual_description":"Cooking large quantities of food, such as for the massive Desert Festival in Rusafa, is typically done on open fireplaces in tents raised specifically for the occasion. This practice minimises the risk of fire and strong cooking odours in living quarters. Additionally, a single kitchen is often insufficient for major events; temporary outdoor cooking spaces are created to accommodate big fires and large cooking pots, allowing for the preparation of vast quantities of food. Women cook meat and other dishes in a spacious, shaded area, ensuring efficiency and comfort during these significant gatherings."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/ed6b0c0c-26e2-5fc0-936b-8ed69b438630":{"contextual_description":"Flatbread (*khubz*) is perhaps the oldest processed food of mankind; traces of ovens dating back at least 5,000 years are found all over the Fertile Crescent and the Indus Valley. In rural Muslim households, it was the woman's responsibility to prepare the bread. Every step of the way was her responsibility, from grinding the grains into flour, to kneading the dough, to finally baking the bread. This photograph depicts bread being baked on a heated griddle (*saj*), as is common in Syria."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/8921afd1-a2d5-5c87-be0d-cd522e02f137":{"contextual_description":"Traditionally in the rural household in the Islamic world, it was the woman's responsibility to prepare the bread. Every step of the way was her responsibility, from grinding the grains into flour, to kneading the dough, to finally baking the bread. On the photo, we see another way of baking the bread namely using a vertical oven known as a *tannur*."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/f865dedf-232a-5c11-a38e-2d792673d900":{"contextual_description":"For a large feast, the entire family and neighbours work together. In rural areas, where families are typically large, these gatherings bring together many people to share in the preparations for the banquet. Men are responsible for purchasing essential items. Once the ingredients are ready, the task of preparing the meal largely falls on the women. On the photo, men and women are seen eating together on one *sofra*, which is uncommon in rural communities where they are expected to dine separately. The reason for this exception is probably that the guests are foreigners."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/0882dee6-ccfb-5af8-8db8-0bb52886ee7a":{"contextual_description":"After the food has been prepared, as in this feast, it is served on a floor spread known as a *sofra* and the guests gather around. While both genders are involved in the preparation of food, men and women are usually separated when eating. Here, we see a group of men eating in Syria."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/454f4d63-5ff7-5eac-a1e2-c909a0b2c3bc":{"contextual_description":"This folio shows the responsibilities of both men and women at various stages in the production and preparation of food. For example, the bottom left shows women cooking, while on the centre right  men collect firewood."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/7f468e47-da51-537b-97f1-9447eb1985b0":{"contextual_description":"The Khassaki Sultan Complex is historically significant for two key reasons: first, it was financed and built by a woman, Khassaki Sultan (also known as Haski Hürrem Sultan), the influential wife of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent; and second, it served as a vital charitable institution. The three cauldrons shown were part of the complex’s kitchens, where meals were prepared daily for the local poor and needy regardless of their background or faith. This reflects Khassaki Sultan’s role in addressing social welfare and creating employment opportunities for men and women as cooks and workers in the complex."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/2505a1ba-73b3-5c59-9e31-57df0ebb65f4":{"contextual_description":"The Khassaki Sultan Complex holds historical significance for two key reasons: it was financed and built by a woman, Khassaki Sultan (Haski Hürrem Sultan), and it served as a charitable institution feeding the poor and needy. The three cauldrons mentioned above were part of the complex’s kitchens, where meals were prepared for the local poor. This highlights the influential role of a woman in addressing social welfare, as well as her impact in creating employment opportunities for both men and women as cooks within the kitchens of the complex."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/2c72b797-7c64-54f8-8f0e-29214eb188d2":{"contextual_description":"This image depicts a large kitchen found in Bektashi *tekkes* (lodges), where meals were prepared for the poor and needy as well as for religious gatherings. As the Bektashi Order is predominantly male, it was usually men who prepared these meals. For the dervishes, cooking and serving food were acts of spiritual devotion and humility, integral to their practices of self-discipline and communal service. During special events or festivals, local community members or women associated with the order might have assisted informally, but the core responsibilities rested with the male members."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/41ddd5ec-fdc3-5197-81ab-7a810f51aa65":{"contextual_description":"This is another room of the *Aş Evi* where guests and employees, as well as the poor and needy, were fed by the complex's kitchen."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/9cae6010-2feb-5ef3-9626-e60a1a656561":{"contextual_description":"Lunchboxes like this were typically used to carry food either purchased from markets or partially prepared at home. In medieval Cairo, fully equipped kitchens were uncommon due to their high cost, making it rare for households to complete the cooking process at home. Women often prepared part of the meal at home and then sent it to a butcher or bakery to be cooked. Men, on the other hand, were more likely to purchase street food. The lunchbox would have been used to keep the food safe and warm, with locks sometimes added to prevent tampering, especially for individuals in positions of power."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/ea673384-62f0-543a-9c73-1de5e9760d99":{"contextual_description":"This scene depicts a woman carrying a water jar, symbolising the traditional role of women in collecting and managing water for household use. In rural and Bedouin communities, women often fetched water directly from public sources such as *sabils*, fountains or wells, typically using small jars. In urban settings, however, professional male water-bearers usually delivered water to households, where servants or women would distribute it into jars for domestic use. This depiction highlights the daily labour involved in sustaining households in different social and geographical contexts."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/76d29e61-a5bc-54cd-a43f-47d05f5023a9":{"contextual_description":"This water jar is decorated with incised floral designs, animals and Thuluth script. It was typically used by male water sellers, who attached the jar to their backs. These water sellers played a crucial role in urban areas, transporting water directly to households and pouring it into smaller jars for domestic use. In contrast, women often used differently shaped jars balanced on their heads, particularly in rural areas. This jar highlights the essential role of water sellers in daily life and the varying methods of water transportation across different settings."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/5e875034-f7ba-5f7a-994e-38fb0d09ccd6":{"contextual_description":"Jars were a common way of storing water in the house. Water was generally bought from a water-seller, who would come pour water from their jars into one belonging to the house. Water would be drawn from these domestic storage jars using smaller pitchers or jugs. This jar features female decoration, most likely a type of mother goddess."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/22d4c9ff-3969-5aaf-88e8-f9bf0b160f62":{"contextual_description":"These distinct jars were originally created for medicinal purposes – namely, to store ointments and drugs. Over time, their use expanded to include the transportation and storage of food items such as wine, water, oils, butter, honey and olives."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/d2d911ee-1830-51e8-b6de-617370b412cf":{"contextual_description":"This cooking pot’s relatively small size suggests it was suitable for a private household. It may have been used in conjunction with other, similar pots for meal preparation by a middle-class household. In other parts of the Islamic world, such as Cairo and Baghdad, home cooking was less common due to various factors, including the high cost of kitchen equipment, firewood and the associated risk of fire, as well as limited access to water. In such contexts, women often prepared ingredients at home but relied on external facilities like bakeries, cooks or butcher shops to finish cooking the meal."},"340e2c5d-de63-5f2d-aff1-0202018fb322/7198c2ee-9118-52be-907a-26d9dd60a410":{"contextual_description":"The folio shows a pharmacist preparing a honey-based medicine in a cauldron, while an assistant (possibly female) upstairs distributes it into jars. It shows how both men and women could be involved in using food to fashion medicine. Similar utensils were often used in preparing both food and medicine. For example, a mortar and pestle would also be used to grind down medicinal herbs, just as it would be used to grind down cooking herbs and spices."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/84146b1d-85e1-5af5-9edd-f31a3a5bc693":{"contextual_description":"In preparation for dining, a round *sofra* was spread out on the floor as a sort of table. Dishes were then served on trays either directly on the *sofra* or on elevated tray stands. The use of this floor spread or rug was the first and most important step in preparing for dining, especially in a formal, high-class or courtly setting. These floor spreads were not always round; often they were also rectangular."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/12464674-fe19-5b19-82b7-33ec7b90f531":{"contextual_description":"Rugs like this served as seating areas for the dining room; their patterns helped decorate the space. They were commonly used all throughout the Islamic world – with regional variations in design – by both men and women when preparing the table for guests."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/c7149c0a-f015-526b-b03c-8fbe2b8e3543":{"contextual_description":"The painting on this folio shows a woman setting the table for guests with a variety of vessels for food. In depicting this scene, the painting also illustrates the etiquette for sitting."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/170357b9-68f6-577c-8923-e87b8e881021":{"contextual_description":"This intricately woven carpet depicts various aspects of a feast. These include servants welcoming royalty, individuals preparing a variety of dishes and side dishes and kebabs and wine being served at the shah’s table. In the lower register, women are shown preparing *laban* (a type of yogurt that is a staple in the Islamic world) using a *segaa*, a traditional milk churn. This tool, still in use today, reflects the enduring techniques and cultural significance of yogurt production in the region."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/36f508db-84c9-5283-9ac0-940208add866":{"contextual_description":"Apart from their aesthetic value, rugs like this served as seating areas for the dining room. Indicated seating positions can be seen on the border. An example of a very similar rug can be seen in the illustration IR 30."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/0423fff2-6513-5b72-9236-92c8e0a48aa8":{"contextual_description":"Another important step in the preparation of the table was the use of incense to perfume the house, palace, or just the room. Both men and women used incense burners when preparing the dining table."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/8def63a5-6044-515f-b27f-ce0c656dfd4b":{"contextual_description":"Depicted is a wedding celebration, with the bride already sitting on the throne and the groom entering the room guided by the only male servant depicted here, a beardless youth or eunuch. The rest of the court is made up of women: female dancers, musicians, servants presenting fruit and revellers. At the bottom we can observe examples of table decoration: metal candlesticks and beautiful ceramic bowls with lids."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/021837a8-90d7-548f-8661-2ec9cae42a09":{"contextual_description":"The painting on this folio depicts men setting the table for the shah with a variety of dishes."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/2b0f6151-b21f-5588-9676-af8875a7e5b1":{"contextual_description":"This bowl, made by Algerian women, shows how women were involved not only in preparing food, but also in making kitchen equipment and setting the table. In addition to their culinary uses, bowls and other dishes also served to show off the owner’s wealth and power."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/5d887c43-700d-5159-9d24-6bdbcee22dd1":{"contextual_description":"These vases were important decorative items for dinners and banquets. The surface is etched with festive scenes in a variety of settings taken from the *Shahnameh*, reflecting the high-class dinner parties the vases would have been used in."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/2953c5d1-ce81-5a55-9e6e-83b5929ecb10":{"contextual_description":"Just like the bowl it is related to, this amphora was made and most likely used by women. In addition to its decorative qualities, it also served a practical purpose, as amphoras like this would be used to store or serve liquids."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/5010b380-ac37-537c-b6d4-a233adcedee5":{"contextual_description":"Another important step in the preparation of the dining area was the use of incense to perfume the house, palace or just the room. Both men and women used incense burners when preparing the dining table."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/573ace7d-4666-51d0-8f03-555962d4fe48":{"contextual_description":"Here we can see the different responsibilities men could carry out in preparing and presenting food, as well as providing entertainment: men cook, serve dishes, dance and play music."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/02842479-af92-5561-a525-15f84411bc20":{"contextual_description":"Ornate plates made of expensive materials were another way for the host to decorate and show off their wealth while receiving dinner guests."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/ab7b7015-9f4c-5d0c-bf8f-946a8add17ed":{"contextual_description":"Tray stands like these were an integral part of the preparation of the table and used by both men and women. They were used to elevate dishes and trays from the floor spread or *sofra* when eating."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/26a48a64-3987-5a77-aef6-870de37cf06d":{"contextual_description":"Another important step in the preparation of the table was the use of incense to perfume the house, palace or room. Both men and women used incense burners when preparing the dining table."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/78b17d04-26d8-5fac-ba3e-6ff0da4923e1":{"contextual_description":"While this vase’s ornamentation no doubt impressed and delighted, the vase itself was mainly utilitarian and intended for pouring out water. It was used in apartments or reception rooms."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/4d10d489-5cd2-5f67-9c15-f31af08d9943":{"contextual_description":"Another ewer that would have been used by both men and women to pour various liquids during feasts and religious ceremonies. The shape holds symbolic meaning    and also acts as decoration."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/f90b1697-d680-5bca-8975-539f8e858ad7":{"contextual_description":"These types of dining room sets, their rich ornamentation a testament to the host’s wealth, were used to receive guests. However, usually neither guest nor host ate on these sets."},"d5ad3026-c4d4-5745-afb9-164c36e226b9/d48bcbce-7afe-5003-b37c-ddcc6ecb83bd":{"contextual_description":"While this type of table was not usually used for dining, it still served to decorate the dining room or serve snacks and tea to guests in the waiting room. While some parts of Islamic life were segregated by gender, tables like these appeared in both masculine and feminine spaces."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/436c2126-78e5-522e-b89e-48f1f33a005c":{"contextual_description":"This artefact, which would have been used in a domestic setting, shows a lavish courtly banquet. It shows a merry scene, with rulers and advisors drinking together among male musicians and female acrobats. Both men and women played a role in maintaining festivities."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/664d7067-53a3-5dd4-aba0-1b194d5a8a3a":{"contextual_description":"This dish shows that women were not just cooks or dancers, but also musicians who practiced their art to entertain and delight guests during banquets and festivals."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/88b7e28c-4e25-5d5a-9afd-7f27c2c9c053":{"contextual_description":"This ewer, from the Sassanian Empire in pre-Islamic Persia, depicts a female dancer, likely a slave, who would have been employed to entertain guests during banquets with dance and music. The practice of using female dancers and singers to entertain guests continued into the Islamic period, though their roles and social status varied depending on the era and dynasty."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/170357b9-68f6-577c-8923-e87b8e881021":{"contextual_description":"This intricately woven carpet depicts various aspects of a feast. These include servants welcoming royalty, individuals preparing a variety of dishes and side dishes and kebabs and wine being served at the shah’s table. In the lower register, women are shown preparing *laban* (a type of yogurt that is a staple in the Islamic world) using a *segaa*, a traditional milk churn. This tool, still in use today, reflects the enduring techniques and cultural significance of yogurt production in the region."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/a5bf9f68-3133-5c1b-9145-f213a3de6082":{"contextual_description":"Here we have another example of a Mamluk object depicting the emblem of the royal cupbearer (*saqi*): the chalice. However, it is not just that. It is a tripartite blazon composed of the diamond-shaped \"napkin\" of the *jamdar* (master of the robes) in the upper register, the chalice of the *saqi* with the pen box of the *dawadar* (secretary) inside of it, and a smaller second chalice in the lower register. Thus it shows three official positions grouped in one to serve one distinct master. It is important to note that all three of these official positions could only be held by men."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/00fde39b-cb4b-573a-a34d-ec581ba70747":{"contextual_description":"This ewer is engraved with a cup or chalice, the blazon of the official cupbearer (*saqi*). As the one responsible for serving drinks to the sultan and his ministers, this role was important and respected at the courts. It could only be held by a man, who would often work together with a food taster (*al-jashankeer*). The blazon could only be used by the official courtly drink connoisseur. In Egypt, this person was not a servant, whereas his Persian counterpart was always a servant or slave. This type of blazon for this office can first be observed during the Mamluk period; it was kept during later dynasties."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/952af383-5448-5c9d-a84e-4684370191a6":{"contextual_description":"This Mamluk mosque lamp features the *saqi* blazon, symbolising the cupbearer’s prestigious role in the court. It was commissioned by Zain al-Din Mubarak, who, according to the blazon above, served as cupbearer to the sultan named in the inscription, al-Malik al-Salih. Two rulers bore this title, both sons of Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun, linking the lamp to the illustrious Qalawunid dynasty. The lamp’s intricate design and inscriptions highlight the fusion of functional and symbolic art in Mamluk religious and courtly traditions."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/26adbee3-2ffa-5ff6-81b2-fda8c3042e01":{"contextual_description":"A Mamluk ceramic dish featuring the emblem of the royal cupbearer, known as the *saqi*. Fittingly, the emblem was a chalice. Having this dish commissioned and adorned as such shows the owner’s pride in his (the position was held exclusively by men) wealth and title."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/700800b6-2c10-5e24-a705-237a31c62d25":{"contextual_description":"These ivory panels show different roles and activities commonly observed at a court of the Fatimid period. Amongst dancers, musicians and revellers, we also find an *amir shekar*, a high officer who hunted for game for the court. He can be recognised by his falcon. This position could only be held by a man; other professions seen on the panel, such as acrobats, dancers and musicians, could be practiced by either sex."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/15311082-d729-5a6e-beb8-100b0dfc9fd2":{"contextual_description":"This small water basin features intricate scenes of hunting and falconry, activities central to courtly life and overseen by the *amir shekar*, a highly esteemed court official responsible for organising royal hunts, training falcons and other hunting animals and ensuring the provision of game for the court. This role, exclusive to men, symbolised the sultan's authority over both nature and society. Basins like this were not merely decorative but also functional, as they were used in hospitality rituals where a servant would pour water from an ewer over a guest's hands into the basin."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/cb45bed1-f8c6-54fc-93d5-7553a1f0c39f":{"contextual_description":"A predominantly male court is depicted here, featuring key officers such as the *amir shekar*, or royal falconer, who was responsible for the hunts, managing falcons and other hunting animals and the provision of game to the court. This position, originally from the Mamluk court, spread to states such as the Mughal Empire, where it was known as the *mir shikar*. Alongside the *amir shekar*, we see male musicians providing entertainment, food servers attending to the court’s needs and a scribe documenting the events, all reflecting the structured hierarchy and ceremonial life of the court."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/8def63a5-6044-515f-b27f-ce0c656dfd4b":{"contextual_description":"Depicted is a wedding celebration, with the bride already sitting on the throne and the groom entering the room guided by the only male servant depicted here, a beardless youth or eunuch. The rest of the court is made up of women: female dancers, musicians, servants presenting fruit and revellers. At the bottom we can observe examples of table decoration: metal candlesticks and beautiful ceramic bowls with lids."},"f409fb59-4b8b-5176-b415-788d1bc965d4/ee22c5fb-1844-5931-a950-73472639f506":{"contextual_description":"This illustration shows a ruler in the midst of a drinking ceremony, holding a cup and attended by only male advisors, musicians, acrobats and revellers. All the attendants are idealised, youthful, round-faced and beardless; their presence symbolises a distinguished and sophisticated court."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/cbf41a00-f260-5080-bcb2-f3c3833935f8":{"contextual_description":"This miniature shows a *saqi*, a servant responsible for serving drinks to the host and guests. He should not be confused with the Mamluk officer of drinks; while the latter is also referred to as a cupbearer or *saqi*, he held a blazon and was not a servant. The female equivalent – the *saqiya* – is only rarely depicted. Here the *saqi* is depicted as a young, effeminate man, traditionally the ideal type for the role. This type is often referenced in poetry as the subject of love and admiration."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/bf1d7ef2-57f0-55af-b933-5178819f5b23":{"contextual_description":"Candlesticks were an important item of decoration when the table, but this candlestick is important for a different reason: it features bands of Persian poetry verses inscribed all around it. Here, we find verses from the renowned 14th-century poet Hafez Shirazi in which the narrator calls upon the idealised, androgynous *saqi* to pour him some wine, only to be intoxicated by the cupbearer’s beauty. Thus, we see how a servant responsible for part of the dinner is an important part of the experience."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/38a78ea2-8110-59a3-87c4-ff349e9bb456":{"contextual_description":"This illustration shows the inside of a coffee house, which would have been used exclusively by men to meet, enjoy coffee and sweets and socialise. This artefact shows the different gender spheres for interacting, as women would not have been mingling with men in the coffee house. Instead, they would have enjoyed coffee and snacks in more private settings: for example, the harem or home."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/fac44107-0b95-5e6a-b3f5-79ab69381b3a":{"contextual_description":"This coffee cooler would have been used in places like coffee houses, which were male-only spaces where patrons would meet to socialise – but also potentially form political alliances. It could have also been used while serving coffee in the all-female harem. Coffee was a central part of life in the Muslim world, enjoyed by both men and women. Thus this tool would have been used by either group as well."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/360d0d11-0157-57c2-93b7-e317590c048b":{"contextual_description":"Meeting for coffee was a predominant social and political activity. This coffee cup set is another example of an object used by both men and women to enjoy this beverage central to Islamic daily life."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/7da4dc65-a4bd-5d9c-b8aa-3929e2bd3886":{"contextual_description":"This guesthouse in Syria traditionally serves bitter coffee as one of its rituals when receiving guests. Similarly to the coffee houses in other parts of the Islamic world, these guesthouses (locally called *madafa* or *oda*) is a male-only space where patrons and villagers meet and coffee is served - rarely prepared by a trained professional coffee barista."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/15e119b2-b5e2-5222-8119-0ba478db1816":{"contextual_description":"Only very wealthy tribal leaders or village headmen could employ a paid coffee cook (*qahwaji*). The *qahwaji* is responsible for making the bitter coffee and serving it – often as a part-time job. In the all-male guest or coffee houses, the coffee preparer would be male. However, since women also enjoyed coffee (for example in the harem), the coffee preparer for those spaces would be either a female servant or a eunuch."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/41101455-d227-5a0b-bba3-dc6f4263ee71":{"contextual_description":"A glimpse into the male-only guesthouses; in this case, coffee is currently being served by the coffee-preparer to a guest. This is analogous to how coffee would be served in the harems to female guests."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/b3b43657-6903-5168-a04c-87df610acd37":{"contextual_description":"The Khassaki Sultan Complex is historically significant for two key reasons: first, it was financed and built by a woman, Khassaki Sultan (also known as Haski Hürrem Sultan), the influential wife of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent; and second, it served as a vital charitable institution. The three cauldrons shown were part of the complex’s kitchens, where meals were prepared daily for the local poor and needy regardless of their background or faith. This reflects Khassaki Sultan’s role in addressing social welfare and creating employment opportunities for men and women as cooks and workers in the complex."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/d2d911ee-1830-51e8-b6de-617370b412cf":{"contextual_description":"This cooking pot’s relatively small size suggests it was suitable for a private household. It may have been used in conjunction with other, similar pots for meal preparation by a middle-class household. In other parts of the Islamic world, such as Cairo and Baghdad, home cooking was less common due to various factors, including the high cost of kitchen equipment, firewood and the associated risk of fire, as well as limited access to water. In such contexts, women often prepared ingredients at home but relied on external facilities like bakeries, cooks or butcher shops to finish cooking the meal."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/2505a1ba-73b3-5c59-9e31-57df0ebb65f4":{"contextual_description":"The Khassaki Sultan Complex is historically significant for two key reasons: first, it was financed and built by a woman, Khassaki Sultan (also known as Haski Hürrem Sultan), the influential wife of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent; and second, it served as a vital charitable institution. The three cauldrons shown were part of the complex’s kitchens, where meals were prepared daily for the local poor and needy regardless of their background or faith. This reflects Khassaki Sultan’s role in addressing social welfare and creating employment opportunities for men and women as cooks and workers in the complex."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/3e9e4026-3a9a-55ee-99c2-b58e77214557":{"contextual_description":"The image on this mirror box portrays the cupbearer (*saqi*) holding a bottle and attending to a couple at a sumptuous meal: various foods have been served and a diverse array of tableware is in use. The *saqi*’s presence so close behind the couple shows the trust in which he and his position are held."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/26544b9a-a1cc-5834-b6e0-cb47809086b5":{"contextual_description":"The illustration on this textile depicts a servant or mistress offering a cup to their master, along with proper sitting etiquette."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/135b3b43-5c07-56bd-b1c7-a7022a39ab10":{"contextual_description":"This type of bottle can be found in many miniatures, particularly in depictions of the *saqi* – a male cupbearer who served drinks to the ruler or host."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/f4a541d8-e269-58bf-a1de-36f54789731f":{"contextual_description":"The folio depicts a picnic setting with men engaged in various tasks: a cupbearer serves the king, two men cook lamb kebab and another prepares charcoal for the king's hookah."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/8ce94bb0-e400-5dae-95c9-7637babc9efe":{"contextual_description":"This painting illustrates the protocol of sitting with the shah alongside his servants. One servant, undoubtedly the cupbearer or *saqi*, is serving him a cup with a drink poured from a bigger bottle. Another male servant is offering the shah food from a tray."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/c640938a-1ea9-5a2c-96c7-9146d8b85340":{"contextual_description":"The table itself is an object that has been incorporated into Iranian culture from foreign influences. The images portrayed on this table include servants attending royalty, depictions of love and companionship and scenes of shared meals symbolising friendship. Adjacent medallions portray the cupbearer (or *saqi*) as well as the official responsible for the hunt."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/4b1ac8e7-a042-5618-bf77-09c56137061b":{"contextual_description":"Ewers would be used by the servants to pour water out over the hands of guests and hosts to wash their hands before a meal. These servants could be either male or female, depending on the situation and context. For example, in the all-female harem, this servant would be female or a eunuch. In the male-dominated coffee houses, this servant would be male."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/15311082-d729-5a6e-beb8-100b0dfc9fd2":{"contextual_description":"This small water basin features intricate scenes of hunting and falconry, activities central to courtly life and overseen by the *amir shekar*, a highly esteemed court official responsible for organising royal hunts, training falcons and other hunting animals and ensuring the provision of game for the court. This role, exclusive to men, symbolised the sultan's authority over both nature and society. Basins like this were not merely decorative but also functional, as they were used in hospitality rituals where a servant would pour water from an ewer over a guest's hands into the basin."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/170357b9-68f6-577c-8923-e87b8e881021":{"contextual_description":"This intricately woven carpet depicts various aspects of a feast. These include servants welcoming royalty, individuals preparing a variety of dishes and side dishes and kebabs and wine being served at the shah’s table. In the lower register, women are shown preparing *laban* (a type of yogurt that is a staple in the Islamic world) using a *segaa*, a traditional milk churn. This tool, still in use today, reflects the enduring techniques and cultural significance of yogurt production in the region."},"91c22cc7-61aa-5122-9cb0-9b4edc616779/7cf81cca-a249-5951-95dc-a7c680e7cf7c":{"contextual_description":"On this *mina'i* bowl we can observe a seated female ruler or mistress holding a goblet while being attended to by two female servants. Female revellers holding goblets frame the scene. This is an example of an all-female court. During the Seljuq Dynasty, women enjoyed greater power, both politically and militarily; a piece of art depicting an all-female banquet—especially one taking place outside of the harem, as in this case—would have been extremely rare in a more patriarchal society."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/2565f031-f119-5fd1-be6c-b0ae54414872":{"contextual_description":"The subject of this Fatimid lustre plate has been interpreted to be a Coptic priest walking in the peaceful garden of a monastery.  \n  \nMonasteries of the Middle East were spaces of interfaith meetings. Poems from the Abbasid periods provide a joyful image of these protective structures, which offered fresh and excellent food, shelter and entertainments to all comers. As they are today, monasteries under Islamic rule were escapes from cities, welcoming travellers and those seeking contemplation."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/9e2633c8-e616-50b5-a1f6-53b2b7f9d886":{"contextual_description":"Monasteries were also wine producers and privileged places in which to consume it. Arabic poetry gives an insight in the leisure-taking of friends as they enjoy wine in the welcoming facilities and beautiful gardens of monasteries.  \n  \nThis wine flask can be understood to reflect such celebrations. At the base of the neck are gathered seven Christian figures recognisable by their robes. On the flask’s shoulder are pelicans, symbols of Christ. The body is decorated with a group of joyful Arabic men drinking wine in a festive atmosphere suggested by accompanying musicians."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/13331653-4f20-5165-988d-7f94745e4aef":{"contextual_description":"*Caravanserai*, *khan*, *funduq*, *wikala* are terms designating accommodation spaces in the Islamic world. They were essential shelters for travellers, pilgrims, merchants and wanderers, providing food and shelter.  \n  \nSuch accommodations might be managed by Muslims, Christians or Jews, and they might welcome an interfaith public or one community only. Some charged fees, others were charitable spaces, and often they were places of business too.  \n  \nThe beauty and the care put into those spaces of hospitality reflect their importance in Islamic society."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/86b6be6c-6e61-5d8a-9d74-a972a721f187":{"contextual_description":"These hospitable places were situated near bath houses, markets, shops and cooking facilities. Ovens, for example, were available either nearby or were built conveniently into the structure.  \n  \nA text from the 14th century recounts the Hafsid Sultan’s reminder to the Aragonese communities in Tunis to use only their own *funduq* ovens “because Muslim law does not allow Muslims to cook food in an oven that has been used by Christians.”  \n  \nThis quotation highlights the difficulty of states in managing these facilities, and the intention to guarantee their hospitality in keeping with local laws."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/2d471054-3478-5093-9580-733dd96cd829":{"contextual_description":"Roger II, the Norman king of Sicily, was renowned for gathering around him a multi-religious intercultural court that reflected the customs of Islamic and Eastern Christian worlds along with his personal ambitions and ruling strategies.  \n  \nHe built the Capella Palatina in Palermo, in function and decor a complex hybrid structure combining a church with an Islamic royal reception hall. Both are mirrored visually by extensive Christian iconography and the representation of a *majlis*, a royal gathering where intellectual debates and activities could be accompanied by food, drinks, music and dancing."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/e1685f8f-1217-55b4-bdca-4753b5ac5ba0":{"contextual_description":"The Wakil House, built in Aleppo, Syria, around the AH 11th / 17th century under Ottoman rule, is well known for having been the home of ʿIsa ibn Butrus, a rich Christian merchant who decorated his *qa’a* (domestic reception hall) with an impressive painted decorative programme.  \n  \n*Qa’a* was an important social space where guests and business partners were received with food and drinks to encourage conversation and warm up the atmosphere."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/61f82758-f46e-5474-8c38-977b687cae6b":{"contextual_description":"In ʿIsa’s house, a sense of hospitality was emphasised by the decoration of the room, an assortment of Christian and Islamic iconography executed in a delicate Ottoman style.  \n  \nThese paintings help us comprehend ʿIsa’s identity (a Christian in an Islamic society), and also the function of the room, a place for hosting guests from various religious backgrounds. The room also highlights the similar underlying cultures of individuals of AH 11th / 17th century multicultural Aleppo, and of guests who would have entered the Wakil House at that time."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/0a9ba037-414a-5965-b3d8-dba9d93c9b96":{"contextual_description":"The Ottoman court was very formal when it came to hosting foreign ambassadors and prestigious guests. Splendid palaces accommodated their stays, and sumptuous banquets were held to receive and impress them.  \n  \nOne of the most magnificent Ottoman palaces was the Beylerbeyi. Its façade and interior decorations blend Western neo-classical style with Eastern motifs. The reception hall echoes this fusion of styles that have dazzled important Western or Eastern royal guests, who would have been able to appreciate some aspect of the surrounding decor."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/1a03064a-629f-5563-bc93-71aafb0af699":{"contextual_description":"The *Palais de la Rose* was the leisure palace of the Husainid Dynasty of Tunisia. Like the Ottoman Beylerbeyi Palace, it combines European and Islamic styles and received important guests.  \n  \nOne of the most famous was Caroline of Brunswick, Princess of Wales. Exiled from England and living in Italy, she was welcomed warmly by the Bey Mahmud ibn Muhammad in AH 1232 / AD 1816. A contemporaneous account praised the encounter and the efforts by the Tunisian king to please the princess by serving a sumptuous dinner mixing North African and Italian foods while they enjoyed a paramilitary show held in her honour."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/ac8d7172-a5dd-5269-9c9d-67253732f363":{"contextual_description":"Edouard Verschaffelt was born in Belgium. He moved to Algeria in 1919. Remarried to a rural Algerian, he painted scenes of daily life that provide evidence of local life and customs in the town of Bou Saâda. His paintings often represent domestic scenes where women and children are peacefully engaged in food-related activity (cooking or serving), revealing the intertwined social and food-related bonds in the community.  \n  \nVerschaffelt immersed himself in this harsh and authentic life, leaving testimony of his full integration into a culture far from his own."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/d6b735c7-6e95-5f66-bcd2-f2e7fe9cda56":{"contextual_description":"Behind a photo that documents cultural practices or food preparation we can sometimes sense the presence of the photographer at the scene. The following photos were taken by Karin Pütt, a German scholar who lived in a rural Syrian community while she undertook research on rural housing. Beyond documentary, her photos are testimony to the warm hospitality she received and her integration into the community."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/fb7cffbb-bd8c-5f1d-999b-c0b46eacd81c":{"contextual_description":"This photo was taken while Karin Pütt explored Damascus before going to Northern Syria. It shows sugar-coated almonds (*mulabbas*), a white sweet that accompanied celebrations and traditions in several cultures.  \n  \nIn Syria, and especially in Damascus, it is common to distribute *mulabbas* during the Prophet’s birthday celebrations. Over the years this tradition was expanded to other important events in the Islamic world, such as weddings and births. It became a symbol of hospitality offered to guests regardless of their religion."},"197de4dc-e60d-526d-91ef-7ab61f66baca/f865dedf-232a-5c11-a38e-2d792673d900":{"contextual_description":"As explained in Theme V, weddings are important social events. They gather family, friends, and guests in the preparations, which can be almost as festive as the event itself.  \n  \nThis photo of a group of German tourists attending a local wedding shows the hospitality of Islamic culture toward all comers. It is also a reminder of the participation of Karin Pütt, the photographer, then a temporary member of the community who was involved in organising the wedding."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/339dc2eb-389c-5e71-b36b-1a82a7f61a1f":{"contextual_description":"Sponsored by the Nasrid Sultans and exported by locally based Genovese merchants, Nasrid lustre ceramics (“*loza dorada*”), rapidly became necessities on medieval elite tables. These beautiful ceramics were often praised in contemporary literature, and examples have been discovered in several places related to power in the Middle East, North Africa and Christian Europe.  \n  \nManufacture in Malaga (Spain), *loza dorada* ceramics might have filled a gap in the production of Islamic luxury lustre tableware, but their sphere of influence extended beyond the Islamic Empire."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/a521c206-d067-5d99-ab08-166fc902efc9":{"contextual_description":"This very large and deep Nasrid lustre bowl is decorated with a Portuguese ship extending from edge to edge. Given its specific theme, it might have been made for a rich Christian Portuguese merchant, who could have ordered it from the Nasrid lustre ceramic workshops.  \n  \nNasrid lustre ceramics were exported as far as England, where they were among ceramics brought to Queen Eleanor of Castile."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/5be4b99d-06d6-5867-8ed6-0bf528d5af2b":{"contextual_description":"After a diplomatic visit to the Nasrid court of Granada, the Lord of Manises (Valencia) realised the wide potential of the lustre ceramic market. In 1320, he established a similar factory in his hometown. He hired Mudéjar potters (Muslims potters living under Christian rule) who worked alongside Christians to create tableware inspired or copied from Nasrid productions.  \n  \nThe early production workshops of this multicultural industry are often difficult to distinguish. This plate, for example, could have been made by the Nasrid or by the Manises workshop."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/d80f63a2-d608-5ad2-8a9e-b6ce851191b5":{"contextual_description":"The Manises ceramics industry gradually developed its own style, producing a wide range of characteristic typologies and iconographic motifs. The variety of coats of arms found on them is evidence of the taste of the Christian elite for this style of tableware."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/e500e84c-f1c8-581f-ad57-fcd4a44d16de":{"contextual_description":"The 19th century saw strong enthusiasm for the Islamic arts of Al-Andalus. This led to the revival of Nasrid-Mudéjar style, inspiring artists and invigorating the ceramics industry of Manises. The Valencia factory responded by reproducing Mudéjar-like artefacts such as this plate."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/402a1d02-9c7c-5d04-9cb5-7942c1f20934":{"contextual_description":"High-quality blue and white Chinese porcelain from Jingdezhen became very popular among the elite of the Middle East around the AH 8th / AD 14th century. The products exported were designed to appeal to Islamic visual tastes, and their shapes were adapted to be perfect recipients for traditional Islamic dishes.  \n  \nThis plate was found in Mamluk, Syria, and dates from the AH 8th / AD 14th century."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/5b881a78-e10b-57bd-b797-88494b97cd33":{"contextual_description":"During the AH 9th / AD 15th century, the demand for blue and white porcelain was so strong that many Middle Eastern local production centres started copying the same decorative scheme.  \n  \nSome ceramics scrupulously imitated the Chinese style, such as this Iznik (Ottoman) bowl, highly influenced by Chinese designs, such as peonies and the so-called “Chinese clouds\"."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/cce12740-5bd7-5b16-bda2-4eefc94223ae":{"contextual_description":"Other centres, inspired by the blue and white contrast of Chinese ceramics, specialised in defining a new visual identity, mixing the contrasting visual appeal of the blue and white porcelain with their own iconography.  \n  \nThis plate, for example, probably made in Kirman (Iran), depicts tigers and birds freely displayed in a thick vegetations."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/5559fbd7-7df9-55ef-a606-12f56fdd83eb":{"contextual_description":"The appropriation of blue and white porcelain motifs by the Islamic potters did not stop the importation of Chinese wares. This bowl was produced in China for the Ottoman market. It was probably part of a large tableware set custom-made for important individuals and likely dispersed today into public and private collections.  \n  \nIt might have matched a similar large tureen, whose shape could originally have been created for the European market before it became attractive to the Islamic one."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/b2bace6a-94ab-53ca-bea4-f981a7c94afa":{"contextual_description":"This type of vivid coloured porcelain belongs to a figurative style named “Famille Rose” or “Rose Canton”. The style was very popular among Islamic elites, who ordered them custom-made, as the central medallion inscription exemplifies. They were probably among the most expensive luxury items, as the production process was more complex and longer than for blue and white examples.  \n  \nA similar plate displaying the same inscription but a different design was sold at auction in 2024, which indicates that they could have been part of a large set."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/fb6d2e56-6d3b-5e60-9494-d53bdb638391":{"contextual_description":"This life-sized oil painting from the Zand period probably once hung in a niche in a reception hall. It shows an idealised portrait of the elite lifestyle, mirroring the pomp typical of such an environment. Staring directly at the viewer, the courtier holds an engraved wine glass that matches a square decanter typical of European imports of the time. By her side is a bowl (possibly of the “Famille Rose” type) filled with pomegranates on a matching plate."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/9a1f4803-4015-5f82-9844-893fcf1fc0fc":{"contextual_description":"At around the same time as in Persia, Mughal India was importing square bottles similar to this one, whose shape derived from the wooden chests in which they were transported.  \n  \nThe preserved Mughal examples are lavishly decorated with vegetal or figurative motifs, probably painted locally after their importation."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/e28b4e78-6968-5e01-9e08-adba4eb497c1":{"contextual_description":"These three decanters are ornamented with a portrait of the Qajar sultan Naser-al-Din Shah. Produced by the Bohemian (now Czech Republic) glass industry, which boomed during the AH 13th / AD 19th century, they are examples of exported glassware produced in Europe to suit the taste of the Qajar elite. Such pieces contributed to the visual propaganda of the dynasty, and would have fitted perfectly into their collections of foreign tableware.  \n  \nThis type of glassware was probably produced during the second half of the 19th century before going out of fashion and/or decreasing in quality."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/1d54401c-a244-5778-bb74-772cae3d2aef":{"contextual_description":"Artefacts such as this ewer and tray combine Northern European-style metalwork with a Renaissance version of Mamluk motifs. The style was initially called “Veneto-Saracenic” in reference to its probable manufacture in Venice by Muslim craftsmen. Such artefacts are considered today more likely to have been created by Mamluks for export, to be sent to Egypt or Syria for decoration, or to be European copies.  \n  \nRegardless of its origin, this set is evidence of a tableware industry inspired by the Near East to suit important European families during the AH 9th / AD 15th and AH 10th / AD 16th centuries."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/a7ca9806-74a0-586a-bb26-d381d9ded399":{"contextual_description":"During the AH 8th / AD 14th and AH 9th / AD 15th centuries, Mamluk metalworkers developed a range of wares specifically to appeal to European tastes and markets. Coats of arms appeared on many pieces.  \n  \nThis box is thought to have held expensive spices conveyed to the West."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/a6930b97-f3d0-5d19-8d5d-d0b276d12aa8":{"contextual_description":"This silver-plated copper coffee pot reflects European Baroque influence on Ottoman decorative arts, notably in its ornate design and curving shape. While most coffee pots were made from inexpensive materials, luxurious versions like this one were crafted for affluent households to serve esteemed guests. The Ottoman Baroque style, blending European motifs with traditional forms, emerged in the 1740s and remained popular until the 1820s, when newer European designs gained prominence."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/1907d94c-f763-5af1-93bb-bc2bac39b088":{"contextual_description":"This lidded bowl is one example of luxurious Ottoman-era vessels. Made of vermeil silver, it features a floral pattern and hanging lamp motifs. The vessel, influenced by Western Baroque and Rococo styles of the late 18th century, departs from classical Ottoman designs. Its body is adorned with rubies and diamonds, while the lid is decorated by a chalice supported by a cherubic foot with emanating rays. The design reflects Ottoman craftsmanship and the influence of European artistic trends."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/fbd29d29-294b-58ea-a622-bfd51d860214":{"contextual_description":"Kütahya emerged as a prominent Ottoman ceramic centre in the late 17th century, earning the nickname “The Sèvres of the East” due to its intricate and exotic designs that were admired by Europeans. This egg-shaped ewer, a rare example of AH 12th / AD 18th century Kütahya ware, showcases the fusion of Eastern and Western artistic influences. It can be attributed to the town’s Armenian community, which played a significant role in ceramic production. Decorated with cobalt brushstrokes on a white background, it exemplifies the craftsmanship of the period."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/456093c4-6b22-5bd8-8c49-13d1f8305b5d":{"contextual_description":"Branko Šotra (1906–1960) created carved wooden ensembles of peškuns (stools) in the 1930s, blending traditional Oriental forms with Art Deco style. These decorated tables and chairs, popular in Belgrade’s Bosnian rooms, featured scenes of rural life and geometric motifs."},"fbc88500-65ce-5081-90df-faf94cdf1a32/6e354433-a716-5808-8228-72dfda8ca422":{"contextual_description":"In AH 1329 / AD 1911, following the Ottoman departure from Tripoli, Binjamin Uziyel, a consulate official, conducted research on establishing sugar factories in Turkey after a visit to Genoa. He prepared a comprehensive report for the Istanbul chamber of commerce detailing the feasibility of setting up sugar factories and exploring the utilisation of sugar beets in Turkey."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/603d36cb-99bc-5312-82c1-88826cdcd9a7":{"contextual_description":"According to the current state of research, Jewish populations have lived in North Africa (more precisely in today’s Tunisia) since the Punic period. This watercolour representing a Jewish household highlights the cultural similarities between the Jewish and Muslim communities of this region. The architecture and decor of the dwelling reveal a similar way of living, and the clothing shows a similar way of dressing. The commonalities extended to other spheres, including food preparation, and recipes remain a noteworthy shared cultural feature."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/a3fa4608-efc2-5256-a817-e6d9c7679221":{"contextual_description":"Wells are meeting places for locals and people from far and wide, a place to find refreshment, get acquainted, talk, exchange opinions and experiences about life and food, even about cooking. Water connects everyone; it is essential for life.  \n  \nAbd al-Rahman Katkhuda’s well (*sabil*) is a fine example of coexistence through water use. Built during the Ottoman Turkish occupation by Commander ‘Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda ibn Husayn Jawish al-Qardughliand, its style, form and decoration show the interaction of several cultures, resulting in a blend of Mamluk and Ottoman-Turkish artistic styles."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/1a213b73-3637-51f7-bffd-4e707adeae03":{"contextual_description":"Among other Judeo-North African dishes is the *t’fina pkaila*, a spinach (in Arabic *pkaila*) sauce that can be eaten with couscous; *nikituches*, very small semolina balls eaten with sauce and called *berkukes* in its Algerian version; *matbucha* and *slata mechuia*, both Berber salads made from roasted peppers, tomatoes, garlic and/or onions; various forms of couscous, and harissa, a traditional North African spicy condiment, among others."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/8a12b99c-8146-5b9d-83bf-f67372e4fe29":{"contextual_description":"What dish could be more British than fish and chips? The earliest record of the sale of fish and chips by Jewish traders in the streets of London dates to the early 19th century, and a recipe for it appeared in the first Jewish cookbook in English (1846). However, research has shown that the very first record of the recipe can be traced back to the AH 7th / AD 13th century cookbook by al-Tujībī, an exiled and nostalgic chronicler from Al-Andalus who recorded the dishes of his homeland and North Africa. His fish and chips recipe specifies the use of vinegar as a condiment, just like in the current British tradition."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/029877e1-aead-5063-a2fc-075b876b613b":{"contextual_description":"Couscous is a famous Berber dish introduced to Al-Andalus during the AH 6th / AD 12th century during the occupation of the Iberian Peninsula by the Marrakesh Almohad dynasty. From there it spread to Syria and the rest of the Islamic world. But it did not charm only the East, as a recipe for a couscous dish to be served at the king’s table appeared in a cookbook of the Spanish King Philip II.  \n  \nThe appreciation for couscous among Spanish Christians is also evident in the couscous tableware and utensils produced by the ceramics industry of Manises."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/d25ef76d-6748-503e-965e-19925e08932f":{"contextual_description":"This type of ceramic jar was used to store olive oil. During the Spanish Inquisition, Muslims and Jews were forced to convert to Christianity. Their cooking habits, closely linked to their communities’ identities, were targeted by inquisitors in order to force them to prove loyalty to their new religion.  \n  \nDespite its wide use in Mediterranean cultures, olive oil was virtually forbidden during the Inquisition, to be replaced by pork fat (*tocino*), banned by Muslim and Jewish dietary laws. Such prohibitions also harmed some *andalusi* Christians that shared culinary customs with the oppressed."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/b8aa4cfa-6101-5097-bd35-8c57441e3b08":{"contextual_description":"Multiple medieval Islamic cookbooks provide us with recipes for special Christian events. Known as *muzawwarāt*, meaning counterfeit, these vegetarian meals were a form of compensatory or alternative dishes for special occasions, such as during Lent or for meat-free day. They were also recommended for the sick.  \n  \nThis bowl was made for the royal court by a Christian potter from Hira. It showcases the long presence of native Christian communities in today’s Iraq."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/0b350c75-7d8e-5bca-84d9-2bdaf4c82824":{"contextual_description":"With every change of power and enduring contact came new food traditions that migrated between local and arriving cultures. This was true even in troubled times, as during the era of the Crusades.  \n  \nThis striking Ayyubid glass canteen is ornamented with mixed Islamic and crusader iconography, testimony to the mutual cultural exchanges of the AH 7th / 13th century in Syria. It exemplifies vividly the porosity of the two cultures that extended to food. For example, an Ayyubid cookbook from the same period provides a recipe for a tasty and slow-cooked Frankish roast."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/6e78e712-b7a7-57ff-8dec-d9c8081dd60c":{"contextual_description":"The coffee house is a state within a state, a world of its own where local people, friends and travellers from far and wide meet, read, play board games, listen to music or chat, tell stories, and exchange news or recipes. Coffee, coffee drinking and the café span worlds, connecting relatives and strangers. Today we know that the coffee plant originated in Ethiopia, was first planted in Mecca in the AH 9th / AD 15th century, and then, through the Ottoman Turkish Empire, it began to conquer the world, aided by the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate."},"8818b6b4-68f6-5cce-bc26-8dc0b3603340/b0ba3347-ba78-53fd-861e-f8a539eb0280":{"contextual_description":"Food markets have always been places where people could find local and imported goods, fresh produce, and prepared meals. Visitors might discover foods from near or far, exchange information, and share recipes. This Orientalist painting represents this space valued for the sharing of culinary culture. It was executed by the Italian Amadeo Preziosi, who documented his travels in paintings, providing a glimpse of the East to 19th century Europeans."}}