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-{"026dea32-9637-5a90-8cb3-ddf63a376262":{"name":"Astronomical instrument: *Qiblanuma*.","description":"The *qiblanuma* is a portable astronomical instrument whose name literally means 'showing the direction to the Ka'ba'. The wooden instrument is round, with a lid, and is decorated with lacquering, a technique known as *Edirnekari*, in red, pink, black, blue, green, and gilding. The main body includes the compass and pointer. The regions where the instrument can be used are shown on a map and a list of cities is given with their Arabic names.  \n  \nThe upper part of the inside lid shows, on a green background, the minarets of the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, with the Ka'ba in the courtyard. To the left of this are depictions of the sacred sites at the Plain of 'Arafat. To the right and in the foreground are date palms and olive trees, symbols of paradise and blessing. The empty space in the background is filled with illustrations of pomegranates in a bowl, representing plenty. A cartouche framed with leaf motifs extending from among the pomegranates, is decorated with a bouquet of roses on a gold background. The rose bouquet, symbolic of the Prophet Muhammad, was a popular motif in 18th-century Ottoman literature and floral paintings. Fruits in a bowl, symbolising fertility, abundance and immortality, were a typical motif of the period. The inscription in the lower part of the inside lid states that the instrument was made by Barun al-Muhtari in Istanbul in AH 1151 / AD 1738. It also includes instructions on how to use the instrument.  \n  \nThe outside of the lid is decorated in the naturalistic style known as Turkish Baroque-Rococo on a gold background. It features vases filled with roses and flowers surrounded by garlands of acanthus leaves and scrolling tendrils. Six oval medallions placed in this composition feature figureless landscape depictions, which are also found on wall paintings of the same period. The landscape depictions include views of lakes, houses amid trees on the shore, mansions, and villages on the opposite shore, all drawn with the illusion of depth.","short_description":"*Qiblanuma*s are portable astronomical instruments that show the direction to the Ka'ba in Mecca, which Muslims face to pray. They remained in use until the late AH 13th / AD 19th century and this example produced in Istanbul was decorated with a lacquering technique known as *Edirnekari*.","type":"Scientific instrument, laquered on wood","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","dates":"Hegira 1151 / AD 1738.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"Diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"The date 1151 (1738–9) is given on the inside of the lid.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription inside the lid gives the place of production as Istanbul.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"The instrument was transferred to the museum in 1951 from the Hisar Mosque in Izmir, .","bibliography":"Ölçer, N. *et al, In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Istanbul, 1993, p.88.  \n  \nÖlçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.290–91.","artist":"Barun al-Muhtari.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Lacquered (*Edirnekari* technique) on wood."],"keywords":["Qiblanuma; Edirnekari technique; lacquer; Ottoman Baroque; astronomical instrument; pilgrimage; science."],"author":"Gönül Tekeli","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"06a78daa-be7f-5db5-908f-e05f2ebfb0b5":{"name":"Ayla (Aqaba).","description":"The Islamic city of Ayla is located in the centre of Aqaba, Jordan's port which lies at the northeastern corner of the Gulf of Aqaba, an extension of the Red Sea. In the Byzantine period when Christianity became the official religion of the Eastern Roman Empire, the city became a station for pilgrims on their way to Mount Sinai. Its bishops attended the Church Councils of Nicaea (AD 325), Chalcedon (AD 451) and Constantinople (AD 536). It is also reported that the architect in charge of building the monastery of St Catherine at Mount Sinai in the middle of the 6th century AD was Stephanos from Aila (the Roman-Byzantine name as distinct from Islamic Ayla).  \nAmong the Byzantine structures uncovered in the course of recent excavations are the city wall and a church dating to the late AD 3rd–early 4th century. The wall built of stone and standing over 3 m in height, can be traced for over 125 m. North of the city wall is a monumental mud-brick building identified as a church; it measures about 28 m x 24 m. If this identification and dating is correct it will certainly be the earliest church built not only in Jordan, but also in the entire Holy Land.  \nExcavations between 1986 and 1993, uncovered an AH 1st- / 7th-century Muslim settlement to the south of the Byzantine city which had been enclosed by a stone wall measuring 165 m x 140 m. The wall, 2.60 m thick and preserved to a height of 4.50 m, had a series of U-shaped towers with a single gate pierced in the centre of each wall and flanked by semi-circular towers. Behind the gates ran straight streets that intersected in the centre thus dividing the city into four quadrants. The point of intersection was marked by a tetrapylon (a four-way arch); this structure was transformed into a luxurious residential building decorated with frescoes in the second half of the AH 4th / AD 10th century. A rectangular mosque measuring roughly 55 m x 35 m occupied the northeast quadrant. (The northeastern extremity cut off by a drainage wadi).  \nThe sanctuary consists of two aisles (*riwaq*s) formed by two arcades running parallel to the *qibla* wall. On the other three sides of the courtyard is a series of one-bay deep *riwaq*s. In the centre of the southeastern wall there was once a deep niche, (*mihrab*) which indicates the *qibla* (or direction of prayer). After the AH 2nd / AD mid-8th century the mosque was enlarged and a new *suq* (market) was constructed outside the southwest wall facing the sea.  \nAt the turn of the AH 5th / AD 11th century, Ayla was in decline and when Baldwin I (r. 1100–18), king of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, arrived with 200 knights in AH 509 / AD 1116 the inhabitants could offer no serious resistance. In the course of the AH 6th / AD 12th century the walled town was abandoned and a new settlement sprang up further south, near the present late Mamluk castle.  \nThe orthogonal plan of Ayla strongly recalls the legionary camps of the Roman period, for example that of Lajjun and Udhruh in southern Jordan. Such a camp also existed in the late Roman town of Aila to accommodate the Legio X Fretensis one of the Roman legions, which in around AD 300, was transferred from Jerusalem. This camp may have served as a model for the early Islamic Ayla.  \nThe plan of Ayla provides a rare example of an early Islamic town and sheds light on the organisation of the camp-towns (*amsar*) founded by the Arab Muslims to serve as springboards for further campaigns and territorial expansion. Unfortunately, there is no direct evidence for the plan and layout of these *amsar*; what is known about them comes largely from historical sources which suggest more regular planning than has been hitherto thought.","short_description":"Ayla is in the centre of Aqaba, Jordan’s port at the northeastern tip of the Red Sea. A walled Muslim settlement from the AH 1st / AD 7th century lies to the south of an older Byzantine city. Behind its gates ran straight streets that intersected in the centre. Ayla’s orthogonal plan recalls the Roman legionary camps and sheds light on the organisation of the camp-towns (*amsar*) founded by the Arab Muslims to serve as springboards for further expansion. By the turn of the 5th / 11th century, Ayla was in decline and was abandoned by the 6th / 12th century. A later settlement was founded further south.","dates":"Hegira 1st century / AD mid-7th century.","location":"Aqaba","method_for_datation":"The monument has been dated with the help of historical sources and archaeological excavations where pre-Umayyad ceramics have been recovered.","bibliography":"غواتمة ، يوسف درويش ، أيلة ( العقبة ) و البحر الأحمر ، اربد ، 1984.  \nParker, S. T., “An Early Church: Perhaps the Oldest in the World Found at Aqaba”, *Near Eastern Archaeology*, Vol. 61, no. 4, 1998, p.245.  \nParker, S. T., “The Roman Aqaba Project: the 1997 and 1998 campaigns”, *Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan*, XLIV, 2000, pp.373–94.  \nWhitcomb, D., *Ayla: Art and Industry in the Islamic Port of Aqaba*, Chicago, 1994.  \nWhitcomb, D., “The Misr of Ayla: Settlement at al-Aqaba in the Early Islamic period”, in King, G. and Cameron, A., (eds) *The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East II: Land Use and Settlement Patterns*, NJ, 1994, pp.155–70.","dynasty":"Islamic, pre-Umayyad.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Amsar; mihrab; mosque; qibla; riwaq; suq; town planning; Umayyad"],"author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"070ed0d9-7748-52d3-bd7e-202fe737f430":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"Planispheric astrolabe made of brass and comprising four main pieces: a box or 'mother' made up of five sheets that represent different latitudes, a network or 'spider' with indicators for 24 stars and an alidade. On the obverse or 'back' there is a zodiacal calendar and an altimetric scale called the 'shadow square'.  \nAstrolabes are versatile instruments that allow the position of the sun and stars to be calculated. They serve as a calendar and as a clock, and can be used to measure heights and distances. They were used in navigation until they were replaced by the quadrant. They were very useful for working out the time during the day and the night, and for establishing prayer times.  \nThis instrument was made in Toledo by the astrolabe maker Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahali, whose name appears with the year of manufacture (AH 459 / AD 1067) in an inscription in Arabic on the back. Another two astrolabes and a celestial globe signed by him also exist. The astrolabe in the National Archaeological Museum has all of the characteristics of the Andalusian astrolabes, which were famous from the time of the Caliphate and continued to be made in the different Taifas, as in this example from Toledo.","short_description":"Made in Toledo (according to the inscription), this is one of the oldest astrolabes to have survived, and it demonstrates the scientific excellence attained in al-Andalus during the Taifa era. It was used to find one’s position using the stars in the night sky shown on one of its faces.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"National Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 459 / AD 1067.","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Diameter 24.2 cm, maximum depth 1.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"On the back, on the upper part, there is an inscription with the date: 'In the month of Sha'ban of the year 459' (AD 1067).","method_for_provenance":"The name of the city where it was made, Toledo, is written on the back.","provenance":"Toledo, Spain.","obtention":"The astrolabe came to the National Archaeological Museum in 1867 from the National Library.","bibliography":"García Franco, S., *Catálogo Crítico de Astrolabios Existentes en España, Madrid, 1945, pp.229–35.*  \nKing, D. A. “Andalusi Astronomical Instruments”, in *Al Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain* (ed. J. D. Dodds), New York, 1992, pp.376–83.  \nSamsó, J., *Islamic Astronomy and Medieval Spain*, Aldershot, Hampshire, 1994.  \nVernet, J. and Samsó, J., *Instrumentos Astronómicos en la España Medieval: Su Influencia en Europa*, Santa Cruz de la Palma, 1985, pp.80–1.  \nViladrich, M., “Astrolabios Andalusíes”, in *El Legado Científico Andalusí*, Madrid, 1992, pp.53–65.","artist":"Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahali.","dynasty":"Taifa kingdom of Banu Dhi'l-Nun (Dhu'l-Nunids)","materials":["Cast and engraved brass"],"keywords":["Astrolabe; zodiac; Taifas; Toledo; astronomy; science"],"author":"M.ª del Carmen Alonso Rodríguez","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"0ee82313-3b00-5065-9b57-8b032c634961":{"name":"Gold coin (*dinar*).","description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in AH 380 / AD 990. The legend is in *kufic* script.  \n  \nObverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: ''.لا اله الا الله، محمد رسول الله، علي خير صفوة الل'  \n  \n'There is no God except God, Muhammad is the Messenger. Ali is the best God's prime.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **محمد رسول الله أرسله بالهدى ودين الحق ليظهره على الدين كله ولو كره المشركون.**  \n  \n'Muhammad is the Messenger of God. He sent him with guidance and the true religion to prevail over all other religions, even though the idolaters may object.'  \n  \nReverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: **عبد الله ووليه نزار الإمام العزيز بالله أمير المؤمنين.**  \n  \n'Abd Allah and his supporter the Imam Al-'Aziz Billah Commander of the Faithful.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **بسم الله ضرب هذا الدينار بالمهدية سنة ثمانون وثلثماية.**  \n  \n'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in the year 380.' (AD 990).","short_description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) from Ayla in Aqaba. On the reverse is the name of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), the place of minting, al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia, and the date 380 / 990. Ali is mentioned in addition to the Prophet Muhammad on the obverse. The legend is in *kufic* script.","type":"Coin, dinar, gold","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 380 / AD 990.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Diameter 18 mm, weight 4 g.","method_for_datation":"The coin is dated and the place of mint recorded: 'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in the year 380.' (AD 990).","method_for_provenance":"The place of mint is inscribed on the coin as al-Mahdiyya.","provenance":"Al-Mahdiyya, Tunisia.","obtention":"The coin was acquired by the Museum as a result of an archaeological excavation carried out at the site of historic Ayla (Aqaba) in 1993–4.","bibliography":"Unpublished, but for similar coins see:  \n  \nPool, R. S., The Coinage of Egypt: (AH 358–922) under the Fatimee Caliphs, the Ayyobees and the Mamlook Sultan, Classes XIV.XV.XVI, London, 1879, p.17 (year AH 384).  \n  \nالعجابي. حامد، \"جامع المسكوكات العربية بإفريقية\", تونس،1988، ص 228، قطعة رقم 296، اللوحه 28.  \n  \nداود. مايسه، \"المسكوكات الفاطمية بمجموعة متحف الفن الإسلامي بالقاهرة\"، دار الفكر العربي، القاهرة، ص 53-55.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TN_EN_001","materials":["Struck gold."],"keywords":["Coin; coinage; gold; kufic script; al-Mahdiyya; numismatics."],"author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"19003bf4-70f4-5b4f-9cbc-901f2ae697ef":{"name":"Haram al-Ibrahimi.","alternate_name":"Sanctuary of Abraham (the Ibrahimi Mosque).","description":"The Haram al-Ibrahimi is associated with the father of the prophets Ibrahim (Abraham), and is considered to be the fourth most important religious site in Islam (after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem), and the second holiest place after the Aqsa Mosque in Palestine. The Haram al-Ibrahimi consists of a large building with a rectangular floor plan of approximately 60 m x 34 m. The building is surrounded by a great wall built from large blocks of fine cut stone. The Haram has two minarets dating to the Mamluk period. The height of each of them is around 15 m from the surface of the building.  \nThe interior of the building includes a congregational mosque and an open courtyard, as well as arcades, rooms, corridors, domes, and a grotto (known as “al-Ghar”), in addition to a series of graves which were designated for the Prophets Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their wives.  \nThe principle prayer hall is rectangular, about 28 m x 21 m. It consists of three aisles, the middle one being the largest and the highest of them. The prayer hall was originally designed as a church, since it was erected by the Franks on a Romanesque model after they destroyed the mosque that was originally on the site in AH 492 / AD 1099. When Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) reclaimed the city of Hebron in AH 583 / AD 1187, the church was transformed into a mosque and the present *mihrab* was added to it.  \nThe wooden *minbar* which stands today to the right of the *mihrab*, dates to the Fatimid period and was commissioned by Badr al-Din Jamali in AH 484 / AD 1092. It was brought to the Haram by Salah al-Din from Ashqelon (which lies roughly 50 km south of Jaffa). This *minbar* is considered the oldest Islamic wooden *minbar* still in use. It is in good condition and considered a masterpiece in both workmanship and design.  \nThe walls of the prayer area are panelled with polychrome marble, one of the works commissioned by Amir Tankaz in AH 733 / AD 1332. On the northern wall of the prayer hall, where the opening of the holy underground grotto “al-Ghar” is, there is a platform (*dikkat al-muballigh*) from which the prayer leader recites. This was built in AH 732 / AD 1331, and is composed of marble pillars and capitals.  \nTo the north of the mosque lies an open courtyard surrounded by porticoes and rooms. In the northwest corner of the courtyard is the Malikiyya Prayer Hall consisting of an *iwan* with a rectangular ground plan. In the southern wall of the courtyard, there is a beautiful *mihrab* commissioned by Sultan Barquq. There is a portico located at the extension of the western wall of the mosque that is known today as the Jami' al-Nisa (The Women's Mosque). This was an addition sponsored by Amir Shihab al-Din al-Yaghmuri in AH 796 / AD 1393–4.  \nThe Masjid al-Jawali is integral to the Haram al-Ibrahimi although it is not possible to see it from the outside. The west wall of the Masjid al-Jawali is in fact the east wall of the enclosure of the Haram, while the east, north and south walls of the Masjid are hewn from the rock. This mosque was built in AH 720 / AD 1320 by order of Amir 'Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Jawali. It is composed of three arched arcades with intersecting vaults that bear great stone piers. In the middle of the mosque there is a fine, stone dome whose corners are characterised by *muqarnas* decoration. In the *qibla* wall there is a *mihrab* which has been hewn from the rock and panelled with polychrome marble. It is provided with a beautiful semi-dome structure which is also decorated in coloured marble.","short_description":"At over 2000 years old, this may be one of the world’s oldest sacred monuments still standing. It was built in the area believed to contain the graves of the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), his sons Isaac and Jacob and their wives. The large rectangular outer building dates to the early Roman period and is enclosed by a wall of stone blocks. The interior is the product of several Islamic periods. The principle prayer hall was built by the Franks in the Romanesque style. The building is crowned by two Mamluk minarets. It contains the decorated rooms of the tombs. The mosque holds the oldest Islamic wooden *minbar* still in use and dates to the Fatimid period.","dates":"First century BC; AH 492 / AD 1099.","location":"Hebron (al-Khalil)","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by inscriptions, which are further supported by historical information.","bibliography":"'Amru, Y., *Khalil al-Rahman al-Arabiya \\[al-Khalil, the Arab City\\],* Hebron, 1985.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil* \\[*The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nVincent, L. H., and Mackay E. J. H., *Hebron – Le Haram El Khalil,* Paris, 1923.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.202–4.","patrons":"A number of rulers, princes and sultans oversaw the construction, renovations and restorations of Haram al-Ibrahimi. Among them were: Herod (r. 37–4 BC) whom it is likely built the enclosure; Badr al-Din Jamali, the amir of the Fatimid armies; the Crusader Kings of Jerusalem, Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93), who restored the Islamic identity to the site and completely renovated it; Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri, deputy to the sultanate in Bilad al-Sham during the period AH 712–40 / AD 1312–40; Sultan Zahir Barquq (ruled twice AH 784–91 / AD 1382–9 and AH 792–801 / AD 1390–9) and Amir ‘Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Jawali, overseer of the two *harams* (al-Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem and this one in Hebron).","dynasty":"From the Roman period to the end of the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ibrahim; haram; religious architecture; tombs of the prophets"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"1998f916-ba83-52b2-8f1d-49d4257dccba":{"name":"Qatrana Fortress","description":"An important station on the pilgrimage route in Jordan, Qatrana lies about 90 km south of Amman along the desert highway to the west of the Hijaz railway. The site comprises a small rectangular fortress (22.2 m x 17.35 m) and a large water reservoir (70 m x 70 m). The average height of the fortress is 10 m from ground level. All four of the walls are crenellated, provided with arrow slits of two types and machicolations (projecting windows); the external dimensions of the latter structures are 2 m x 2 m, projecting 50 cm from the face of the walls, with that above the gateway having an arched window and two slits on the sides. The remaining machicolations have three regular arrow slits each.  \nThe gateway is located at the centre of the south wall. It consists of a shallow porch, a vestibule with a cross vaulted roof, and a passageway that leads to the courtyard, which is roofed with large basalt beams. Eight rooms are organised around the rectangular courtyard that measures 18.6 m x 4.1 m with the longer side running from east to west. On the east side of the courtyard a flight of steps leads to the first floor where seven rooms are organised around the courtyard with a narrow walkway to provide access to the rooms. A flight of steps on the east side also leads to the roofs of these rooms.  \nTwo different types of stone were used to construct the fortress: limestone and basalt. Both the interior and exterior walls were plastered.","short_description":"Qatrana, an important station on the pilgrimage route in Jordan, lies at about 90 km south of Amman. The site comprises a small rectangular fortress and a large water reservoir, built together with other forts in AH 937 / AD 1531 specifically for the protection of the new pilgrimage route established by Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. The fortress walls are crenellated, provided with arrow slits and projecting windows. The gateway consists of a shallow porch, a vestibule with a cross-vaulted roof, and a passageway that leads to the courtyard, which is roofed with large basalt beams.","dates":"Hegira 937/ AD 1531.","location":"Qatrana","method_for_datation":"The fortress built in 937/ 1531 was, in common with the forts of Dhab'a and Ma'an, built specifically for the protection of the newly established pilgrimage route established by Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent during his reign (926–74 / 1520–66).","bibliography":"الكردي.حنان، القلاع الأثرية في الأردن، عمان، 1984، ص 37–38.  \nBurckhardt, J. L., *Travels in Syria and the Holy Land*, London, 1882, p.658.  \nDoughty, C. M., *Travels in Arabian Deserts*, London, 1926, p.58.  \nPeterson, A., “Early Ottoman Forts on Darb al-Hajj”, *Levant*, Vol. XXI, 1989, pp.97–117.","patrons":"Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Buttress; cistern; crenellations; Hijaz railway; towers; water; water reservoir"],"author":"Mohammad Najjar","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"1a476191-4d4c-570a-ab3c-a49e3f98f66c":{"name":"Prayer rug.","description":"This rug belongs to the group of prayer rugs from Ghiordes, a village between Izmir and Ushak, where most of the Anatolian prayer rugs were manufactured in the AH 12th–13th / AD 18th–19th centuries. It shows in the central field a pointed niche with a half-niche on each side on a cream background. The motif of the three-arched niche derives from rug patterns of Ottoman courtly manufacturing during the AH 10th–11th / AD 16th–17th centuries. In contrast to these original designs, the columns of this rug are based on stylised carnations. Edged with trefoiled blossoms they support the main niche and separate it from the half-niches. The spandrels are filled with stylised carnations on a dark-blue background. A large bouquet of flowers hangs in the apex, reaching nearly to the bottom where a row of carnations is presented. The panel above the spandrels is filled with rosette blossoms and ornaments.  \nThe border is formed by two horizontal and two vertical stripes showing an endless pattern of stylised plants on a dark blue background. The wavy motif of a flower scroll alternately coloured in blue, red and tan is repeated on the inner and outer guard bands.","short_description":"Prayer rug, probably from Ghiordes. In the central field the rug shows a pointed niche with a half-niche on each side. Stylised carnations and bouquets of flowers are the most important motifs of this rug. The central field is framed with a border.","type":"Wool, knotted, carpet","holder":"Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet).","dates":"Hegira 12th century / AD 18th century.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Height 157 cm, width 113 cm.","method_for_datation":"A very similar rug is dated to the 12th / 18th century.","method_for_provenance":"Rugs showing similar designs and colour schemes are usually ascribed to the Ghiordes group.","provenance":"Anatolia (Ghiordes district), Turkey.","obtention":"Acquired from the carpet dealer P. Willborg, Stockholm, in 1984. The rug belonged to the collection of R. Christensen, Stockholm.","bibliography":"Dimand, M. S., *Oriental Rugs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art*, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1973.  \nSterner, M., *Orientens Mattor*, Stockholm, 1959, 204.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Wool; knotted."],"keywords":["Prayer rug; religion; prayer; floral decoration; purity"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"1e8c52f2-59ae-5930-b434-948802ee9220":{"name":"A pilgrim’s flask.","description":"A ceramic pilgrim's flask, sometimes called a Zamzameyyah, due to the fact that pilgrims used to fill such flasks with holy water from the famous well in Mecca called Zamzam.  \n  \nThis type of ware is usually tan or creamy buff in color. These flasks are made of two separate moulded discs which are joined together; the neck and handles are then added. There is a guilloche decoration at the juncture to hide the join. The moulds of the discs have hollow decorations to form a pattern in relief on the surface of the flasks. Often the decoration includes an emblem or rank to indicate the status or profession of the owner, normally an official associated with the Ayyubid or Mamluk court. On this particular flask we have a lily in the middle with a sword on either side, an emblem belonging to several sultans and amirs of the time.","short_description":"A ceramic pilgrim’s flask or zamzamiyyah after the holy well of Zamzam in Mecca. Made of two moulded discs which are joined together, the design has a lily in the middle with a sword on either side, an emblem belonging to several sultans and amirs of the time.","type":"Flask, ceramic","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 8th century / AD 14th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 17.5 cm, width 15.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The flask was dated by stylistic analysis and by comparing it to similar dated artifacts in other museums, such as other pilgrim's flasks displayed in Damascus National Museum.","method_for_provenance":"The provenance of this flask is unknown but it was probably produced in Syria.","provenance":"Unknown, probably Syria.","obtention":"Purchased from an antiquities dealer.","bibliography":"ساري. صالح، الفخار الأيوبي و المملوكي في بلاد الشام 567-923 ه/1171 – 1575 م، رسالة ماجستير، الجامعة الأردنية، 1979، 120، شكل 36.  \n  \nالبهنسي.عفيف، (تحقيق) الآثار السورية: مجموعة أبحاث أثرية و تاريخية (ماينز على الراين، 1982)، ص 285، شكل 253.  \n  \nالعش، محمد،\" الفخار غير المطلي\" الحوليات الأثرية السورية، المجلد العاشر، 1960، ص. 135-184، لوحة 18، رقم 78-84.  \n  \nHerzfeld, E., \"Damascus: Studies in Architecture I,\" Ars Islamica, IX, 1942, p.11, fig. 6.9","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Wheel-thrown ceramic."],"keywords":["Relief decoration; pilgrimage"],"author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"23e8db58-0148-5dc3-98b4-98cb5313ba16":{"name":"Pilgrimage proxy scroll.","description":"This pilgrimage proxy scroll includes handwriting, painting, and drawing on an expensive yellow glazed paper known as *abadi*. It is in fragmentary condition and its title, as well as the section containing the *basmala* (the formula 'In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful'), are missing. The first of the two fragments includes a pair of standards bearing the name of the contemporary Abbasid caliph, al-Nasir (r. AH 575–622 / AD 1180–1225); the standard on the right is partially preserved. Below this emblem is a colour depiction of Mount Arafat flanked by candlesticks. Below this are depictions of the Maqam-i Ibrahim, a stone associated with the Prophet Abraham, and the water wells. Further below this is a depiction of al-Muzdalifa, where pilgrims spend the night as part of their pilgrimage duties, and al-Mina, which is the third most important site for pilgrims. The empty spaces in between the drawings are filled with inscriptions describing the requirements for the pilgrimage.  \n  \nThe depiction of the Ka'ba unfortunately has not survived in this scroll. The second fragment features depictions of al-Safa and al-Marwa (two locations that pilgrims visit in Mecca), the city of Medina (where pilgrims visit the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad), the city of Jerusalem, which pilgrims customarily visit after the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. This proxy certificate was prepared for a person identified as Umm Abbas, wife of Ghalib. The person performing the pilgrimage on her behalf is Ahmad ibn Fadl al-Andalusi. The document was prepared in AH 602 / AD 1206.  \n  \nIn the Middle Ages it was difficult for people, especially women, to go on pilgrimage. Therefore, people who went on pilgrimage themselves, and those who sent a proxy on their own behalves, wanted to own a certificate proving that they had visited the holy sites and fulfilled all the requirements for the pilgrimage (perhaps in order to leave them to the future generations). Such pilgrimage and proxy certificates are invaluable documents for they describe the pilgrimage ritual, depict the holy sites, and provide information regarding the social life of the period.","short_description":"Pilgrimage certificates document pilgrimages to the Holy Lands, culminating in circumambulation of the Ka'ba. The certificates or proxy certificates (for those unable to make the hazardous journey themselves) give the names of the pilgrim and the proxy, the places visited and worship performed, accompanied by pictures.","type":"Scroll, paper","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Umm Abbas, wife of Ghalib.","dates":"Hegira 602 / AD 1206.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"4737: Height 55 cm, width 26.5 cm.; 4746: Height 51 cm, width 26.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The document's inscription specifies the date 602 / 1206. Both the style of writing and the name of the contemporary caliph support this dating.","obtention":"Ismet Bey, the mayor of Istanbul and a member of the board of directors of the Museum of Islamic Foundations (the old name for the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts), visited the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus while travelling. He had a number of items in the Qubbat al-Hazine (Treasury) of the mosque, including Qur'ans and this pilgrimage document, transferred to the Museum where they were registered in the inventory in around 1332 / 1914.","bibliography":"Aksoy, Ş., and Milstein, R., “A Collection of Thirteenth-Century Illustrated Hajj Certificates”, *M. Uğur Derman 65th Birthday Festschrift*, Istanbul, 2000, pp.73–134.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.80–81.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Handwritten and hand-painted on glazed (abadi) paper using ink and watercolour."],"keywords":["Pilgrimage; hajj; Ka'ba"],"author":"Şule Aksoy","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"255a30b7-9af1-50e4-83b8-9d9471ebd490":{"name":"Wall of al-Buraq.","alternate_name":"The Western Wall or Wailing Wall.","description":"The entire area of the Haram Al-Sharif, where it is thought that the Temple of Herod once stood and which was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD, is closely connected with the Prophet Muhammad. The basis for this assertion is provided by the Qur'an (Sura 17: 1): “Glory Be to Him Who made his servant to go on a night from the sacred Mosque to the remote Mosque”. Narrative accounts, which are corroborated by stories from the Life of the Prophet, relate that He arrived in Jerusalem by flying on the back of his horse, “al-Buraq”, who had the head of a woman. There, in the “remote Mosque” He prayed, together with Abraham, Moses, Salomon and Jesus. After that He climbed up on to a golden leather throne and ascended to Paradise. Then He remounted al-Buraq and returned to Mecca the same night. Traces of this nocturnal journey, as reflected in the popular tradition, are kept on the west side of the Rock, while Muhammad's footprints are on the southeast corner of the Rock.  \nUntil June 1967 it was possible to reach an exposed part of the Wall of al-Buraq (the length of which at that time was about 28m) through alleyways and passages in the Moroccan quarter. The approach was marked by a paved walkway which was no more than 3.30 m in width. The Wall's huge, lower well-dressed stone courses are from the Roman period; above them is the Umayyad-period strata (AH 41–132 / AD 661–750), while the upper courses date back to the Mamluk period (AH 648–922 / AD 1250–1517). The final layers were added after 1967 by the Islamic Awqaf Administration (Endowments).  \nInvestigations conducted by the Palestine Exploration Fund have uncovered 19 different layers of Wall beneath the exposed level, which extend down to bedrock. It is likely that these go back to the Roman era.  \nThe Moroccan quarter (part of the *awqaf* endowed by Sultan al-Malik al-Afdal Nur al-Din Ali, son of Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi on AH 24th of Rajab 666 (AD 10th of April 1268)), was destroyed directly after the end of the war in June 1967. The demolition was radical as it included historical buildings adjacent to the Wall of al-Buraq, especially those in the south. Buildings which stood in front of the wall were levelled and covered with earth in order to create a large paved area known by the name of the “Plaza of the Western Wall”. This demolition, in addition to formal archaeological excavations, led to the exposure of more of the Western Wall and the discovery of lower portions of it. A water canal routed along a tunnel was also discovered and was subsequently known as the “Tunnel of the Western Wall”.","short_description":"This is the wall which is associated, according to Muslim beliefs, with Buraq who carried the Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem on the night of the *Mi’raj* (Ascension). This large wall forms part of the Western Wall of al-Haram al-Sharif. Its lower stone courses were built in the Roman period; above them is the Umayyad-period strata while the upper courses date back to the Mamluk period. The Jews believe that the Western Wall belongs to the second temple and call it the Wailing Wall. It is considered the holiest of their religious sites.","dates":"The lower strata of the Western Wall dates to the Roman Governor Herod (r. 40–4 BC); the remaining layers date to the Umayyad period, during the rule of Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan (AH 65–86 / AD 685–705), and other Islamic periods.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The Wall was dated by information obtained from reading the work of the historian, Josephus Flavius (died some time after AD 100) and al-Maqdisi (died at the end of the 4th / 10th century).","bibliography":"'Abud, T., “Harat al-Mughariba Tarikh al-Hadir \\[The Moroccan Quarter: The Present History\\]”, in *Majalat al-Hauliyat al-Quds \\[The Annual Journal of Jerusalem\\],* spring 2003, pp.60–7.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Palestinian Encyclopaedia,* Vol. 2, pp.136–7.  \nTibawi, Abd al-Latif, “Ha'it al-Buraq wa al-Awqaf al-Islamiya \\[The Wall of al-Buraq and Islamic Endowments\\]”, in *Majalat magma' al-luga al-Arabiya bi Dimashq \\[The Journal of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus\\],* 55: 2, 1980, pp.266–87.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *The Islamic Pious Foundation in Jerusalem, Origins, History and the Usurpation by Israel,* London, 1978.","patrons":"The Roman Governor Herod and the Umayyad caliph, ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan.","dynasty":"Roman and Islamic.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["al-Buraq; Al-Haram Al-Sharif; Western Wall of the Mount; Western Wall"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"32434888-ecb9-5b5b-bdc6-bc81ab4851b0":{"name":"Topkapı Palace.","description":"The Topkapı Palace (originally known as Saray-ı Hümayun \\[Imperial Palace\\], Saray-ı Cedide-i Amire \\[New Imperial Palace\\], Yeni Saray \\[New Palace\\]) was founded on an area of the Istanbul peninsula which commands the Golden Horn on one side, and the Bosphorus Strait and the Sea of Marmara, on the other. The wooden palace built by Sultan Mehmed II behind the Top Kapı (literally the 'Cannon Gate'), the oldest sea gate of the palace, burned down and its name was given to the 'New Palace'. The palace is surrounded by the Sur-ı Sultani (Sultan's Walls), whose main entrance is the Bâb-ı Hümayun (Imperial Gate) on the side facing Ayasofya (Hagia Sophia).  \nThe plan of the palace is generally similar to that of the Edirne Palace, occupying an area of approximately 700,000 sq m. Construction began under Sultan Mehmed II and successive rulers added to it, until it took the form of a large complex of buildings. The Topkapı Palace lacks the axial organisation seen in many palaces. This group of buildings, rather than comprising an architectural unity, developed like a small city whose elements underwent changes over time. The palace's plan of three main courtyards was developed, and the monumental gates built, under Sultan Mehmed II. The first courtyard, known as the Alay Meydanı (Parade Ground), is entered through the Bâb-ı Hümayun (Imperial Gate), the main gate of the palace, where the church of Aya Irini (Hagia Irene) is also found. Many buildings were built here for various purposes, but none of them survive. The first courtyard opens onto the second courtyard, known as the Divan Meydanı (Divan Ground), through the Bâbüsselam (Gate of Salutations), also called the Orta Kapı (Middle Gate). The principal buildings here are the palace kitchens, the royal stables, the *Kubbealtı* (apartments for councils of state) and the Tower of Justice. Finally, the Enderun (Inner Palace) area is entered through the Bâbüssaade (Gate of Felicity) or Akağalar Kapısı (Gate of the White Eunuchs). Among the important buildings in this, the third courtyard are the Arz Odası (Audience Hall), used by the sultan to receive ambassadors and viziers; the sultan's privy chamber, later used to house the Hırka-i Saadet (the Mantle of the Prophet); the Pavilion of Mehmed II and the library of Ahmed III. A gently sloping path leads to the fourth courtyard that contains free-standing pavilions. These include outstanding examples of Ottoman civil architecture such as the Baghdad and Revan Pavilions, built by Murad IV (r. AH 1032–49 / AD 1623–40), and the Sünnet Odası (Circumcision Chamber) built by Ibrahim I (r. AH 1049–58 / AD 1640–48). The last building added to the Topkapı Palace was the Mecidiye Pavilion, built under Sultan Abdülmecid (AH 1255–78 / AD 1839–61). The *harem*, where the sultan and his family lived, looks like a separate city within the palace. The oldest section of the *harem* extant dates to the period of Murad III (r.AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95). An inscription above one of the entrances to the *harem*, the Araba (Carriages) Gate, opens onto the second courtyard next to the *Kubbealtı*; it bears the date AH 995 / AD 1588.  \nThe changes and additions made to the Topkapı Palace over time reflect on one hand the decorative styles of the various periods to which they belong, while, on the other hand, they provide a record of the different phases of building that the palace underwent. The Topkapı Palace shows the characteristics of Ottoman court and residential architecture for a period lasting up until the construction of the Dolmabahçe Palace in the AH mid-13th / AD 19th century, and was the official residence of the Ottoman sultans from Mehmed II until Abdülmecid. It became a museum in 1924.","short_description":"Topkapı Palace, which is one of the oldest palaces in the world, served as the administrative centre of the Ottoman Empire for some 400 years. Built on the tip of the Istanbul peninsula, the palace stands on an exclusive point overlooking the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. Unlike European palaces, Topkapı Palace comprises numerous structures and its various pavilions and apartments, each of which is an exquisite example of Ottoman civic architecture, give it the appearnace of a small city. The palace has been serving as a museum since 1924 and its exhibits are among the world's masterpieces.","dates":"Construction began in hegira 9th century / AD 15th century, during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II (his second reign: AH 855–86 / AD 1451–81); the last addition was made under Sultan Abdülmecid [‘Abd al-Majid] (r. AH 1255–77 / AD 1839–61) in hegira 13th century / AD 19th century.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul","method_for_datation":"The most useful sources for dating the palace are the records and archival documents pertaining to its construction. The journals and drawings of foreign travellers are also important for dating, as are the chronicles written by Mustafa âli, İdris Bitlîsî, Kritovoulos, Peçevî İbrahim Efendi, Mustafa Selanikî and Hüseyin Hezarfen. Some parts of the palace have undergone constant changes and are datable solely by their decoration, although an exact chronology of those changes cannot be established.","bibliography":"Anhegger, M., *Topkapı Sarayı'nda Padişah Evi (Harem) \\[The House of the Sultan in the Topkapı Palace (Harem)\\]*, Istanbul, 1986.  \nEldem, S. H., and Akozan, F., *Topkapı Sarayı-Mimari bir Araştırma \\[Topkapı Palace – An Architectural Approach\\]*, Istanbul, 1982.  \nErkins, Z., *Topkapı Sarayı \\[Topkapı Palace\\]*, Istanbul, 1959.  \nKuban, D., “Topkapı Sarayı \\[Topkapı Palace\\]”, *İstanbul Ansiklopedisi \\[Encyclopaedia of Istanbul\\]*, Vol. VII, Istanbul, 1994, pp.280–90.  \nSözen, M., *Devletin Evi Saray \\[The Palace, The House of the State\\]*, Istanbul, 1990.","patrons":"Begun by Sultan Mehmed II during his second reign and continued by successive sultans; the last addition was made under Sultan Abdülmecid.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Palace; harem; pavilion; palace architecture; Istanbul; Ottoman architecture"],"author":"Semra Daşçı","translator":"Barry Wood","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"34344960-90a1-56d8-ab23-52de9332f9bd":{"name":"The Fortress at Ma’an.","description":"A station on the pilgrimage route in southern Jordan, the fortress at Ma'an lies about 200 km south of Amman along the desert highway. The monument is a square structure measuring 24 m x 24 m with a maximum preserved height that exceeds 9 m.  \nThe walls are provided with plain slit windows, with the entrance gateway located in the middle of the eastern wall articulated by stone decorations immediately above it. At the top of the wall, directly above the gateway, a machicolation (a projecting window) is placed. Two different types of masonry were used to construct the eastern wall which might indicate some repairs and modifications to the gateway and the upper storey. The stone decoration consists of an inscription placed between two decorative devices at the top and the bottom of it. The inscription cites the name of the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent as the founder. The upper device consists of an eight-pointed star formed by two intersecting squares with a concave decorative disc in the centre. On both sides of the star and in the centre of the concave disk additional elements of floral and geometric designs are added.  \nAt the ground level 10 rooms, including two centrally placed *iwan*s, were organised symmetrically on both sides of a rectangular internal courtyard measuring 19 m x 8 m. This arrangement is repeated on the first floor which, in addition, was provided with a walkway that is 1 m long.","short_description":"The Ma’an fortress is a station on the pilgrimage route, about 200 km south of Amman. The monument is a square structure. Its walls have slit windows, with the entrance gateway located in the middle of the eastern wall. Stone decorations immediately above it surround an inscription that cites the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent as the founder (in AH 937 / AD 1531). At the top of the wall above the gateway, a projecting window is placed. Two different types of masonry were used to construct the eastern wall, which might indicate repairs and modifications to the gateway and the upper storey.","dates":"Hegira 937 / AD 1531.","location":"Ma’an","method_for_datation":"The fortress is dated to 937 / 1531 and attributed to Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 926-74 / AD 1520–66) on the basis of an inscription above the gateway.","bibliography":"Burckhardt, J. L., *Travels in Syria and the Holy Land*, London, 1882, pp.436–7  \nDoughty, C. M., *Travels in Arabian Deserts*, London, 1926, pp.73–4.  \nMusil, A., *The Northern Hegaz, New York, 1926, pp.2–5.*  \nPeterson, A., *Early ottoman Forts on the Hajj Route in Jordan*, unpublished MA thesis, University of Oxford, 1986, pp.86–93.  \nPeterson, A., “Early Ottoman Forts on Darb al-Hajj”, *Levant*, Vol. XXI, 1989, pp.97–117.","patrons":"Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Barrel-vault; buttress; cistern; corner tower; fortress"],"author":"Mohammad Najjar","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"3b905371-82f4-562e-9ed1-808c1a7eff1f":{"name":"Church of the Nativity.","description":"The origin of the building is a naturally formed cave where Jesus is said to have been born. To immortalise the event the first church was built on this site in AD 31st May, 339. The Church of the Nativity is considered to be one of the most important places to visit on Christian Pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The plan of the original church was a simple octagonal, although nothing remains of it today except a section of the mosaic floor that was incorporated into the floor of the church of Emperor Justinian in AD 529. Despite the occurrence of an earthquake in AH 1250 / AD 1834, and a fire that followed it in AH 1286 / AD 1869, the church preserved its original plan, most of its architectural components and decoration.  \nThe church was not damaged during the Persian invasion of AD 614, and it is said that some of the pictorial elements of the mosaics at the entrance, whose details resemble some elements of Persian art, might relate to the invasion. At the time of the Arab-Islamic Conquest the church was included in the “'Umariyya Treaty”, an agreement that outlined relations between the Muslims and Christians signed by 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab. In AH 560 / AD 1165 and again in AH 564 / AD 1169 the church underwent some renovations and small changes.  \nThe entrance to the church is preceded by a large outside square with the portal at its east end. The entrance is an unassuming door in the wall which would be more in keeping with a fort than with a great church. The door is surmounted by a stone lintel and, being less than 1.5 m high, the visitor must stoop slightly in order to enter the narthex and the church interior. The portal, which dates back to the Mamluk or Ottoman periods, bears remnants from the Crusader period (the pointed arch), and also some remains of the grandiose entrance built during the reign of Justinian (AD 527–65).  \nA small, low rectangular entrance leads to the narthex. There were originally three entrances in to the church but two of the side entrances were subsequently blocked and the vestibule area was divided up into three sections: today entry to the church is by the vestibule's middle entrance.  \nThe church is designed on a basilican plan of four rows of columns made up of five colonnades, the highest and widest of which is the central colonnade. Each row is characterised by 11 columns, and each of these has a gilded capital in the Corinthian style. On the floor of the central colonnade there are viewing holes where the visitor can see parts of the original floor mosaic dating back to the Constantine period. Near a niche situated east of the colonnades there is a staircase descending to the cave where Jesus is said to have been born. On the cave floor there is a silver star upon which in Latin it is stated: “It was here that Jesus Christ was begotten from the Virgin Mary”.","short_description":"The church and grotto of the birth-place of Jesus Christ is one of the most important places of Christian pilgrimage in the world. Building began at the site in 339 and it changed a number of times. The construction of the present church was ordered by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian. It is in basilica form and composed of five colonnades, the biggest of which is in the middle. It is crowned by a gabled roof. In the east side, under the altar, is the holy cave, said to be the birth-place of Christ. In the middle of the church are cloisters from different ages and different Christian sects. This site is also sacred to Muslims.","dates":"AD 529.","location":"Bethlehem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated with the support of information from primary historical sources, and by the discovery of remains of the mosaic floor from the original church.","bibliography":"Murphy-O'Conner, J., *The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700,* Oxford, 1998.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, p.190.","patrons":"The Byzantine Emperor, Justinian I (ruled AD 527–65).","dynasty":"Byzantine.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Church; Christ; cave"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"44db66ac-94d1-513a-affd-eaec477e9022":{"name":"Citadel of Amman (general view).","description":"Muslim troops led by Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan conquered Amman in AH 13 / AD 634. Under Umayyad rule, Amman was the capital city of al-Balqa district. A new residential and administrative complex (Dar al-Imara) was built on the Citadel of Amman. The site known in Arabic as al-Qal'a is a well-defined natural elevation at the heart of ancient and modern Amman. The Umayyad town at the citadel comprised a palace complex: a bath complex; a deep, round water reservoir; a central plaza, a congregational mosque and domestic quarters, all of which were enclosed within fortified walls.  \nThe proximity of the city to the centre of power in Damascus, together with the fact that the area was inhabited by tribes traditionally allied to the Umayyad dynasty, had created a favourable atmosphere for the economic development of al-Balqa in general, and Amman in particular. The city flourished during the Umayyad period benefiting from its strategic location on the trade and pilgrimage route between Damascus and Hijaz. Amman lost some of its political significance with the shift of the political centre of the Islamic state to Iraq and declined slightly during the Abbasid period (AH 132–358 / AD 750–969), and yet even more rapidly in the Fatimid period (AH 358–566 / AD 969–1171). By the AH 8th / AD 14th century, Amman was all but lost from historical memory. The Medieval Arab historian Abu al-Fida wrote of Amman in AH 720 / AD 1321: 'A very ancient town and was ruined before the days of Islam'.  \nIn AH 1296 / AD 1879 the Ottoman administration helped to settle emigrants from the Caucasus into a few areas in Jordan including Amman. In 1921 Amman became the capital city of the newly established Emirate of Transjordan founded by the Amir (later king) Abdullah I.  \n  \nClick [here](< https://youtu.be/yHVm_pbN70Q>) to **watch a video presentation** of this artefact.","short_description":"The Citadel of Amman is a natural elevation within Amman. Muslim troops led by Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan conquered Amman in AH 13 / AD 634, and under Umayyad rule it was the capital of al-Balqa district. The Umayyad town at the citadel comprised a palace complex, a bath, a reservoir, a plaza, a congregational mosque and domestic quarters within fortified walls. The city flourished during the Umayyad period due to its proximity to Damascus but started to decline in the Abbasid period and was abandoned by the 8th / 14th century until 1296 / 1879 when the Ottomans settled Caucasian emigrants in Amman.","dates":"Around hegira 110 / AD 728.","location":"Amman","method_for_datation":"The site was dated on the basis of historical sources and archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Almagro, A., “El Palacio Omeya de Amman”, *La Arquitectura*, Madrid, 1983.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., and Allan, J. W., *A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture*, Cairo, 1989, pp.169–73.  \nKhouri, R. G., *Amman: A Brief Guide to the Antiquities*, Amman, 1988, pp.16–18.  \nKoutsoukou, A., et al, *The Great Temple of Amman: The Excavations*, Amman, 1997, pp.12–16.  \nNorthedge, A. E., *Studies on Roman and Islamic Amman*, Vol. I., Oxford, 1992, pp.74–104.","patrons":"Hisham ibn Abd al–Malik (AH 105–25 / AD 724–43).","dynasty":"Umayyad.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Amman Citadel; bath complex; city wall; congregational mosque; domestic quarters; monumental gateway; palatial complex; plaza; water reservoir"],"author":"Mohammad Najjar","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"461e1b34-d976-5ed9-8d53-d69810250d6c":{"name":"Tomb cover.","description":"A woven silk tomb cover that has a repeat design of zigzag bands set against a dark-green ground. Each zigzag band is contained within narrow borders that hold repetitions of the *shahada*, the Islamic profession of faith, rendered in white with red outlines and set against a dark-green ground: ‘La Ilah Ila Illah wa Muhammad rasul Illah’ (‘There is no God but God and Muhammad is the Messenger of God’). The narrow borders above contain prayers for the Prophet, while those below contain prayers for the four righteous caliphs Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman and ‘Ali as well as for the companions of the Prophet. In between the bands the superposed words ‘Allah’ and ‘Muhammad’ are repeated.  \nIn Ottoman Turkey the cenotaphs of important personages were often draped with various types of textiles, much like this one, with its zigzag patterns of calligraphic prayers. It has been suggested that these textiles may have been intended to recall the ceremonial drapery or *kiswa* covering the Holy Ka’ba in Mecca. The earliest textiles of this type have been dated to the AH 11th / AD 17th century, and the latest to the AH 13th / AD 19th century.","short_description":"In Ottoman Turkey the cenotaphs of important individuals were often draped with religious textiles showing a distinctive design of zigzag panels containing Qur’anic prayers. This custom may have been intended to recall the ceremonial draping of the Holy Ka’ba in Mecca with the so-called *kiswa* cover.","type":"Ottoman carpet, woven silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira 11th century / AD 17th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 231 cm, width 78 cm.","method_for_datation":"A stylistically related funerary textile is in the V&A, London (inv. no. 780-1892), and there is another in the Topkapı Palace Museum (inv. no. 13/1690), both have been dated to the 11th / 17th century (see Atasoy *et. al*, 2000; *Türkische Kunst*, 1985).","method_for_provenance":"Funerary textiles of this type are ascribed to Ottoman Turkey (see Atasoy *et. al*, 2000; *Türkische Kunst*, 1985).","provenance":"Turkey.","obtention":"Purchased from Lisbet Holmes Ltd., London in 1981.","bibliography":"Atasoy, N., Denny, W. B., Mackie, L. W., and Tezcan, H., *Ipek, the Crescent and the Rose: Imperial Ottoman Silks and Velvets*, London, 2000, P.297, fig. 284; p.205, figs. D I, D ii.  \nBlair, S. S., and Bloom, J. M., *Images of Paradise in Islamic Art*, Hanover N.H., 1991 (for a similar later piece and a discussion of the symbolism).  \nScarce, J., *Domestic Culture in the Middle East: an Exploration of the Household Interior*, Edinburgh, 1996, p.106 (where item is illustrated).  \n*Türkische Kunst und Kultur aus osmanischer Zeit*, exhibition catalogue, Recklinghausen, 1985, p.265, cat. no. 5/18.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Woven silk rendered in red, green and gold."],"keywords":["Shahada; kiswa; funerary object"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"498f1612-ae40-5357-872b-5ea4aaf0dae3":{"name":"Zawiya al-Qadiriyya.","alternate_name":"Zawiya al-Afghaniyya.","description":"The Zawiya al-Qadiriyya is considered to be one of the few buildings in Jerusalem whose original architectural design and fabric have been preserved without any fundamental changes and which still carries out its original function to this day. The *zawiya* was bestowed with a generous *waqf* (endowment) and a large number of people still work within it. It is associated with Sheikh ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (d. AH 561 / AD 1166), the founder of the Qadiriyya Sufi Order in the Islamic world. It is called al-Afghaniyya because a group of Afghans have resided there for the past few decades.  \nIt has two outer facades, one on the west and the other on the south. The western façade is simple in its construction and is composed of a series of cut-stone courses of medium size. There are no openings within the west façade except those for small windows that allow natural light into the interior. The principle, southern façade holds the *zawiya*'s sole entrance accessed by means of three ascending steps from street level. The entrance portal, framed on each side by a stone bench or *mastaba*, is placed within a receding recess delineated by a pointed arch. Mounted in front of the arch is a stone panel on which a four-line inscription in *naskhi* script is carved. The inscription includes the name of the *zawiya*, the Sufi Order with which it was associated, the name of the Order's founder and the date of construction.  \nThe entrance leads to a narrow barrel-vaulted passageway, 1.90 m long and 1.5 m wide, which leads to an irregularly shaped but rectangular open courtyard that measures around 400 sq m. A large area of the courtyard is planted with a variety of trees and plants corresponding with the description that appears on the *waqf* document that dates back four centuries. Eleven Sufi cells flank the south and west sides of the courtyard, they are similar in form and design but are different in their surface detail. Each cell is provided with a door and a small window overlooking the courtyard. On the north side of the courtyard are the quarters dedicated to the amenities of the *zawiya* and the assembly hall specifically for the Sufis, this area is composed of two levels: the ground level is original, while the upper floor was added subsequently and was used as the residence for the sheikh of the *zawiya*. The *zawiya* includes a mosque which is located to the east of the entrance and reached by means of a staircase. The floor plan of the mosque is rectangular. It is composed of a prayer hall which is divided into two sections by a tapered arch and covered with two shallow domes. Twelve windows allow light and air to enter into it.","short_description":"Despite the passing of four centuries since the foundation of the Zawiya al-Qadiriyya, it still carries out the function that it was built for: the gathering of *dhikr* (singing) circles of the Qadiriyya Sufi order. No changes have been made to the original ground floor of the building. The building is composed of a gate which precedes a large open plaza cultivated with trees. Surrounding the square are cells for the Sufis, an assembly hall, a mosque and service rooms. The upper storey was added in a subsequent stage of the building history, as a residence for the sheikh of the *zawiya*.","dates":"Hegira 15th Muharram 1043 (AD 22nd July, 1633).","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by an epigraphic inscription found on the entrance arch. The *waqf* document in the registry of the Shari'a Court of Jerusalem (No. 122, pp.232–6) also helps to ascertain the date.","bibliography":"Natsheh, Y., “Al-Zawiya Al-Qadiriyya”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds). *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part I), London, 2000.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* p.101.","patrons":"Muhammad Pasha, Ottoman Governor of Jerusalem, one of the most prominent overseers of architecture in Jerusalem in the first half of the AH 11th / AD 17th century, whose benevolence was particularly directed to the Sufi Orders.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Zawiya; Sufi; Sufi Order; hanging mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"4dcb82b4-7bfd-5da7-932f-7b81314a4d12":{"name":"Mausoleum (*qubba*) of Taynabak al-Hasani.","alternate_name":"Al-Taynabiyya.","description":"Al-Taynabiyya is located in the Maydan al-Fawqani quarter (meaning the upper parade ground) to the south of Damascus. Maydans were originally open fields on the periphery of the city used for exercise and military training, which became settled with the expansion of pilgrim and merchant traffic in southern Damascus, a fact attested to by the medieval historian Ibn Asakir (d. AH 571 / AD 1176) who notes that the first settlements in the Maydan suburb took place during the Zangid period. Thus this section of the trade and pilgrim route, which heads to the holy cities of the Hijaz via the fertile Hauran Plains of southern Syria, began to be absorbed into the urban fabric of Damascus.  \nAs the area was considered auspicious, many *emir*s, including Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin), desired to be buried there in order to receive the blessings and prayers of passing pilgrims. During the Mamluk period in the AH 8th / AD 14th century, urban development was rapid and the quantity of religious, social and economic constructions, such as mosques, *hammam*s, grain markets, and *khan*s, saw a marked increase. The most characteristic type of building to be found on both sides of the Maydan's main artery were the mausoleums (*qubba*); their polychrome façades and painted cupolas offered the suburb a distinctively colourful and picturesque character. Al-Qubba Al-Taynabiyya is one of more than 20 mausoleums to have been built by the Mamluks.  \nThe outer façade of the domed Al-Qubba al-Taynabiyya faces east. The monument is symmetrical in layout and constructed out of black-and-white alternating stone, in a style known as a*blaq*. The entrance, situated in the centre of the façade, is part of an elaborate niche that has a fluted mussel-shaped half-dome ceiling surmounted by a *muqarnas* arch. The niche is topped by a flat, protruding upper section. Beneath the *muqarnas* is an intricate square containing a Mamluk blazon composed of three parts: an empty upper section, a goblet in the middle section, a smaller goblet in the lower section and, between two lozenges, there is a a napkin motif. The goblet, signifying the cupbearer, is one of the most frequently used symbols in Mamluk heraldry, particularly since Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun's time (who ruled three times: AH 693–4 / AD 1293–4; AH 698–708 / AD 1299–1309; AH 709–41 / AD 1310–41), followed by the napkin, symbolising the table master. In this context it is difficult to identify any particular officer and often the use of a composite blazon can be interpreted as a generic status symbol. Above the two windows on each side of the entrance niche are rosettes of interlaced stone incrustations. The monument has two domed chambers: the southern one is a prayer hall, while the northern one houses the *qubba*, where the wife of the founder was buried in AH 798 / AD 1396, and later Taynabak himself in AH 802 / AD 1400.","short_description":"During the AH 8th / AD 14th century the Maydan area, an open field originally used for military training and located along the pilgrim route to the south of Damascus, began to develop as an extension to the city's urban fabric. It became increasingly attractive as a location for mausoleums and religious institutions, which would auspiciously receive blessings and prayers from passing pilgrims. Over 20 Mamluk buildings, distinctive because of their striped *ablaq* facades, elaborate entrance niches and red domes, are located on this road, the mausoleum of Amir Taynabak being just one of them.","dates":"Hegira 797 / AD 1394–5.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The monument was dated by its portal inscription.","bibliography":"Meinecke, M., “Die mamlukische Architektur”, *ägypten und Syrien*, 1992, Vol. II, p.285; cat. nos. 25b, 33.  \nMeinecke, M., “Zur mamlukischen Heraldik”, *Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo,* 28, 1972, pp.213–87.  \nMoaz, A., “Midan, la grande route”, *Le Midan, Actualité d'un faubourg ancien de Damas* (Y. Roujon and L. Vilan, eds), pp.137–9.  \nSauvaget, J., *Les monuments historiques de Damas*, Beyrouth, 1932, p.73; fig. 28ff.  \nWulzinger, K., and Watzinger C., *Damaskus, die islamische Stadt*, Berlin and Leipzig, 1924, p.101; cat. no. D 15.1.","patrons":"Sayf al-Din Taynabak al-Hasani, Governor of Damascus (r. AH 795–802 / AD 1393–1400).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Religious object; funerary architecture; inscription"],"author":"Verena Daiber","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"53de341b-560c-5d23-b886-5d480f725f2c":{"name":"Seal of the Dome of the Rock.","description":"A circular seal made of copper with incised lines that demarcate a square, the corners of which are cut along the circumference of the piece. In the middle of the seal there is a horizontal depiction of the Dome of the Rock, octagonal in form, and in the middle of which is a circle. Portrayed within the circle is what is considered to be the footprint of the Prophet Muhammad, and inscribed below it the words: “Foot of the Prophet”.On top of the carving designated as the footprint of the Prophet, is the Dome of the Rock crowned by a crescent. Within the circle on each side of the Dome building, there is a tree resembling a palm. It is not known whether the two palms have symbolic meaning, perhaps they were drawn simply to fill empty space. Between the middle circle and the octagon there are eight arched niches, designating the interior octagon of the Dome of the Rock. Above the upper side of the octagonal is the façade of the Dome of the Rock, composed of the drum and the dome, and topped by a relatively large crescent. The horizontal depiction of the Dome of the Rock and the Dome's façade is surrounded on three sides by buildings; three portrayals of arcades appear, again surrounding the Dome of the Rock. These are likely to be depictions of: the southern arcade, which opens out in the direction of al-Aqsa Mosque; the south-western arcade, which opens out in the direction of the Bab al-Silsila (Gate of Chains) and the eastern arcade, which opens out in the direction of Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy). The northern arcade, however, hidden by the portrayal of the Dome and its crescent, does not appear. The names of the buildings appear beside the illustrations of them, including the Dome of the Rock and the names of its four gates: Bab al-Janna (The Gate of Heaven), Bab al-Salaam (The Gate of Peace), Bab al-Sakhra (Dome of the Rock Gate), and Bab al-Mizan (the Balance Gate). Similar captions appear beside the illustrations of the Dome of the Mi'raj, the Minbar al-Sharif (Minbar of Burhan al-Din), Qubbat al-Arwah (Dome of the Spirits) and Qubbat al-Silsila (Dome of the Chain). Depicted on the eastern side of the Dome of the Rock is an illustration of a plant that resembles a flower, which is not present to the east of the Dome of the Rock. Historically, there was a dearth of plants in the surrounding environs of the building.  \nIt is possible that the seal was used as authorisation to enter the Dome of the Rock. Or perhaps, it was used to seal the papers of visitors who hoped to be blessed by such an image, or to commemorate their visit to the Dome of the Rock. It might also have been used as some form of shorthand guidebook for the visit.","short_description":"This is a circular copper panel in the middle of which is a layout of the Dome of the Rock. It also shows the surrounding buildings and the staircases which lead to the plaza of the Dome.  It might have been used as authorisation to enter the Dome or perhaps to seal papers of visitors to take home as a blessing or as a souvenir of their visit.","type":"Copper, engraving","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Islamic *Awqaf* (Endowments), Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 13th century / AD 19th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Diameter 16 cm.","method_for_datation":"The piece was dated based on a comparison with another seal which bears the names of holy places in Palestine and the date of which has been narrowed down to the 13th / 19th century.","method_for_provenance":"Jerusalem was narrowed down as the place of production for the seal; the images on it were probably implemented in the area.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred at an unknown date from the Haram al-Sharif to the Islamic Museum.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Engraved copper."],"keywords":["Seal; copper; engraving"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"55a9a6bc-439c-5d96-9801-d84c4d57c26f":{"name":"Ribat of al-Mansur Qalawun.","alternate_name":"Ribat al-Mansuri.","description":"The *ribat* consists of three basic architectural units, the first of which is a deep, wide, rectangular entrance that has on its east and west sides a stone bench known as a *mastaba*. The entrance ceiling has a cross vault and on the southern wall there is an inscription indicating the date of construction. The second element is a large rectangular hall located to the east of the entrance which is 23 m long and 9 m wide. The hall is accessible by means of a passage directly adjacent to the entrance. The third unit is a large open courtyard (28 m long and 25 m wide) located to the west of the entrance. The courtyard is paved with rare and beautiful stones that are still *in situ* today, and which is surrounded by rooms and cells of different sizes. It used to contain two dug-out wells which would have provided those residing in the *ribat* with fresh water. The wells were destroyed, however, when the courtyard was widened in the 20th century.  \nThe *ribat* has a beautiful façade, which overlooks Bab al-Nadhir Street. The façade is approximately 68 m long and about 11 m high. The building is composed of two sections. The history of the highest section dates to the early Ottoman period (AH 10th / AD 16th century), while the origins of the lower section date to the Mamluk period. The two sections are divided from each other by a decorative frame or moulding, which is formed from a series of polygonal-stone shell forms. Despite the additions and distortions that the façade has been exposed to throughout its history, some of the original features are still extant.  \nThe *ribat* was a haven for the poor, providing food to the needy. It was also used to accommodate visitors to Jerusalem. The *ribat* benefited from a *waqf*, which meant that the proceeds from land and property in different parts of Palestine were allocated to cover its running costs.","short_description":"This is one of the biggest Mamluk *ribats* (inns) of Jerusalem. It is located a few metres from the western wall of al-Haram al-Sharif. It was built by Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun to house visitors and students of al-Aqsa mosque. It was richly endowed and distributed food to the needy. The building is composed of two storeys, both of which have large halls and many chambers that flank an open courtyard. Despite the many changes that the principle façade has undergone, its Mamluk design elements are still evident.","dates":"Hegira 681 / AD 1282–3.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by a foundation inscription located on the southern wall of the entrance; this is supported further by mention of the *ribat* in the writing of the historian Mujir al-Din al-Hanbali (d. 928 / 1521).","bibliography":"Abu al-Hawwa, A., *Al-Tatawar al-Mi'mari fi Harat Bab al-Nadhir fi al-Quds fi al-'Asrain al-Mamluki wa al-'Uthmani \\[The Architectural Development in the Neighbourhood of Bab al-Nadhir in Jerusalem during the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods\\],* MA Thesis, University of Jerusalem, 2002.  \nBerchem, M. van, *Materiaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum* (Part II), Cairo, 1922.  \nBurgoyne, M., *Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study*, London, 1987.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[Important Personalities in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nAl-Natsheh, Y., *Ribat al-Mansur Qalawun,* Jerusalem, 2004.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.104–5.","patrons":"Sultan al-Mansur al-Qalawun (r. AH 678–89 / AD 1280–90).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ribat; religious architecture"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5afe91bf-fea8-55d3-82ee-a8b6233aab07":{"name":"Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary).","description":"The Haram al-Sharif is of great importance in the Islamic faith. It is where the Prophet Muhammad set out on his midnight journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (*Isra'*) and from where he ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj)*. Furthermore, God blessed the Haram in the Holy Qur'an, and made it the first *qibla* (or direction of prayer) for Muslims.  \nThe Haram takes an elevated position up in the hills of Jerusalem. It is composed of a rectangular platform of approximately 1450,000 sq m forming one-sixth of the old city of Jerusalem.  \nScholars agree that as it exists today the Haram al-Sharif is devoid of any visible remains that precede the arrival of the Muslims in Jerusalem in AH 15 / AD 638, due to the fact that the buildings which were standing were destroyed by Titus and his legions in AD 70.  \nWhen the Arab-Muslims arrived, Jerusalem surrendered peacefully as part of a contractual agreement set up by Caliph ‘Umar bin al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) with the Patriarch, Sophronius. The Arabs did not destroy any buildings in the area of the Haram and the agreement made with Sophronius guaranteed the protection of the inhabitants, their households and their possessions. Most of the city was inhabited, with the exception of the Haram area, which at the time was neglected.  \nThe Haram site slopes from the north to the south. The highest point of it is in the centre where the Dome of the Rock is located. This tendency to slope is addressed by a platform that traverses it. One section of the platform is known by the name of al-Aqsa al-Qadim, while the other is known as al-Musalla al-Marwani.  \nDevelopment of the Haram is focused on its northern and western borders, although this was following construction at the centre, along with some important buildings such as the Dome of the Rock and the Qubbat al-Silsila (Dome of the Chain). The eastern edge of the Haram inclines towards a slope running down to the Wadi Jahannam (Qidron Valley), used as an Islamic cemetery from the very beginning of the Islamic conquests. On the southern side there is an even steeper inclination that offers better structural support to the architecture, and because of this, Umayyad edifices on the southern limit, best represented by the Dar al-Imara in the south of the Haram, have been continuously inhabited throughout history.  \nThe Haram al-Sharif is composed of three levels. The ground level includes Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy), Bab al-Tawba / Bab al-Dhahabi (Gate of Repentance / Golden Gate), al-Musalla al-Marwani, al-Aqsa al-Qadim (Old Aqsa) and the Masjid of Buraq. The middle level includes the Aqsa Mosque, the Islamic Museum and the side arcades in the western and northern walls, along with a multiplicity of gates and buildings such as *sabil*s, *madrasa*s, *mastaba*s, minarets and domes. The highest level is that of the Dome of the Rock, reached by a series of stairwells, and where there are a series of magnificent domes and some *khanqa*s (Sufi retreats), also the Minbar Burhan al-Din and the Mastabat al-Kark, and a number of cisterns and fountains.","short_description":"This is the third oldest Islamic site after Mecca and Medina and the oldest and most important sacred Muslim site in Palestine. It is a large complex with an area of some 145,000 sq. m. It includes the Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome al-Silsila (Chain) and the Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy) as well as more than 90 other commemorative buildings. The complex thus represents diverse Eastern Islamic architectural arts in different styles over the course of various periods, transforming it into an outdoor architectural museum. The site is linked with Islamic stories, specifically that of the *Isra'* and *Mi'raj* (Night of the Prophet's Ascension).","dates":"Hegira 15–493 / AD 637–1099; AH 583–1336 / AD 1187–1917.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The Haram al-Sharif is dated by the inscriptions it bears, by historical sources and finds from archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Burgoyne, M., *Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study,* London, 1987.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Oxford, 1932.  \nHamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of al-Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938–42*, London, 1949.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. AH 927 / AD 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nNatsheh, Y., “The Architecture of Ottoman Jerusalem”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part II),London, 2000.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza* (pp.69–71).","patrons":"A number of caliphs, sultans and princes of the Islamic lands oversaw the construction of the buildings of the Haram al-Sharif. The most prominent was the Umayyad caliph, Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705). Subsequent renovations were undertaken by several Muslim sultans and caliphs, the most prominent being: the Fatimid caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36) and sultan Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) and the Ottoman sultan, Sulayman al-Qanuni (Sulayman the Magnificent; r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","dynasty":"A series of consecutive Islamic periods ranging from the Umayyad to the Ottoman dynasties.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Al-Isra’; sanctuary; religious building; miraj; sacred objects"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5b39f275-54df-59e1-af9d-1758c033e5d5":{"name":"Printing block (stamp) listing holy places in the region of Palestine.","description":"A printing block (stamp) composed of a simple copper panel that is rectangular in shape. It is devoid of decoration except for the inscribed record on its surface. A frame encompasses the list on all four sides, composed of straight lines engraved into the copper with the exception of the lower line, which takes the form of an undulating wave. There are two curved forms on both edges of the last line. The block holds an engraved Ottoman Turkish inscription that names the principal holy places in Palestine, such as al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, as well as al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil). The block also includes the names of the tombs of some of the prophets, including that of Moses located on the road leading to Jericho; the tomb of David, located outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem and the tombs of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Isaac as well as Jacob, and their wives, in al-Haram al-Ibrahimi and the tomb of al-Khadir. In addition, the block records the names of a series of sites and shrines that include: the Mihrab of Zakariya in the Haram al-Sharif;the site of Abu 'Ubaida 'Amar bin al-Jirrah in 'Amwas (Nicopolis); the Tomb of Mary at the foot of the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem;the Qubbat al-Mi'raj (Dome of the Mi'raj); Qubbat al-Arwah (Dome of the Spirits); al-Buraq al-Sharif (Sanctuary of al-Buraq) in the Haram al-Sharif; the Qubbat Rahil (Rachel's Tomb) in Bethlehem; the tomb of Joseph in Halhul and al-'Ais in Sa'ir. The block also contains the names of the great saints of the Sufi paths, among whom are Muhammad al-Khalili (d. AH 1146 / AD 1734), who was one of the *'ulama of the Bait al-Maqdis* (scholar of the Bait al Maqdis) and Muhammad al-Budairi (d. AH 1220 / AD 1805) who was another scholar of the *Bait al-Maqdis*. The inscription ends with the word “Opening”.  \nIt is possible that the printing block gave authorisation to enter the holy places named, or perhaps it was meant to be a list of places a Sufi should visit in the region of Palestine. It is likely that it was used to print on paper and then distributed to an interested public.","short_description":"A rectangular copper panel devoid of decoration. It is inscribed with a list of the most important sites and shrines in Palestine. It might have been authorisation to enter these places, or a list of places that one should visit, or merely places where one could be blessed. It was probably stamped on paper to be distributed to interested parties.","type":"Copper, engraving","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Islamic *Awqaf* (Endowments), Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 13th century / AD 19th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 31 cm, width10 cm.","method_for_datation":"The piece was dated by ascertaining the life-spans of the pious men who are mentioned (Sheikh Muhammad al-Khalili and Sheikh Muhammad al-Budayri).","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that this printing block was made in Palestine, as there were a number of copper workshops producing a variety of copper objects In Jerusalem. In addition, the names of the sites detailed on the printing block are all in Palestine, which strengthens the hypothesis that it was made locally.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The printing block was transferred on an unknown date from the Haram al-Sharif to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001; IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Forged, hammered and engraved copper."],"keywords":["Entrance authorisation; printing block; copper; list of holy places; list of shrines; engraving; inscription"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5e68b14d-8eb3-5454-8d3b-cd5efa2239df":{"name":"Pilgrim bottle.","description":"A free-blown, globular-shaped glass vessel with enamel decoration. One of the wider sides and the lower half of both narrower sides are flattened. The colours of the enamel are wide-ranging: red, white, blue, pale-green, yellow, pink, mauve, and greyish black. Two applied handles sit on either side of the cylindrical neck. An eleven-pointed rosette within an eight-lobed flower containing vegetal scrolls decorates the flattened side. Decorating the curved side is a four-sided lobed motif, with a geometric shape filled-in with arabesques and surrounded by scrolls, terminating in human, animal, or bird heads. On the left of the curved side is a horseman in the act of killing an animal with a spear, he has a beard and a halo around his head and wears a conical hat with ribbons. Below this figure is a medallion with a female harp player, wearing a veil and a long tunic. On the other narrow side is a horseman under a tree killing a lion with a javelin; birds are flying overhead. He has a halo and wears a long coat and boots. In the circular medallion below him is a man sitting cross-legged, with a beaker in one hand, drinking. His tunic has decorative tiraz bands on the sleeves.  \nThe two horsemen recall those found in Christian iconography, whereas the figures in the medallions are typical of figures depicted in Islamic art. The mixture of motifs suggests the patron was either a Muslim who was familiar with Christian imagery or a Christian who appreciated the work of Muslim craftsmen. The shape of this vessel recalls leather flasks or unglazed ceramic pilgrim bottles, rather than other glass and metal objects. Although made of glass, this flask may have been carried on journeys or pilgrimages in a leather container. It was certainly a luxury object, perhaps made specifically as a gift.","short_description":"This enamelled glass pilgrim bottle is an interesting example of the crossover of Christian and Islamic cultures. Two of the figures decorating the vessel derive from Christian iconography of St George and the dragon, whereas the musician and drinker are found in Islamic art.","type":"Glasswork, gilded glass","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira third quarter 7th century / AD third quarter 13th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 23 cm, length 23 cm, width 16.2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The decoration resembles late Ayyubid and early Mamluk compositions.","method_for_provenance":"The technique and decoration are close to other glass objects produced in the Mamluk domains of Egypt and Syria.","provenance":"Egypt or Syria.","obtention":"Bequeathed to the British Museum by Felix Slade in 1869.","bibliography":"Carboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., Glass of the Sultans, New York, 2001, p.247–9, cat. no. 123.  \nHarden, D., Painter, K., Pinder-Wilson, R., and Tait, H., Masterpieces of Glass, London, 1968, p.114–5, cat. no. 153.  \nPinder-Wilson, R., \"The Islamic Lands and China\", in Five Thousand Years of Glass (ed. H. Tait), 1991, p.134, cat. no. 170.  \nRogers, J. M., \"European Inventories as a Source for the Distribution of Mamluk Enamelled Glass\", in Gilded and Enamelled Glass from the Middle East, (ed. R. Ward), 1998, pp.69–73.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Enamelled and gilded glass."],"keywords":["Vegetal decoration; arabesque; figurative decoration; horsemanship; musician; drinker; pilgrim flasks; pilgrimage"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"66dee6a2-095c-5e95-9ab7-3051179223bf":{"name":"*Zubdat al-Tawarikh* (‘Cream of Histories’).","description":"The work is written in Turkish with large *naskhi* script in black ink on 90 leaves of delicate finished (*aharlı*) paper. Within are 55 miniatures depicting subjects in the text, some of them one to a page and some two. On pages 1b–2a two round medallions carry an inscription stating the work's subject and saying that it was prepared for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95). The text is written 37 lines to a page; the titles and chapter headings are gilded. Their illumination features floral compositions with arabesques (*rumi*) and Chinese-inspired motifs (*hatayi-*style), while that of the first two pages' medallions includes large floral motifs (*halkar*\\-style).  \n  \nThe work's dark-green cover is lacquered using a technique known as *Edirnekari*. The outer covers are richly decorated with gold and silver in floral compositions, while the inner covers feature medallions, pendants and corner-pieces. The binding is not original.  \n  \nThe work, which was written by the court panegyrist (*Şehnameci*) Sayyid Loqman Aşuri, consists of two main sections. The first begins with the universe and the signs of the zodiac and continues with stories taken from the Torah, the New Testament, and the Qur'an which tell of the lives of prophets and those who rendered service to the faith. These are illustrated with paintings. The first part ends with genealogical trees of the Prophet Muhammad, the Four Orthodox Caliphs, and the sultans and high officials of Muslim dynasties such as the Umayyads, the 'Abbasids, the early Islamic period, the Ghaznawids, the Ilkhanids, the Seljuqs and the Timurids. The second part opens with Sultan Osman, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, and goes up to Sultan Murad III, with 12 portraits of Ottoman sultans. It ends with descriptions of the political events of these sultans' reigns.  \n  \nThis work was made for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III, and the quality of its paintings, its binding and its calligraphy make it one of the greatest works of Ottoman art created for a sultan.","short_description":"This manuscript includes stories of the prophets, the birth of Islam and histories of Muslim states. It was written on the order of Sultan Murad III by the historian Sayyid Lokman and illuminated by famous *naqqash* (painters) Molla Kasım and Ustad Osman. It is a unique work of Ottoman art.","type":"Manuscript, miniature, paper, ink, leather binding, lacquered","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95).","dates":"Hegira 993 / AD 1583.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"Height 64.7 cm, width 41.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"It is stated on the work that it was prepared for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III (r. 982–1003 / 1574–95) in 993 (1583).","method_for_provenance":"The work was almost certainly written in Istanbul by order of the Sultan.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"Transferred to the Museum in 1915 from the Library of the complex in Aksaray (Istanbul) founded by the wife of Sultan Mahmud II and mother of Sultan Abdülaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) I, Pertevniyal Valide Sultan (d. 1300 / 1883; queen mother from 1277–92 / AD 1861–76).","bibliography":"Aksoy, Ş., “Zübdetü't Tevarih, Sultan III. Murad için Hazırlanan bir Şehname”, P. *Art, Culture, Antique*, 3, 1996, pp.17–37.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Istanbul, 1993, p.42, pl. 19A–E; pp.52–6.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.272–5.  \n  \nRenda, G., “New Light on the Painters of the Zubdat at Tawarikh in the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul”, *Fourth International Congress of Turkish Art,* University of Provence, 1976, pp.183–207.","artist":"Calligrapher: Sayyid Loqman Aşuri; painters: al-Sayyid Lutfi, Molla Kasım (Mulla Qasim) and Ustad Osman and their workshop.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Delicate finished (aharlı) paper, ink, watercolour, gilding, the binding lacquered (Edirnekari technique)."],"keywords":["Lacquer; Edirnekari technique; gilding; ink; paper; painting; watercolour; zodiac"],"author":"Sevgi Kutluay","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"6c402e37-2b9b-5950-a717-adb9b30770b5":{"name":"Church of the Tomb of Mary.","description":"The Virgin Mary, the mother of Christ, has an important and significant place in Islamic doctrine. There is an entire chapter in the Holy Qur'an that bears the name of Mary, in addition to her being considered the highest exemplar of the virtues of chastity and purity in the Islamic culture.  \nThe historian, Al-Hanbali (d. AH 928 / AD 1522) mentions that the grave of the Virgin Mary was in a church famous as a place of pilgrimage for both Christians and Muslims. He mentioned that when the Caliph ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab (r. AH 13-23 / AD 634–44) visited Jerusalem after the conquest of AH 17 / AD 638, he passed by the Church of Mary and prayed two *rak'ats* in it. The pan-faith significance of the church serves as an explanation as to why there is a large *mihrab* to the south of the tomb.  \nThe origin of the building was a natural cave, upon which a Byzantine church was erected in AD 582 - 602. The church was built on two levels and bore the name of Mary, Mother of Christ. In the course of time the church deteriorated and another was built to replace it. The traveller, Arculf described the Western-style roof of the church in around AH 49–50 / AD 670. The Crusaders undertook the rebuilding of the present church on their arrival in Jerusalem. Despite the fact that the four Gospels do not mention either the death or the place of burial of the Virgin Mary, Eastern Christian tradition considers the location of the church to be where the Virgin Mary is buried and where she made her ascent to heaven.  \nThe entrance to the church is preceded by an open courtyard with a square plan. There is a 5 m drop from the public pathway into the church portal, negotiated by way of a descending staircase. The entrance has a great rectangular door above which there is a pointed stone arch built in the Gothic-Crusader style. The entrance leads to a long and broad vaulted staircase area, which descends in 47 marble stairs. The vaulted area is roofed with a series of consecutive arches supported by intersecting vaults that dominate the building. At the end of the vaulted area lies the tomb of the Virgin Mary; originating as a cave, part of the architectural fabric is excavated from rock, while some has been built. The shrine descends 12 m from the level of the church entrance. The tomb is a carved block of rock that lies at the centre of the eastern section of the cave. In this form, it resembles the tomb of Jesus in the middle of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. To the south of the grave there is a large undecorated *mihrab* crowned by a dome.","short_description":"The church is located to the east of the old city. Its construction was undertaken in the late Byzantine period at a cavern that was considered to be the grave of the Virgin Mary, who occupies a distinguished place in both Islam and Christianity. The present building goes back to the Crusader period and is in the Gothic style. Little remains of the architectural elements of the former churches at this site. The site is also sacred to Muslims and the church contains a number of *mihrab*s (niches).","dates":"Beginning of Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The church is dated by information concerning the site, which is further supported by primary historical sources.","bibliography":"Al-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nMurphy-O'Conner, J., *The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700,* Oxford, 1998.","dynasty":"Crusader.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Grave; Virgin Mary; cave; Wadi Qadrun"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"73a186bf-c916-5473-94f8-30aa969e3624":{"name":"Sokullu Mehmed Paşa Complex.","description":"Payas is a harbour town on the road connecting Anatolia to the Middle East. Because of its strategic importance it has been home to numerous civilisations, and in AH 921 / AD 1516, in the wake of the Battle of Mercidabık, it became part of the Ottoman Empire. The importance of Payas increased even more given the development of trade between the Ottoman Empire and the countries of the Middle East, as well as its location on the pilgrimage route. In order to fortify this strategic point and address the needs of travellers, Sultan Selim II ordered the construction of a complex here. The official who took on the responsibility, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, employed the architect Sinan for the project.  \nThe complex, founded next to a fortress built after the Ottoman Conquest to replace an older one, occupies an area of approximately 700 m x 250 m. In the centre of the complex is a street with shops (*arasta*) oriented north to south. Measuring 115 m x 15 m, it consists of 48 shops on either side of a vaulted corridor with a prayer-dome at its centre. To the east of the *arasta* are the buildings for hospitality, such as the caravanserai, soup-kitchen (*imaret*), and guest house (*tabhane)*; to the west are the buildings for prayer, education, and hygiene, including the mosque, primary school, *madrasa*, and bathhouse (*hammam*).  \nThe caravanserai consists of a square courtyard with porticoes on its north, south, and east and the covered section roofed with cross-vaults. The *imaret* to the south of the *caravanserai* has a porticoed courtyard with four enclosed rooms to the east and west. The *tabhane*, for special guests, comprises four rooms; it is located west of the *caravanserai*, adjoining the *arasta.*  \nThe *hammam* lies northwest of the *arasta.* The building was designed as a double *hammam*: the hot-water room or *sıcaklık* (Lt. *caldarium*) of the men's section has four *iwans* and four corner-rooms, while that of the women's section is star shaped. The primary school, built adjoining the west wall of the men's *sıcaklık*, has two square rooms with domes and a three-bay portico on the south.  \nThe *madrasa* and mosque, located on the southwest of the *arasta,* share a courtyard which can be accessed from an entrance in the north as well as from the *arasta.* The *madrasa* comprises 21 rooms surrounded on three sides by porticoes.  \nThe mosque consists of a cruciform prayer hall, an eight-bay portico for latecomers on the north, and a minaret at the northwest corner. The prayer hall is covered with a dome in the centre and has cross-vaulted *iwan*s extending in four directions.  \nThe main walls of all the buildings of the complex are covered with ashlar. It is possible to connect the two-coloured stonework found on the entrances of various buildings in the complex, particularly on the mosque entrance and the *mihrab*, with the traditions of Mamluk and Zangid art, rooted in Egypt and Syria.  \nOf the buildings making up the complex, the mosque is the only one that is still used for its original function. The other buildings are not in use, but are open to visitors.","short_description":"Payas is an important harbour town on the route connecting Anatolia to the Middle East. The extensive complex of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha in Payas contains a mosque, a *madrasa*, a children's school, a bathhouse, caravanserai, *imaret* (soup-kitchen) and a *tabhane* (guest-rooms) flanking the *arasta* (row of shops) in the centre of the complex.","dates":"Hegira 982 / AD 1574.","location":"Payas, Dörtyol","province":"Hatay","method_for_datation":"The gate of the *caravanserai* has an inscription stating that the complex was built by Sokollu Mehmed Pasha on the orders of Sultan Selim II in AH 982 / AD 1574.","bibliography":"Aslanapa, O., *Osmanlı Devri Mimarisi \\[Architecture of the Ottoman Period\\]*, Istanbul, 1986.  \nKuran, A., *Mimar Sinan*, Istanbul, 1986.  \nMüderrisoğlu, F., “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Doğu Akdeniz'deki İskelesi Payas ve Sokullu Mehmed Paşa Menzil Külliyesi \\[Payas: The East-Mediterranean Port of the Ottoman Empire, and the Külliye-at-a-day's-journey of Sokullu Mehmed Paşa\\]”, *Dokuzuncu Milletlerarası Türk Sanatları Kongresi \\[Ninth International Congress of Turkish Art\\] (23–27 September 1991), Proceedings, Vol. 2,* Ankara, 1995, pp.513–24.  \nSözen M., *Türk Mimarisinin Gelişimi ve Mimar Sinan \\[Development of the Turkish Architecture and Mimar Sinan\\]*, Istanbul, 1975.","patrons":"Sokollu Mehmed Pasha under the auspices of Sultan Selim II (r. AH 974–82 / AD 1566–74).","architects":"Architect: Koca Mimar Sinan Ağa (d. AH 996 / AD 1588).","dynasty":"Classical Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Külliye; arasta; Payas; Sinan; pilgrimage route; Egypt; Syria; Mamluk; Zangid"],"author":"Şakir Çakmak","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"74efc106-e576-5569-bfb1-3b51d81c8622":{"name":"Church of the Holy Sepulchre.","alternate_name":"Qaniset al-Qiameh.","description":"The Church of the Holy Sepulchre enjoys a rich history and has extraordinarily distinguished artistic and architectural traits. The church is sacred to all the Christian faiths as, as is evident from the name, it is revered as the site of the Resurrection of Jesus following his Crucifixion, his suffering and death. According to Christian belief Jesus was buried (the sepulchre) in this church. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a large architectural complex that includes a number of smaller chapels; in total the area exceeds 5000 sq m.  \nWhen the first church was founded on this site during the Byzantine period it included four elements: atrium, basilica, open courtyard and the sepulchre or holy tomb. In AD 614 the Persians set fire to the church, badly damaging it; the church was repeatedly thereinafter partially destroyed and repaired over the next 400 years. The Patriarch, Modestus undertook restoration of the church following the attack, and made alterations to it, decreasing the scale of the original plan. The Caliph 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–4), who was notoriously protective of Christian sites, refused to pray in the church when the Patriarch Sophronius suggested he did so; apparently he was eager to protect the city's Christian rights.  \nThe Crusaders made alterations and additions to the church, the initial implementation of which had been the ambitious project of Constantine IX Monomachos and which transformed the design of the church once again. A new church was erected in AH 543 / AD 1149, which was known as the Church of Nisf al-Dunya (Church at the Centre of the Universe, a catholicon used by monks), in the Romanesque style. The church was built around the rocky hill of the Crucifixion, the Rock of Calvary (Golgotha) overlooking the Rotunda. Similarly, the alterations included those made to the entrance leading to the place of Crucifixion within the church building, while the level underneath it was made the burial place of some of the Frankish kings. A bell tower, the doors of which opened to the south instead of the east, was added in AH 566 / AD 1170. Despite these important changes, the most prominent features of the Church remained until AH 583 / AD 1187. Saladin followed the example of 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab and was tolerant of Christians and respected their rights to worship.  \nEntrance to the church is by way of a great portal, above which there is a huge stone lintel. The lintel is carved with decoration in low relief portraying scenes from the Bible. On entering the portal, there is a modern staircase that leads up to the site of the Crucifixion, which today is divided into two sections: east and west. What remains of the Rock of Calvary is found in the west-facing Greek area surrounded by a glass frame. The Rock is cracked and according to the Christian faith the crack occurred when Christ was stabbed by a Roman soldier and was stripped of his cloak.  \nA descending staircase confronts the ascending stairwell and leads to the Stone of Anointing where, to the west of the Stone, a wall has been erected that divides the entrance from the Church of Nisf al-Dunya. A little to the south is the holy dome covered by a large semi-circular stone dome with a cylindrical drum supported by a series of pillars. A central window opens onto the pivot of the dome, which is decorated with 12 petals in gold leaf, symbolising the 12 apostles of Christ. In addition to those areas discussed here, there are a number of other cells, rooms, halls and chapels in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.","short_description":"This holiest of holy Christian sites is revered as the site of the tomb and Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It is set almost in the centre of the old city of Jerusalem. The church is a great complex that includes a number of chapels, oratories, cloisters and subterranean chambers and holds many icons, mosaics and important religious statues. Renovations since its original construction has given it stylistic variety and it is now predominantly in the Romanesque and Gothic. The church has number of divisions which are imperceptible except by the religious raiment of each Christian sect that controls that section.","dates":"The first construction AD 326-335. The present construction inaugurated in AH 543 / AD 1149.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by means of historical sources.","bibliography":"Al-Natsheh, Y., *Kanisat al-Qiyama \\[Church of the Holy Sepulchre\\],* Jerusalem, 2002.","patrons":"Emperor Constantine (r. AD 308–37) and his mother, Helena.","architects":"The construction was supervised by Qasis of Constantinople, also known as Eustathius. The engineer/designer was known as Zanobious from Palmyra (today Tadmur in Syria).","dynasty":"The church dates back to the Byzantine period but several renovations were implemented in subsequent periods.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Resurrection; Crucifixion; church; Jesus"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"85fb094d-1ff0-508b-bb75-cfcae0c77625":{"name":"Painting.","description":"The painting shows a topographical view of Mecca with the Great Mosque in the centre surrounded by the houses of the city and the hills of the Meccan neighbourhood. In the middle of the large open court of the Mosque stands the nearly cubic, black veiled building of the Ka'ba, the holiest sanctuary of Islam. The simple structure of the Ka'ba has been little modified throughout the centuries although the building has been restored, in contrast to the Great Mosque which has been reconstructed several times. The painting depicts a view of it after the Ottoman rebuilding period of the AH 10th century / AD 16th century. Inspired by the imperial architecture of Istanbul, arcades with small domes arranged in a line surround the court on either side and the seven minarets were provided with two or three balconies. The painter has tried to show a town-planning measure of the Ottomans. The old Meccan districts were densely inhabited and the houses reached the exterior walls of the Great Mosque. It was decided to tear down houses that immediately bordered the walls in order to create a large area of open space before the Mosque and its façade, as was the rule within the mosque complexes in Istanbul, Bursa or Edirne.  \nRepresentations of Mecca and the Ka'ba illustrate itineraries used by pilgrims for orientation during the *hajj* or appear on tiles and tile panels of the second half of the AH 11th / AD 17th century to the first half of the AH 12th / AD 18th century. They show detailed descriptions of the function of the different buildings. The dome in front of the Ka'ba on the left side of the *minbar* (pulpit), for example, covers the footprints of Abraham. The open building beside it houses the *Zamzam* well whose water the pilgrims drank and took home. The choice of the represented buildings, their arrangement and their execution resemble those of copperplate engravings in European descriptions of Mecca more than depictions of the same scene in contemporary prayer books or on the tiles mentioned above.","short_description":"Painting showing a topographical view of the city of Mecca with the Great Mosque in the centre surrounded by houses. In the middle of the large open courtyard is the black veiled building of the Ka’ba.","type":"Oil on canvas, painted","holder":"Uppsala University Library.","dates":"Hegira early 12th century / AD early 18th century.","location":"Uppsala","dimensions":"Height 84.5 cm, width 111.2 cm (without frame).","method_for_datation":"The painting was acquired by the theologian and orientalist Michael Eneman (1676–1714), probably in Istanbul, where he was sent by the Swedish King Charles XII (1682–1718) as his envoy in 1709. After a journey through Syria, Palestine, Sinai, Egypt and Cyprus in 1711 and 1712 he came back once more to Istanbul before he returned to Sweden. It is assumed that the painting is a contemporary work because representations of Mecca and Medina were common at that time.","method_for_provenance":"The painting was purchased by the theologian and orientalist Michael Eneman during his stay in Turkey, probably in Istanbul, at the beginning of the 12th / 18th century. At that time, representations of Mecca and Medina were a common subject of Ottoman painting not only in oil but also on tiles or as illustrations of pilgrim and prayer books.","provenance":"Possibly Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"Purchased by Uppsala University Library in 1717.","bibliography":"Ådahl, K., “View of Mecca and the Ka'ba”, in *Uppsala University Art Collections*, Uppsala University, 2001, pp.256–7.  \nErdmann, K., “Note. Ka'bah-Fliesen”, *Ars Orientalis* III, 1959, 192–7.  \nFaroqhi, S.,*Herrscher über Mekka: Die Geschichte der Pilgerfahrt*, Düsseldorf; Zürich, 2000.  \nGren, E., “Bidrag till Michael Enemans Biografi Studier och Bokförvärv”, *Donum Grapeanum*, 1945, pp.445–94.  \nMostafa, M., *Islamische Keramik*, Cairo, 1956, figs. 94, 95.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Oil on canvas; painted."],"keywords":["Pilgrimage; figurative decoration"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"8724a3b4-5bc3-563e-8060-000c6b3e01bf":{"name":"Maqam of Nabi Musa.","description":"The Maqam of the Prophet Musa (Moses) is one of the largest religious architectural complexes in Palestine comprising three levels: the basement, ground and first floors. Enclosed on all four sides, the complex covers an area of 5000 sq m. Its plan is almost square: the length of the north wall is about 74 m, the west wall about 70 m and the east wall 68 m. The south wall is the shortest at about 55 m.  \nThere are five entrances that all open out into the complex. The principle entrance is the west portal, located on the south side of the west wall. The complex is built of sandstone of which only the upper courses are square-cut and well dressed.  \nThe basement includes stables for horses and storage areas. The first and ground floors include more than 100 rooms and a series of halls, a minaret and a multiplicity of accoutrements. The mosque and the *maqam*, the most important sections of the complex,are at ground level. The mosque has a rectangular ground plan of 15 m x 10 m. It is composed of two aisles, with three cross vaults over each aisle. The *maqam* itself is located near the northwest cross vault. It has a square plan measuring 5.5 m. The middle of the *maqam* is smaller than its sides, measuring 4.7 m long, 1.6 m wide and 1.7 m high. It is built from well-dressed stone, and faces a west–east direction. It is encompassed within a wooden enclosure and covered by a *kiswa* of green cloth. The *maqam* is topped by a semi-circular dome supported by four pointed arches.  \nThe *maqam* has been endowed by many *awqaf*. Historically the *waqf* of the Prophet Moses is considered one of the richest and most famous, providing free food and accommodation to visitors as well as salaries for a large number of employees – approximately 50. The employees included the *waqf* supervisor, sheikh of sheikhs, scribe, servant, custodian, gatekeeper, muezzin, torchbearer, sweeper, keeper of the Qur'an sections, and distributor of the Qur'an sections as well as other employees. The Maqam of the Prophet Moses occupies an important position in the history of the Palestinian people from a religious, architectural, social, folkloric and political point of view.","short_description":"This is the largest and most famous of the *maqamat* (tomb sanctuaries) of Palestine. Its plan is almost square and it covers an area of 5000 sq m, with three levels. The complex includes stables, storage areas, a large mosque with a minaret and the room of the *maqam* as well as a number of porticoes and different facilities. These include 100 rooms crowned by domes for the residence of guests during the season. The complex is located in a unique desert environment on the Jerusalem–Jericho road. The *maqam* has an important place in Palestinian folklore and is associated with many social and political events.","dates":"The dome was erected on the tomb and the mosque was built in AH 668 / AD 1269. The building was extended in AH 885 / AD 1480, and the minaret was built some time after AH 880 / AD 1475–6. The complex was restored several times subsequently, in AH 1013 / AD 1604; AH 1150/ AD 1737; AH 1175 / AD 1761; AH 1235 / AD 1819; AH 1303 / AD 1885.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by five inscriptions found in the building, the most famous of which is the foundation inscription of Sultan Baybars, on which his titles and the date the dome was constructed appear (AH 668 (AD 1269)).","bibliography":"Al-'Asli, K., *Mawsam al-Nabi Musa fi Filistin, Tarikh al-Mawsam wa al-Maqam \\[The Festival of the Prophet Moses in Palestine: The History of the Festival and the Maqam\\],* Amman, 1990.  \nMurrar, K. M., *Maqam al-Nabi Musa, Dirasat Tarikhiya wa Athariya wa Mi'mariya \\[The Maqam of the Prophet Moses: Historical, Archaeological and Architectural Study\\],* Nablus, 1997.  \nMukhlis, Abd A., “Kaifa wa Matta Bad'a Mausam al-Nabi Musa \\[How and When Does the Festival of the Prophet Moses Start?”, in *Majallat huna al-Quds \\[Journal of Jerusalem\\],* No. 6, 1942.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.142–4.","patrons":"The first sponsor of the *maqam* and complex was Sultan Zahir Baybars (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77). The complex was restored during the Ottoman period by each of the following: ‘Ali Katkhuda ‘Azban; ‘Abd al-Latif al-Husayni; ‘Abdallah Pasha, governor of Sidon and Tripoli, and Muhammad Tahir al-Husayni, Mufti of Jerusalem.","architects":"Restoration of the *maqam* took place during the Ottoman period at the hands of architects from the family of Husayn bin ‘Ali bin al-Namri, among whom was ‘Abd al-Muhsin bin Mahmud bin Husayn, the chief architect of Jerusalem and his brother, al-Hajj Karim.","dynasty":"The *maqam* dates to the Mamluk period but the building was extended and restored during the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Maqam; Prophet Moses; Mawsim, Season"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"912b204e-c92a-58e3-8cab-b04e1caa9f7e":{"name":"Dome of the Rock.","description":"Dome of the Rock is one of the oldest Islamic monuments still standing today. It has a grandiose monumental form representing one of a small number of buildings in the Islamic world that may be chronicled as part of the creation and formation of an Islamic art in general.  \nDome of the Rock is built on an octagonal plan topped by a semi-circular great dome and supported by a circular drum. Four doors, each facing one of the cardinal directions, are built into the walls of the building. The façades are covered with marble panels at the bottom and ceramic (glazed) tiles at the top. These tiles date back to the time of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent who ordered the replacement of the original glass mosaic with ceramic tiles in the period AH 952–9 / AD 1545–52. The marble panels were also renewed several times. The interior or inner drum, the cylinder which carries the dome, is also adorned with glass mosaic tiles. At present the outer dome is covered with gold-plated copper panels, although it was formerly of lead covered with a thin layer of gold-plate.  \nBoth the interior and exterior of the Dome of the Rock is built on an octagonal plan, surrounding the exalted Rock. According to Islamic belief the Rock is where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj*) on the night of his nocturnal journey from Mecca to Jerusalem *(Isra')*. The interior octagonal (which follows the outer octagon walls) is supported by eight piers and 16 columns. The rotunda is supported by four piers and 12 columns. Between the piers and columns span semi-circular arches, the façades and surfaces of which are decorated with mosaic tiles and colourful epigraphic texts. The rotunda is covered by a double dome. The inner dome has a diameter of 20.44 m, and is considered to be the oldest wooden structure still extant. It is composed of wooden panels that are decorated with written inscriptions and geometric decorations against a stucco background. Sixteen windows open on to the inside of the dome's drum. The drum is adorned with mosaic decorations and inscriptions from the Qur'an; it is enriched by a large number of inscriptions belonging to different restoration projects carried out by Muslim caliphs and sultans, the most famous being those that date to the Umayyad, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods. The dome is devoid of figurative decoration and exemplifies a response to changing religious orientation.","short_description":"This is the jewel of Islamic architecture and the oldest Islamic monument that has not undergone fundamental changes. It thus provides very important testimony to the creation and formation of Islamic architecture and early Islamic decorative arts. It is also considered to be one of the most beautiful monuments in the world. The building is octagonal in form and is covered on the outside with marble and glazed tilework. The interior is decorated with marble, mosaics, plaster and wood. The great gold dome that towers over the building symbolises Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 72 / AD 691.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by a foundation inscription, written in the *kufic* script. Furthermore, there are a group of early Muslim historians such as al-Maqdisi al-Bishari, the famous geographer (who died at the end of the 4th / 10th century) and who dated the construction of the building to 72 / 691.","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Vol. 1,Oxford, 1932.  \nGrabar, O., and Nuseibah, S., *Dome of the Rock,* New York, 1996.  \nAl-Natseh, Y., *Qubbat al-Sakhra al-Mushrrafa: Jauhara al-Quds wa al-Masjid al-Aqsa al-Mubarak \\[Dome of the Rock: The Jewel of Jerusalem and the Early al-Aqsa Mosque\\],* Jerusalem, 2002.  \nRichmond, E. T., *Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem: A Description of its Structure and Decoration*, Oxford, 1924.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, pp.76–8; 54.","patrons":"The Umayyad caliph, 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705). The building was renovated by a large number of Muslim caliphs and sultans. The most prominent among them being: the Fatimid caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) and the Ottoman sultan, Sulayman the Magnificent (r. 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","architects":"Raja’ bin Haywa and Yazid bin Sal'am participated in the construction of the building. The name of the craftsman, Muhammad bin Balawar is associated with renovations that took place during the Fatimid era. Mustafa Raqam is linked with the late Ottoman restorations (AH 13th / AD 19th century).","dynasty":"Umayyad.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Isra’; Mi’raj; ceramic tile; rock; rock of bayt al-muqaddas; mosaic; kashani (ceramic tiles); dome; wooden dome; double dome; octagonal; copper; gold-plate"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"92b6403f-d36a-550d-b953-dceb45d22cf5":{"name":"Key for the Ka’ba.","description":"A single key that was used for the *Ka'ba* (meaning literally cube in Arabic). It consists of a ring (the diameter 3.6 cm) that is attached to a moveable cube-like shape with bevelled edges, and which is linked to the handle of the key. The handle consists of three small cuboids that alternate with two baluster-shaped separators. The body of the key itself assumes the form of an elongated cuboid whose cross-section is small in relation to its length, measuring 13 cm. The body of the key terminates with four protrusions.  \nA number of inscriptions with religious, political and documentary significance ornament the key including a series of inscriptions written in *naskhi* script that appear on all three of the handle cuboids. The inscriptions, carved on four planes of the first, read as follows: 'It is He who has sent His messenger with guidance and the religion of truth to prevail it over all religion' (Qur'an: 'The Victory'; 48:28). The inscriptions written on the second are: 'By order of Allah, no God but Allah – Sha'ban ibn Husayn – in the year 765'; while the inscriptions on the third cuboid read: 'One of the things made for Bayt al-Haram (the Sacred House, the *Ka'ba*) during the reign of our lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf'. Thus, the inscriptions clearly indicate that the owner of the key was the Mamluk Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban ibn Husayn who began his reign on a Tuesday, the 15th day of the month of Sha'ban, in the year AH 764 (AD 1362), when he was 12 years old, and that he ruled Egypt and the Levant until his death in AH 778 / AD 1376. The key bears the date of manufacture, AH 765 (AD 1363).  \nOn the shaft of the key there are a number of inscriptions in Mamluk *naskhi* script, distributed over its four surfaces. These consist of the following Qur'anic verses: 'Verily We have granted thee a manifest victory: That Allah may forgive thee the faults of the past and those to follow; Fulfil his favour to thee and guide thee on the straight way. And that Allah may help thee with powerful help. It is He who sent down tranquillity in to the hearts of the believers to increase their faith'. ('The Victory'; 48:1–4). 'The first house \\[of worship\\] appointed for men was that at *Bakka* full of blessing and of guidance for all kinds of beings. In it our signs manifest; (for example), the Station \\[*maqam*\\] of Abraham; whoever enters it attains security; Pilgrimage thereto is a duty men owe to Allah – those who can afford the journey; but if any deny faith, Allah stands not in need of any of his creatures.' ('Al-Imran'; 3:96–7).  \nIt may be observed that the Qur'anic verses recorded on the body of the key complement the key's objective, and affirm the religious obligation of the *Hajj* (pilgrimage) on Muslims. In addition, the verses allude to the city of Mecca by the name 'Bakka' which is one of a number of names given to the city including, 'Umm al-Qur'a', 'al-Balad al-Amin' and 'al-Bayt al-Haram'. Likewise, the verses also point out the Station of the Prophet Abraham. According to Imam al-Bukhari, the intended meaning of the Station of Abraham is a rock, upon which Abraham is believed to have stood when he raised the building of the *Ka'ba*. The rock is located in proximity to the *Ka'ba* and is covered by a wooden dome, the interior of which is decorated with gilded ornamentation. The structure rests on stone supports, between which there are four iron windows.  \nEgypt used to send the keys of the *Ka'ba* with the *kiswa* (cover) every year to Mecca. Despite the fact that the keys were presented every year, those housed in museums today number very few, and date back to the Mamluk and Ottoman periods. The Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul has acquired most of the *Ka'ba* keys, while the Islamic Art Museum in Cairo houses only this one *Ka'ba* key.","short_description":"Sultans and amirs sent gifts to the holy sites in Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. This key was a gift from Sultan Sha'ban to the Ka'ba. It is decorated with verses from the Qur'an, ornamentation and inscriptions. A *kiswa* (covering) for the Ka'ba was sent with the key every year in the pilgrimage season.","type":"Key, the Ka'ba,wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","initial_owner":"Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban ibn Husayn.","dates":"Hegira 765 / AD 1363.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 34 cm.","method_for_datation":"The key is accurately dated by the inscription recorded on it.","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that this key was made in Egypt since it carries the name of the sultan of Egypt at the time and the year of production. That this piece was made in Egypt is further supported by the fact that Egypt was responsible for despatching the *kiswa* along with the key each year to Mecca.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This object was purchased in 1945 from a dealer of antiquities, Ralph Harari.","bibliography":"Atil, E., *Renaissance of Islam: Art of the Mamluks*, Washington D.C., 1987.  \nMajid, Abdel Al-Mon'em, “Mafatih al-Ka'ba \\[Keys of the Ka'ba\\]”, *Mijalat Kuliyat al-Athar* \\[*Journal of the Faculty of Antiquities*\\], Vol. 1, 1978, pp.108–9.  \nSayour, S., “Mafatih wa Kiswa al-Ka'ba \\[Keys and the Covering of the Ka'ba\\]”, *Prism Magazine* (Foreign Cultural Relations Dept., the Egyptian Ministry of Culture), No. 6, 2000, pp.29–32.  \nStierlin, H., and Stierlin A., *Splendours of the Islamic World: Mamluk Art in Cairo (1250–1517)*, London, New York, 1997.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Copper inlaid with silver."],"keywords":["Religious object; in-lay; Hajj; inscription; naskhi script; Ka’ba; Kiswa; key; copper"],"author":"Salah Sayour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"998a912b-36fb-51e9-9d23-92392129a07c":{"name":"Prayer rug.","description":"A rug produced by peasant weavers in Ghiordes, Anatolia, famous for their tightly woven work with a short, silky wool pile. Ghiordes was one of the major carpet-making centres during the AH 13th / AD 19th century and both the design and colour scheme of this rug, a deep-blue niche framed with elaborate spandrels and borders, is typical of Ghiordes rugs. The niche confirms that this is a prayer rug, used to provide a ritually clean place for the five daily prayers. The niche reflects the *mihrab* or prayer niche in an Islamic mosque, indicating the direction to Mecca, towards which Muslims turn in prayer. It may also symbolise the gateway to Paradise. The ornament suspended in its apex may have a spiritual meaning.","short_description":"Every household in Ghiordes, Anatolia, had a handloom for the womenfolk and girls to weave small carpets and prayer rugs on. This prayer rug is decorated with an elaborate central niche reminiscent of the architectural prayer niche found in Anatolian mosques.","type":"Wool, Knotted, Carpet","holder":"St. Mungo Museum for Religious Life and Art, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"Hegira 13th century / AD 19th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 183 cm, width 119 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis: both the layout and weave of this rug resemble several other 13th- / 19th-century prayer rugs of this type, attributed to Ghiordes in Anatolian Turkey in particular.","provenance":"Gördes, Anatolia, Turkey.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Bennett, I., *Rugs and Carpets of the World*, London, 1977.  \n  \nScarce, J. M., 'Oriental Carpets: The Burrell Collection', *Arts of Asia*, May–June 1990, p.136.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Wool (warp and weft and pile) with cotton in parts; woven on a handloom."],"keywords":["Religious objects; floral decoration"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a0123f90-172b-59e1-9291-e46637556232":{"name":"Metal grille/enclosure.","description":"An iron grille or enclosure, of which the Museum displays 19 segments held together by the use of fine iron rods. The grille has been worked in the Gothic style, a style that predominated in the AH 6th / AD 12th century in Crusader art and architecture. This enclosure surrounded the rock which is located within the Dome of the Rock and from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens on the night of the *Mi'raj*.The enclosure was intended to protect the rock from European Christian pilgrims during the Crusader period who would take pieces of the rock back to their homeland either in the hope that they would be blessed by it or, due to the sacred nature of the rock, to imbed within church buildings. The rock was thus in danger of losing its natural shape and required protection. The enclosure, already in a delicate state of repair during the restoration works which took place around 1960, was replaced by a wooden balustrade worked in the Islamic carved-wood style. The iron grille was then put into storage at the Islamic Museum, but many pieces were lost in the interim.  \nThe grille is composed of segments that are identical in both width and height, except for the central four segments which are 257 cm high. Between each pair of rods are 21 repetitive decorative units, each one of which grows out of a small semi-circle of iron wire to become a flower. The flowers wrap around three times in a circular fashion extending from the centre, and face an identical blossom whose circles have been formed by wire coils spiralling in the opposite direction. The two flowers are connected together by a wire stay. This arrangement repeats itself to form the entire decorative format of the enclosure. It should be noted that a similar, small piece of a grille is still in the Dome of the Rock.","short_description":"This is an iron enclosure or grille formed from pieces of approximately equal size and similar repetitive decoration, joined by small intricate iron bands. It is in Gothic style, which predominated in the art and architecture of the Crusaders in Palestine. This enclosure surrounded the rock placed within the Dome of the Rock for its protection.","type":"Grille, metalwork","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 230 cm, length 570, width: 30 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by comparison in both technique and decoration with those used in other pieces that go back to the Crusader period, such as the pair of candlesticks housed in the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","method_for_provenance":"It is probable that this piece was produced in Jerusalem where, as is generally the case with architectural furniture, it was made *in situ*.","provenance":"Probably Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from the Dome of the Rock to the Islamic Museum in about 1960.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the so-called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in Al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution, and Impact”, *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*,No. 45, 1982.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provencial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidence on the Temple Area Atelier”, in *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Forged iron fastened with rods."],"keywords":["Grille; Gothic; Crusader; metalwork; ironwork; vegetal decoration"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a0e649a0-0f53-5503-9c38-d0a4035fdc34":{"name":"Page of manuscript with Moses, Muhammad and the Archangel Gabriel.","description":"This single sheet from a manuscript features, between bands of script, the prophets Moses and Muhammad and the Archangel Gabriel conversing in heaven. Angels, perched on five clouds behind these three principal characters, appear to be listening. The scene portrayed is one from Muhammad’s visionary ascension to heaven. Muhammad stands on the right-hand side in a long green robe and turban, and Moses, wearing a long dark red robe, is on the left, in front of his heavenly throne, which is denoted by an inscription in Arabic lettering. Moses is gesturing his hands in speech. Muhammad, with whom he is conversing, stands on the opposite side. A white veil conceals his face, while his hands are hidden in the long sleeves of his gown. The heads of both prophets are crowned with halos, within which their names, written in a black script, can be deciphered. The Archangel Gabriel stands between Muhammad and Moses, turning towards Muhammad. He is characterised by a twin pair of multicoloured wings and a crown. Gabriel already featured in the Old Testament as the gate-keeper of Paradise. As one of two angels standing in the presence of God (Luke 1: 19), it was Gabriel who explained the story of the Messiah (Daniel 8: 16ff.). He was supposed to have announced the wording of the Qur’an to Muhammad. In Sura 2 verse 97 it is written that: Gabriel ‘has by God’s grace revealed it \\[the Qur’an\\] to you \\[Muhammad\\] to your heart’.  \nThe text above the three personages, which describes the story, is written in Ottoman Turkish. It includes the account of Muhammad discussing with God the number of daily prayers. Both eventually agreed on five daily prayers. Moses is Muhammad’s heavenly adviser and Gabriel is his companion. The direct speech of all those involved is written in Arabic. The text is taken from a biography of the prophet which had appeared from the AH 1st century / AD 7th century on. The generic term for this type of biography is *sira*, which translates as ‘life facts’ or ‘way of life’. This single sheet probably came from a handwritten work completed for the Ottoman Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95).","short_description":"This painted page from a book shows the Archangel Gabriel with the Prophets Moses (left) and Muhammad (right). Surrounded by angels they discuss the question of daily prayers. This happened during Muhammad’s ascent to heaven. Because it was forbidden to show Muhammad, his face is veiled.","type":"Manuscript, miniature","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","initial_owner":"Possibly Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982-1003 / AD 1574–95).","dates":"Hegira end of 10th century / AD end of 16th century; probably during the reign of Sultan Murad III (AH 982-1003 / AD 1574–95).","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 31 cm, width 20.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The date has been established through the handwriting on the single manuscript page, which was transcribed for the Ottoman Sultan Murad III (982–1003 / 1574–95).","method_for_provenance":"Both the text and the style of this page suggest that this consists of a single leaf written by a single writer in the same handwriting, which was made for the Ottoman Sultan Murad III.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"From a London gallery in 1976.","bibliography":"Budde, H. and Nachama, A. (eds.), *Die Reise nach Jerusalem*, Berlin, 1995, p.180, cat. 1/121, ill. 180.  \nKalter, J. and Schönberger, I., *Der Lange Weg der Türken, 1500 Jahre Türkische Kultur*,Stuttgart, 2003, pp.138, ill. 149.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst Berlin* Catalogue,Stuttgart; Zürich, 1980, no. 40.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst Berlin* Catalogue,Berlin, 1979, no. 668.  \nPetspoulos, Yanni (ed.), *Kunst und Kunsthandwerk unter den Osmanen*. Munich, 1982, p.200, ill. no. 209.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Ink, gouache on paper, gilding."],"keywords":["Qur’an; prayer; miraj; ascension; religious manuscript"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"a422b89c-541c-5d0c-b8ef-5292227a2201":{"name":"Pilgrim’s Flask.","description":"This canteen, often described as a pilgrim's flask, is a container used to carry water while travelling, on pilgrimage, or hunting trips. It is manufactured using a mould and its body is in the form of a disc with a mouth and a pair of loops attached to the side. To keep water from spilling out, the mouth is elongated by a tube of earthenware resembling a set of gradually narrowing rings stacked one on top of the other. The two loops flanking the flask's mouth can be strung by a rope to hang on the hip while travelling on foot, horse or camel-back.  \nThe surface of the body is decorated with a moulded imprint boldly portraying a Mamluk blazon, known in Arabic as 'rank'. The open-winged eagle on top of a chalice that is flanked by flowers is known to be the blazon of Prince Toquztimur. It is believed that he started out as an official cup-bearer and his blazontherefore displays the cup. When he rose to the rank of governor for Sultan Nasir al-Din Muhammad (r. AH 709–41 / AD 1309–40), he added the symbol of the eagle as a tribute to the Sultan. The six-petal roses that appear underneath the eagle may signify a tribute to Nasir al-Din's family, the Qalawun.","short_description":"This flask decorated with an emblem, a fashion that became popular during the Mamluk period, carries a symbol of an eagle and identifies the owner as Prince Toquztimur, the Mamluk Governor of Hama and later Aleppo.","type":"Flask, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Prince Toquztimur (r. AH 742–6 / AD 1341–5), Mamluk Governor of Hama and then Aleppo.","dates":"Hegira 742–6 / AD 1341–5.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 27.3 cm, diameter (of body) 18.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The canteen is datable by the blazon that identifies it with Prince Toquztimur (r. 742–6 / 1341–5). Similar objects have also been dated to this period.","method_for_provenance":"This object was found in Aleppo, but since Prince Toquztimur was the Governor of Hama and then of Aleppo, it is also possible that the flask was produced in Hama. Similar objects, in respect of both style of decoration and function have been given Syrian provenance.","provenance":"Aleppo or Hama, Syria.","obtention":"Purchased in 1933.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.225.  \nAtil, E., *Art of the Mamluks: Renaissance of Islam*, Washington DC, 1981, p.190.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994, p.454.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.132.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004, pp.120–7.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Moulded earthenware."],"keywords":["Pilgrim flasks; canteen; earthenware; pottery; moulded; Aleppo; Toquztimur; blazon (or rank); eagle; cup; al-Nasir Muhammad; pilgrimage"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a65b9f90-12e9-50e4-9065-9d1274ef0a10":{"name":"Incense Burner.","description":"An incense burner of great beauty and fine workmanship that is also in very good condition. The engraved inscriptions on it indicate that the Mamluk sultan, al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Abu Said Muhammad Jaqmaq endowed it to al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil), where it remained for a number of centuries until it was transferred in 1928 to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem. The burner is elongated in form and has ribbed and curved surfaces. It is composed of three sections: the bottom section, the top section and the attachment and chains. The bottom section of the burner is a spherical container in the shape of an inverted dome in concordance with the top section of the burner, which takes the form of an elongated dome. The upper part of the bottom section is spherical, transforming into a ribbed surface with 12 faces and terminating in a ribbed edge that also has 12 faces. The spherical surface contains gilded epigraphic decorations that read: “There is no God but God, Muhammad is the prophet of God and Ibrahim \\[Abraham\\] is the friend of God. This blessed burner was endowed by our lord, the Sultan, the Sovereign, the Ruler, al-Zahir Abu Said Muhammad, May God strengthen his triumph, to al-Haram al-Ibrahimi”. The burner rests on a slightly elevated base, which widens towards the bottom; it is ribbed with 12 sides and is decorated with gold lines.  \nThe upper section is the cover or lid. It is in the shape of a dome faced by two spherical forms: the upper, smaller one and the lower. This section of the burner contains two inscriptions. The bottom of the cover has a ribbed surface of 12 faces, each containing vegetal decoration in the form of a lotus blossom. The cover terminates in a ribbed edge.  \nThere are three suspension loops on the top of the lower section attached to which are chains; the chains are attached to the three suspension loops on the bottom of the burner. The attachment and chains is in the form of a small dome, the apex of which is connected to the hook for hanging. The dome of the attachment is ornamented with vegetal decoration in addition to 12 small spheres, which adhere to the ribbed neck. There is a gilded inscription on the attachment that reads: “The burner is thus the burner of the humble servant, Abd al-Qadir bin Muhammad Qabzi”.","short_description":"This burner was donated, as indicated by its gilded inscriptions, by Sultan al-Zahir Jaqmaq.  It is an elongated burner with ribbed surfaces with twelve divisions.  It is composed of three sections: the bottom, the upper section with the lid, and the attachment and chains. It is decorated with vegetal motifs.","type":"Incense, burner, copper","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Sultan al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Abu Said Muhammad Jaqmaq (r. AH 842–57 / AD 1438–53).","dates":"Hegira 842–57 / AD 1438–53.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 42 cm, height (when suspended) 103 cm, diameter 14 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by the inscriptions that indicate this incenser belonged to Sultan al-Zahir Jaqmaq.","method_for_provenance":"It is probable that the incenser was made in Cairo for its construction resembles other objects from the ateliers in Cairo during this period. The incenser was endowed to the Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron by the Mamluk sultan, al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Abu Said Muhammad Jaqmaq, an assertion based on the inscription.","provenance":"Probably custom-made in Cairo specifically for al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil).","obtention":"The piece was transferred from the Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem in 1928.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., *Islamic Art Through the Ages: Masterpieces of the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif,* Jerusalem, 1998.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Copper, engraved and inlayed with gold."],"keywords":["Incense burner; Mamluk Incense burner; copper; mosque interior decoration"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a94d6e26-81d2-5650-b785-1ad7d1e3be12":{"name":"Maqam of the Prophet Samuel.","description":"A *maqam* or sanctuary that is associated with the prophet and judge, Samuel, who lived in the 11th century BC. It is believed that the mortal remains of the prophet were laid to rest here in the village where he was born in AH 569 / AD 1173. The village was mentioned in the journals of the traveller al-Maqdisi (died at the end of the AH 4th / AD 10th century) under the name of *Dair* Samuel. The historian, al-Hanbali (d. AH 928 / AD 1521) also noted that the village was the site of the Prophet Samuel's grave. Modern archaeological excavations have revealed that this village expanded and flourished during the Crusader period.  \nThe origins of the building began with an underground cave (or crypt) on top of which a Crusader church was erected in AH 551 / AD 1157. This was after Baldwin II allowed the Premonstratensian Order to use the site. The church was damaged following the Battle of Hattin in AH 583 / AD 1187, and the Muslims transformed what remained of the building into a *maqam* during the Ayyubid period. The present mosque was an addition to the *maqam* during the Mamluk period. The mosque was renovated and the minaret was added to it during the Ottoman period (AH 1143 / AD 1730) under the auspices of Sheikh Muhammad al-Khalili. The site was renovated by the Islamic High Council in AH 1340 / AD 1922.  \nThe *maqam* is a large complex that consists of two levels comprising the crypt and a large mosque with a series of rooms. It is possible to enter the crypt by the principle portal on the eastern side of the building. The portal leads to a large vestibule (7 m sq), which opens directly into the mosque and, via a staircase, down to the crypt. The rectangular crypt (11 m x 4 m) is covered by a barrel vault. One of the two tombs of the Prophet Samuel is located in the western section of the *maqam*. Following Israeli Occupation of the site in 1967 this section of the crypt was designated for Jewish worshipers only.  \nThe mosque is composed of two prayer halls, in addition to a minaret and a number of rooms. The first hall is an *iwan* designed on a square plan and measuring approximately 8.5 m x 7.20 m. The *iwan,* located to the south of the vestibule entrance, is at the same level as the vestibule and is covered by a fan-shaped vault. There is a simple *mihrab* on the south wall. The principle prayer hall is located to the west of the vestibule; it measures approximately 21.5 m x 11.5 m. It is composed of three rectangular spaces which extend from the north to the south. In the middle of the central space is another tomb of the Prophet Samuel. To the south of the tomb, there is another *mihrab*.This area is designated for Muslims. In the southeast corner of the vestibule there is a long staircase that ascends to the entrance of the minaret and the roof of the mosque. The minaret is 13.5 m high from the roof, offering splendid panoramic views of Jerusalem and the surrounding villages.","short_description":"One of the commemorative *maqamat* (sanctuaries) spread throughout Palestine, it is located on the summit of the highest mountain in the region of Jerusalem. It was built by the Crusaders as a church and Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) transformed it into a mosque and *maqam*. The Ottomans added a minaret to it. The building is a cavern, on top of which is a large prayer hall and a number of rooms that were used for services and for visitors to the *maqam*. It used to receive Sufis but it is now controlled by Muslims and Jews.","dates":"Hegira 551 / AD 1157.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by an inscription at the entrance, through study of historical sources and by a comparison of its architectural design with those of similar buildings.","bibliography":"Al-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Magnificent Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nAl-Maqdisi, Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad bin Ahmad (died end of the 4th / 10th century), *Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma'arifat al-Aqalim \\[The State of the Art in the Knowledge of Regions\\]*, Leiden, 1906.","patrons":"Baldwin II (r. AH 512–25 / AD 1118–31).","dynasty":"The *maqam* dates back to the Crusader period, it was expanded during the Mamluk period, and renovated in the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Church; cave; maqam"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b20793d5-1141-55aa-a80e-ab4725d92f81":{"name":"Towers of the Citadel of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi: Burg al-Ramla and Burg al-Haddad.","description":"Located in the walls of the Citadel of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, also known as Citadel of the Mountain (Qala'a al-Jabal), both towers, Burg al-Ramla and Burg al-Haddad, are composed of three storeys reaching a height of 20.80 m. The ground plan of each assumes the shape of a three-quarter circle. They are both built of stone with a rough surface and depressed cavities. Burg al-Hadad is distinctive from Burg al-Ramla and the remaining towers of the citadel, by the presence of four *Saqatat*, stone balconies which project from the wall of the tower and which are borne by stone brackets. The balconies do not have floors in order to make it easier for the defenders of the citadel to throw inflamed substances and boiling oil onto the enemy. The oldest remaining example of this type of defensive strategy (*Saqata*) is seen in Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi in northern Syria and dates back to the Umayyad Caliph, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. AH 105–25 / AD 724–43). This component of fort towers then appeared subsequently in the Atabeg and Ayyubid periods during the Crusades in the Levant, and in the Mamluk period in the Citadel of Qaytbay in Alexandria.  \nThe Mamluk sultans used the towers of the citadel and the surrounding area to house their soldiers. The Circassian Mamluks known also as *Burji* Mamluks (r. AH 784–922 / 1382–1517) were interested in fortification works and the construction of towers, in particular Burg al-Ramla and Burg al-Haddad. There are three marble panels fixed to the right-hand wall of the entrance to the old gate of the citadel, Bab al-Mudarraj – this gate was built by Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) and is located on the southern wall of the northeastern military section – which bear historical texts indicating that the fortification works, the construction and the renovation were undertaken by three of the Circassian Mamluk sultans. They were Jaqmaq (r. AH 842–57 / AD 1438–53), Qaytbay (r. AH 872–901 / AD 1468–96) and al-'Adil Tumanbay (r. AH 906 / AD 1501).","short_description":"The two huge towers are located in the northeastern corner of the eastern rampart of the Citadel of Salah al-Din (Saladin) connected by a covered passage. They served as barracks for the Circassian Mamluks in the reign of Sultan Qalawun, who were nicknamed *Burji* Mamluks.","dates":"Hegira 579 / AD 1184.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"The towers were dated based on the foundation plaque in the Qala'a al-Jabal, which was placed on Bab al-Mudarraj and which bears the name of the builder and the year of construction. Historical studies of the monuments conducted by the archaeologists, Casanova in 1894–97 and Creswell in 1924, demonstrated, however, that the northern walls of the citadel and the towers within it, go back (most of them) to the period of al-Nasir Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","bibliography":"Al-Maqrizi, Taqi al-Din Ahmad (d. 845 /1442), *Al Mawa'iz wa al–Itibar Bi Dhikr al-Khitat wa al–Athar \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the recollection of Plans and Monuments\\],* Cairo, 1853.  \nCasanova, P., “Histoire et Description de la Citadelle du Caire”, *Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique Française du Caire*, No. 6, Paris, 1897.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Muslim Architecture of Egypt,* Vol. II, Oxford, 1960.  \nRabbat, N., *The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mamluk Architecture*, Leiden, 1995.  \nZaki, Abd al-Rahman, *Qala'a Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi wa ma hawlaha min al-Athar \\[Citadel of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi and the Surrounding Monuments\\],* Cairo, 1971.","patrons":"Al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known also as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","architects":"The commander, Baha’ al-Din Qaraqush al-Asadi supervised the building.","dynasty":"Ayyubid.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Tower; war-time architecture; military architecture"],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"bd0502e7-8e93-5eae-9634-c4fcfe027590":{"name":"Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi (Monastery of St Moses the Ethiopian).","description":"The monastery grew around an abandoned Byzantine watchtower dating back to the AD 5th or 6th centuries. According to legend, the King of Ethiopia's son arrived to Syria after he rejected royalty to seek out a spiritual existence. After travelling though Egypt and Palestine, attaining his priesthood along the way, he became a monk and settled in the Qalamun Mountains of Syria, living in the caves and the nearby abandoned watchtower and leading a devout life. He was martyred at the hands of Chalcedonian Byzantine soldiers in the early AD 7th century and the monastery was thus named after him.  \nThe monastery is characterised by a defensive style of architecture. The entrance on the western wall is extremely small, 1 m in height; with arrow loops distributed along the wall. The entrance leads into a dark corridor leading to various small chambers, the church and the terrace overlooking the cliff. The main rooms are distributed along two stories built above the cliff top and three stories dug below. Rain water was collected in reservoirs and stored inside the monastery to be used throughout the rest of the year. In the AH 10th / AD 15th century the monastery facilities were further extended.  \nThe church is located to the north of the monastery and was built in the year AH 450 / AD 1058. It is square in plan with sides measuring 10 m. This layout is divided into two sections: the Holy of Holies, consisting of the prayer-niche and screen wall, and the prayer hall, composed of three bays separated by two rows of columns. The extensive fresco paintings that cover the church walls have survived as some of the richest examples of regional Christian art. These reveal three different layers of painting, all of which were executed during the period of Seljuq, Atabeg and Ayyubid reigns.  \nDue to the flaking of the paint, restorers have been able to examine stylistic and iconographic features of all three layers. Their date inscriptions have survived, written in Arabic, revealing the adoption of the Arabic language by the Christians of the region during the medieval period. The lowest layer, dated AH 466 / AD 1073–4, is the sparsest and has an animated style of painting, a continuity of local Hellenistic Christian art. The second layer, dating just a little later than the former at AH 488 / AD 1095, is similarly expressive and survives most completely on the eastern wall of the central nave, portraying the Baptism of Christ. The third and most visible level, survives as a comprehensive medieval Christian mural, offering a rare opportunity for iconographic analysis. An example is the depiction of the Day of Judgement, located on the wall of the western window, and exactly facing the painting of the Annunciation on the wall of the eastern window. Stylistically, these later paintings reveal a Syriac style, more spontaneous than earlier Byzantine traditions. The date is not very clear; one reading is 1504 in the Seleucid calendar, which corresponds to AH 587–8 / AD 1192. Another reading is AH 604 / AD 1208. Either possibilities place these paintings in the Ayyubid period.","short_description":"This monastery is located in the cliffs overlooking the Qalamun mountains, near the route connecting Damascus and Homs. While the oldest part of the monastery is pre-Islamic, an AH 5th- / AD 11th-century church displays *in situ* the most complete survival of medieval Christian mural paintings. The three layers of these distinctive local paintings are dated to the Atabeg and Ayyubid period of Syrian rule. They indicate an artistic renaissance among the Syriac Christian communities, in keeping with the tradition of Islamic tolerance towards communities of different faith, even at the height of political militarism and Crusader warfare.","dates":"The oldest part of the monastery (currently serving as the kitchen area) was originally a pre-Islamic Byzantine tower dating back to the AD 5th or 6th century. The monastery’s church dates to AH 450 / AD 1058.","location":"Qalamun Mountains, East of Nebek.","method_for_datation":"Through excavation, massive dome-shaped constructs in the monastery's foundations were discovered and attributed to the pre-Islamic Byzantine era, dating to the AD 5th or 6th centuries. There is also a manuscript in the British Museum in London attributed to the Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi and dated to AD 575, implying that the monastery was well-established prior to that date. As for the church, a carved inscription dates its construction to 450 / 1058. There is also an inscription above the entrance indicating that renovation works were completed in 902 / 1497.","bibliography":"Cruickshank-Dodd, E., “The Monastery of Mar Musa al-Habashi near Nebek, Syria” *Arte Medievale: periodica internzionale di critica dell 'arte medievale,* 2nd series, 6:1, 1992, pp.61–132.  \nEvans, H., *Byzantium: Faith and Power 1261–1557*, New York,2004, p.424.  \nDell'Oglio, P., \"Tarikh Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi wa wasf al-Rusumat al-Jidariyya fi Kanisatihi \\[The History of the Saint Moses the Ethiopian Monastery and a Description of the Mural Paintings in its Church\\]\", *Tarmim Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi \\[The Restoration of Saint Moses the Ethiopian Monastery\\],* Damascus, 1998, pp.11–23.","patrons":"Since the AD 6th century the monastery was cared for by the Eastern Christian communities and the residing monks. After much neglect and damage, especially during the 1970s, the task of restoring the monastery was undertaken by Italian Jesuit Paolo dell’Oglio and the Syrian Catholic communities, taking care to maintain the old and indigenous methods of art and architecture.","architects":"The architects of the monastery’s church, which was built during the AH 5th / AD 11th century, were called Musa and his brothers (known as the sons of Abu al-Asad) and Mazhlum bin Tuma al-Nebeki. The fresco painter of the topmost layer was Sarkis ibn al-Qassis Ghali bin Barran and the calligrapher was Hunayn.","dynasty":"Byzantine, Seljuq, Ayyubid.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001; IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Monastery; church; religious architecture; Christian art; fresco; monasticism; Syriac; restoration"],"author":"Dina Bakkour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"bdeda37e-0f4a-5fd6-ad87-d9dacdb11131":{"name":"‘Imara al-‘Amira (Flourishing Edifice).","description":"The 'Imara al-'Amira contains four architectural components: a large kitchen, with its subsidiary additions which includes two ovens, a bakery and a fountain; a large *caravanserai* and a mosque as well as a *ribat,* composed of 55 rooms, for Sufis and the poor. This large building has two entrances, the northern entrance on Aqabat Takiyya Street and the southern entrance on Aqabat al-Saraya Street. The northern entrance has a transition zone, known as a *derka*, which leads into an open courtyard. In the northern section of the complex are the remains of an adjoining entrance and the kitchen, storage areas and a fountain, in addition to a two-storey building. The southern entrance leads into a corridor with walls that are rich in decorative stonework, which finally leads into the open courtyard surrounded by arcades that form the *caravanserai* (*khan*) of the 'Imara al-'Amira. To the east of the *caravanserai* with itsopen courtyard, there is a building that was constructed in the AH 13th / AD 19th century, known as Adaliyya. Perhaps it was built on the site of the *ribat* that vanished over the course of time. The Adaliyya building faces a hall of which little remains but for four cross vaults it may, however, have been part of the mosque of the 'Imara al-'Amira. To the east of the hall there is a dome-covered shrine that is believed to be the final resting place of Sa'ad al-Din al-Rasafi, author of the work, *al-Manhal al-Safi wa al-Mashrab al-Wafi \\[The Pure Spring and the Inundated Fountain\\]*.  \nThe multiplicity of elements that make up the complex indicate that it served several purposes: as a place for religious worship; for charitable purposes, as may be noted by the kitchen which was and still is used for the preparation of food for the poor and the needy and for trade and economic purposes, represented by the *caravanserai* that accommodated merchants and consummated mercantile trading.","short_description":"This grandiose social complex was also known as 'Khassaki Sultan' after its patron, the wife of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent. The complex was built as a result of incorporating a number of buildings and other additions. It includes a large kitchen, two ovens, two bakeries, a *sabil* (public fountain), a large *khan* (inn), a mosque and a Sufi ribat. It has two entrances and a number of open plazas. The complex provided food daily to the needy as well as to visitors, regardless of their identity or religion, as did the *zawiya* and the *arbita* (Sufi hospice and teaching establishment). Over 1000 meals were offered daily.","dates":"Built in around hegira 964 / AD 1557.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by *waqf* documents associated with it, among which is record number 270 in the Shari'a Court of Jerusalem (Folio No. 18–49). This document is further supported by the archives of the Palestinian Museum (Rockefeller Museum). Through these documents it is possible to deduce that the construction of the 'Imara al-'Amira began in 959 / 1552 and was completed in around 964/ 1557.","bibliography":"Myers, D., “Al-Imara al-Amira: The Charitable Foundation of Khassaki Sultan (959/1552)”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part I), London, 2000.  \nNatsheh, Y., “My Memories of Khassaki Sultan or the 'Flourishing Edifice'”, *Jerusalem Quarterly* File No. 7, winter 1999, pp.29–35.  \nPierce, L., *The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire.* London, 1992.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.105–7.","patrons":"Khassaki Sultan (also known as Haseki Hürrem Sultan, d. AH 965 / AD 1558), wife of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent (r. AH 926–73 / AD 1520–66); she was known in European literature by the name of Roxelana.","architects":"None of the names of those who designed and implemented the building can be clearly identified but they are likely to have included local architects and others from the city of Aleppo in Syria.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Takiyya; 'Imara al-Amira; kitchen; roxelana"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"c27af56e-a4e0-51fb-a73b-60b44f2b7999":{"name":"Tomb cover.","description":"A section of red silk divided into ivory-coloured zigzag bands. These bands form a three-part repeat unit in which the main section is a wide band containing the Muslim profession of faith, the Shahada. Above this, a border band contains a verse from the Qur'an (2: 144) which concerns the *qibla*, or direction of prayer. Below, a pious invocation reads 'Praise God and glorify Him; praise God the mighty.' These repeat units are separated by bands in which finial-shaped pendants, facing alternately up and down, are arranged among circular medallions; these shapes contain rhyming invocations: 'O Benefactor (ya mannan)!' and 'O Compassionate (ya hannan)!' in the pendants, and 'O Praise (ya subhan)!' and 'O Authority (ya sultan)!' in the circles. Textiles like this one were made under the Ottomans to cover the cenotaphs of important individuals. Since the deceased is buried facing Mecca, the inclusion of the Qur'anic verse about the *qibla* has special significance. This particular type of tomb cover appears to have been woven in large quantities, as silks with an identical pattern can be found in collections all over the world.","short_description":"A section of red silk woven with zigzag bands containing several repeating inscriptions, among them Qur’anic verses and rhyming invocations of God. Many similar textiles were made under the Ottomans as tomb covers and as linings for the Ka’ba in Mecca.","type":"Ottoman textile, woven silk","holder":"Victoria and Albert Museum.","dates":"Hegira 12th / AD 18th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Length 70 cm, width 68 cm.","method_for_datation":"In comparison with similar silks of the period.","method_for_provenance":"Assumption based on Istanbul's status as the capital.","provenance":"Possibly Istanbul.","obtention":"Gift of Dudley B. Myers, Esq., 1900.","bibliography":"Arts Council of Great Britain, *The Arts of Islam*, London, 1976, p.86, cat. no. 33.  \n  \nDenny, W., \"Textiles,\" *Tulips, Arabesques & Turbans: Decorative Arts from the Ottoman Empire* (ed. Y. Petsopoulos), London, 1982, p.138 and plate 160 (showing an identically patterned silk in a different collection).","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Woven silk."],"keywords":["religious object; funerary object"],"author":"Barry Wood","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"cb8f8517-5780-5bcc-bee9-849860cd610e":{"name":"*Sabil* Birkat al-Sultan.","alternate_name":"*Sabil* of Bab al-Khalil.","description":"The Sabil Birkat al-Sultan is one of the six *sabil*s that were erected in Jerusalem by order of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent. The *sabil* is built with cut white stone in a multiplicity of sizes, which form a rectangle 3.70 m long and 1.5 m wide. In front of the *sabil* block there is a recess 71 cm deep and 1.9 m long. Above the recess is a pointed arch composed of stone voussoirs decorated with saw-like ornamentation, in a style known as a Persian arch. The voussoirs are surrounded by moulded decoration. On each of the two sides of the arch there is a projecting circular stone medallion devoid of decorative elements. Around the bulk of the *sabil,* on both sides and above it, there is a frame of moulded decoration that terminates with more embellishment where the base of the *sabil* starts to form.  \nThe recess of the *sabil* is composed of three decorative architectural units. In the lower part of the recess there is a rectangular marble plaque which has an opening in the middle to allow water to flow from the *sabil* reservoir (located at the back) to the basin. At the top of the recess there are three tiers of *muqarnas* crowned by a small ribbed shell. In the middle of the niche, below the *muqarnas* tiers, there is an inscription panel. The panel is composed of three lines carved in Ottoman *naskhi* script which allude to the command to construct the *sabil*, the titles of the builder and the date of its construction. The inscription reads:  \n“The construction of this blessed *sabil* was ordered by our lord the Sultan, the Great Ruler, The Sovereign, The Noble, the Lord of Nations, the Sultan of Rome \\[Byzantium\\], the Arabs and the 'Ajam \\[Persians\\], Sultan Sulayman, son of Sultan Selim Khan. May God grant him a long reign and sovereignty on the date of the 10th of Muharram in the year AH 943 \\[29th June 1536\\].”","short_description":"This was the only *sabil* (public fountain) of the six commissioned by Ottoman Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent to be built outside the walls around Jerusalem. It is located on the road that connects Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Hebron. The *sabil* is provided with water from a canal linked to Solomon’s Pools. Inside a recessed niche, open at the front, in the middle of a rectangular plaque an opening allows water to pour into a wide basin. Above the basin is a large foundation inscription. The *sabil* is constructed of cut stone in different sizes with rich decorative motifs. Behind the building is a reservoir which collects the water.","dates":"Hegira 10th Muharram 943 / AD 29th June 1536.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The *sabil* was dated by the inscription on its façade, and further supported by a *waqf* document in the archive of the Shari'a Court of Jerusalem, that dates to AH 948 / AD 1541.","bibliography":"Berchem, M. van, *Materiaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarium* (Part II), Cairo, 1922.  \nAl-Imam al-Hussaini, M. A., *al-Manhal al-Safi fi al-Waqf wa Ahkamihi \\[A Clear Spring in the Waqf and its Execution\\],* Jerusalem, 1982.  \nNatsheh, Y., “Sabil Birkat al-Sultan”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part II), London, 2000.","patrons":"Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent (r. 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","architects":"The construction supervisor was Muhammad Chalabi al-Naqqash, the guardian of the sultan’s revenues as well as the construction manager for the walls of Jerusalem.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Basin; reservoir; naskhi script; moulded decoration; sabil; muqarnas; water."],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"d0bee2a2-2f3b-5679-b3ad-433e3664ca0a":{"name":"Prayer rug.","description":"A prayer rug that is typical of those produced in Ladik, a village near the city of Konya in central Anatolia. The rug has a red, central niche surrounded by three decorated frames. In the centre of the niche is an abstract tree-of-life motif springing from a stylised water-vessel. Above the vessel there is a rectangle with illegible text; above the tip of the niche there are a crescent and another rectangle with the date according to the hegira calendar, '1217' (1802) woven sideways. Made by the women in the village on a domestic handloom, the design for this type of prayer rug is inspired by the columned, court prayer rugs of the AH 10th–11th / AD 16th–17th centuries. The women also reared the sheep, sheered the wool, spun it and dyed it. Ladik lay on the main pilgrimage route from north to south, and these rugs were made to supplement the villagers' income, and were, subsequently, presented to mosques and shrines in the area and beyond as pious offerings. One such rug appears in a 17th-century European painting, a still life by Nicolaes van Gelder, dated 1664.","short_description":"This prayer rug is an example of those produced in the village of Ladik near Konya in Anatolia. Made by the women in the village, on a domestic handloom, the rugs were sold to pilgrims who passed through on their way to Mecca. They in turn donated them to mosques and shrines on their return.","type":"Wool, knotted, carpet","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"Hegira 1217 / AD 1802.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 200.6 cm, width 111.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"Woven into the rug is the date according to the hegira calendar, '1217' (1802) positioned in a rectangle above the tip of the crescent on top of the niche.","method_for_provenance":"Artistic analysis and comparison with other prayer rugs made in Ladik.","provenance":"Ladik, Anatolia, Turkey.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Bailey, J.,'Ladik Prayer Rugs', *Halı*,no. 28, October–December 1985, London, pp.18–25.  \n  \nBlack, D., *World Rugs and Carpets: A Comprehensive Guide to the Design, Provenance and Buying of Carpets*, Feltham, 1985.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Wool (warp, weft and pile); woven on a handloom."],"keywords":["Carpet; commerce; floral decoration; religious objects; pilgrimage"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"de4802a1-86e2-5973-8765-e8cc4ee04f98":{"name":"Planispheric astrolabe.","description":"The maker and final destination of this flat astrolabe, which is in reasonably good condition, are both known. All of the elements that make up a planispheric astrolabe have survived: the main part or mater; the alidade on the back of the instrument; three tympans or superposed disks on top of the mater; the rete or mobile openwork plaque (*shabaka*) representing the map of fixed stars turning around the earth; and the throne, a triangular piece for hanging it. It would have been one of the first portable astrolabes to have been made in the West on the model of the well known al-Zarqali astrolabe from Toledo, known in Europe as the Azarchel. The name of the maker is engraved on the back of the throne, and is none other than the famous Seville craftsman Muhammad ibn al-Futuh al-Khamayri, from whom four further astrolabes are known. An inscription in cursive characters on the back of the mater names the mosque to which it is dedicated: the Andalusian Mosque in Fez.  \nAn essential scientific instrument used by ancient astronomers to determine prayer times, the position of stars and horoscopes, this astrolabe was also an especially well-crafted work of art, in particular in the cutting of the flashes in the rete.","short_description":"This astrolabe includes all of the component parts of the planispheric astrolabes that were indispensable to ancient astronomers for determining prayer times and the height of the stars, and for establishing horoscopes. It is one of the first portable astrolabes in the West.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"Batha Museum.","initial_owner":"*Habus* (endowment).","dates":"Hegira 614 / AD 1217–18.","location":"Fez.","dimensions":"Height 22.5 cm, diameter 21 cm.","method_for_datation":"The inscription engraved on the suspension plate names the craftsman and the date it was made: 'This was made by Muhammad ibn al-Fatuh al-Khamayri in the year 614 [AD 1218]'. The numbers are written in letters according to the Abajid style.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the back of the astrolabe: 'This was made *habus* property to deserve the blessing and forgiveness of God the Supreme for the *minbar* of the Andalusian Mosque in the town of Fez, may God the Supreme protect it'. There were actually two *minbars* at the Andalusian Mosque, one commissioned in 369 / 980 and the other built under the Almohads.","provenance":"Andalusian Mosque, Fez.","obtention":"Restoration.","bibliography":"Amahan, A., *6000 ans d'art au Maroc*, catalogue, Paris, 1990.  \nBergé, M., *Les Arabes, Histoire et Civilisation, des origines à la chute du Royaume de Grenade*, Paris, 1978.  \nMichel, H., *Traité de l'astrolabe*, Paris, 1947.  \nRenaud, P.J., “Astronomie et Astrologie marocaines”, *Hespéris* XXIX, Rabat, 1942, pp.42–63.","artist":"Muhammad ibn al-Futuh al-Khamayri.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_MA_EN_001","materials":["Engraved brass."],"keywords":["Religious object; scientific object; habus; vegetal decoration; geometric decoration; epigraphic decoration; astronomy; science"],"author":"Naima El Khatib-Boujibar","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"e6753434-4415-5658-ba03-7a1cf0ec79f4":{"name":"Ceramic tile panel.","description":"A ceramic tile panel composed of square tiles depicting the *Ka'ba* covered by the black *kiswa*. Architectural components in the Ottoman style are also depicted including doors, domed buildings, minarets, and arches with suspended lamps hanging from them. In the bottom right-hand corner of the panel is the date of production AH 1087 (AD 1676). This date is also written in Arabic letters on the panel reading 'bidars Sulayman'. Traditionally one way for writing dates would be in letter-form in a sort of cipher named *hisab al-gummal (Calculation of total numbers)*, each letter being equivalent to a certain numerical figure, for example the Arabic letter ( **ر** ) is equivalent to 200. This tile panel closely resembles another tile piece in the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo (reg. no. 860) which bears the signature of the craftsman who made it, Muhammad al-Shami, and the date AH 1139 (AD 1726), it also has similarities to a frontispiece panel of a Qur'an that dates to the Ottoman period and which also bears a depiction of the Holy *Ka'ba* of Mecca.","short_description":"Muslim artisans did their best to depict the Ka'ba, the holy Islamic sanctuary, on their products. This panel bears the name of the sultan, the date of production and its maker's signature.","type":"Ottoman ceramics","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 1087 / AD 1676.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 240 cm, width 144 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated based on the date recorded on it.","method_for_provenance":"It is strongly believed that this tile panel was made in Istanbul where such panels were produced centrally.","obtention":"The piece was donated to the Museum in November 1915 by Prince Yusuf Kamal, who was one of the princes of the family of Muhammad 'Ali and a delaer in antiques. He donated a large collection of his acquisitions to the museum especially jewellery, textiles, ceramic and wooden pieces.","bibliography":"Arseven, G. E., *L'Art turc depuis son origine jusqu'à nos jours*, Istanbul, 1935.  \nAslanapa, O., *Turkish Art and Architecture,* London, 1970.  \nAtasoy, N., and Raby, J., *Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey*, London, 1989.  \nDenny, W. B., “Ceramics” in *Turkish Art,* (ed. E. Atil), Washington D. C., 1980.  \nMaher, Su'ad M., *al-Khazaf al-Turki \\[Turkish Ceramics\\],* Cairo, 1960.  \nMostafa, M., “Khazaf al-Anadol al-Mumawah bi al-Mina \\[Enamelled Ceramics of Anatolia\\]” in Al-*Mar'a al-Jadida \\[New Woman Magazine\\]*, No. 2, Cairo, 1947.  \nPorter, V., *Islamic Tiles*, New York, 1995.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Ceramic tiles with painted underglaze decoration; transparent glaze overall."],"keywords":["Ceramic tile panel; Hajj; ceramics; Ka’ba; tilework"],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e67f38ec-fa2d-5d97-b5a7-c6d7c6f6bd23":{"name":"Aqsa Mosque.","description":"The Aqsa Mosque is a rectangular building within the Haram al-Sharif. The Haram site slopes from the north to the south and this tendency is addressed by a platform that traverses it, and upon which the mosque was erected. The layout of the present mosque is the result of reconstructions and modifications that have characterised a number of building stages in different periods, and which are the subject of some debate among historians and researchers.  \nThe first stages of construction of the Aqsa Mosque are associated with the Caliph 'Umar bin al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) who erected a *mihrab* and a simple mosque on the same site as the present mosque. Mujir al-Din (d. AH 928 / AD 1521), an historian and authority on the architecture of Jerusalem, mentions that Caliph 'Umar while clearing the Haram area of debris, uncovered the sacred rock. He consulted those with him about the ideal position of the mosque and was advised to situate it to the north of the rock, but he refused, saying: “But we must make its *qibla*, its front \\[any part of the wall on the south\\], as has the Prophet of God made the *qibla* of our mosques, their front”. In about AH 49–50 / AD 670, the famous traveller Arculf stated that the mosque was located in the southern area of the Haram; it was erected on great wooden piers constructed from re-used material found in the region and that the mosque was widened to accommodate 3000 worshippers.  \nNothing tangible remains of the original mosque, known as the Masjid al-'Umari, since it was renovated at the beginning of AH 65 / AD 685.  \nThe Aqsa Mosque was built during the reign of Abd al-Malik. It had 15 arcades, none of which have survived intact except those on the southern wall, due to the fact that the mosque was badly damaged by a number of earthquakes and was restored a number of times.  \nDuring the Crusader period the Aqsa Mosque was converted into a church. A large recess was added in the eastern side, corresponding to the layout of churches facing the east. The recess remains to this day.  \nThe present al-Aqsa mosque has nine entrances: seven of them are located in the northern wall, one in the west wall and another in the east. The northern wall is preceded by a colonnade composed of seven slabs of stone, each covered by an intersecting vault. The colonnade opens out on to the plaza of the Haram al-Sharif through a large tapered arch.  \nThe ground plan of the mosque is a rectangle measuring 50 m x 80 m. It is composed of seven aisles extending from north to south; the middle one being the widest and highest of them. The three western colonnades are supported by large piers, while the eastern colonnades are supported by a series of marble columns imported from Italy during the restoration of this section by the High Islamic Council in the first half of the 20th century. At the southern end of the middle aisle there is a wooden semi-circular dome supported by corner squinches. Below the dome is the beautiful *mihrab* built by order of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) when he liberated the mosque from the Franks in AH 583 / AD 1187.","short_description":"The present building is a product of many architectural developments, since all the dynasties that ruled the Islamic state left their mark on this building, which also fell victim to successive earthquakes. The last catastrophe was the result of an arson attack in 1969. Not much remains of the first building stages (Umayyad); its form has changed as a result of continuous renovation and restoration and it has been lengthened and not widened as is the case for Umayyad mosques. It is now composed of seven colonnades, the widest in the middle, and is topped by a gabled roof. It is connected to the miracle of the *Isra’* and *Mi’raj* (Night of the Prophet’s Ascension) for the site was mentioned in the Qur’an.","dates":"Hegira 65–96 / AD 685–715.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by inscriptions, historical sources, as well as evidence of finds from archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Oxford, 1932.  \nHamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of the Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938–42*, London, 1949.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, pp.74–6.","patrons":"Caliph 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705) and al-Walid bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 86–96 / AD 705–15). The building was renovated several times thereafter, in the eras of: the Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja’far al-Mansur (r. AH 136–58 / AD 754–75), Caliph al-Mahdi (r. AH 158–69 / AD 775–85), the Fatimid Caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93), Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40) and a number of the Ottoman sultans.","dynasty":"Built in the Umayyad period; renovated in the Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Congregational mosque; haram; religious building; mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e7c13aac-cce7-53cb-a7a9-27eb4a31cda9":{"name":"Sidi Sahib *Zawiya* and *Madrasa*.","description":"This cultural centre was built in memory of a companion of the Prophet, Abu Zama'a al-Balawi, who died in combat in the year AH 34 (AD 654). It comprises the following sections:  \n– A main door opening onto a large courtyard paved in local bricks and surrounded with porticoes used for the shelter of horses.  \n– A depot located to the left of the entrance which served to store provisions coming from holy *habus* legacies and gifts.  \n– Above the depot, apartments reserved for the Pasha. They were once used to accommodate the chief tax collector of the region and, later on, distinguished guests of the mausoleum.  \n– Built next to the depot, the *madrasa* is the prototype of Tunisian *madrasas* with its paved courtyard surrounded by porticoes with Moorish arches. On its east and west sides are the students' cells. On the south side stands the long prayer hall with only two naves. The *mihrab* is surmounted by a dome with fluted squinches. At the northeast corner rises an elegant minaret which is reminiscent of that of the Great Mosque at Tlemcen and the Kasbah Mosque in Tunis.  \nThe door of the mausoleum, opposite the main entrance, is framed with red and white marble lintels in the Italian manner. The hallway has an angled entrance leading to a wide courtyard of the type commonly seen in al-Andalus. This is flanked by two porticoes whose Moorish arches, typically Kairouanese, rest on neo-Corinthian capitals with crescent moons, the emblem of the Ottomans, carved in relief. This patio leads to a hall surmounted with a dome mounted on squinches decorated with stucco panels representing the Hispano-Moorish repertoire, as well as the Turkish repertoire, (bouquets of flowers, pine trees). Finally one comes to the mausoleum and the courtyard reserved for devotions, which is surrounded by porticoes. The walls are covered with enamel polychrome tiles and the upper parts have very finely carved stucco panels. The tomb of the companion of the Prophet is furnished with a dome set on pendentives of recent decoration. Abu Zama'a, known affectionately as Sidi Sahbi and considered to be the patron of the town, enjoyed great veneration. His mausoleum is the one most visited by the Tunisians, who flock there during the Festival of Mulud to commemorate the birth of the Prophet.  \nFormerly, the mausoleum was the assembly point for the pilgrimage procession before the departure of the caravan to Mecca. This important event was accompanied by religious festivals and liturgical chants.","short_description":"This cultural complex was built in memory of a companion of the Prophet, Abu Zama al-Balawi, who was buried at the site before the town was founded. This venerable individual carried some of the Prophet’s hair with him, which explains why Europeans called it the Barber’s Mosque. Abu Zama, also known as Sidi Sahib, has since been considered to be the patron of the town and is particularly venerated. His mausoleum is the most commonly visited by Tunisians, who flock there, particularly during the official Mulud celebrations marking the birth of the Prophet.","dates":"Hegira 11th century / AD 17th century.","location":"Kairouan (Qayrawan)","method_for_datation":"A commemorative plaque set into the entrance porch of the *madrasa* mentions the date of the foundation of the *zawiya*, in 1072 (1662). Furthermore, a few verses of poetry on the base of the mausoleum dome in maghrebin *naskhi* script attribute the construction to the *bey* Muhammad ibn Murad.","bibliography":"Maoudoud, K., *Kairouan*, Tunis, 2000, pp.32–6.  \nMarçais, G., *Tunis et Kairouan*, Paris, 1937, pp.68–9.  \nRoy, B., et Poinssot, P., *Inscriptions arabes de Kairouan*, vol. II, fasc. I, Paris, 1950, pp.65–76.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp. 163–5.","history":"The original mausoleum was a simple dome surrounded by a wall. On this site, the *bey* Hammud Pasha (1040–75 / 1631–65) built the *zawiya* and erected a *madrasa*, (1072 / 1662). Between 1092 and 1096 (1681–1685), the *bey* Muhammad ibn Murad renovated the dome of the mausoleum.","patrons":"The Bey Hammuda Pasha rebuilt the *zawiya* and erected the madrasa and its minaret. His grandson, the Bey Muhammad ibn Murad, completely renewed the dome of the mausoleum and probably the courtyard and its surrounding galleries.","architects":"Ahmed and Mustafa al-Andalusi.","dynasty":"Muradid (Ottoman).","materials":[],"keywords":["Madrasa; Barbier Mosque; Zawiya; mausoleum; Andalusian influence; minaret; floral decoration; Muradid period"],"author":"Saloua Zangar"},"e8a8501f-19e5-5494-af52-177609f85cd8":{"name":"Wikala (caravanserai) of Qaytbay.","alternate_name":"Wikala al-Dashisha.","description":"The Wikala (or *caravanserai*) of Qaytbay is considered a model for other *caravanserais* in the Mamluk period, which included storage and commercial areas to sell merchandise, as well as providing accommodation for merchants and their clients.  \nThe façade of the building overlooks Bab al-Nasr Street, and is divided into three horizontal levels. The entrance occupies the centre of the façade. On each of the two sides of the portal are five shops, above each of which is a turned-wood window grille, known as *mashrabiyya*. On top of the *masharabiyyas* are a row of windows provided with networks of iron grills. The entrance consists of a recessed wall containing an opening for the door. It is crowned by a tri-lobed arch whose height extends to the level of the window-openings located on the sides of the entrance. The spandrel of the arch is decorated with carved, stone vegetal motifs. On the upper corners of the arch is a projecting stone ornament consisting of two rows of *muqarnas*. Above the entrance arch is a band of inscription, carved in Mamluk *thuluth* script stating the reason for building this edifice. In general, the entrance to the *caravanserai* resembles the entrance to the Madrasa of Qaytbay in the Mamluk Cemetery in Cairo.  \nThe floor-plan of the building is a rectangular courtyard that, on the ground floor, is surrounded by a group of storage areas. Above it are three stories, which include residential units for merchants.","short_description":"This *wikala* has shops on either side of the entrance and storerooms and lodgings for merchants around the open internal courtyard. Its patron, Sultan Qaytbay, endowed it to provide crushed grain for the poor of Medina al-Munawara in Hijaz. This function is registered on an epigraphic band on the entrance.","dates":"Hegira 885 / AD 1480.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"Dating of the building is supported by historical documents which include the specific *waqf* dedicated to the building (No. 885, dated 894 / 1489). The *waqf* is in the name of Sultan Qaytbay and is kept in the archives of the Ministry of Awqaf in Cairo. The *waqf* document indicates that Sultan Qaytbay endowed the *caravanserai* for the purpose of earning revenue to buy *dashisha* (ground grain) to be distributed amongst the poor in Medina in the Hijaz, whose poverty he had witnessed when he led the *Hajj* (pilgrimage) in 884 / 1479.","bibliography":"Al-Pasha, H., *Madkhal ila al-Athar al-Islamiya \\[Introduction to Islamic Art\\],* Cairo, 1979.  \nSameh, Kamal al-Din, *Al-'imara al-Islamiya fi Masr \\[Islamic Architecture in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991.","patrons":"Sultan al-Ashraf Abu al-Nasr Qaytbay (r. AH 872–901 / AD 1468–96).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Trade; vegetal decoration; civil architecture; mashrabiyya; muqarnas; caravanserai"],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"eeadc3f4-cf85-5e38-bce5-3c6d8631b78c":{"name":"Maghrebi *rab’a*.","alternate_name":"Maghrebi Qur’an manuscript.","description":"A *rab’a*, a Qur'anic manuscript divided into 30 parts, each of which has an independent binding. The *rab’a* was preserved in a square wooden box covered on the outside with leather and embellished by four embossed decorative bands that incorporate geometric patterns outlined with silver thread. In between the four bands are three silver belts which reach from the back to the front of the box to support it. Each belt is decorated with three star-like shapes made from silver and overlaid with blue enamel. In all, the box bears 10 decorative forms in the same style; on the four corners of the box, for example, there are geometric shapes inlaid with mother-of-pearl and red and blue enamel.  \nThe bindings of all 30 parts are made from embossed red leather, with both the front and back embellished with ornamentation and text, which is identical on all the volumes. On each cover there are four inscription bands that form a square, and which are encircled by silver thread. The text is gilded, and in the middle of each front cover there is a silver-braided circle. Within the circle in gilded text is a Chapter from the Qur'an (14: 52), which tells the story of Ibrahim (Abraham). It reads: “Here is a message for mankind. Let them take warning there from, and let them know that he is (no other than) One God. Let men of understanding take heed”.On the back cover there is another quote from the Qur'an “al-Baqara” (“the Cow”, 2: 181), which reads: “If anyone changes the bequest after hearing it. The guilt shall be on those who make the change. For Allah hears and knows (All things)”.  \nEach part of the *rab'a* begins with two identical illuminated panels that differ in design from one volume to the next. Most of the square-shaped panels are surrounded by broad illuminated frames and contain decoration consisting of lines, circles and squares painted in more than one colour, but predominantly in gold. The *rab'a* is written in Maghrebi-style script with black ink, with five lines to each page. Verses are divided from each other by the word “verse” written in gold and surrounded by three circles. The *waqf* charter of the *rab'a,* written in an illuminated *kufic* script within a square that is also illuminated, is on the last two pages of each volume.","short_description":"A *rab’a*, a Qur’anic manuscript in 30 parts, preserved in a wooden box covered with leather and decorated with silver bands. The texts are in Maghrebi *kufic* script, written with saffron water on gazelle parchment. The *rab’a* is filled with decorative motifs, colours and illumination. This is one of three *rab’a* written for Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem; only the last copy has come down to us.","type":"Maghrebi, rab'a, parchment, manuscript","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Commander of the Faithful, Abu al-Hasan Ali, the first Marinid (ruled in the Maghreb AH 732–49 / AD 1331–48).","dates":"Hegira 745 / AD 1344.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 22 cm, width 20 cm, depth 5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The *rab’a* is dated by an inscription.","method_for_provenance":"The Maghreb was narrowed down as the place of production for this manuscript based on the *waqf* charter that appears at the end of each volume. For example, the *waqf* in the eighth volume reads: “The eighth volume of this Holy Qur'anic manuscript completes a part of a thirty volume series, all of which have been written in the handwriting of Abd Allah Ali, *amir* of the Muslims, son of the *amir* of the Muslims, Abi Said Uthman, son of the *amir* of the Muslims, Abi Yusuf Ya'qub bin Abd al-Haqq, ruler of the Maghreb, May God bless him, and it has been endowed for recitation in al-Aqsa Mosque.”","provenance":"Maghreb.","obtention":"The piece was transferred at an unknown date from al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem to the Islamic Museum.","bibliography":"Al-Makri, A., (d. 1041 / 1631), *Nafaha al-Tayab (al-Tayb) min Ghasan Ghusn al-Andalus al-Ratib \\[A Pleasant Breeze from the Branch of Verdant al-Andalus\\],* Vol. 2, Leiden, 1860.  \nAl-Maqrizi, A., (d. 845 / 1442), *Al-Suluk li Ma'arifat duwal al-Muluk \\[The Right Ways to Know the Lands of the Rulers),* Vol. 2, Cairo, 1971.  \nAl-Qalakshandi, A., (d. 821 / 1418), *Subah al-'Asha fi Sana'at al-Inasha' \\[The Break of Evening in the Making of Literary Creation\\]*, Cairo, 1913.  \nRosen-Ayalon, M., “Some Comments on a Maghrebi Qur'an”, in *Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam,* No. 19, 1995, pp.73–80.  \nSalameh, K., *Al-Makhtutat al-Qur'aniya fi al-Muthaf al-Islami fi al-Haram al-Sharif, al-Quds \\[Qur'anic Manuscripts in the Islamic Museum in al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem\\],* Paris, 2003.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.72–3.","artist":"Calligrapher: Abu al-Hasan al-Marini.","dynasty":"Marinid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Black ink on gazelle parchment; binding of illuminated leather."],"keywords":["Abu al-Hasan al-Marini; illumination; kufic script; Maghrebi script; parchment; Qur’an; mashaf; religious manuscript"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f542a798-8c47-5278-ad25-50059baf16a0":{"name":"Distance marker (milestone).","description":"A distance marker or milestone usually erected to indicate distance between two stations along a pilgrimage or trade route, this one belonging to the period of the fifth Umayyad caliph, 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (r. AH 66–86 / AD 685–705). The milestone is nearly square and has an inscription incised on its surface. The inscription consists of eight lines of *kufic* script. It cannot be read in its entirety because the upper section of the milestone has broken off and is missing. The legible portion reads: 'The slave of God, the commander of the faithful 'Abd al-Malik – may God's mercy be upon him – erected this stone. From here to Damascus is 109 miles'.  \n  \nVery few inscriptions have survived from the Umayyad period to the present. In addition, this milestone is significant because it shows the stylistic development of *kufic* script on stone during the Umayyad period.  \n  \nHow was object obtained by museum: The inventory states that the object was transferred from the ruins of Khan al-Hatrura at Eriha (Jericho) to the Tiled Pavilion (Çinili Köşk) in 1884 as part of the 19th-century initiative to collect artworks from across the country. The object was transferred to the Museum in 1941.","short_description":"In the early years of Islam, distance markers were erected on important trade and pilgrimage routes in order to show the distances to the travellers. These milestones bear date, patron names and toponyms related to the region, and are thus of documentary importance.","type":"Marker, marble","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","dates":"Hegira 66–86 / AD 685–705.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul","dimensions":"Height 40 cm, width 30 cm, depth 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated to 66–86 / 685–705 based on the mention in the inscription of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, who was the caliph during this period.","method_for_provenance":"Inventory records indicate that the object was found amongst the ruins of Khan al-Hatrura at Eriha and taken to the Tiled Pavilion in 1884. Since Khan al-Hatrura is further from Damascus than the inscription would infer (109 miles) it is thought that the milestone was brought to the khan from a place further to the north.","provenance":"Eriha (Jericho), near Jerusalem.","obtention":"The inventory states that the object was transferred from the ruins of Khan al-Hatrura at Eriha (Jericho) to the Tiled Pavilion (çinili Köşk) in 1884 as part of the 19th-century initiative to collect artworks from across the country. The object was transferred to the Museum in 1941.","bibliography":"Clermont-Ganneau, C., “Notes d'épigraphie et l'histoire arabes”, *Journal Asiatique* (e serie IX, avril–mai–juin) 1887, p.472–497.  \n  \nKerametli, C., “Türk ve Islam Eserleri Müzesi'nde Erken Islam Devrine Ait Kitabeler”, *Şarkiyat Mecmuası* VI (1965), Istanbul, 1966, p.20.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, p.32.  \n  \nVan Berchem, M., *Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum*, *deuxieme partie, Syrie du Sud, Tome Premier, Jerusalem 'la ville'*, Cairo, 1922, p.17–18, catalogue no. 1.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","materials":["Incised marble."],"keywords":["Distance marker (milestone); marble"],"author":"Gönül Tekeli","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f7659710-c4d1-5ed6-87b1-2c8bdcfaa1e1":{"name":"*Kursi* (throne) of Sulayman.","alternate_name":"Dar al-Hadith al-Sharif (present name).","description":"The *kursi* (throne) of Sulayman is a commemorative building, the intention of which may have been to encourage visits to the Haram al-Sharif, and in this way to associate the Haram with various Prophets.  \nThe building has only three facades since the fourth, eastern façade conjoins with the eastern wall of the Haram al-Sharif, so the eastern wall of the building became part of the enclosure wall of the old city of Jerusalem. The three facades are made of fine dressed stone. The entrance portal is in the northern façade. It is 1.1 m wide and 2 m high. The lintel above the entrance is surmounted by a relieving arch made up of three joggled stones. Surrounding the portal are three identically sized rectangular windows. The third window is located east of the eastern window. All three windows are provided with metal grills of similar designs. A rectangular sunken stone panel, which measures 75 cm x 50 cm, is placed four stone-courses above the lintels of the windows. Above this panel is an elongated window measuring 25 cm x 90 cm. The façade ends with a stone frame or cornice which projects slightly from the façade and which extends over to the western and southern façades. The western section of the building is crowned by two shallow domes; and while the western and southern facades resemble the northern façade in terms of the fabric of the building, they are different from it in the arrangement of the windows.  \nThe interior is composed of a large hall with a rectangular ground plan, divided by means of two tapered arches into two divisions: western and eastern. The two arches are supported by a central pillar at one end, and by one of the walls of the building from which the arches emerge, at the other end. The western section of the hall is a prayer area (a mosque). It extends from north to south and is composed of two spaces each covered by a shallow dome without a zone of transition. On the southern wall of the western section is a *mihrab* of 1 m wide and 50 cm deep. It is crowned by a tapered arch with a semi-domed ceiling decorated with vegetal stucco motifs. The eastern section of the hall has a barrel vault that is supported on the west side by the two arches – which divide the hall into two sections – and from the east, by the east wall of the building. An imposing stone shrine (tomb), 9.5 m long and 2 m high, lies in this section. It is likely that this shrine was originally a rock and that two dressed stones were added to both ends of it in order to create a symbolic tomb (each with a diameter of 50 cm) of the Prophet Sulayman. On the east side of the shrine there is a rectangular panel upon which a Qur'anic verse is inscribed from the chapter “al-Naml” (“the Ants”, 27: 30–33).","short_description":"This is a memorial that was probably built to commemorate the Prophet Sulayman (Solomon). It is located within the plaza of al-Haram al-Sharif, which supports its eastern wall. The building has a large hall divided into different areas, one of which is the prayer area with a *mihrab*. It is surmounted by two shallow domes. The hall also includes a symbolic tomb which might allude to the tomb of Sulayman or his throne. The building is presently used as an institute for Hadith (Dar al-Hadith).","dates":"The building bears no date, but it is likely that it was built after hegira 1017 / AD 1608.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by information available in the registers of the Shari'a Court of Jerusalem, and also by comparison of its architectural elements with those specific to the Zawiya al-Qadiriyya and the Zawiya al-As'adiyya in Jerusalem.","bibliography":"Natsheh, Y., “Kursi Sulaiman” in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds.), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part II), London, 2000.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Commemorative architecture; religious architecture; throne"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fe0665ae-557f-5721-993c-8b5887d08251":{"name":"Qubbat al-Su’ud (Dome of Ascension).","description":"Qubbat al-Su'ud (Dome of Ascension) is an independent commemorative building the design of which is based on an octagonal plan on the outside, and a circular one on the inside. The building is located at the centre of a walled-in area with unequal sides. It is built from medium-sized white stone blocks which have turned to ash-grey due to the climate.  \nThe Dome of Ascension is Byzantine in origin (AH 17 / AD 638) and circular in form. The Franks replaced it in AH 492–583 / AD 1099–1187 with a roofless octagonal building which was renovated and then abandoned, during the Ayyubid period after the Battle of Hattin (AH 583 / AD 1187). It was then turned into a mosque but only on the condition that Christians could still use it during festivals, special events and even on ordinary days, without any restrictions or conditions.  \nThe present building has a stone octagonal façade and is composed of three sections. The first section is the “body”, composed of eight tapered arches supported on piers with compact marble columns. The columns terminate with capitals adorned with representations of animals and humans, which are associated with the Christian era. The arches, originally open, were blocked off in the Ayyubid era by a series of stone courses. The opening for a door was prepared on the western façade, and the capitals with their multiplicity of decorative motifs were restored.  \nThe second section of the building is the drum of the dome, which is circular in form and forms a zone of transition between the octagonal body and the dome. This section of the building is closed; there are no openings, except a long window on the western façade. The third section of the building is the dome, which is covered on the outside by tesserae, and which is crowned by a small stone crescent.  \nThe entrance to the building is emphasised by means of a tiled passageway leading from the door on the western façade. The interior floor is also tiled with tesserae. The area where “the footprint of Christ” lies is slightly elevated and surrounded by a rectangular stone frame. On the southern side of the octagon lies a *mihrab* that was placed there during the Ayyubid period, and which become an important Islamic landmark alongside the Christian relic, represented by the spot from which Christ ascended to heaven.","short_description":"This is a commemorative building located on the heights of the nearby summit of the holy Mount of Olives that overlooks Jerusalem. From the outside the building assumes an octagonal form, while the interior has a circular plan. The site was the location for a Byzantine church, which was built to commemorate the Ascension of Christ to heaven. The distinguishing features of this Byzantine building were completely changed by the Franks and Salah a-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin). The site is sacred to Muslims and Christians.","dates":"Hegira 595 / AD 1198.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by architectural comparisons with the domes of the Haram al-Sharif, and supported by other historical information such as travelogues. Archaeological excavations uncovered fragments of Byzantine ceramics, confirming that the site was originally Byzantine.","bibliography":"Abu Rayya, R., *Al-Mawqi' al-Islamiya 'ala Jabal al-Zaytun/Tur Zita \\[The Islamic Site on the Mount of Olives\\],* MA Thesis, al-Quds University, 1999.  \nBieberstein, K., and Bloedhorn, H., *Jerusalem Grundzuege der Baugeschichte vom Chalkolithikum bis zur Fruhziet der Osmanischen Herrschaft,* Vol. III. Wiesbaden, 1994.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nPierotti, E., *Jerusalem Explored,* London, 1864.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.138–9.","patrons":"The overseer of the building is not known, but the renovation and addition of the mihrab was likely to have been ordered by Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","dynasty":"Ayyubid / Crusader.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ascension; commemorative architecture; dome; church; mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"ff3db0a2-4bc7-576e-bbd7-b0882e3ea217":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"An astrolabe that has a hollowed-out central disc; a sort of base plate (a mater), that is formed by riveting the back plate to the raised edge (the limb), which is inscribed in *kufic* script. The jointed ring (or throne), from which the instrument is suspended perpendicular to the ground to give a reading, is not all original. The *rête* (the pierced front plate showing the positions of the stars) is a replacement made in the 13th century. The astrolabe can be taken apart by unscrewing the central knob (horse) to reveal seven plates. Engraved on the plates in simpler *kufic* script to that seen on the limb, are seven names of places: Mecca, Medina, Saragossa, Samarra, Cairo, Toledo and Constantinople, along with the latitude and the hours in the longest day. The plates are engraved with azimuths as well as almucantarsand there are lines indicating times of prayer. The interior of the *mater* is engraved with the markings of 66 degrees, it is a plate of ecliptic co-ordinates, while the back bears four scales of altitude and two ecliptic and calendrical scales. The maker’s signature is on the back of the *mater*.  \nThe astrolabe is a device known from at least the AH 2nd / AD 8th century, and it represents the notion of heaven with all its stars, based on the assumption that earth is at the centre of a spherical universe. The astrolabe had many purposes. It served as an astronomical calculating device allowing the observation of solar and stellar altitudes. It was also used for navigational purposes. Time-keeping was another important function of the astrolabe in the Muslim sphere, for it was exploited in particular to calculate the precise timing of the five daily prayers.  \nSpain was invaded by the Muslims in the AH 2nd / AD 8th century and subsequently a vibrant civilisation evolved, one that collected, incorporated and disseminated the ideas of ancient as well as contemporaneous Arab scientists and scholars. This European-made and dated astrolabe is the earliest known, produced in AH 417 / AD 1026–7 by Muhammad ibn al-Saffar. Interestingly, Ibn al-Saffar, brother of Muhammad ibn al-Saffar, was the author of the first known treatise from Islamic Spain on the astrolabe. Two contemporary astrolabes survive from this period; both signed by Muhammad ibn al-Saffar, this one is the earlier of the two. In Europe production and use of the astrolabe had waned by the 18th century, but in the Islamic world they were made and used into the 20th century.","short_description":"The Muslim world inherited the astrolabe from Antiquity. It was an essential astronomical calculation device used for observing the stars, navigation and time keeping. In the AH 2nd / AD 8th century, following the Muslim conquest of Spain, it was introduced to Europe.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork, cast copper","holder":"National Museums of Scotland.","dates":"Hegira 417 / AD 1026–7.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Diameter 15.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"On the back of the astrolabe the inscription in *kufic* script states: ‘Work of Muhammad bin \\[ibn\\] al-Saffar in Córdoba in the year 17 and 400’ (417 / 1026–7).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the back of the astrolabe gives the place of origin as Córdoba.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain.","obtention":"A gift to the Royal Museum, NMS, from James H. Farr, F.I.M.I., Edinburgh, in 1959.","bibliography":"NMS Object Record File, containing material directly reproduced from the following references:  \nKing, D. A., ‘Some Medieval Astronomical Instruments and their Secrets’, **in** Mazzolini, R. G. (ed.), *Non-Verbal Communication in Science prior to 1900*, Florence 1993, pp.29–52.  \nMaddison, F., and Turner, A., *Science and Technology in Islam*, exhibition catalogue, London 1976, pp.104–6.  \nPhillips, P., *The Collectors’ Encyclopeadia of Antiques*, London 1973, p.604, fig. a.  \nPlenderleith, R. W., ‘Discovery of an Old Astrolabe’ in *The Scottish Geographical Magazine,* Vol. 76, No. 1, 1960: 25.","artist":"Muhammad ibn al-Saffar.","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus","materials":["Cast brass, incised."],"keywords":["Astrolabe; Cordoba; Muhammad ibn al-Saffar; kufic script; astronomy; science"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"}}
+{"026dea32-9637-5a90-8cb3-ddf63a376262":{"name":"Astronomical instrument: *Qiblanuma*.","description":"The *qiblanuma* is a portable astronomical instrument whose name literally means 'showing the direction to the Ka'ba'. The wooden instrument is round, with a lid, and is decorated with lacquering, a technique known as *Edirnekari*, in red, pink, black, blue, green, and gilding. The main body includes the compass and pointer. The regions where the instrument can be used are shown on a map and a list of cities is given with their Arabic names.  \n  \nThe upper part of the inside lid shows, on a green background, the minarets of the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, with the Ka'ba in the courtyard. To the left of this are depictions of the sacred sites at the Plain of 'Arafat. To the right and in the foreground are date palms and olive trees, symbols of paradise and blessing. The empty space in the background is filled with illustrations of pomegranates in a bowl, representing plenty. A cartouche framed with leaf motifs extending from among the pomegranates, is decorated with a bouquet of roses on a gold background. The rose bouquet, symbolic of the Prophet Muhammad, was a popular motif in 18th-century Ottoman literature and floral paintings. Fruits in a bowl, symbolising fertility, abundance and immortality, were a typical motif of the period. The inscription in the lower part of the inside lid states that the instrument was made by Barun al-Muhtari in Istanbul in AH 1151 / AD 1738. It also includes instructions on how to use the instrument.  \n  \nThe outside of the lid is decorated in the naturalistic style known as Turkish Baroque-Rococo on a gold background. It features vases filled with roses and flowers surrounded by garlands of acanthus leaves and scrolling tendrils. Six oval medallions placed in this composition feature figureless landscape depictions, which are also found on wall paintings of the same period. The landscape depictions include views of lakes, houses amid trees on the shore, mansions, and villages on the opposite shore, all drawn with the illusion of depth.","short_description":"*Qiblanuma*s are portable astronomical instruments that show the direction to the Ka'ba in Mecca, which Muslims face to pray. They remained in use until the late AH 13th / AD 19th century and this example produced in Istanbul was decorated with a lacquering technique known as *Edirnekari*.","type":"Scientific instrument, laquered on wood","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","dates":"Hegira 1151 / AD 1738.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"Diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"The date 1151 (1738–9) is given on the inside of the lid.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription inside the lid gives the place of production as Istanbul.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"The instrument was transferred to the museum in 1951 from the Hisar Mosque in Izmir, .","bibliography":"Ölçer, N. *et al, In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Istanbul, 1993, p.88.  \n  \nÖlçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.290–91.","artist":"Barun al-Muhtari.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Lacquered (*Edirnekari* technique) on wood."],"keywords":["Qiblanuma; Edirnekari technique; lacquer; Ottoman Baroque; astronomical instrument; pilgrimage; science."],"author":"Gönül Tekeli","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"06a78daa-be7f-5db5-908f-e05f2ebfb0b5":{"name":"Ayla (Aqaba).","description":"The Islamic city of Ayla is located in the centre of Aqaba, Jordan's port which lies at the northeastern corner of the Gulf of Aqaba, an extension of the Red Sea. In the Byzantine period when Christianity became the official religion of the Eastern Roman Empire, the city became a station for pilgrims on their way to Mount Sinai. Its bishops attended the Church Councils of Nicaea (AD 325), Chalcedon (AD 451) and Constantinople (AD 536). It is also reported that the architect in charge of building the monastery of St Catherine at Mount Sinai in the middle of the 6th century AD was Stephanos from Aila (the Roman-Byzantine name as distinct from Islamic Ayla).  \nAmong the Byzantine structures uncovered in the course of recent excavations are the city wall and a church dating to the late AD 3rd–early 4th century. The wall built of stone and standing over 3 m in height, can be traced for over 125 m. North of the city wall is a monumental mud-brick building identified as a church; it measures about 28 m x 24 m. If this identification and dating is correct it will certainly be the earliest church built not only in Jordan, but also in the entire Holy Land.  \nExcavations between 1986 and 1993, uncovered an AH 1st- / 7th-century Muslim settlement to the south of the Byzantine city which had been enclosed by a stone wall measuring 165 m x 140 m. The wall, 2.60 m thick and preserved to a height of 4.50 m, had a series of U-shaped towers with a single gate pierced in the centre of each wall and flanked by semi-circular towers. Behind the gates ran straight streets that intersected in the centre thus dividing the city into four quadrants. The point of intersection was marked by a tetrapylon (a four-way arch); this structure was transformed into a luxurious residential building decorated with frescoes in the second half of the AH 4th / AD 10th century. A rectangular mosque measuring roughly 55 m x 35 m occupied the northeast quadrant. (The northeastern extremity cut off by a drainage wadi).  \nThe sanctuary consists of two aisles (*riwaq*s) formed by two arcades running parallel to the *qibla* wall. On the other three sides of the courtyard is a series of one-bay deep *riwaq*s. In the centre of the southeastern wall there was once a deep niche, (*mihrab*) which indicates the *qibla* (or direction of prayer). After the AH 2nd / AD mid-8th century the mosque was enlarged and a new *suq* (market) was constructed outside the southwest wall facing the sea.  \nAt the turn of the AH 5th / AD 11th century, Ayla was in decline and when Baldwin I (r. 1100–18), king of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, arrived with 200 knights in AH 509 / AD 1116 the inhabitants could offer no serious resistance. In the course of the AH 6th / AD 12th century the walled town was abandoned and a new settlement sprang up further south, near the present late Mamluk castle.  \nThe orthogonal plan of Ayla strongly recalls the legionary camps of the Roman period, for example that of Lajjun and Udhruh in southern Jordan. Such a camp also existed in the late Roman town of Aila to accommodate the Legio X Fretensis one of the Roman legions, which in around AD 300, was transferred from Jerusalem. This camp may have served as a model for the early Islamic Ayla.  \nThe plan of Ayla provides a rare example of an early Islamic town and sheds light on the organisation of the camp-towns (*amsar*) founded by the Arab Muslims to serve as springboards for further campaigns and territorial expansion. Unfortunately, there is no direct evidence for the plan and layout of these *amsar*; what is known about them comes largely from historical sources which suggest more regular planning than has been hitherto thought.","short_description":"Ayla is in the centre of Aqaba, Jordan’s port at the northeastern tip of the Red Sea. A walled Muslim settlement from the AH 1st / AD 7th century lies to the south of an older Byzantine city. Behind its gates ran straight streets that intersected in the centre. Ayla’s orthogonal plan recalls the Roman legionary camps and sheds light on the organisation of the camp-towns (*amsar*) founded by the Arab Muslims to serve as springboards for further expansion. By the turn of the 5th / 11th century, Ayla was in decline and was abandoned by the 6th / 12th century. A later settlement was founded further south.","dates":"Hegira 1st century / AD mid-7th century.","location":"Aqaba","method_for_datation":"The monument has been dated with the help of historical sources and archaeological excavations where pre-Umayyad ceramics have been recovered.","bibliography":"غواتمة ، يوسف درويش ، أيلة ( العقبة ) و البحر الأحمر ، اربد ، 1984.  \nParker, S. T., “An Early Church: Perhaps the Oldest in the World Found at Aqaba”, *Near Eastern Archaeology*, Vol. 61, no. 4, 1998, p.245.  \nParker, S. T., “The Roman Aqaba Project: the 1997 and 1998 campaigns”, *Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan*, XLIV, 2000, pp.373–94.  \nWhitcomb, D., *Ayla: Art and Industry in the Islamic Port of Aqaba*, Chicago, 1994.  \nWhitcomb, D., “The Misr of Ayla: Settlement at al-Aqaba in the Early Islamic period”, in King, G. and Cameron, A., (eds) *The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East II: Land Use and Settlement Patterns*, NJ, 1994, pp.155–70.","dynasty":"Islamic, pre-Umayyad.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Amsar; mihrab; mosque; qibla; riwaq; suq; town planning; Umayyad"],"author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"070ed0d9-7748-52d3-bd7e-202fe737f430":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"Planispheric astrolabe made of brass and comprising four main pieces: a box or 'mother' made up of five sheets that represent different latitudes, a network or 'spider' with indicators for 24 stars and an alidade. On the obverse or 'back' there is a zodiacal calendar and an altimetric scale called the 'shadow square'.  \nAstrolabes are versatile instruments that allow the position of the sun and stars to be calculated. They serve as a calendar and as a clock, and can be used to measure heights and distances. They were used in navigation until they were replaced by the quadrant. They were very useful for working out the time during the day and the night, and for establishing prayer times.  \nThis instrument was made in Toledo by the astrolabe maker Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahali, whose name appears with the year of manufacture (AH 459 / AD 1067) in an inscription in Arabic on the back. Another two astrolabes and a celestial globe signed by him also exist. The astrolabe in the National Archaeological Museum has all of the characteristics of the Andalusian astrolabes, which were famous from the time of the Caliphate and continued to be made in the different Taifas, as in this example from Toledo.","short_description":"Made in Toledo (according to the inscription), this is one of the oldest astrolabes to have survived, and it demonstrates the scientific excellence attained in al-Andalus during the Taifa era. It was used to find one’s position using the stars in the night sky shown on one of its faces.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"National Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 459 / AD 1067.","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Diameter 24.2 cm, maximum depth 1.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"On the back, on the upper part, there is an inscription with the date: 'In the month of Sha'ban of the year 459' (AD 1067).","method_for_provenance":"The name of the city where it was made, Toledo, is written on the back.","provenance":"Toledo, Spain.","obtention":"The astrolabe came to the National Archaeological Museum in 1867 from the National Library.","bibliography":"García Franco, S., *Catálogo Crítico de Astrolabios Existentes en España, Madrid, 1945, pp.229–35.*  \nKing, D. A. “Andalusi Astronomical Instruments”, in *Al Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain* (ed. J. D. Dodds), New York, 1992, pp.376–83.  \nSamsó, J., *Islamic Astronomy and Medieval Spain*, Aldershot, Hampshire, 1994.  \nVernet, J. and Samsó, J., *Instrumentos Astronómicos en la España Medieval: Su Influencia en Europa*, Santa Cruz de la Palma, 1985, pp.80–1.  \nViladrich, M., “Astrolabios Andalusíes”, in *El Legado Científico Andalusí*, Madrid, 1992, pp.53–65.","artist":"Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahali.","dynasty":"Taifa kingdom of Banu Dhi'l-Nun (Dhu'l-Nunids)","materials":["Cast and engraved brass"],"keywords":["Astrolabe; zodiac; Taifas; Toledo; astronomy; science"],"author":"M.ª del Carmen Alonso Rodríguez","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"0ee82313-3b00-5065-9b57-8b032c634961":{"name":"Gold coin (*dinar*).","description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in AH 380 / AD 990. The legend is in *kufic* script.  \n  \nObverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: ''.لا اله الا الله، محمد رسول الله، علي خير صفوة الل'  \n  \n'There is no God except God, Muhammad is the Messenger. Ali is the best God's prime.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **محمد رسول الله أرسله بالهدى ودين الحق ليظهره على الدين كله ولو كره المشركون.**  \n  \n'Muhammad is the Messenger of God. He sent him with guidance and the true religion to prevail over all other religions, even though the idolaters may object.'  \n  \nReverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: **عبد الله ووليه نزار الإمام العزيز بالله أمير المؤمنين.**  \n  \n'Abd Allah and his supporter the Imam Al-'Aziz Billah Commander of the Faithful.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **بسم الله ضرب هذا الدينار بالمهدية سنة ثمانون وثلثماية.**  \n  \n'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in the year 380.' (AD 990).","short_description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) from Ayla in Aqaba. On the reverse is the name of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), the place of minting, al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia, and the date 380 / 990. Ali is mentioned in addition to the Prophet Muhammad on the obverse. The legend is in *kufic* script.","type":"Coin, dinar, gold","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 380 / AD 990.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Diameter 18 mm, weight 4 g.","method_for_datation":"The coin is dated and the place of mint recorded: 'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in the year 380.' (AD 990).","method_for_provenance":"The place of mint is inscribed on the coin as al-Mahdiyya.","provenance":"Al-Mahdiyya, Tunisia.","obtention":"The coin was acquired by the Museum as a result of an archaeological excavation carried out at the site of historic Ayla (Aqaba) in 1993–4.","bibliography":"Unpublished, but for similar coins see:  \n  \nPool, R. S., The Coinage of Egypt: (AH 358–922) under the Fatimee Caliphs, the Ayyobees and the Mamlook Sultan, Classes XIV.XV.XVI, London, 1879, p.17 (year AH 384).  \n  \nالعجابي. حامد، \"جامع المسكوكات العربية بإفريقية\", تونس،1988، ص 228، قطعة رقم 296، اللوحه 28.  \n  \nداود. مايسه، \"المسكوكات الفاطمية بمجموعة متحف الفن الإسلامي بالقاهرة\"، دار الفكر العربي، القاهرة، ص 53-55.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TN_EN_001","materials":["Struck gold."],"keywords":["Coin; coinage; gold; kufic script; al-Mahdiyya; numismatics."],"author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"19003bf4-70f4-5b4f-9cbc-901f2ae697ef":{"name":"Haram al-Ibrahimi.","alternate_name":"Sanctuary of Abraham (the Ibrahimi Mosque).","description":"The Haram al-Ibrahimi is associated with the father of the prophets Ibrahim (Abraham), and is considered to be the fourth most important religious site in Islam (after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem), and the second holiest place after the Aqsa Mosque in Palestine. The Haram al-Ibrahimi consists of a large building with a rectangular floor plan of approximately 60 m x 34 m. The building is surrounded by a great wall built from large blocks of fine cut stone. The Haram has two minarets dating to the Mamluk period. The height of each of them is around 15 m from the surface of the building.  \nThe interior of the building includes a congregational mosque and an open courtyard, as well as arcades, rooms, corridors, domes, and a grotto (known as “al-Ghar”), in addition to a series of graves which were designated for the Prophets Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their wives.  \nThe principle prayer hall is rectangular, about 28 m x 21 m. It consists of three aisles, the middle one being the largest and the highest of them. The prayer hall was originally designed as a church, since it was erected by the Franks on a Romanesque model after they destroyed the mosque that was originally on the site in AH 492 / AD 1099. When Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) reclaimed the city of Hebron in AH 583 / AD 1187, the church was transformed into a mosque and the present *mihrab* was added to it.  \nThe wooden *minbar* which stands today to the right of the *mihrab*, dates to the Fatimid period and was commissioned by Badr al-Din Jamali in AH 484 / AD 1092. It was brought to the Haram by Salah al-Din from Ashqelon (which lies roughly 50 km south of Jaffa). This *minbar* is considered the oldest Islamic wooden *minbar* still in use. It is in good condition and considered a masterpiece in both workmanship and design.  \nThe walls of the prayer area are panelled with polychrome marble, one of the works commissioned by Amir Tankaz in AH 733 / AD 1332. On the northern wall of the prayer hall, where the opening of the holy underground grotto “al-Ghar” is, there is a platform (*dikkat al-muballigh*) from which the prayer leader recites. This was built in AH 732 / AD 1331, and is composed of marble pillars and capitals.  \nTo the north of the mosque lies an open courtyard surrounded by porticoes and rooms. In the northwest corner of the courtyard is the Malikiyya Prayer Hall consisting of an *iwan* with a rectangular ground plan. In the southern wall of the courtyard, there is a beautiful *mihrab* commissioned by Sultan Barquq. There is a portico located at the extension of the western wall of the mosque that is known today as the Jami' al-Nisa (The Women's Mosque). This was an addition sponsored by Amir Shihab al-Din al-Yaghmuri in AH 796 / AD 1393–4.  \nThe Masjid al-Jawali is integral to the Haram al-Ibrahimi although it is not possible to see it from the outside. The west wall of the Masjid al-Jawali is in fact the east wall of the enclosure of the Haram, while the east, north and south walls of the Masjid are hewn from the rock. This mosque was built in AH 720 / AD 1320 by order of Amir 'Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Jawali. It is composed of three arched arcades with intersecting vaults that bear great stone piers. In the middle of the mosque there is a fine, stone dome whose corners are characterised by *muqarnas* decoration. In the *qibla* wall there is a *mihrab* which has been hewn from the rock and panelled with polychrome marble. It is provided with a beautiful semi-dome structure which is also decorated in coloured marble.","short_description":"At over 2000 years old, this may be one of the world’s oldest sacred monuments still standing. It was built in the area believed to contain the graves of the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), his sons Isaac and Jacob and their wives. The large rectangular outer building dates to the early Roman period and is enclosed by a wall of stone blocks. The interior is the product of several Islamic periods. The principle prayer hall was built by the Franks in the Romanesque style. The building is crowned by two Mamluk minarets. It contains the decorated rooms of the tombs. The mosque holds the oldest Islamic wooden *minbar* still in use and dates to the Fatimid period.","dates":"First century BC; AH 492 / AD 1099.","location":"Hebron (al-Khalil)","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by inscriptions, which are further supported by historical information.","bibliography":"'Amru, Y., *Khalil al-Rahman al-Arabiya \\[al-Khalil, the Arab City\\],* Hebron, 1985.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil* \\[*The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nVincent, L. H., and Mackay E. J. H., *Hebron – Le Haram El Khalil,* Paris, 1923.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.202–4.","patrons":"A number of rulers, princes and sultans oversaw the construction, renovations and restorations of Haram al-Ibrahimi. Among them were: Herod (r. 37–4 BC) whom it is likely built the enclosure; Badr al-Din Jamali, the amir of the Fatimid armies; the Crusader Kings of Jerusalem, Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93), who restored the Islamic identity to the site and completely renovated it; Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri, deputy to the sultanate in Bilad al-Sham during the period AH 712–40 / AD 1312–40; Sultan Zahir Barquq (ruled twice AH 784–91 / AD 1382–9 and AH 792–801 / AD 1390–9) and Amir ‘Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Jawali, overseer of the two *harams* (al-Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem and this one in Hebron).","dynasty":"From the Roman period to the end of the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ibrahim; haram; religious architecture; tombs of the prophets"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"1998f916-ba83-52b2-8f1d-49d4257dccba":{"name":"Qatrana Fortress","description":"An important station on the pilgrimage route in Jordan, Qatrana lies about 90 km south of Amman along the desert highway to the west of the Hijaz railway. The site comprises a small rectangular fortress (22.2 m x 17.35 m) and a large water reservoir (70 m x 70 m). The average height of the fortress is 10 m from ground level. All four of the walls are crenellated, provided with arrow slits of two types and machicolations (projecting windows); the external dimensions of the latter structures are 2 m x 2 m, projecting 50 cm from the face of the walls, with that above the gateway having an arched window and two slits on the sides. The remaining machicolations have three regular arrow slits each.  \nThe gateway is located at the centre of the south wall. It consists of a shallow porch, a vestibule with a cross vaulted roof, and a passageway that leads to the courtyard, which is roofed with large basalt beams. Eight rooms are organised around the rectangular courtyard that measures 18.6 m x 4.1 m with the longer side running from east to west. On the east side of the courtyard a flight of steps leads to the first floor where seven rooms are organised around the courtyard with a narrow walkway to provide access to the rooms. A flight of steps on the east side also leads to the roofs of these rooms.  \nTwo different types of stone were used to construct the fortress: limestone and basalt. Both the interior and exterior walls were plastered.","short_description":"Qatrana, an important station on the pilgrimage route in Jordan, lies at about 90 km south of Amman. The site comprises a small rectangular fortress and a large water reservoir, built together with other forts in AH 937 / AD 1531 specifically for the protection of the new pilgrimage route established by Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. The fortress walls are crenellated, provided with arrow slits and projecting windows. The gateway consists of a shallow porch, a vestibule with a cross-vaulted roof, and a passageway that leads to the courtyard, which is roofed with large basalt beams.","dates":"Hegira 937/ AD 1531.","location":"Qatrana","method_for_datation":"The fortress built in 937/ 1531 was, in common with the forts of Dhab'a and Ma'an, built specifically for the protection of the newly established pilgrimage route established by Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent during his reign (926–74 / 1520–66).","bibliography":"الكردي.حنان، القلاع الأثرية في الأردن، عمان، 1984، ص 37–38.  \nBurckhardt, J. L., *Travels in Syria and the Holy Land*, London, 1882, p.658.  \nDoughty, C. M., *Travels in Arabian Deserts*, London, 1926, p.58.  \nPeterson, A., “Early Ottoman Forts on Darb al-Hajj”, *Levant*, Vol. XXI, 1989, pp.97–117.","patrons":"Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Buttress; cistern; crenellations; Hijaz railway; towers; water; water reservoir"],"author":"Mohammad Najjar","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"1a476191-4d4c-570a-ab3c-a49e3f98f66c":{"name":"Prayer rug.","description":"This rug belongs to the group of prayer rugs from Ghiordes, a village between Izmir and Ushak, where most of the Anatolian prayer rugs were manufactured in the AH 12th–13th / AD 18th–19th centuries. It shows in the central field a pointed niche with a half-niche on each side on a cream background. The motif of the three-arched niche derives from rug patterns of Ottoman courtly manufacturing during the AH 10th–11th / AD 16th–17th centuries. In contrast to these original designs, the columns of this rug are based on stylised carnations. Edged with trefoiled blossoms they support the main niche and separate it from the half-niches. The spandrels are filled with stylised carnations on a dark-blue background. A large bouquet of flowers hangs in the apex, reaching nearly to the bottom where a row of carnations is presented. The panel above the spandrels is filled with rosette blossoms and ornaments.  \nThe border is formed by two horizontal and two vertical stripes showing an endless pattern of stylised plants on a dark blue background. The wavy motif of a flower scroll alternately coloured in blue, red and tan is repeated on the inner and outer guard bands.","short_description":"Prayer rug, probably from Ghiordes. In the central field the rug shows a pointed niche with a half-niche on each side. Stylised carnations and bouquets of flowers are the most important motifs of this rug. The central field is framed with a border.","type":"Wool, knotted, carpet","holder":"Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet).","dates":"Hegira 12th century / AD 18th century.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Height 157 cm, width 113 cm.","method_for_datation":"A very similar rug is dated to the 12th / 18th century.","method_for_provenance":"Rugs showing similar designs and colour schemes are usually ascribed to the Ghiordes group.","provenance":"Anatolia (Ghiordes district), Turkey.","obtention":"Acquired from the carpet dealer P. Willborg, Stockholm, in 1984. The rug belonged to the collection of R. Christensen, Stockholm.","bibliography":"Dimand, M. S., *Oriental Rugs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art*, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1973.  \nSterner, M., *Orientens Mattor*, Stockholm, 1959, 204.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Wool; knotted."],"keywords":["Prayer rug; religion; prayer; floral decoration; purity"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"1e8c52f2-59ae-5930-b434-948802ee9220":{"name":"A pilgrim’s flask.","description":"A ceramic pilgrim's flask, sometimes called a Zamzameyyah, due to the fact that pilgrims used to fill such flasks with holy water from the famous well in Mecca called Zamzam.  \n  \nThis type of ware is usually tan or creamy buff in color. These flasks are made of two separate moulded discs which are joined together; the neck and handles are then added. There is a guilloche decoration at the juncture to hide the join. The moulds of the discs have hollow decorations to form a pattern in relief on the surface of the flasks. Often the decoration includes an emblem or rank to indicate the status or profession of the owner, normally an official associated with the Ayyubid or Mamluk court. On this particular flask we have a lily in the middle with a sword on either side, an emblem belonging to several sultans and amirs of the time.","short_description":"A ceramic pilgrim’s flask or zamzamiyyah after the holy well of Zamzam in Mecca. Made of two moulded discs which are joined together, the design has a lily in the middle with a sword on either side, an emblem belonging to several sultans and amirs of the time.","type":"Flask, ceramic","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 8th century / AD 14th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 17.5 cm, width 15.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The flask was dated by stylistic analysis and by comparing it to similar dated artifacts in other museums, such as other pilgrim's flasks displayed in Damascus National Museum.","method_for_provenance":"The provenance of this flask is unknown but it was probably produced in Syria.","provenance":"Unknown, probably Syria.","obtention":"Purchased from an antiquities dealer.","bibliography":"ساري. صالح، الفخار الأيوبي و المملوكي في بلاد الشام 567-923 ه/1171 – 1575 م، رسالة ماجستير، الجامعة الأردنية، 1979، 120، شكل 36.  \n  \nالبهنسي.عفيف، (تحقيق) الآثار السورية: مجموعة أبحاث أثرية و تاريخية (ماينز على الراين، 1982)، ص 285، شكل 253.  \n  \nالعش، محمد،\" الفخار غير المطلي\" الحوليات الأثرية السورية، المجلد العاشر، 1960، ص. 135-184، لوحة 18، رقم 78-84.  \n  \nHerzfeld, E., \"Damascus: Studies in Architecture I,\" Ars Islamica, IX, 1942, p.11, fig. 6.9","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Wheel-thrown ceramic."],"keywords":["Relief decoration; pilgrimage"],"author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"23e8db58-0148-5dc3-98b4-98cb5313ba16":{"name":"Pilgrimage proxy scroll.","description":"This pilgrimage proxy scroll includes handwriting, painting, and drawing on an expensive yellow glazed paper known as *abadi*. It is in fragmentary condition and its title, as well as the section containing the *basmala* (the formula 'In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful'), are missing. The first of the two fragments includes a pair of standards bearing the name of the contemporary Abbasid caliph, al-Nasir (r. AH 575–622 / AD 1180–1225); the standard on the right is partially preserved. Below this emblem is a colour depiction of Mount Arafat flanked by candlesticks. Below this are depictions of the Maqam-i Ibrahim, a stone associated with the Prophet Abraham, and the water wells. Further below this is a depiction of al-Muzdalifa, where pilgrims spend the night as part of their pilgrimage duties, and al-Mina, which is the third most important site for pilgrims. The empty spaces in between the drawings are filled with inscriptions describing the requirements for the pilgrimage.  \n  \nThe depiction of the Ka'ba unfortunately has not survived in this scroll. The second fragment features depictions of al-Safa and al-Marwa (two locations that pilgrims visit in Mecca), the city of Medina (where pilgrims visit the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad), the city of Jerusalem, which pilgrims customarily visit after the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. This proxy certificate was prepared for a person identified as Umm Abbas, wife of Ghalib. The person performing the pilgrimage on her behalf is Ahmad ibn Fadl al-Andalusi. The document was prepared in AH 602 / AD 1206.  \n  \nIn the Middle Ages it was difficult for people, especially women, to go on pilgrimage. Therefore, people who went on pilgrimage themselves, and those who sent a proxy on their own behalves, wanted to own a certificate proving that they had visited the holy sites and fulfilled all the requirements for the pilgrimage (perhaps in order to leave them to the future generations). Such pilgrimage and proxy certificates are invaluable documents for they describe the pilgrimage ritual, depict the holy sites, and provide information regarding the social life of the period.","short_description":"Pilgrimage certificates document pilgrimages to the Holy Lands, culminating in circumambulation of the Ka'ba. The certificates or proxy certificates (for those unable to make the hazardous journey themselves) give the names of the pilgrim and the proxy, the places visited and worship performed, accompanied by pictures.","type":"Scroll, paper","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Umm Abbas, wife of Ghalib.","dates":"Hegira 602 / AD 1206.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"4737: Height 55 cm, width 26.5 cm.; 4746: Height 51 cm, width 26.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The document's inscription specifies the date 602 / 1206. Both the style of writing and the name of the contemporary caliph support this dating.","obtention":"Ismet Bey, the mayor of Istanbul and a member of the board of directors of the Museum of Islamic Foundations (the old name for the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts), visited the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus while travelling. He had a number of items in the Qubbat al-Hazine (Treasury) of the mosque, including Qur'ans and this pilgrimage document, transferred to the Museum where they were registered in the inventory in around 1332 / 1914.","bibliography":"Aksoy, Ş., and Milstein, R., “A Collection of Thirteenth-Century Illustrated Hajj Certificates”, *M. Uğur Derman 65th Birthday Festschrift*, Istanbul, 2000, pp.73–134.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.80–81.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Handwritten and hand-painted on glazed (abadi) paper using ink and watercolour."],"keywords":["Pilgrimage; hajj; Ka'ba"],"author":"Şule Aksoy","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"255a30b7-9af1-50e4-83b8-9d9471ebd490":{"name":"Wall of al-Buraq.","alternate_name":"The Western Wall or Wailing Wall.","description":"The entire area of the Haram Al-Sharif, where it is thought that the Temple of Herod once stood and which was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD, is closely connected with the Prophet Muhammad. The basis for this assertion is provided by the Qur'an (Sura 17: 1): “Glory Be to Him Who made his servant to go on a night from the sacred Mosque to the remote Mosque”. Narrative accounts, which are corroborated by stories from the Life of the Prophet, relate that He arrived in Jerusalem by flying on the back of his horse, “al-Buraq”, who had the head of a woman. There, in the “remote Mosque” He prayed, together with Abraham, Moses, Salomon and Jesus. After that He climbed up on to a golden leather throne and ascended to Paradise. Then He remounted al-Buraq and returned to Mecca the same night. Traces of this nocturnal journey, as reflected in the popular tradition, are kept on the west side of the Rock, while Muhammad's footprints are on the southeast corner of the Rock.  \nUntil June 1967 it was possible to reach an exposed part of the Wall of al-Buraq (the length of which at that time was about 28m) through alleyways and passages in the Moroccan quarter. The approach was marked by a paved walkway which was no more than 3.30 m in width. The Wall's huge, lower well-dressed stone courses are from the Roman period; above them is the Umayyad-period strata (AH 41–132 / AD 661–750), while the upper courses date back to the Mamluk period (AH 648–922 / AD 1250–1517). The final layers were added after 1967 by the Islamic Awqaf Administration (Endowments).  \nInvestigations conducted by the Palestine Exploration Fund have uncovered 19 different layers of Wall beneath the exposed level, which extend down to bedrock. It is likely that these go back to the Roman era.  \nThe Moroccan quarter (part of the *awqaf* endowed by Sultan al-Malik al-Afdal Nur al-Din Ali, son of Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi on AH 24th of Rajab 666 (AD 10th of April 1268)), was destroyed directly after the end of the war in June 1967. The demolition was radical as it included historical buildings adjacent to the Wall of al-Buraq, especially those in the south. Buildings which stood in front of the wall were levelled and covered with earth in order to create a large paved area known by the name of the “Plaza of the Western Wall”. This demolition, in addition to formal archaeological excavations, led to the exposure of more of the Western Wall and the discovery of lower portions of it. A water canal routed along a tunnel was also discovered and was subsequently known as the “Tunnel of the Western Wall”.","short_description":"This is the wall which is associated, according to Muslim beliefs, with Buraq who carried the Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem on the night of the *Mi’raj* (Ascension). This large wall forms part of the Western Wall of al-Haram al-Sharif. Its lower stone courses were built in the Roman period; above them is the Umayyad-period strata while the upper courses date back to the Mamluk period. The Jews believe that the Western Wall belongs to the second temple and call it the Wailing Wall. It is considered the holiest of their religious sites.","dates":"The lower strata of the Western Wall dates to the Roman Governor Herod (r. 40–4 BC); the remaining layers date to the Umayyad period, during the rule of Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan (AH 65–86 / AD 685–705), and other Islamic periods.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The Wall was dated by information obtained from reading the work of the historian, Josephus Flavius (died some time after AD 100) and al-Maqdisi (died at the end of the 4th / 10th century).","bibliography":"'Abud, T., “Harat al-Mughariba Tarikh al-Hadir \\[The Moroccan Quarter: The Present History\\]”, in *Majalat al-Hauliyat al-Quds \\[The Annual Journal of Jerusalem*\\], spring 2003, pp.60–7.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Palestinian Encyclopaedia*, Vol. 2, pp.136–7.  \nTibawi, Abd al-Latif, “Ha'it al-Buraq wa al-Awqaf al-Islamiya \\[The Wall of al-Buraq and Islamic Endowments\\]”, in *Majalat magma' al-luga al-Arabiya bi Dimashq \\[The Journal of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus\\],* 55: 2, 1980, pp.266–87.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *The Islamic Pious Foundation in Jerusalem, Origins, History and the Usurpation by Israel,* London, 1978.","patrons":"The Roman Governor Herod and the Umayyad caliph, ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan.","dynasty":"Roman and Islamic.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["al-Buraq; Al-Haram Al-Sharif; Western Wall of the Mount; Western Wall"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"32434888-ecb9-5b5b-bdc6-bc81ab4851b0":{"name":"Topkapı Palace.","description":"The Topkapı Palace (originally known as Saray-ı Hümayun \\[Imperial Palace\\], Saray-ı Cedide-i Amire \\[New Imperial Palace\\], Yeni Saray \\[New Palace\\]) was founded on an area of the Istanbul peninsula which commands the Golden Horn on one side, and the Bosphorus Strait and the Sea of Marmara, on the other. The wooden palace built by Sultan Mehmed II behind the Top Kapı (literally the 'Cannon Gate'), the oldest sea gate of the palace, burned down and its name was given to the 'New Palace'. The palace is surrounded by the Sur-ı Sultani (Sultan's Walls), whose main entrance is the Bâb-ı Hümayun (Imperial Gate) on the side facing Ayasofya (Hagia Sophia).  \nThe plan of the palace is generally similar to that of the Edirne Palace, occupying an area of approximately 700,000 sq m. Construction began under Sultan Mehmed II and successive rulers added to it, until it took the form of a large complex of buildings. The Topkapı Palace lacks the axial organisation seen in many palaces. This group of buildings, rather than comprising an architectural unity, developed like a small city whose elements underwent changes over time. The palace's plan of three main courtyards was developed, and the monumental gates built, under Sultan Mehmed II. The first courtyard, known as the Alay Meydanı (Parade Ground), is entered through the Bâb-ı Hümayun (Imperial Gate), the main gate of the palace, where the church of Aya Irini (Hagia Irene) is also found. Many buildings were built here for various purposes, but none of them survive. The first courtyard opens onto the second courtyard, known as the Divan Meydanı (Divan Ground), through the Bâbüsselam (Gate of Salutations), also called the Orta Kapı (Middle Gate). The principal buildings here are the palace kitchens, the royal stables, the *Kubbealtı* (apartments for councils of state) and the Tower of Justice. Finally, the Enderun (Inner Palace) area is entered through the Bâbüssaade (Gate of Felicity) or Akağalar Kapısı (Gate of the White Eunuchs). Among the important buildings in this, the third courtyard are the Arz Odası (Audience Hall), used by the sultan to receive ambassadors and viziers; the sultan's privy chamber, later used to house the Hırka-i Saadet (the Mantle of the Prophet); the Pavilion of Mehmed II and the library of Ahmed III. A gently sloping path leads to the fourth courtyard that contains free-standing pavilions. These include outstanding examples of Ottoman civil architecture such as the Baghdad and Revan Pavilions, built by Murad IV (r. AH 1032–49 / AD 1623–40), and the Sünnet Odası (Circumcision Chamber) built by Ibrahim I (r. AH 1049–58 / AD 1640–48). The last building added to the Topkapı Palace was the Mecidiye Pavilion, built under Sultan Abdülmecid (AH 1255–78 / AD 1839–61). The *harem*, where the sultan and his family lived, looks like a separate city within the palace. The oldest section of the *harem* extant dates to the period of Murad III (r.AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95). An inscription above one of the entrances to the *harem*, the Araba (Carriages) Gate, opens onto the second courtyard next to the *Kubbealtı*; it bears the date AH 995 / AD 1588.  \nThe changes and additions made to the Topkapı Palace over time reflect on one hand the decorative styles of the various periods to which they belong, while, on the other hand, they provide a record of the different phases of building that the palace underwent. The Topkapı Palace shows the characteristics of Ottoman court and residential architecture for a period lasting up until the construction of the Dolmabahçe Palace in the AH mid-13th / AD 19th century, and was the official residence of the Ottoman sultans from Mehmed II until Abdülmecid. It became a museum in 1924.","short_description":"Topkapı Palace, which is one of the oldest palaces in the world, served as the administrative centre of the Ottoman Empire for some 400 years. Built on the tip of the Istanbul peninsula, the palace stands on an exclusive point overlooking the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. Unlike European palaces, Topkapı Palace comprises numerous structures and its various pavilions and apartments, each of which is an exquisite example of Ottoman civic architecture, give it the appearnace of a small city. The palace has been serving as a museum since 1924 and its exhibits are among the world's masterpieces.","dates":"Construction began in hegira 9th century / AD 15th century, during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II (his second reign: AH 855–86 / AD 1451–81); the last addition was made under Sultan Abdülmecid [‘Abd al-Majid] (r. AH 1255–77 / AD 1839–61) in hegira 13th century / AD 19th century.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul","method_for_datation":"The most useful sources for dating the palace are the records and archival documents pertaining to its construction. The journals and drawings of foreign travellers are also important for dating, as are the chronicles written by Mustafa âli, İdris Bitlîsî, Kritovoulos, Peçevî İbrahim Efendi, Mustafa Selanikî and Hüseyin Hezarfen. Some parts of the palace have undergone constant changes and are datable solely by their decoration, although an exact chronology of those changes cannot be established.","bibliography":"Anhegger, M., *Topkapı Sarayı'nda Padişah Evi (Harem) \\[The House of the Sultan in the Topkapı Palace (Harem)\\]*, Istanbul, 1986.  \nEldem, S. H., and Akozan, F., *Topkapı Sarayı-Mimari bir Araştırma \\[Topkapı Palace – An Architectural Approach\\]*, Istanbul, 1982.  \nErkins, Z., *Topkapı Sarayı \\[Topkapı Palace\\]*, Istanbul, 1959.  \nKuban, D., “Topkapı Sarayı \\[Topkapı Palace\\]”, *İstanbul Ansiklopedisi \\[Encyclopaedia of Istanbul\\]*, Vol. VII, Istanbul, 1994, pp.280–90.  \nSözen, M., *Devletin Evi Saray \\[The Palace, The House of the State\\]*, Istanbul, 1990.","patrons":"Begun by Sultan Mehmed II during his second reign and continued by successive sultans; the last addition was made under Sultan Abdülmecid.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Palace; harem; pavilion; palace architecture; Istanbul; Ottoman architecture"],"author":"Semra Daşçı","translator":"Barry Wood","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"34344960-90a1-56d8-ab23-52de9332f9bd":{"name":"The Fortress at Ma’an.","description":"A station on the pilgrimage route in southern Jordan, the fortress at Ma'an lies about 200 km south of Amman along the desert highway. The monument is a square structure measuring 24 m x 24 m with a maximum preserved height that exceeds 9 m.  \nThe walls are provided with plain slit windows, with the entrance gateway located in the middle of the eastern wall articulated by stone decorations immediately above it. At the top of the wall, directly above the gateway, a machicolation (a projecting window) is placed. Two different types of masonry were used to construct the eastern wall which might indicate some repairs and modifications to the gateway and the upper storey. The stone decoration consists of an inscription placed between two decorative devices at the top and the bottom of it. The inscription cites the name of the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent as the founder. The upper device consists of an eight-pointed star formed by two intersecting squares with a concave decorative disc in the centre. On both sides of the star and in the centre of the concave disk additional elements of floral and geometric designs are added.  \nAt the ground level 10 rooms, including two centrally placed *iwan*s, were organised symmetrically on both sides of a rectangular internal courtyard measuring 19 m x 8 m. This arrangement is repeated on the first floor which, in addition, was provided with a walkway that is 1 m long.","short_description":"The Ma’an fortress is a station on the pilgrimage route, about 200 km south of Amman. The monument is a square structure. Its walls have slit windows, with the entrance gateway located in the middle of the eastern wall. Stone decorations immediately above it surround an inscription that cites the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent as the founder (in AH 937 / AD 1531). At the top of the wall above the gateway, a projecting window is placed. Two different types of masonry were used to construct the eastern wall, which might indicate repairs and modifications to the gateway and the upper storey.","dates":"Hegira 937 / AD 1531.","location":"Ma’an","method_for_datation":"The fortress is dated to 937 / 1531 and attributed to Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 926-74 / AD 1520–66) on the basis of an inscription above the gateway.","bibliography":"Burckhardt, J. L., *Travels in Syria and the Holy Land*, London, 1882, pp.436–7  \nDoughty, C. M., *Travels in Arabian Deserts*, London, 1926, pp.73–4.  \nMusil, A., *The Northern Hegaz, New York, 1926, pp.2–5.*  \nPeterson, A., *Early ottoman Forts on the Hajj Route in Jordan*, unpublished MA thesis, University of Oxford, 1986, pp.86–93.  \nPeterson, A., “Early Ottoman Forts on Darb al-Hajj”, *Levant*, Vol. XXI, 1989, pp.97–117.","patrons":"Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Barrel-vault; buttress; cistern; corner tower; fortress"],"author":"Mohammad Najjar","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"3b905371-82f4-562e-9ed1-808c1a7eff1f":{"name":"Church of the Nativity.","description":"The origin of the building is a naturally formed cave where Jesus is said to have been born. To immortalise the event the first church was built on this site in AD 31st May, 339. The Church of the Nativity is considered to be one of the most important places to visit on Christian Pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The plan of the original church was a simple octagonal, although nothing remains of it today except a section of the mosaic floor that was incorporated into the floor of the church of Emperor Justinian in AD 529. Despite the occurrence of an earthquake in AH 1250 / AD 1834, and a fire that followed it in AH 1286 / AD 1869, the church preserved its original plan, most of its architectural components and decoration.  \nThe church was not damaged during the Persian invasion of AD 614, and it is said that some of the pictorial elements of the mosaics at the entrance, whose details resemble some elements of Persian art, might relate to the invasion. At the time of the Arab-Islamic Conquest the church was included in the “'Umariyya Treaty”, an agreement that outlined relations between the Muslims and Christians signed by 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab. In AH 560 / AD 1165 and again in AH 564 / AD 1169 the church underwent some renovations and small changes.  \nThe entrance to the church is preceded by a large outside square with the portal at its east end. The entrance is an unassuming door in the wall which would be more in keeping with a fort than with a great church. The door is surmounted by a stone lintel and, being less than 1.5 m high, the visitor must stoop slightly in order to enter the narthex and the church interior. The portal, which dates back to the Mamluk or Ottoman periods, bears remnants from the Crusader period (the pointed arch), and also some remains of the grandiose entrance built during the reign of Justinian (AD 527–65).  \nA small, low rectangular entrance leads to the narthex. There were originally three entrances in to the church but two of the side entrances were subsequently blocked and the vestibule area was divided up into three sections: today entry to the church is by the vestibule's middle entrance.  \nThe church is designed on a basilican plan of four rows of columns made up of five colonnades, the highest and widest of which is the central colonnade. Each row is characterised by 11 columns, and each of these has a gilded capital in the Corinthian style. On the floor of the central colonnade there are viewing holes where the visitor can see parts of the original floor mosaic dating back to the Constantine period. Near a niche situated east of the colonnades there is a staircase descending to the cave where Jesus is said to have been born. On the cave floor there is a silver star upon which in Latin it is stated: “It was here that Jesus Christ was begotten from the Virgin Mary”.","short_description":"The church and grotto of the birth-place of Jesus Christ is one of the most important places of Christian pilgrimage in the world. Building began at the site in 339 and it changed a number of times. The construction of the present church was ordered by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian. It is in basilica form and composed of five colonnades, the biggest of which is in the middle. It is crowned by a gabled roof. In the east side, under the altar, is the holy cave, said to be the birth-place of Christ. In the middle of the church are cloisters from different ages and different Christian sects. This site is also sacred to Muslims.","dates":"AD 529.","location":"Bethlehem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated with the support of information from primary historical sources, and by the discovery of remains of the mosaic floor from the original church.","bibliography":"Murphy-O'Conner, J., *The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700,* Oxford, 1998.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, p.190.","patrons":"The Byzantine Emperor, Justinian I (ruled AD 527–65).","dynasty":"Byzantine.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Church; Christ; cave"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"44db66ac-94d1-513a-affd-eaec477e9022":{"name":"Citadel of Amman (general view).","description":"Muslim troops led by Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan conquered Amman in AH 13 / AD 634. Under Umayyad rule, Amman was the capital city of al-Balqa district. A new residential and administrative complex (Dar al-Imara) was built on the Citadel of Amman. The site known in Arabic as al-Qal'a is a well-defined natural elevation at the heart of ancient and modern Amman. The Umayyad town at the citadel comprised a palace complex: a bath complex; a deep, round water reservoir; a central plaza, a congregational mosque and domestic quarters, all of which were enclosed within fortified walls.  \nThe proximity of the city to the centre of power in Damascus, together with the fact that the area was inhabited by tribes traditionally allied to the Umayyad dynasty, had created a favourable atmosphere for the economic development of al-Balqa in general, and Amman in particular. The city flourished during the Umayyad period benefiting from its strategic location on the trade and pilgrimage route between Damascus and Hijaz. Amman lost some of its political significance with the shift of the political centre of the Islamic state to Iraq and declined slightly during the Abbasid period (AH 132–358 / AD 750–969), and yet even more rapidly in the Fatimid period (AH 358–566 / AD 969–1171). By the AH 8th / AD 14th century, Amman was all but lost from historical memory. The Medieval Arab historian Abu al-Fida wrote of Amman in AH 720 / AD 1321: 'A very ancient town and was ruined before the days of Islam'.  \nIn AH 1296 / AD 1879 the Ottoman administration helped to settle emigrants from the Caucasus into a few areas in Jordan including Amman. In 1921 Amman became the capital city of the newly established Emirate of Transjordan founded by the Amir (later king) Abdullah I.  \n  \nClick [here](< https://youtu.be/yHVm_pbN70Q>) to **watch a video presentation** of this artefact.","short_description":"The Citadel of Amman is a natural elevation within Amman. Muslim troops led by Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan conquered Amman in AH 13 / AD 634, and under Umayyad rule it was the capital of al-Balqa district. The Umayyad town at the citadel comprised a palace complex, a bath, a reservoir, a plaza, a congregational mosque and domestic quarters within fortified walls. The city flourished during the Umayyad period due to its proximity to Damascus but started to decline in the Abbasid period and was abandoned by the 8th / 14th century until 1296 / 1879 when the Ottomans settled Caucasian emigrants in Amman.","dates":"Around hegira 110 / AD 728.","location":"Amman","method_for_datation":"The site was dated on the basis of historical sources and archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Almagro, A., “El Palacio Omeya de Amman”, *La Arquitectura*, Madrid, 1983.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., and Allan, J. W., *A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture*, Cairo, 1989, pp.169–73.  \nKhouri, R. G., *Amman: A Brief Guide to the Antiquities*, Amman, 1988, pp.16–18.  \nKoutsoukou, A., et al, *The Great Temple of Amman: The Excavations*, Amman, 1997, pp.12–16.  \nNorthedge, A. E., *Studies on Roman and Islamic Amman*, Vol. I., Oxford, 1992, pp.74–104.","patrons":"Hisham ibn Abd al–Malik (AH 105–25 / AD 724–43).","dynasty":"Umayyad.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Amman Citadel; bath complex; city wall; congregational mosque; domestic quarters; monumental gateway; palatial complex; plaza; water reservoir"],"author":"Mohammad Najjar","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"461e1b34-d976-5ed9-8d53-d69810250d6c":{"name":"Tomb cover.","description":"A woven silk tomb cover that has a repeat design of zigzag bands set against a dark-green ground. Each zigzag band is contained within narrow borders that hold repetitions of the *shahada*, the Islamic profession of faith, rendered in white with red outlines and set against a dark-green ground: ‘La Ilah Ila Illah wa Muhammad rasul Illah’ (‘There is no God but God and Muhammad is the Messenger of God’). The narrow borders above contain prayers for the Prophet, while those below contain prayers for the four righteous caliphs Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman and ‘Ali as well as for the companions of the Prophet. In between the bands the superposed words ‘Allah’ and ‘Muhammad’ are repeated.  \nIn Ottoman Turkey the cenotaphs of important personages were often draped with various types of textiles, much like this one, with its zigzag patterns of calligraphic prayers. It has been suggested that these textiles may have been intended to recall the ceremonial drapery or *kiswa* covering the Holy Ka’ba in Mecca. The earliest textiles of this type have been dated to the AH 11th / AD 17th century, and the latest to the AH 13th / AD 19th century.","short_description":"In Ottoman Turkey the cenotaphs of important individuals were often draped with religious textiles showing a distinctive design of zigzag panels containing Qur’anic prayers. This custom may have been intended to recall the ceremonial draping of the Holy Ka’ba in Mecca with the so-called *kiswa* cover.","type":"Ottoman carpet, woven silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira 11th century / AD 17th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 231 cm, width 78 cm.","method_for_datation":"A stylistically related funerary textile is in the V&A, London (inv. no. 780-1892), and there is another in the Topkapı Palace Museum (inv. no. 13/1690), both have been dated to the 11th / 17th century (see Atasoy *et. al*, 2000; *Türkische Kunst*, 1985).","method_for_provenance":"Funerary textiles of this type are ascribed to Ottoman Turkey (see Atasoy *et. al*, 2000; *Türkische Kunst*, 1985).","provenance":"Turkey.","obtention":"Purchased from Lisbet Holmes Ltd., London in 1981.","bibliography":"Atasoy, N., Denny, W. B., Mackie, L. W., and Tezcan, H., *Ipek, the Crescent and the Rose: Imperial Ottoman Silks and Velvets*, London, 2000, P.297, fig. 284; p.205, figs. D I, D ii.  \nBlair, S. S., and Bloom, J. M., *Images of Paradise in Islamic Art*, Hanover N.H., 1991 (for a similar later piece and a discussion of the symbolism).  \nScarce, J., *Domestic Culture in the Middle East: an Exploration of the Household Interior*, Edinburgh, 1996, p.106 (where item is illustrated).  \n*Türkische Kunst und Kultur aus osmanischer Zeit*, exhibition catalogue, Recklinghausen, 1985, p.265, cat. no. 5/18.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Woven silk rendered in red, green and gold."],"keywords":["Shahada; kiswa; funerary object"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"498f1612-ae40-5357-872b-5ea4aaf0dae3":{"name":"Zawiya al-Qadiriyya.","alternate_name":"Zawiya al-Afghaniyya.","description":"The Zawiya al-Qadiriyya is considered to be one of the few buildings in Jerusalem whose original architectural design and fabric have been preserved without any fundamental changes and which still carries out its original function to this day. The *zawiya* was bestowed with a generous *waqf* (endowment) and a large number of people still work within it. It is associated with Sheikh ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (d. AH 561 / AD 1166), the founder of the Qadiriyya Sufi Order in the Islamic world. It is called al-Afghaniyya because a group of Afghans have resided there for the past few decades.  \nIt has two outer facades, one on the west and the other on the south. The western façade is simple in its construction and is composed of a series of cut-stone courses of medium size. There are no openings within the west façade except those for small windows that allow natural light into the interior. The principle, southern façade holds the *zawiya*'s sole entrance accessed by means of three ascending steps from street level. The entrance portal, framed on each side by a stone bench or *mastaba*, is placed within a receding recess delineated by a pointed arch. Mounted in front of the arch is a stone panel on which a four-line inscription in *naskhi* script is carved. The inscription includes the name of the *zawiya*, the Sufi Order with which it was associated, the name of the Order's founder and the date of construction.  \nThe entrance leads to a narrow barrel-vaulted passageway, 1.90 m long and 1.5 m wide, which leads to an irregularly shaped but rectangular open courtyard that measures around 400 sq m. A large area of the courtyard is planted with a variety of trees and plants corresponding with the description that appears on the *waqf* document that dates back four centuries. Eleven Sufi cells flank the south and west sides of the courtyard, they are similar in form and design but are different in their surface detail. Each cell is provided with a door and a small window overlooking the courtyard. On the north side of the courtyard are the quarters dedicated to the amenities of the *zawiya* and the assembly hall specifically for the Sufis, this area is composed of two levels: the ground level is original, while the upper floor was added subsequently and was used as the residence for the sheikh of the *zawiya*. The *zawiya* includes a mosque which is located to the east of the entrance and reached by means of a staircase. The floor plan of the mosque is rectangular. It is composed of a prayer hall which is divided into two sections by a tapered arch and covered with two shallow domes. Twelve windows allow light and air to enter into it.","short_description":"Despite the passing of four centuries since the foundation of the Zawiya al-Qadiriyya, it still carries out the function that it was built for: the gathering of *dhikr* (singing) circles of the Qadiriyya Sufi order. No changes have been made to the original ground floor of the building. The building is composed of a gate which precedes a large open plaza cultivated with trees. Surrounding the square are cells for the Sufis, an assembly hall, a mosque and service rooms. The upper storey was added in a subsequent stage of the building history, as a residence for the sheikh of the *zawiya*.","dates":"Hegira 15th Muharram 1043 (AD 22nd July, 1633).","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by an epigraphic inscription found on the entrance arch. The *waqf* document in the registry of the Shari'a Court of Jerusalem (No. 122, pp.232–6) also helps to ascertain the date.","bibliography":"Natsheh, Y., “Al-Zawiya Al-Qadiriyya”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds). *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part I), London, 2000.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* p.101.","patrons":"Muhammad Pasha, Ottoman Governor of Jerusalem, one of the most prominent overseers of architecture in Jerusalem in the first half of the AH 11th / AD 17th century, whose benevolence was particularly directed to the Sufi Orders.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Zawiya; Sufi; Sufi Order; hanging mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"4dcb82b4-7bfd-5da7-932f-7b81314a4d12":{"name":"Mausoleum (*qubba*) of Taynabak al-Hasani.","alternate_name":"Al-Taynabiyya.","description":"Al-Taynabiyya is located in the Maydan al-Fawqani quarter (meaning the upper parade ground) to the south of Damascus. Maydans were originally open fields on the periphery of the city used for exercise and military training, which became settled with the expansion of pilgrim and merchant traffic in southern Damascus, a fact attested to by the medieval historian Ibn Asakir (d. AH 571 / AD 1176) who notes that the first settlements in the Maydan suburb took place during the Zangid period. Thus this section of the trade and pilgrim route, which heads to the holy cities of the Hijaz via the fertile Hauran Plains of southern Syria, began to be absorbed into the urban fabric of Damascus.  \nAs the area was considered auspicious, many *emir*s, including Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin), desired to be buried there in order to receive the blessings and prayers of passing pilgrims. During the Mamluk period in the AH 8th / AD 14th century, urban development was rapid and the quantity of religious, social and economic constructions, such as mosques, *hammam*s, grain markets, and *khan*s, saw a marked increase. The most characteristic type of building to be found on both sides of the Maydan's main artery were the mausoleums (*qubba*); their polychrome façades and painted cupolas offered the suburb a distinctively colourful and picturesque character. Al-Qubba Al-Taynabiyya is one of more than 20 mausoleums to have been built by the Mamluks.  \nThe outer façade of the domed Al-Qubba al-Taynabiyya faces east. The monument is symmetrical in layout and constructed out of black-and-white alternating stone, in a style known as a*blaq*. The entrance, situated in the centre of the façade, is part of an elaborate niche that has a fluted mussel-shaped half-dome ceiling surmounted by a *muqarnas* arch. The niche is topped by a flat, protruding upper section. Beneath the *muqarnas* is an intricate square containing a Mamluk blazon composed of three parts: an empty upper section, a goblet in the middle section, a smaller goblet in the lower section and, between two lozenges, there is a a napkin motif. The goblet, signifying the cupbearer, is one of the most frequently used symbols in Mamluk heraldry, particularly since Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun's time (who ruled three times: AH 693–4 / AD 1293–4; AH 698–708 / AD 1299–1309; AH 709–41 / AD 1310–41), followed by the napkin, symbolising the table master. In this context it is difficult to identify any particular officer and often the use of a composite blazon can be interpreted as a generic status symbol. Above the two windows on each side of the entrance niche are rosettes of interlaced stone incrustations. The monument has two domed chambers: the southern one is a prayer hall, while the northern one houses the *qubba*, where the wife of the founder was buried in AH 798 / AD 1396, and later Taynabak himself in AH 802 / AD 1400.","short_description":"During the AH 8th / AD 14th century the Maydan area, an open field originally used for military training and located along the pilgrim route to the south of Damascus, began to develop as an extension to the city's urban fabric. It became increasingly attractive as a location for mausoleums and religious institutions, which would auspiciously receive blessings and prayers from passing pilgrims. Over 20 Mamluk buildings, distinctive because of their striped *ablaq* facades, elaborate entrance niches and red domes, are located on this road, the mausoleum of Amir Taynabak being just one of them.","dates":"Hegira 797 / AD 1394–5.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The monument was dated by its portal inscription.","bibliography":"Meinecke, M., “Die mamlukische Architektur”, *ägypten und Syrien*, 1992, Vol. II, p.285; cat. nos. 25b, 33.  \nMeinecke, M., “Zur mamlukischen Heraldik”, *Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo,* 28, 1972, pp.213–87.  \nMoaz, A., “Midan, la grande route”, *Le Midan, Actualité d'un faubourg ancien de Damas* (Y. Roujon and L. Vilan, eds), pp.137–9.  \nSauvaget, J., *Les monuments historiques de Damas*, Beyrouth, 1932, p.73; fig. 28ff.  \nWulzinger, K., and Watzinger C., *Damaskus, die islamische Stadt*, Berlin and Leipzig, 1924, p.101; cat. no. D 15.1.","patrons":"Sayf al-Din Taynabak al-Hasani, Governor of Damascus (r. AH 795–802 / AD 1393–1400).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Religious object; funerary architecture; inscription"],"author":"Verena Daiber","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"53de341b-560c-5d23-b886-5d480f725f2c":{"name":"Seal of the Dome of the Rock.","description":"A circular seal made of copper with incised lines that demarcate a square, the corners of which are cut along the circumference of the piece. In the middle of the seal there is a horizontal depiction of the Dome of the Rock, octagonal in form, and in the middle of which is a circle. Portrayed within the circle is what is considered to be the footprint of the Prophet Muhammad, and inscribed below it the words: “Foot of the Prophet”.On top of the carving designated as the footprint of the Prophet, is the Dome of the Rock crowned by a crescent. Within the circle on each side of the Dome building, there is a tree resembling a palm. It is not known whether the two palms have symbolic meaning, perhaps they were drawn simply to fill empty space. Between the middle circle and the octagon there are eight arched niches, designating the interior octagon of the Dome of the Rock. Above the upper side of the octagonal is the façade of the Dome of the Rock, composed of the drum and the dome, and topped by a relatively large crescent. The horizontal depiction of the Dome of the Rock and the Dome's façade is surrounded on three sides by buildings; three portrayals of arcades appear, again surrounding the Dome of the Rock. These are likely to be depictions of: the southern arcade, which opens out in the direction of al-Aqsa Mosque; the south-western arcade, which opens out in the direction of the Bab al-Silsila (Gate of Chains) and the eastern arcade, which opens out in the direction of Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy). The northern arcade, however, hidden by the portrayal of the Dome and its crescent, does not appear. The names of the buildings appear beside the illustrations of them, including the Dome of the Rock and the names of its four gates: Bab al-Janna (The Gate of Heaven), Bab al-Salaam (The Gate of Peace), Bab al-Sakhra (Dome of the Rock Gate), and Bab al-Mizan (the Balance Gate). Similar captions appear beside the illustrations of the Dome of the Mi'raj, the Minbar al-Sharif (Minbar of Burhan al-Din), Qubbat al-Arwah (Dome of the Spirits) and Qubbat al-Silsila (Dome of the Chain). Depicted on the eastern side of the Dome of the Rock is an illustration of a plant that resembles a flower, which is not present to the east of the Dome of the Rock. Historically, there was a dearth of plants in the surrounding environs of the building.  \nIt is possible that the seal was used as authorisation to enter the Dome of the Rock. Or perhaps, it was used to seal the papers of visitors who hoped to be blessed by such an image, or to commemorate their visit to the Dome of the Rock. It might also have been used as some form of shorthand guidebook for the visit.","short_description":"This is a circular copper panel in the middle of which is a layout of the Dome of the Rock. It also shows the surrounding buildings and the staircases which lead to the plaza of the Dome.  It might have been used as authorisation to enter the Dome or perhaps to seal papers of visitors to take home as a blessing or as a souvenir of their visit.","type":"Copper, engraving","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Islamic *Awqaf* (Endowments), Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 13th century / AD 19th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Diameter 16 cm.","method_for_datation":"The piece was dated based on a comparison with another seal which bears the names of holy places in Palestine and the date of which has been narrowed down to the 13th / 19th century.","method_for_provenance":"Jerusalem was narrowed down as the place of production for the seal; the images on it were probably implemented in the area.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred at an unknown date from the Haram al-Sharif to the Islamic Museum.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Engraved copper."],"keywords":["Seal; copper; engraving"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"55a9a6bc-439c-5d96-9801-d84c4d57c26f":{"name":"Ribat of al-Mansur Qalawun.","alternate_name":"Ribat al-Mansuri.","description":"The *ribat* consists of three basic architectural units, the first of which is a deep, wide, rectangular entrance that has on its east and west sides a stone bench known as a *mastaba*. The entrance ceiling has a cross vault and on the southern wall there is an inscription indicating the date of construction. The second element is a large rectangular hall located to the east of the entrance which is 23 m long and 9 m wide. The hall is accessible by means of a passage directly adjacent to the entrance. The third unit is a large open courtyard (28 m long and 25 m wide) located to the west of the entrance. The courtyard is paved with rare and beautiful stones that are still *in situ* today, and which is surrounded by rooms and cells of different sizes. It used to contain two dug-out wells which would have provided those residing in the *ribat* with fresh water. The wells were destroyed, however, when the courtyard was widened in the 20th century.  \nThe *ribat* has a beautiful façade, which overlooks Bab al-Nadhir Street. The façade is approximately 68 m long and about 11 m high. The building is composed of two sections. The history of the highest section dates to the early Ottoman period (AH 10th / AD 16th century), while the origins of the lower section date to the Mamluk period. The two sections are divided from each other by a decorative frame or moulding, which is formed from a series of polygonal-stone shell forms. Despite the additions and distortions that the façade has been exposed to throughout its history, some of the original features are still extant.  \nThe *ribat* was a haven for the poor, providing food to the needy. It was also used to accommodate visitors to Jerusalem. The *ribat* benefited from a *waqf*, which meant that the proceeds from land and property in different parts of Palestine were allocated to cover its running costs.","short_description":"This is one of the biggest Mamluk *ribats* (inns) of Jerusalem. It is located a few metres from the western wall of al-Haram al-Sharif. It was built by Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun to house visitors and students of al-Aqsa mosque. It was richly endowed and distributed food to the needy. The building is composed of two storeys, both of which have large halls and many chambers that flank an open courtyard. Despite the many changes that the principle façade has undergone, its Mamluk design elements are still evident.","dates":"Hegira 681 / AD 1282–3.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by a foundation inscription located on the southern wall of the entrance; this is supported further by mention of the *ribat* in the writing of the historian Mujir al-Din al-Hanbali (d. 928 / 1521).","bibliography":"Abu al-Hawwa, A., *Al-Tatawar al-Mi'mari fi Harat Bab al-Nadhir fi al-Quds fi al-'Asrain al-Mamluki wa al-'Uthmani \\[The Architectural Development in the Neighbourhood of Bab al-Nadhir in Jerusalem during the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods*\\], MA Thesis, University of Jerusalem, 2002.  \nBerchem, M. van, *Materiaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum* (Part II), Cairo, 1922.  \nBurgoyne, M., *Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study*, London, 1987.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[Important Personalities in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nAl-Natsheh, Y., *Ribat al-Mansur Qalawun,* Jerusalem, 2004.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.104–5.","patrons":"Sultan al-Mansur al-Qalawun (r. AH 678–89 / AD 1280–90).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ribat; religious architecture"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5afe91bf-fea8-55d3-82ee-a8b6233aab07":{"name":"Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary).","description":"The Haram al-Sharif is of great importance in the Islamic faith. It is where the Prophet Muhammad set out on his midnight journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (*Isra'*) and from where he ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj)*. Furthermore, God blessed the Haram in the Holy Qur'an, and made it the first *qibla* (or direction of prayer) for Muslims.  \nThe Haram takes an elevated position up in the hills of Jerusalem. It is composed of a rectangular platform of approximately 1450,000 sq m forming one-sixth of the old city of Jerusalem.  \nScholars agree that as it exists today the Haram al-Sharif is devoid of any visible remains that precede the arrival of the Muslims in Jerusalem in AH 15 / AD 638, due to the fact that the buildings which were standing were destroyed by Titus and his legions in AD 70.  \nWhen the Arab-Muslims arrived, Jerusalem surrendered peacefully as part of a contractual agreement set up by Caliph ‘Umar bin al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) with the Patriarch, Sophronius. The Arabs did not destroy any buildings in the area of the Haram and the agreement made with Sophronius guaranteed the protection of the inhabitants, their households and their possessions. Most of the city was inhabited, with the exception of the Haram area, which at the time was neglected.  \nThe Haram site slopes from the north to the south. The highest point of it is in the centre where the Dome of the Rock is located. This tendency to slope is addressed by a platform that traverses it. One section of the platform is known by the name of al-Aqsa al-Qadim, while the other is known as al-Musalla al-Marwani.  \nDevelopment of the Haram is focused on its northern and western borders, although this was following construction at the centre, along with some important buildings such as the Dome of the Rock and the Qubbat al-Silsila (Dome of the Chain). The eastern edge of the Haram inclines towards a slope running down to the Wadi Jahannam (Qidron Valley), used as an Islamic cemetery from the very beginning of the Islamic conquests. On the southern side there is an even steeper inclination that offers better structural support to the architecture, and because of this, Umayyad edifices on the southern limit, best represented by the Dar al-Imara in the south of the Haram, have been continuously inhabited throughout history.  \nThe Haram al-Sharif is composed of three levels. The ground level includes Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy), Bab al-Tawba / Bab al-Dhahabi (Gate of Repentance / Golden Gate), al-Musalla al-Marwani, al-Aqsa al-Qadim (Old Aqsa) and the Masjid of Buraq. The middle level includes the Aqsa Mosque, the Islamic Museum and the side arcades in the western and northern walls, along with a multiplicity of gates and buildings such as *sabil*s, *madrasa*s, *mastaba*s, minarets and domes. The highest level is that of the Dome of the Rock, reached by a series of stairwells, and where there are a series of magnificent domes and some *khanqa*s (Sufi retreats), also the Minbar Burhan al-Din and the Mastabat al-Kark, and a number of cisterns and fountains.","short_description":"This is the third oldest Islamic site after Mecca and Medina and the oldest and most important sacred Muslim site in Palestine. It is a large complex with an area of some 145,000 sq. m. It includes the Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome al-Silsila (Chain) and the Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy) as well as more than 90 other commemorative buildings. The complex thus represents diverse Eastern Islamic architectural arts in different styles over the course of various periods, transforming it into an outdoor architectural museum. The site is linked with Islamic stories, specifically that of the *Isra'* and *Mi'raj* (Night of the Prophet's Ascension).","dates":"Hegira 15–493 / AD 637–1099; AH 583–1336 / AD 1187–1917.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The Haram al-Sharif is dated by the inscriptions it bears, by historical sources and finds from archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Burgoyne, M., *Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study*, London, 1987.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Oxford, 1932.  \nHamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of al-Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938–42*, London, 1949.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. AH 927 / AD 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nNatsheh, Y., “The Architecture of Ottoman Jerusalem”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part II),London, 2000.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza* (pp.69–71).","patrons":"A number of caliphs, sultans and princes of the Islamic lands oversaw the construction of the buildings of the Haram al-Sharif. The most prominent was the Umayyad caliph, Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705). Subsequent renovations were undertaken by several Muslim sultans and caliphs, the most prominent being: the Fatimid caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36) and sultan Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) and the Ottoman sultan, Sulayman al-Qanuni (Sulayman the Magnificent; r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","dynasty":"A series of consecutive Islamic periods ranging from the Umayyad to the Ottoman dynasties.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Al-Isra’; sanctuary; religious building; miraj; sacred objects"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5b39f275-54df-59e1-af9d-1758c033e5d5":{"name":"Printing block (stamp) listing holy places in the region of Palestine.","description":"A printing block (stamp) composed of a simple copper panel that is rectangular in shape. It is devoid of decoration except for the inscribed record on its surface. A frame encompasses the list on all four sides, composed of straight lines engraved into the copper with the exception of the lower line, which takes the form of an undulating wave. There are two curved forms on both edges of the last line. The block holds an engraved Ottoman Turkish inscription that names the principal holy places in Palestine, such as al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, as well as al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil). The block also includes the names of the tombs of some of the prophets, including that of Moses located on the road leading to Jericho; the tomb of David, located outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem and the tombs of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Isaac as well as Jacob, and their wives, in al-Haram al-Ibrahimi and the tomb of al-Khadir. In addition, the block records the names of a series of sites and shrines that include: the Mihrab of Zakariya in the Haram al-Sharif;the site of Abu 'Ubaida 'Amar bin al-Jirrah in 'Amwas (Nicopolis); the Tomb of Mary at the foot of the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem;the Qubbat al-Mi'raj (Dome of the Mi'raj); Qubbat al-Arwah (Dome of the Spirits); al-Buraq al-Sharif (Sanctuary of al-Buraq) in the Haram al-Sharif; the Qubbat Rahil (Rachel's Tomb) in Bethlehem; the tomb of Joseph in Halhul and al-'Ais in Sa'ir. The block also contains the names of the great saints of the Sufi paths, among whom are Muhammad al-Khalili (d. AH 1146 / AD 1734), who was one of the *'ulama of the Bait al-Maqdis* (scholar of the Bait al Maqdis) and Muhammad al-Budairi (d. AH 1220 / AD 1805) who was another scholar of the *Bait al-Maqdis*. The inscription ends with the word “Opening”.  \nIt is possible that the printing block gave authorisation to enter the holy places named, or perhaps it was meant to be a list of places a Sufi should visit in the region of Palestine. It is likely that it was used to print on paper and then distributed to an interested public.","short_description":"A rectangular copper panel devoid of decoration. It is inscribed with a list of the most important sites and shrines in Palestine. It might have been authorisation to enter these places, or a list of places that one should visit, or merely places where one could be blessed. It was probably stamped on paper to be distributed to interested parties.","type":"Copper, engraving","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Islamic *Awqaf* (Endowments), Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 13th century / AD 19th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 31 cm, width10 cm.","method_for_datation":"The piece was dated by ascertaining the life-spans of the pious men who are mentioned (Sheikh Muhammad al-Khalili and Sheikh Muhammad al-Budayri).","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that this printing block was made in Palestine, as there were a number of copper workshops producing a variety of copper objects In Jerusalem. In addition, the names of the sites detailed on the printing block are all in Palestine, which strengthens the hypothesis that it was made locally.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The printing block was transferred on an unknown date from the Haram al-Sharif to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001; IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Forged, hammered and engraved copper."],"keywords":["Entrance authorisation; printing block; copper; list of holy places; list of shrines; engraving; inscription"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5e68b14d-8eb3-5454-8d3b-cd5efa2239df":{"name":"Pilgrim bottle.","description":"A free-blown, globular-shaped glass vessel with enamel decoration. One of the wider sides and the lower half of both narrower sides are flattened. The colours of the enamel are wide-ranging: red, white, blue, pale-green, yellow, pink, mauve, and greyish black. Two applied handles sit on either side of the cylindrical neck. An eleven-pointed rosette within an eight-lobed flower containing vegetal scrolls decorates the flattened side. Decorating the curved side is a four-sided lobed motif, with a geometric shape filled-in with arabesques and surrounded by scrolls, terminating in human, animal, or bird heads. On the left of the curved side is a horseman in the act of killing an animal with a spear, he has a beard and a halo around his head and wears a conical hat with ribbons. Below this figure is a medallion with a female harp player, wearing a veil and a long tunic. On the other narrow side is a horseman under a tree killing a lion with a javelin; birds are flying overhead. He has a halo and wears a long coat and boots. In the circular medallion below him is a man sitting cross-legged, with a beaker in one hand, drinking. His tunic has decorative tiraz bands on the sleeves.  \nThe two horsemen recall those found in Christian iconography, whereas the figures in the medallions are typical of figures depicted in Islamic art. The mixture of motifs suggests the patron was either a Muslim who was familiar with Christian imagery or a Christian who appreciated the work of Muslim craftsmen. The shape of this vessel recalls leather flasks or unglazed ceramic pilgrim bottles, rather than other glass and metal objects. Although made of glass, this flask may have been carried on journeys or pilgrimages in a leather container. It was certainly a luxury object, perhaps made specifically as a gift.","short_description":"This enamelled glass pilgrim bottle is an interesting example of the crossover of Christian and Islamic cultures. Two of the figures decorating the vessel derive from Christian iconography of St George and the dragon, whereas the musician and drinker are found in Islamic art.","type":"Glasswork, gilded glass","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira third quarter 7th century / AD third quarter 13th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 23 cm, length 23 cm, width 16.2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The decoration resembles late Ayyubid and early Mamluk compositions.","method_for_provenance":"The technique and decoration are close to other glass objects produced in the Mamluk domains of Egypt and Syria.","provenance":"Egypt or Syria.","obtention":"Bequeathed to the British Museum by Felix Slade in 1869.","bibliography":"Carboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., Glass of the Sultans, New York, 2001, p.247–9, cat. no. 123.  \nHarden, D., Painter, K., Pinder-Wilson, R., and Tait, H., Masterpieces of Glass, London, 1968, p.114–5, cat. no. 153.  \nPinder-Wilson, R., \"The Islamic Lands and China\", in Five Thousand Years of Glass (ed. H. Tait), 1991, p.134, cat. no. 170.  \nRogers, J. M., \"European Inventories as a Source for the Distribution of Mamluk Enamelled Glass\", in Gilded and Enamelled Glass from the Middle East, (ed. R. Ward), 1998, pp.69–73.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Enamelled and gilded glass."],"keywords":["Vegetal decoration; arabesque; figurative decoration; horsemanship; musician; drinker; pilgrim flasks; pilgrimage"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"66dee6a2-095c-5e95-9ab7-3051179223bf":{"name":"*Zubdat al-Tawarikh* (‘Cream of Histories’).","description":"The work is written in Turkish with large *naskhi* script in black ink on 90 leaves of delicate finished (*aharlı*) paper. Within are 55 miniatures depicting subjects in the text, some of them one to a page and some two. On pages 1b–2a two round medallions carry an inscription stating the work's subject and saying that it was prepared for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95). The text is written 37 lines to a page; the titles and chapter headings are gilded. Their illumination features floral compositions with arabesques (*rumi*) and Chinese-inspired motifs (*hatayi*-style), while that of the first two pages' medallions includes large floral motifs (*halkar*\\-style).  \n  \nThe work's dark-green cover is lacquered using a technique known as *Edirnekari*. The outer covers are richly decorated with gold and silver in floral compositions, while the inner covers feature medallions, pendants and corner-pieces. The binding is not original.  \n  \nThe work, which was written by the court panegyrist (*Şehnameci*) Sayyid Loqman Aşuri, consists of two main sections. The first begins with the universe and the signs of the zodiac and continues with stories taken from the Torah, the New Testament, and the Qur'an which tell of the lives of prophets and those who rendered service to the faith. These are illustrated with paintings. The first part ends with genealogical trees of the Prophet Muhammad, the Four Orthodox Caliphs, and the sultans and high officials of Muslim dynasties such as the Umayyads, the 'Abbasids, the early Islamic period, the Ghaznawids, the Ilkhanids, the Seljuqs and the Timurids. The second part opens with Sultan Osman, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, and goes up to Sultan Murad III, with 12 portraits of Ottoman sultans. It ends with descriptions of the political events of these sultans' reigns.  \n  \nThis work was made for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III, and the quality of its paintings, its binding and its calligraphy make it one of the greatest works of Ottoman art created for a sultan.","short_description":"This manuscript includes stories of the prophets, the birth of Islam and histories of Muslim states. It was written on the order of Sultan Murad III by the historian Sayyid Lokman and illuminated by famous *naqqash* (painters) Molla Kasım and Ustad Osman. It is a unique work of Ottoman art.","type":"Manuscript, miniature, paper, ink, leather binding, lacquered","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95).","dates":"Hegira 993 / AD 1583.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"Height 64.7 cm, width 41.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"It is stated on the work that it was prepared for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III (r. 982–1003 / 1574–95) in 993 (1583).","method_for_provenance":"The work was almost certainly written in Istanbul by order of the Sultan.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"Transferred to the Museum in 1915 from the Library of the complex in Aksaray (Istanbul) founded by the wife of Sultan Mahmud II and mother of Sultan Abdülaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) I, Pertevniyal Valide Sultan (d. 1300 / 1883; queen mother from 1277–92 / AD 1861–76).","bibliography":"Aksoy, Ş., “Zübdetü't Tevarih, Sultan III. Murad için Hazırlanan bir Şehname”, P. *Art, Culture, Antique*, 3, 1996, pp.17–37.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Istanbul, 1993, p.42, pl. 19A–E; pp.52–6.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.272–5.  \n  \nRenda, G., “New Light on the Painters of the Zubdat at Tawarikh in the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul”, *Fourth International Congress of Turkish Art*, University of Provence, 1976, pp.183–207.","artist":"Calligrapher: Sayyid Loqman Aşuri; painters: al-Sayyid Lutfi, Molla Kasım (Mulla Qasim) and Ustad Osman and their workshop.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Delicate finished (aharlı) paper, ink, watercolour, gilding, the binding lacquered (Edirnekari technique)."],"keywords":["Lacquer; Edirnekari technique; gilding; ink; paper; painting; watercolour; zodiac"],"author":"Sevgi Kutluay","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"6c402e37-2b9b-5950-a717-adb9b30770b5":{"name":"Church of the Tomb of Mary.","description":"The Virgin Mary, the mother of Christ, has an important and significant place in Islamic doctrine. There is an entire chapter in the Holy Qur'an that bears the name of Mary, in addition to her being considered the highest exemplar of the virtues of chastity and purity in the Islamic culture.  \nThe historian, Al-Hanbali (d. AH 928 / AD 1522) mentions that the grave of the Virgin Mary was in a church famous as a place of pilgrimage for both Christians and Muslims. He mentioned that when the Caliph ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab (r. AH 13-23 / AD 634–44) visited Jerusalem after the conquest of AH 17 / AD 638, he passed by the Church of Mary and prayed two *rak'ats* in it. The pan-faith significance of the church serves as an explanation as to why there is a large *mihrab* to the south of the tomb.  \nThe origin of the building was a natural cave, upon which a Byzantine church was erected in AD 582 - 602. The church was built on two levels and bore the name of Mary, Mother of Christ. In the course of time the church deteriorated and another was built to replace it. The traveller, Arculf described the Western-style roof of the church in around AH 49–50 / AD 670. The Crusaders undertook the rebuilding of the present church on their arrival in Jerusalem. Despite the fact that the four Gospels do not mention either the death or the place of burial of the Virgin Mary, Eastern Christian tradition considers the location of the church to be where the Virgin Mary is buried and where she made her ascent to heaven.  \nThe entrance to the church is preceded by an open courtyard with a square plan. There is a 5 m drop from the public pathway into the church portal, negotiated by way of a descending staircase. The entrance has a great rectangular door above which there is a pointed stone arch built in the Gothic-Crusader style. The entrance leads to a long and broad vaulted staircase area, which descends in 47 marble stairs. The vaulted area is roofed with a series of consecutive arches supported by intersecting vaults that dominate the building. At the end of the vaulted area lies the tomb of the Virgin Mary; originating as a cave, part of the architectural fabric is excavated from rock, while some has been built. The shrine descends 12 m from the level of the church entrance. The tomb is a carved block of rock that lies at the centre of the eastern section of the cave. In this form, it resembles the tomb of Jesus in the middle of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. To the south of the grave there is a large undecorated *mihrab* crowned by a dome.","short_description":"The church is located to the east of the old city. Its construction was undertaken in the late Byzantine period at a cavern that was considered to be the grave of the Virgin Mary, who occupies a distinguished place in both Islam and Christianity. The present building goes back to the Crusader period and is in the Gothic style. Little remains of the architectural elements of the former churches at this site. The site is also sacred to Muslims and the church contains a number of *mihrab*s (niches).","dates":"Beginning of Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The church is dated by information concerning the site, which is further supported by primary historical sources.","bibliography":"Al-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nMurphy-O'Conner, J., *The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700,* Oxford, 1998.","dynasty":"Crusader.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Grave; Virgin Mary; cave; Wadi Qadrun"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"73a186bf-c916-5473-94f8-30aa969e3624":{"name":"Sokullu Mehmed Paşa Complex.","description":"Payas is a harbour town on the road connecting Anatolia to the Middle East. Because of its strategic importance it has been home to numerous civilisations, and in AH 921 / AD 1516, in the wake of the Battle of Mercidabık, it became part of the Ottoman Empire. The importance of Payas increased even more given the development of trade between the Ottoman Empire and the countries of the Middle East, as well as its location on the pilgrimage route. In order to fortify this strategic point and address the needs of travellers, Sultan Selim II ordered the construction of a complex here. The official who took on the responsibility, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, employed the architect Sinan for the project.  \nThe complex, founded next to a fortress built after the Ottoman Conquest to replace an older one, occupies an area of approximately 700 m x 250 m. In the centre of the complex is a street with shops (*arasta*) oriented north to south. Measuring 115 m x 15 m, it consists of 48 shops on either side of a vaulted corridor with a prayer-dome at its centre. To the east of the *arasta* are the buildings for hospitality, such as the caravanserai, soup-kitchen (*imaret*), and guest house (*tabhane)*; to the west are the buildings for prayer, education, and hygiene, including the mosque, primary school, *madrasa*, and bathhouse (*hammam*).  \nThe caravanserai consists of a square courtyard with porticoes on its north, south, and east and the covered section roofed with cross-vaults. The *imaret* to the south of the *caravanserai* has a porticoed courtyard with four enclosed rooms to the east and west. The *tabhane*, for special guests, comprises four rooms; it is located west of the *caravanserai*, adjoining the *arasta.*  \nThe *hammam* lies northwest of the *arasta.* The building was designed as a double *hammam*: the hot-water room or *sıcaklık* (Lt. *caldarium*) of the men's section has four *iwans* and four corner-rooms, while that of the women's section is star shaped. The primary school, built adjoining the west wall of the men's *sıcaklık*, has two square rooms with domes and a three-bay portico on the south.  \nThe *madrasa* and mosque, located on the southwest of the *arasta*, share a courtyard which can be accessed from an entrance in the north as well as from the *arasta.* The *madrasa* comprises 21 rooms surrounded on three sides by porticoes.  \nThe mosque consists of a cruciform prayer hall, an eight-bay portico for latecomers on the north, and a minaret at the northwest corner. The prayer hall is covered with a dome in the centre and has cross-vaulted *iwan*s extending in four directions.  \nThe main walls of all the buildings of the complex are covered with ashlar. It is possible to connect the two-coloured stonework found on the entrances of various buildings in the complex, particularly on the mosque entrance and the *mihrab*, with the traditions of Mamluk and Zangid art, rooted in Egypt and Syria.  \nOf the buildings making up the complex, the mosque is the only one that is still used for its original function. The other buildings are not in use, but are open to visitors.","short_description":"Payas is an important harbour town on the route connecting Anatolia to the Middle East. The extensive complex of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha in Payas contains a mosque, a *madrasa*, a children's school, a bathhouse, caravanserai, *imaret* (soup-kitchen) and a *tabhane* (guest-rooms) flanking the *arasta* (row of shops) in the centre of the complex.","dates":"Hegira 982 / AD 1574.","location":"Payas, Dörtyol","province":"Hatay","method_for_datation":"The gate of the *caravanserai* has an inscription stating that the complex was built by Sokollu Mehmed Pasha on the orders of Sultan Selim II in AH 982 / AD 1574.","bibliography":"Aslanapa, O., *Osmanlı Devri Mimarisi \\[Architecture of the Ottoman Period\\]*, Istanbul, 1986.  \nKuran, A., *Mimar Sinan*, Istanbul, 1986.  \nMüderrisoğlu, F., “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Doğu Akdeniz'deki İskelesi Payas ve Sokullu Mehmed Paşa Menzil Külliyesi \\[Payas: The East-Mediterranean Port of the Ottoman Empire, and the Külliye-at-a-day's-journey of Sokullu Mehmed Paşa\\]”, *Dokuzuncu Milletlerarası Türk Sanatları Kongresi \\[Ninth International Congress of Turkish Art\\] (23–27 September 1991), Proceedings, Vol. 2,* Ankara, 1995, pp.513–24.  \nSözen M., *Türk Mimarisinin Gelişimi ve Mimar Sinan \\[Development of the Turkish Architecture and Mimar Sinan\\]*, Istanbul, 1975.","patrons":"Sokollu Mehmed Pasha under the auspices of Sultan Selim II (r. AH 974–82 / AD 1566–74).","architects":"Architect: Koca Mimar Sinan Ağa (d. AH 996 / AD 1588).","dynasty":"Classical Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Külliye; arasta; Payas; Sinan; pilgrimage route; Egypt; Syria; Mamluk; Zangid"],"author":"Şakir Çakmak","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"74efc106-e576-5569-bfb1-3b51d81c8622":{"name":"Church of the Holy Sepulchre.","alternate_name":"Qaniset al-Qiameh.","description":"The Church of the Holy Sepulchre enjoys a rich history and has extraordinarily distinguished artistic and architectural traits. The church is sacred to all the Christian faiths as, as is evident from the name, it is revered as the site of the Resurrection of Jesus following his Crucifixion, his suffering and death. According to Christian belief Jesus was buried (the sepulchre) in this church. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a large architectural complex that includes a number of smaller chapels; in total the area exceeds 5000 sq m.  \nWhen the first church was founded on this site during the Byzantine period it included four elements: atrium, basilica, open courtyard and the sepulchre or holy tomb. In AD 614 the Persians set fire to the church, badly damaging it; the church was repeatedly thereinafter partially destroyed and repaired over the next 400 years. The Patriarch, Modestus undertook restoration of the church following the attack, and made alterations to it, decreasing the scale of the original plan. The Caliph 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–4), who was notoriously protective of Christian sites, refused to pray in the church when the Patriarch Sophronius suggested he did so; apparently he was eager to protect the city's Christian rights.  \nThe Crusaders made alterations and additions to the church, the initial implementation of which had been the ambitious project of Constantine IX Monomachos and which transformed the design of the church once again. A new church was erected in AH 543 / AD 1149, which was known as the Church of Nisf al-Dunya (Church at the Centre of the Universe, a catholicon used by monks), in the Romanesque style. The church was built around the rocky hill of the Crucifixion, the Rock of Calvary (Golgotha) overlooking the Rotunda. Similarly, the alterations included those made to the entrance leading to the place of Crucifixion within the church building, while the level underneath it was made the burial place of some of the Frankish kings. A bell tower, the doors of which opened to the south instead of the east, was added in AH 566 / AD 1170. Despite these important changes, the most prominent features of the Church remained until AH 583 / AD 1187. Saladin followed the example of 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab and was tolerant of Christians and respected their rights to worship.  \nEntrance to the church is by way of a great portal, above which there is a huge stone lintel. The lintel is carved with decoration in low relief portraying scenes from the Bible. On entering the portal, there is a modern staircase that leads up to the site of the Crucifixion, which today is divided into two sections: east and west. What remains of the Rock of Calvary is found in the west-facing Greek area surrounded by a glass frame. The Rock is cracked and according to the Christian faith the crack occurred when Christ was stabbed by a Roman soldier and was stripped of his cloak.  \nA descending staircase confronts the ascending stairwell and leads to the Stone of Anointing where, to the west of the Stone, a wall has been erected that divides the entrance from the Church of Nisf al-Dunya. A little to the south is the holy dome covered by a large semi-circular stone dome with a cylindrical drum supported by a series of pillars. A central window opens onto the pivot of the dome, which is decorated with 12 petals in gold leaf, symbolising the 12 apostles of Christ. In addition to those areas discussed here, there are a number of other cells, rooms, halls and chapels in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.","short_description":"This holiest of holy Christian sites is revered as the site of the tomb and Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It is set almost in the centre of the old city of Jerusalem. The church is a great complex that includes a number of chapels, oratories, cloisters and subterranean chambers and holds many icons, mosaics and important religious statues. Renovations since its original construction has given it stylistic variety and it is now predominantly in the Romanesque and Gothic. The church has number of divisions which are imperceptible except by the religious raiment of each Christian sect that controls that section.","dates":"The first construction AD 326-335. The present construction inaugurated in AH 543 / AD 1149.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by means of historical sources.","bibliography":"Al-Natsheh, Y., *Kanisat al-Qiyama \\[Church of the Holy Sepulchre*\\], Jerusalem, 2002.","patrons":"Emperor Constantine (r. AD 308–37) and his mother, Helena.","architects":"The construction was supervised by Qasis of Constantinople, also known as Eustathius. The engineer/designer was known as Zanobious from Palmyra (today Tadmur in Syria).","dynasty":"The church dates back to the Byzantine period but several renovations were implemented in subsequent periods.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Resurrection; Crucifixion; church; Jesus"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"85fb094d-1ff0-508b-bb75-cfcae0c77625":{"name":"Painting.","description":"The painting shows a topographical view of Mecca with the Great Mosque in the centre surrounded by the houses of the city and the hills of the Meccan neighbourhood. In the middle of the large open court of the Mosque stands the nearly cubic, black veiled building of the Ka'ba, the holiest sanctuary of Islam. The simple structure of the Ka'ba has been little modified throughout the centuries although the building has been restored, in contrast to the Great Mosque which has been reconstructed several times. The painting depicts a view of it after the Ottoman rebuilding period of the AH 10th century / AD 16th century. Inspired by the imperial architecture of Istanbul, arcades with small domes arranged in a line surround the court on either side and the seven minarets were provided with two or three balconies. The painter has tried to show a town-planning measure of the Ottomans. The old Meccan districts were densely inhabited and the houses reached the exterior walls of the Great Mosque. It was decided to tear down houses that immediately bordered the walls in order to create a large area of open space before the Mosque and its façade, as was the rule within the mosque complexes in Istanbul, Bursa or Edirne.  \nRepresentations of Mecca and the Ka'ba illustrate itineraries used by pilgrims for orientation during the *hajj* or appear on tiles and tile panels of the second half of the AH 11th / AD 17th century to the first half of the AH 12th / AD 18th century. They show detailed descriptions of the function of the different buildings. The dome in front of the Ka'ba on the left side of the *minbar* (pulpit), for example, covers the footprints of Abraham. The open building beside it houses the *Zamzam* well whose water the pilgrims drank and took home. The choice of the represented buildings, their arrangement and their execution resemble those of copperplate engravings in European descriptions of Mecca more than depictions of the same scene in contemporary prayer books or on the tiles mentioned above.","short_description":"Painting showing a topographical view of the city of Mecca with the Great Mosque in the centre surrounded by houses. In the middle of the large open courtyard is the black veiled building of the Ka’ba.","type":"Oil on canvas, painted","holder":"Uppsala University Library.","dates":"Hegira early 12th century / AD early 18th century.","location":"Uppsala","dimensions":"Height 84.5 cm, width 111.2 cm (without frame).","method_for_datation":"The painting was acquired by the theologian and orientalist Michael Eneman (1676–1714), probably in Istanbul, where he was sent by the Swedish King Charles XII (1682–1718) as his envoy in 1709. After a journey through Syria, Palestine, Sinai, Egypt and Cyprus in 1711 and 1712 he came back once more to Istanbul before he returned to Sweden. It is assumed that the painting is a contemporary work because representations of Mecca and Medina were common at that time.","method_for_provenance":"The painting was purchased by the theologian and orientalist Michael Eneman during his stay in Turkey, probably in Istanbul, at the beginning of the 12th / 18th century. At that time, representations of Mecca and Medina were a common subject of Ottoman painting not only in oil but also on tiles or as illustrations of pilgrim and prayer books.","provenance":"Possibly Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"Purchased by Uppsala University Library in 1717.","bibliography":"Ådahl, K., “View of Mecca and the Ka'ba”, in *Uppsala University Art Collections*, Uppsala University, 2001, pp.256–7.  \nErdmann, K., “Note. Ka'bah-Fliesen”, *Ars Orientalis* III, 1959, 192–7.  \nFaroqhi, S.,*Herrscher über Mekka: Die Geschichte der Pilgerfahrt*, Düsseldorf; Zürich, 2000.  \nGren, E., “Bidrag till Michael Enemans Biografi Studier och Bokförvärv”, *Donum Grapeanum*, 1945, pp.445–94.  \nMostafa, M., *Islamische Keramik*, Cairo, 1956, figs. 94, 95.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Oil on canvas; painted."],"keywords":["Pilgrimage; figurative decoration"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"8724a3b4-5bc3-563e-8060-000c6b3e01bf":{"name":"Maqam of Nabi Musa.","description":"The Maqam of the Prophet Musa (Moses) is one of the largest religious architectural complexes in Palestine comprising three levels: the basement, ground and first floors. Enclosed on all four sides, the complex covers an area of 5000 sq m. Its plan is almost square: the length of the north wall is about 74 m, the west wall about 70 m and the east wall 68 m. The south wall is the shortest at about 55 m.  \nThere are five entrances that all open out into the complex. The principle entrance is the west portal, located on the south side of the west wall. The complex is built of sandstone of which only the upper courses are square-cut and well dressed.  \nThe basement includes stables for horses and storage areas. The first and ground floors include more than 100 rooms and a series of halls, a minaret and a multiplicity of accoutrements. The mosque and the *maqam*, the most important sections of the complex,are at ground level. The mosque has a rectangular ground plan of 15 m x 10 m. It is composed of two aisles, with three cross vaults over each aisle. The *maqam* itself is located near the northwest cross vault. It has a square plan measuring 5.5 m. The middle of the *maqam* is smaller than its sides, measuring 4.7 m long, 1.6 m wide and 1.7 m high. It is built from well-dressed stone, and faces a west–east direction. It is encompassed within a wooden enclosure and covered by a *kiswa* of green cloth. The *maqam* is topped by a semi-circular dome supported by four pointed arches.  \nThe *maqam* has been endowed by many *awqaf*. Historically the *waqf* of the Prophet Moses is considered one of the richest and most famous, providing free food and accommodation to visitors as well as salaries for a large number of employees – approximately 50. The employees included the *waqf* supervisor, sheikh of sheikhs, scribe, servant, custodian, gatekeeper, muezzin, torchbearer, sweeper, keeper of the Qur'an sections, and distributor of the Qur'an sections as well as other employees. The Maqam of the Prophet Moses occupies an important position in the history of the Palestinian people from a religious, architectural, social, folkloric and political point of view.","short_description":"This is the largest and most famous of the *maqamat* (tomb sanctuaries) of Palestine. Its plan is almost square and it covers an area of 5000 sq m, with three levels. The complex includes stables, storage areas, a large mosque with a minaret and the room of the *maqam* as well as a number of porticoes and different facilities. These include 100 rooms crowned by domes for the residence of guests during the season. The complex is located in a unique desert environment on the Jerusalem–Jericho road. The *maqam* has an important place in Palestinian folklore and is associated with many social and political events.","dates":"The dome was erected on the tomb and the mosque was built in AH 668 / AD 1269. The building was extended in AH 885 / AD 1480, and the minaret was built some time after AH 880 / AD 1475–6. The complex was restored several times subsequently, in AH 1013 / AD 1604; AH 1150/ AD 1737; AH 1175 / AD 1761; AH 1235 / AD 1819; AH 1303 / AD 1885.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by five inscriptions found in the building, the most famous of which is the foundation inscription of Sultan Baybars, on which his titles and the date the dome was constructed appear (AH 668 (AD 1269)).","bibliography":"Al-'Asli, K., *Mawsam al-Nabi Musa fi Filistin, Tarikh al-Mawsam wa al-Maqam \\[The Festival of the Prophet Moses in Palestine: The History of the Festival and the Maqam\\],* Amman, 1990.  \nMurrar, K. M., *Maqam al-Nabi Musa, Dirasat Tarikhiya wa Athariya wa Mi'mariya \\[The Maqam of the Prophet Moses: Historical, Archaeological and Architectural Study\\],* Nablus, 1997.  \nMukhlis, Abd A., “Kaifa wa Matta Bad'a Mausam al-Nabi Musa \\[How and When Does the Festival of the Prophet Moses Start?”, in *Majallat huna al-Quds \\[Journal of Jerusalem\\],* No. 6, 1942.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.142–4.","patrons":"The first sponsor of the *maqam* and complex was Sultan Zahir Baybars (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77). The complex was restored during the Ottoman period by each of the following: ‘Ali Katkhuda ‘Azban; ‘Abd al-Latif al-Husayni; ‘Abdallah Pasha, governor of Sidon and Tripoli, and Muhammad Tahir al-Husayni, Mufti of Jerusalem.","architects":"Restoration of the *maqam* took place during the Ottoman period at the hands of architects from the family of Husayn bin ‘Ali bin al-Namri, among whom was ‘Abd al-Muhsin bin Mahmud bin Husayn, the chief architect of Jerusalem and his brother, al-Hajj Karim.","dynasty":"The *maqam* dates to the Mamluk period but the building was extended and restored during the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Maqam; Prophet Moses; Mawsim, Season"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"912b204e-c92a-58e3-8cab-b04e1caa9f7e":{"name":"Dome of the Rock.","description":"Dome of the Rock is one of the oldest Islamic monuments still standing today. It has a grandiose monumental form representing one of a small number of buildings in the Islamic world that may be chronicled as part of the creation and formation of an Islamic art in general.  \nDome of the Rock is built on an octagonal plan topped by a semi-circular great dome and supported by a circular drum. Four doors, each facing one of the cardinal directions, are built into the walls of the building. The façades are covered with marble panels at the bottom and ceramic (glazed) tiles at the top. These tiles date back to the time of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent who ordered the replacement of the original glass mosaic with ceramic tiles in the period AH 952–9 / AD 1545–52. The marble panels were also renewed several times. The interior or inner drum, the cylinder which carries the dome, is also adorned with glass mosaic tiles. At present the outer dome is covered with gold-plated copper panels, although it was formerly of lead covered with a thin layer of gold-plate.  \nBoth the interior and exterior of the Dome of the Rock is built on an octagonal plan, surrounding the exalted Rock. According to Islamic belief the Rock is where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj*) on the night of his nocturnal journey from Mecca to Jerusalem *(Isra')*. The interior octagonal (which follows the outer octagon walls) is supported by eight piers and 16 columns. The rotunda is supported by four piers and 12 columns. Between the piers and columns span semi-circular arches, the façades and surfaces of which are decorated with mosaic tiles and colourful epigraphic texts. The rotunda is covered by a double dome. The inner dome has a diameter of 20.44 m, and is considered to be the oldest wooden structure still extant. It is composed of wooden panels that are decorated with written inscriptions and geometric decorations against a stucco background. Sixteen windows open on to the inside of the dome's drum. The drum is adorned with mosaic decorations and inscriptions from the Qur'an; it is enriched by a large number of inscriptions belonging to different restoration projects carried out by Muslim caliphs and sultans, the most famous being those that date to the Umayyad, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods. The dome is devoid of figurative decoration and exemplifies a response to changing religious orientation.","short_description":"This is the jewel of Islamic architecture and the oldest Islamic monument that has not undergone fundamental changes. It thus provides very important testimony to the creation and formation of Islamic architecture and early Islamic decorative arts. It is also considered to be one of the most beautiful monuments in the world. The building is octagonal in form and is covered on the outside with marble and glazed tilework. The interior is decorated with marble, mosaics, plaster and wood. The great gold dome that towers over the building symbolises Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 72 / AD 691.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by a foundation inscription, written in the *kufic* script. Furthermore, there are a group of early Muslim historians such as al-Maqdisi al-Bishari, the famous geographer (who died at the end of the 4th / 10th century) and who dated the construction of the building to 72 / 691.","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture*, Vol. 1,Oxford, 1932.  \nGrabar, O., and Nuseibah, S., *Dome of the Rock*, New York, 1996.  \nAl-Natseh, Y., *Qubbat al-Sakhra al-Mushrrafa: Jauhara al-Quds wa al-Masjid al-Aqsa al-Mubarak \\[Dome of the Rock: The Jewel of Jerusalem and the Early al-Aqsa Mosque\\],* Jerusalem, 2002.  \nRichmond, E. T., *Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem: A Description of its Structure and Decoration*, Oxford, 1924.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, pp.76–8; 54.","patrons":"The Umayyad caliph, 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705). The building was renovated by a large number of Muslim caliphs and sultans. The most prominent among them being: the Fatimid caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) and the Ottoman sultan, Sulayman the Magnificent (r. 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","architects":"Raja’ bin Haywa and Yazid bin Sal'am participated in the construction of the building. The name of the craftsman, Muhammad bin Balawar is associated with renovations that took place during the Fatimid era. Mustafa Raqam is linked with the late Ottoman restorations (AH 13th / AD 19th century).","dynasty":"Umayyad.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Isra’; Mi’raj; ceramic tile; rock; rock of bayt al-muqaddas; mosaic; kashani (ceramic tiles); dome; wooden dome; double dome; octagonal; copper; gold-plate"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"92b6403f-d36a-550d-b953-dceb45d22cf5":{"name":"Key for the Ka’ba.","description":"A single key that was used for the *Ka'ba* (meaning literally cube in Arabic). It consists of a ring (the diameter 3.6 cm) that is attached to a moveable cube-like shape with bevelled edges, and which is linked to the handle of the key. The handle consists of three small cuboids that alternate with two baluster-shaped separators. The body of the key itself assumes the form of an elongated cuboid whose cross-section is small in relation to its length, measuring 13 cm. The body of the key terminates with four protrusions.  \nA number of inscriptions with religious, political and documentary significance ornament the key including a series of inscriptions written in *naskhi* script that appear on all three of the handle cuboids. The inscriptions, carved on four planes of the first, read as follows: 'It is He who has sent His messenger with guidance and the religion of truth to prevail it over all religion' (Qur'an: 'The Victory'; 48:28). The inscriptions written on the second are: 'By order of Allah, no God but Allah – Sha'ban ibn Husayn – in the year 765'; while the inscriptions on the third cuboid read: 'One of the things made for Bayt al-Haram (the Sacred House, the *Ka'ba*) during the reign of our lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf'. Thus, the inscriptions clearly indicate that the owner of the key was the Mamluk Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban ibn Husayn who began his reign on a Tuesday, the 15th day of the month of Sha'ban, in the year AH 764 (AD 1362), when he was 12 years old, and that he ruled Egypt and the Levant until his death in AH 778 / AD 1376. The key bears the date of manufacture, AH 765 (AD 1363).  \nOn the shaft of the key there are a number of inscriptions in Mamluk *naskhi* script, distributed over its four surfaces. These consist of the following Qur'anic verses: 'Verily We have granted thee a manifest victory: That Allah may forgive thee the faults of the past and those to follow; Fulfil his favour to thee and guide thee on the straight way. And that Allah may help thee with powerful help. It is He who sent down tranquillity in to the hearts of the believers to increase their faith'. ('The Victory'; 48:1–4). 'The first house \\[of worship\\] appointed for men was that at *Bakka* full of blessing and of guidance for all kinds of beings. In it our signs manifest; (for example), the Station \\[*maqam*\\] of Abraham; whoever enters it attains security; Pilgrimage thereto is a duty men owe to Allah – those who can afford the journey; but if any deny faith, Allah stands not in need of any of his creatures.' ('Al-Imran'; 3:96–7).  \nIt may be observed that the Qur'anic verses recorded on the body of the key complement the key's objective, and affirm the religious obligation of the *Hajj* (pilgrimage) on Muslims. In addition, the verses allude to the city of Mecca by the name 'Bakka' which is one of a number of names given to the city including, 'Umm al-Qur'a', 'al-Balad al-Amin' and 'al-Bayt al-Haram'. Likewise, the verses also point out the Station of the Prophet Abraham. According to Imam al-Bukhari, the intended meaning of the Station of Abraham is a rock, upon which Abraham is believed to have stood when he raised the building of the *Ka'ba*. The rock is located in proximity to the *Ka'ba* and is covered by a wooden dome, the interior of which is decorated with gilded ornamentation. The structure rests on stone supports, between which there are four iron windows.  \nEgypt used to send the keys of the *Ka'ba* with the *kiswa* (cover) every year to Mecca. Despite the fact that the keys were presented every year, those housed in museums today number very few, and date back to the Mamluk and Ottoman periods. The Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul has acquired most of the *Ka'ba* keys, while the Islamic Art Museum in Cairo houses only this one *Ka'ba* key.","short_description":"Sultans and amirs sent gifts to the holy sites in Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. This key was a gift from Sultan Sha'ban to the Ka'ba. It is decorated with verses from the Qur'an, ornamentation and inscriptions. A *kiswa* (covering) for the Ka'ba was sent with the key every year in the pilgrimage season.","type":"Key, the Ka'ba,wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","initial_owner":"Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban ibn Husayn.","dates":"Hegira 765 / AD 1363.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 34 cm.","method_for_datation":"The key is accurately dated by the inscription recorded on it.","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that this key was made in Egypt since it carries the name of the sultan of Egypt at the time and the year of production. That this piece was made in Egypt is further supported by the fact that Egypt was responsible for despatching the *kiswa* along with the key each year to Mecca.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This object was purchased in 1945 from a dealer of antiquities, Ralph Harari.","bibliography":"Atil, E., *Renaissance of Islam: Art of the Mamluks*, Washington D.C., 1987.  \nMajid, Abdel Al-Mon'em, “Mafatih al-Ka'ba \\[Keys of the Ka'ba\\]”, *Mijalat Kuliyat al-Athar* \\[*Journal of the Faculty of Antiquities*\\], Vol. 1, 1978, pp.108–9.  \nSayour, S., “Mafatih wa Kiswa al-Ka'ba \\[Keys and the Covering of the Ka'ba\\]”, *Prism Magazine* (Foreign Cultural Relations Dept., the Egyptian Ministry of Culture), No. 6, 2000, pp.29–32.  \nStierlin, H., and Stierlin A., *Splendours of the Islamic World: Mamluk Art in Cairo (1250–1517)*, London, New York, 1997.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Copper inlaid with silver."],"keywords":["Religious object; in-lay; Hajj; inscription; naskhi script; Ka’ba; Kiswa; key; copper"],"author":"Salah Sayour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"998a912b-36fb-51e9-9d23-92392129a07c":{"name":"Prayer rug.","description":"A rug produced by peasant weavers in Ghiordes, Anatolia, famous for their tightly woven work with a short, silky wool pile. Ghiordes was one of the major carpet-making centres during the AH 13th / AD 19th century and both the design and colour scheme of this rug, a deep-blue niche framed with elaborate spandrels and borders, is typical of Ghiordes rugs. The niche confirms that this is a prayer rug, used to provide a ritually clean place for the five daily prayers. The niche reflects the *mihrab* or prayer niche in an Islamic mosque, indicating the direction to Mecca, towards which Muslims turn in prayer. It may also symbolise the gateway to Paradise. The ornament suspended in its apex may have a spiritual meaning.","short_description":"Every household in Ghiordes, Anatolia, had a handloom for the womenfolk and girls to weave small carpets and prayer rugs on. This prayer rug is decorated with an elaborate central niche reminiscent of the architectural prayer niche found in Anatolian mosques.","type":"Wool, Knotted, Carpet","holder":"St. Mungo Museum for Religious Life and Art, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"Hegira 13th century / AD 19th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 183 cm, width 119 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis: both the layout and weave of this rug resemble several other 13th- / 19th-century prayer rugs of this type, attributed to Ghiordes in Anatolian Turkey in particular.","provenance":"Gördes, Anatolia, Turkey.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Bennett, I., *Rugs and Carpets of the World*, London, 1977.  \n  \nScarce, J. M., 'Oriental Carpets: The Burrell Collection', *Arts of Asia*, May–June 1990, p.136.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Wool (warp and weft and pile) with cotton in parts; woven on a handloom."],"keywords":["Religious objects; floral decoration"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a0123f90-172b-59e1-9291-e46637556232":{"name":"Metal grille/enclosure.","description":"An iron grille or enclosure, of which the Museum displays 19 segments held together by the use of fine iron rods. The grille has been worked in the Gothic style, a style that predominated in the AH 6th / AD 12th century in Crusader art and architecture. This enclosure surrounded the rock which is located within the Dome of the Rock and from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens on the night of the *Mi'raj*.The enclosure was intended to protect the rock from European Christian pilgrims during the Crusader period who would take pieces of the rock back to their homeland either in the hope that they would be blessed by it or, due to the sacred nature of the rock, to imbed within church buildings. The rock was thus in danger of losing its natural shape and required protection. The enclosure, already in a delicate state of repair during the restoration works which took place around 1960, was replaced by a wooden balustrade worked in the Islamic carved-wood style. The iron grille was then put into storage at the Islamic Museum, but many pieces were lost in the interim.  \nThe grille is composed of segments that are identical in both width and height, except for the central four segments which are 257 cm high. Between each pair of rods are 21 repetitive decorative units, each one of which grows out of a small semi-circle of iron wire to become a flower. The flowers wrap around three times in a circular fashion extending from the centre, and face an identical blossom whose circles have been formed by wire coils spiralling in the opposite direction. The two flowers are connected together by a wire stay. This arrangement repeats itself to form the entire decorative format of the enclosure. It should be noted that a similar, small piece of a grille is still in the Dome of the Rock.","short_description":"This is an iron enclosure or grille formed from pieces of approximately equal size and similar repetitive decoration, joined by small intricate iron bands. It is in Gothic style, which predominated in the art and architecture of the Crusaders in Palestine. This enclosure surrounded the rock placed within the Dome of the Rock for its protection.","type":"Grille, metalwork","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 230 cm, length 570, width: 30 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by comparison in both technique and decoration with those used in other pieces that go back to the Crusader period, such as the pair of candlesticks housed in the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","method_for_provenance":"It is probable that this piece was produced in Jerusalem where, as is generally the case with architectural furniture, it was made *in situ*.","provenance":"Probably Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from the Dome of the Rock to the Islamic Museum in about 1960.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the so-called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in Al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution, and Impact”, *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*,No. 45, 1982.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provencial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidence on the Temple Area Atelier”, in *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Forged iron fastened with rods."],"keywords":["Grille; Gothic; Crusader; metalwork; ironwork; vegetal decoration"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a0e649a0-0f53-5503-9c38-d0a4035fdc34":{"name":"Page of manuscript with Moses, Muhammad and the Archangel Gabriel.","description":"This single sheet from a manuscript features, between bands of script, the prophets Moses and Muhammad and the Archangel Gabriel conversing in heaven. Angels, perched on five clouds behind these three principal characters, appear to be listening. The scene portrayed is one from Muhammad’s visionary ascension to heaven. Muhammad stands on the right-hand side in a long green robe and turban, and Moses, wearing a long dark red robe, is on the left, in front of his heavenly throne, which is denoted by an inscription in Arabic lettering. Moses is gesturing his hands in speech. Muhammad, with whom he is conversing, stands on the opposite side. A white veil conceals his face, while his hands are hidden in the long sleeves of his gown. The heads of both prophets are crowned with halos, within which their names, written in a black script, can be deciphered. The Archangel Gabriel stands between Muhammad and Moses, turning towards Muhammad. He is characterised by a twin pair of multicoloured wings and a crown. Gabriel already featured in the Old Testament as the gate-keeper of Paradise. As one of two angels standing in the presence of God (Luke 1: 19), it was Gabriel who explained the story of the Messiah (Daniel 8: 16ff.). He was supposed to have announced the wording of the Qur’an to Muhammad. In Sura 2 verse 97 it is written that: Gabriel ‘has by God’s grace revealed it \\[the Qur’an\\] to you \\[Muhammad\\] to your heart’.  \nThe text above the three personages, which describes the story, is written in Ottoman Turkish. It includes the account of Muhammad discussing with God the number of daily prayers. Both eventually agreed on five daily prayers. Moses is Muhammad’s heavenly adviser and Gabriel is his companion. The direct speech of all those involved is written in Arabic. The text is taken from a biography of the prophet which had appeared from the AH 1st century / AD 7th century on. The generic term for this type of biography is *sira*, which translates as ‘life facts’ or ‘way of life’. This single sheet probably came from a handwritten work completed for the Ottoman Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95).","short_description":"This painted page from a book shows the Archangel Gabriel with the Prophets Moses (left) and Muhammad (right). Surrounded by angels they discuss the question of daily prayers. This happened during Muhammad’s ascent to heaven. Because it was forbidden to show Muhammad, his face is veiled.","type":"Manuscript, miniature","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","initial_owner":"Possibly Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982-1003 / AD 1574–95).","dates":"Hegira end of 10th century / AD end of 16th century; probably during the reign of Sultan Murad III (AH 982-1003 / AD 1574–95).","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 31 cm, width 20.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The date has been established through the handwriting on the single manuscript page, which was transcribed for the Ottoman Sultan Murad III (982–1003 / 1574–95).","method_for_provenance":"Both the text and the style of this page suggest that this consists of a single leaf written by a single writer in the same handwriting, which was made for the Ottoman Sultan Murad III.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"From a London gallery in 1976.","bibliography":"Budde, H. and Nachama, A. (eds.), *Die Reise nach Jerusalem*, Berlin, 1995, p.180, cat. 1/121, ill. 180.  \nKalter, J. and Schönberger, I., *Der Lange Weg der Türken, 1500 Jahre Türkische Kultur*,Stuttgart, 2003, pp.138, ill. 149.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst Berlin* Catalogue,Stuttgart; Zürich, 1980, no. 40.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst Berlin* Catalogue,Berlin, 1979, no. 668.  \nPetspoulos, Yanni (ed.), *Kunst und Kunsthandwerk unter den Osmanen*. Munich, 1982, p.200, ill. no. 209.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Ink, gouache on paper, gilding."],"keywords":["Qur’an; prayer; miraj; ascension; religious manuscript"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"a422b89c-541c-5d0c-b8ef-5292227a2201":{"name":"Pilgrim’s Flask.","description":"This canteen, often described as a pilgrim's flask, is a container used to carry water while travelling, on pilgrimage, or hunting trips. It is manufactured using a mould and its body is in the form of a disc with a mouth and a pair of loops attached to the side. To keep water from spilling out, the mouth is elongated by a tube of earthenware resembling a set of gradually narrowing rings stacked one on top of the other. The two loops flanking the flask's mouth can be strung by a rope to hang on the hip while travelling on foot, horse or camel-back.  \nThe surface of the body is decorated with a moulded imprint boldly portraying a Mamluk blazon, known in Arabic as 'rank'. The open-winged eagle on top of a chalice that is flanked by flowers is known to be the blazon of Prince Toquztimur. It is believed that he started out as an official cup-bearer and his blazontherefore displays the cup. When he rose to the rank of governor for Sultan Nasir al-Din Muhammad (r. AH 709–41 / AD 1309–40), he added the symbol of the eagle as a tribute to the Sultan. The six-petal roses that appear underneath the eagle may signify a tribute to Nasir al-Din's family, the Qalawun.","short_description":"This flask decorated with an emblem, a fashion that became popular during the Mamluk period, carries a symbol of an eagle and identifies the owner as Prince Toquztimur, the Mamluk Governor of Hama and later Aleppo.","type":"Flask, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Prince Toquztimur (r. AH 742–6 / AD 1341–5), Mamluk Governor of Hama and then Aleppo.","dates":"Hegira 742–6 / AD 1341–5.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 27.3 cm, diameter (of body) 18.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The canteen is datable by the blazon that identifies it with Prince Toquztimur (r. 742–6 / 1341–5). Similar objects have also been dated to this period.","method_for_provenance":"This object was found in Aleppo, but since Prince Toquztimur was the Governor of Hama and then of Aleppo, it is also possible that the flask was produced in Hama. Similar objects, in respect of both style of decoration and function have been given Syrian provenance.","provenance":"Aleppo or Hama, Syria.","obtention":"Purchased in 1933.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus*, Damascus, 1969, p.225.  \nAtil, E., *Art of the Mamluks: Renaissance of Islam*, Washington DC, 1981, p.190.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994, p.454.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.132.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004, pp.120–7.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Moulded earthenware."],"keywords":["Pilgrim flasks; canteen; earthenware; pottery; moulded; Aleppo; Toquztimur; blazon (or rank); eagle; cup; al-Nasir Muhammad; pilgrimage"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a65b9f90-12e9-50e4-9065-9d1274ef0a10":{"name":"Incense Burner.","description":"An incense burner of great beauty and fine workmanship that is also in very good condition. The engraved inscriptions on it indicate that the Mamluk sultan, al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Abu Said Muhammad Jaqmaq endowed it to al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil), where it remained for a number of centuries until it was transferred in 1928 to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem. The burner is elongated in form and has ribbed and curved surfaces. It is composed of three sections: the bottom section, the top section and the attachment and chains. The bottom section of the burner is a spherical container in the shape of an inverted dome in concordance with the top section of the burner, which takes the form of an elongated dome. The upper part of the bottom section is spherical, transforming into a ribbed surface with 12 faces and terminating in a ribbed edge that also has 12 faces. The spherical surface contains gilded epigraphic decorations that read: “There is no God but God, Muhammad is the prophet of God and Ibrahim \\[Abraham\\] is the friend of God. This blessed burner was endowed by our lord, the Sultan, the Sovereign, the Ruler, al-Zahir Abu Said Muhammad, May God strengthen his triumph, to al-Haram al-Ibrahimi”. The burner rests on a slightly elevated base, which widens towards the bottom; it is ribbed with 12 sides and is decorated with gold lines.  \nThe upper section is the cover or lid. It is in the shape of a dome faced by two spherical forms: the upper, smaller one and the lower. This section of the burner contains two inscriptions. The bottom of the cover has a ribbed surface of 12 faces, each containing vegetal decoration in the form of a lotus blossom. The cover terminates in a ribbed edge.  \nThere are three suspension loops on the top of the lower section attached to which are chains; the chains are attached to the three suspension loops on the bottom of the burner. The attachment and chains is in the form of a small dome, the apex of which is connected to the hook for hanging. The dome of the attachment is ornamented with vegetal decoration in addition to 12 small spheres, which adhere to the ribbed neck. There is a gilded inscription on the attachment that reads: “The burner is thus the burner of the humble servant, Abd al-Qadir bin Muhammad Qabzi”.","short_description":"This burner was donated, as indicated by its gilded inscriptions, by Sultan al-Zahir Jaqmaq.  It is an elongated burner with ribbed surfaces with twelve divisions.  It is composed of three sections: the bottom, the upper section with the lid, and the attachment and chains. It is decorated with vegetal motifs.","type":"Incense, burner, copper","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Sultan al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Abu Said Muhammad Jaqmaq (r. AH 842–57 / AD 1438–53).","dates":"Hegira 842–57 / AD 1438–53.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 42 cm, height (when suspended) 103 cm, diameter 14 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by the inscriptions that indicate this incenser belonged to Sultan al-Zahir Jaqmaq.","method_for_provenance":"It is probable that the incenser was made in Cairo for its construction resembles other objects from the ateliers in Cairo during this period. The incenser was endowed to the Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron by the Mamluk sultan, al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Abu Said Muhammad Jaqmaq, an assertion based on the inscription.","provenance":"Probably custom-made in Cairo specifically for al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil).","obtention":"The piece was transferred from the Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem in 1928.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., *Islamic Art Through the Ages: Masterpieces of the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif,* Jerusalem, 1998.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Copper, engraved and inlayed with gold."],"keywords":["Incense burner; Mamluk Incense burner; copper; mosque interior decoration"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a94d6e26-81d2-5650-b785-1ad7d1e3be12":{"name":"Maqam of the Prophet Samuel.","description":"A *maqam* or sanctuary that is associated with the prophet and judge, Samuel, who lived in the 11th century BC. It is believed that the mortal remains of the prophet were laid to rest here in the village where he was born in AH 569 / AD 1173. The village was mentioned in the journals of the traveller al-Maqdisi (died at the end of the AH 4th / AD 10th century) under the name of *Dair* Samuel. The historian, al-Hanbali (d. AH 928 / AD 1521) also noted that the village was the site of the Prophet Samuel's grave. Modern archaeological excavations have revealed that this village expanded and flourished during the Crusader period.  \nThe origins of the building began with an underground cave (or crypt) on top of which a Crusader church was erected in AH 551 / AD 1157. This was after Baldwin II allowed the Premonstratensian Order to use the site. The church was damaged following the Battle of Hattin in AH 583 / AD 1187, and the Muslims transformed what remained of the building into a *maqam* during the Ayyubid period. The present mosque was an addition to the *maqam* during the Mamluk period. The mosque was renovated and the minaret was added to it during the Ottoman period (AH 1143 / AD 1730) under the auspices of Sheikh Muhammad al-Khalili. The site was renovated by the Islamic High Council in AH 1340 / AD 1922.  \nThe *maqam* is a large complex that consists of two levels comprising the crypt and a large mosque with a series of rooms. It is possible to enter the crypt by the principle portal on the eastern side of the building. The portal leads to a large vestibule (7 m sq), which opens directly into the mosque and, via a staircase, down to the crypt. The rectangular crypt (11 m x 4 m) is covered by a barrel vault. One of the two tombs of the Prophet Samuel is located in the western section of the *maqam*. Following Israeli Occupation of the site in 1967 this section of the crypt was designated for Jewish worshipers only.  \nThe mosque is composed of two prayer halls, in addition to a minaret and a number of rooms. The first hall is an *iwan* designed on a square plan and measuring approximately 8.5 m x 7.20 m. The *iwan,* located to the south of the vestibule entrance, is at the same level as the vestibule and is covered by a fan-shaped vault. There is a simple *mihrab* on the south wall. The principle prayer hall is located to the west of the vestibule; it measures approximately 21.5 m x 11.5 m. It is composed of three rectangular spaces which extend from the north to the south. In the middle of the central space is another tomb of the Prophet Samuel. To the south of the tomb, there is another *mihrab*.This area is designated for Muslims. In the southeast corner of the vestibule there is a long staircase that ascends to the entrance of the minaret and the roof of the mosque. The minaret is 13.5 m high from the roof, offering splendid panoramic views of Jerusalem and the surrounding villages.","short_description":"One of the commemorative *maqamat* (sanctuaries) spread throughout Palestine, it is located on the summit of the highest mountain in the region of Jerusalem. It was built by the Crusaders as a church and Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) transformed it into a mosque and *maqam*. The Ottomans added a minaret to it. The building is a cavern, on top of which is a large prayer hall and a number of rooms that were used for services and for visitors to the *maqam*. It used to receive Sufis but it is now controlled by Muslims and Jews.","dates":"Hegira 551 / AD 1157.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by an inscription at the entrance, through study of historical sources and by a comparison of its architectural design with those of similar buildings.","bibliography":"Al-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Magnificent Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nAl-Maqdisi, Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad bin Ahmad (died end of the 4th / 10th century), *Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma'arifat al-Aqalim \\[The State of the Art in the Knowledge of Regions\\]*, Leiden, 1906.","patrons":"Baldwin II (r. AH 512–25 / AD 1118–31).","dynasty":"The *maqam* dates back to the Crusader period, it was expanded during the Mamluk period, and renovated in the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Church; cave; maqam"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b20793d5-1141-55aa-a80e-ab4725d92f81":{"name":"Towers of the Citadel of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi: Burg al-Ramla and Burg al-Haddad.","description":"Located in the walls of the Citadel of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, also known as Citadel of the Mountain (Qala'a al-Jabal), both towers, Burg al-Ramla and Burg al-Haddad, are composed of three storeys reaching a height of 20.80 m. The ground plan of each assumes the shape of a three-quarter circle. They are both built of stone with a rough surface and depressed cavities. Burg al-Hadad is distinctive from Burg al-Ramla and the remaining towers of the citadel, by the presence of four *Saqatat*, stone balconies which project from the wall of the tower and which are borne by stone brackets. The balconies do not have floors in order to make it easier for the defenders of the citadel to throw inflamed substances and boiling oil onto the enemy. The oldest remaining example of this type of defensive strategy (*Saqata*) is seen in Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi in northern Syria and dates back to the Umayyad Caliph, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. AH 105–25 / AD 724–43). This component of fort towers then appeared subsequently in the Atabeg and Ayyubid periods during the Crusades in the Levant, and in the Mamluk period in the Citadel of Qaytbay in Alexandria.  \nThe Mamluk sultans used the towers of the citadel and the surrounding area to house their soldiers. The Circassian Mamluks known also as *Burji* Mamluks (r. AH 784–922 / 1382–1517) were interested in fortification works and the construction of towers, in particular Burg al-Ramla and Burg al-Haddad. There are three marble panels fixed to the right-hand wall of the entrance to the old gate of the citadel, Bab al-Mudarraj – this gate was built by Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) and is located on the southern wall of the northeastern military section – which bear historical texts indicating that the fortification works, the construction and the renovation were undertaken by three of the Circassian Mamluk sultans. They were Jaqmaq (r. AH 842–57 / AD 1438–53), Qaytbay (r. AH 872–901 / AD 1468–96) and al-'Adil Tumanbay (r. AH 906 / AD 1501).","short_description":"The two huge towers are located in the northeastern corner of the eastern rampart of the Citadel of Salah al-Din (Saladin) connected by a covered passage. They served as barracks for the Circassian Mamluks in the reign of Sultan Qalawun, who were nicknamed *Burji* Mamluks.","dates":"Hegira 579 / AD 1184.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"The towers were dated based on the foundation plaque in the Qala'a al-Jabal, which was placed on Bab al-Mudarraj and which bears the name of the builder and the year of construction. Historical studies of the monuments conducted by the archaeologists, Casanova in 1894–97 and Creswell in 1924, demonstrated, however, that the northern walls of the citadel and the towers within it, go back (most of them) to the period of al-Nasir Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","bibliography":"Al-Maqrizi, Taqi al-Din Ahmad (d. 845 /1442), *Al Mawa'iz wa al–Itibar Bi Dhikr al-Khitat wa al–Athar \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the recollection of Plans and Monuments*\\], Cairo, 1853.  \nCasanova, P., “Histoire et Description de la Citadelle du Caire”, *Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique Française du Caire*, No. 6, Paris, 1897.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Muslim Architecture of Egypt*, Vol. II, Oxford, 1960.  \nRabbat, N., *The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mamluk Architecture*, Leiden, 1995.  \nZaki, Abd al-Rahman, *Qala'a Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi wa ma hawlaha min al-Athar \\[Citadel of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi and the Surrounding Monuments*\\], Cairo, 1971.","patrons":"Al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known also as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","architects":"The commander, Baha’ al-Din Qaraqush al-Asadi supervised the building.","dynasty":"Ayyubid.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Tower; war-time architecture; military architecture"],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"bd0502e7-8e93-5eae-9634-c4fcfe027590":{"name":"Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi (Monastery of St Moses the Ethiopian).","description":"The monastery grew around an abandoned Byzantine watchtower dating back to the AD 5th or 6th centuries. According to legend, the King of Ethiopia's son arrived to Syria after he rejected royalty to seek out a spiritual existence. After travelling though Egypt and Palestine, attaining his priesthood along the way, he became a monk and settled in the Qalamun Mountains of Syria, living in the caves and the nearby abandoned watchtower and leading a devout life. He was martyred at the hands of Chalcedonian Byzantine soldiers in the early AD 7th century and the monastery was thus named after him.  \nThe monastery is characterised by a defensive style of architecture. The entrance on the western wall is extremely small, 1 m in height; with arrow loops distributed along the wall. The entrance leads into a dark corridor leading to various small chambers, the church and the terrace overlooking the cliff. The main rooms are distributed along two stories built above the cliff top and three stories dug below. Rain water was collected in reservoirs and stored inside the monastery to be used throughout the rest of the year. In the AH 10th / AD 15th century the monastery facilities were further extended.  \nThe church is located to the north of the monastery and was built in the year AH 450 / AD 1058. It is square in plan with sides measuring 10 m. This layout is divided into two sections: the Holy of Holies, consisting of the prayer-niche and screen wall, and the prayer hall, composed of three bays separated by two rows of columns. The extensive fresco paintings that cover the church walls have survived as some of the richest examples of regional Christian art. These reveal three different layers of painting, all of which were executed during the period of Seljuq, Atabeg and Ayyubid reigns.  \nDue to the flaking of the paint, restorers have been able to examine stylistic and iconographic features of all three layers. Their date inscriptions have survived, written in Arabic, revealing the adoption of the Arabic language by the Christians of the region during the medieval period. The lowest layer, dated AH 466 / AD 1073–4, is the sparsest and has an animated style of painting, a continuity of local Hellenistic Christian art. The second layer, dating just a little later than the former at AH 488 / AD 1095, is similarly expressive and survives most completely on the eastern wall of the central nave, portraying the Baptism of Christ. The third and most visible level, survives as a comprehensive medieval Christian mural, offering a rare opportunity for iconographic analysis. An example is the depiction of the Day of Judgement, located on the wall of the western window, and exactly facing the painting of the Annunciation on the wall of the eastern window. Stylistically, these later paintings reveal a Syriac style, more spontaneous than earlier Byzantine traditions. The date is not very clear; one reading is 1504 in the Seleucid calendar, which corresponds to AH 587–8 / AD 1192. Another reading is AH 604 / AD 1208. Either possibilities place these paintings in the Ayyubid period.","short_description":"This monastery is located in the cliffs overlooking the Qalamun mountains, near the route connecting Damascus and Homs. While the oldest part of the monastery is pre-Islamic, an AH 5th- / AD 11th-century church displays *in situ* the most complete survival of medieval Christian mural paintings. The three layers of these distinctive local paintings are dated to the Atabeg and Ayyubid period of Syrian rule. They indicate an artistic renaissance among the Syriac Christian communities, in keeping with the tradition of Islamic tolerance towards communities of different faith, even at the height of political militarism and Crusader warfare.","dates":"The oldest part of the monastery (currently serving as the kitchen area) was originally a pre-Islamic Byzantine tower dating back to the AD 5th or 6th century. The monastery’s church dates to AH 450 / AD 1058.","location":"Qalamun Mountains, East of Nebek.","method_for_datation":"Through excavation, massive dome-shaped constructs in the monastery's foundations were discovered and attributed to the pre-Islamic Byzantine era, dating to the AD 5th or 6th centuries. There is also a manuscript in the British Museum in London attributed to the Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi and dated to AD 575, implying that the monastery was well-established prior to that date. As for the church, a carved inscription dates its construction to 450 / 1058. There is also an inscription above the entrance indicating that renovation works were completed in 902 / 1497.","bibliography":"Cruickshank-Dodd, E., “The Monastery of Mar Musa al-Habashi near Nebek, Syria” *Arte Medievale: periodica internzionale di critica dell 'arte medievale,* 2nd series, 6:1, 1992, pp.61–132.  \nEvans, H., *Byzantium: Faith and Power 1261–1557*, New York,2004, p.424.  \nDell'Oglio, P., \"Tarikh Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi wa wasf al-Rusumat al-Jidariyya fi Kanisatihi \\[The History of the Saint Moses the Ethiopian Monastery and a Description of the Mural Paintings in its Church\\]\", *Tarmim Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi \\[The Restoration of Saint Moses the Ethiopian Monastery*\\], Damascus, 1998, pp.11–23.","patrons":"Since the AD 6th century the monastery was cared for by the Eastern Christian communities and the residing monks. After much neglect and damage, especially during the 1970s, the task of restoring the monastery was undertaken by Italian Jesuit Paolo dell’Oglio and the Syrian Catholic communities, taking care to maintain the old and indigenous methods of art and architecture.","architects":"The architects of the monastery’s church, which was built during the AH 5th / AD 11th century, were called Musa and his brothers (known as the sons of Abu al-Asad) and Mazhlum bin Tuma al-Nebeki. The fresco painter of the topmost layer was Sarkis ibn al-Qassis Ghali bin Barran and the calligrapher was Hunayn.","dynasty":"Byzantine, Seljuq, Ayyubid.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001; IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Monastery; church; religious architecture; Christian art; fresco; monasticism; Syriac; restoration"],"author":"Dina Bakkour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"bdeda37e-0f4a-5fd6-ad87-d9dacdb11131":{"name":"‘Imara al-‘Amira (Flourishing Edifice).","description":"The 'Imara al-'Amira contains four architectural components: a large kitchen, with its subsidiary additions which includes two ovens, a bakery and a fountain; a large *caravanserai* and a mosque as well as a *ribat*, composed of 55 rooms, for Sufis and the poor. This large building has two entrances, the northern entrance on Aqabat Takiyya Street and the southern entrance on Aqabat al-Saraya Street. The northern entrance has a transition zone, known as a *derka*, which leads into an open courtyard. In the northern section of the complex are the remains of an adjoining entrance and the kitchen, storage areas and a fountain, in addition to a two-storey building. The southern entrance leads into a corridor with walls that are rich in decorative stonework, which finally leads into the open courtyard surrounded by arcades that form the *caravanserai* (*khan*) of the 'Imara al-'Amira. To the east of the *caravanserai* with itsopen courtyard, there is a building that was constructed in the AH 13th / AD 19th century, known as Adaliyya. Perhaps it was built on the site of the *ribat* that vanished over the course of time. The Adaliyya building faces a hall of which little remains but for four cross vaults it may, however, have been part of the mosque of the 'Imara al-'Amira. To the east of the hall there is a dome-covered shrine that is believed to be the final resting place of Sa'ad al-Din al-Rasafi, author of the work, *al-Manhal al-Safi wa al-Mashrab al-Wafi \\[The Pure Spring and the Inundated Fountain\\]*.  \nThe multiplicity of elements that make up the complex indicate that it served several purposes: as a place for religious worship; for charitable purposes, as may be noted by the kitchen which was and still is used for the preparation of food for the poor and the needy and for trade and economic purposes, represented by the *caravanserai* that accommodated merchants and consummated mercantile trading.","short_description":"This grandiose social complex was also known as 'Khassaki Sultan' after its patron, the wife of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent. The complex was built as a result of incorporating a number of buildings and other additions. It includes a large kitchen, two ovens, two bakeries, a *sabil* (public fountain), a large *khan* (inn), a mosque and a Sufi ribat. It has two entrances and a number of open plazas. The complex provided food daily to the needy as well as to visitors, regardless of their identity or religion, as did the *zawiya* and the *arbita* (Sufi hospice and teaching establishment). Over 1000 meals were offered daily.","dates":"Built in around hegira 964 / AD 1557.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by *waqf* documents associated with it, among which is record number 270 in the Shari'a Court of Jerusalem (Folio No. 18–49). This document is further supported by the archives of the Palestinian Museum (Rockefeller Museum). Through these documents it is possible to deduce that the construction of the 'Imara al-'Amira began in 959 / 1552 and was completed in around 964/ 1557.","bibliography":"Myers, D., “Al-Imara al-Amira: The Charitable Foundation of Khassaki Sultan (959/1552)”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part I), London, 2000.  \nNatsheh, Y., “My Memories of Khassaki Sultan or the 'Flourishing Edifice'”, *Jerusalem Quarterly* File No. 7, winter 1999, pp.29–35.  \nPierce, L., *The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire*. London, 1992.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.105–7.","patrons":"Khassaki Sultan (also known as Haseki Hürrem Sultan, d. AH 965 / AD 1558), wife of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent (r. AH 926–73 / AD 1520–66); she was known in European literature by the name of Roxelana.","architects":"None of the names of those who designed and implemented the building can be clearly identified but they are likely to have included local architects and others from the city of Aleppo in Syria.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Takiyya; 'Imara al-Amira; kitchen; roxelana"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"c27af56e-a4e0-51fb-a73b-60b44f2b7999":{"name":"Tomb cover.","description":"A section of red silk divided into ivory-coloured zigzag bands. These bands form a three-part repeat unit in which the main section is a wide band containing the Muslim profession of faith, the Shahada. Above this, a border band contains a verse from the Qur'an (2: 144) which concerns the *qibla*, or direction of prayer. Below, a pious invocation reads 'Praise God and glorify Him; praise God the mighty.' These repeat units are separated by bands in which finial-shaped pendants, facing alternately up and down, are arranged among circular medallions; these shapes contain rhyming invocations: 'O Benefactor (ya mannan)!' and 'O Compassionate (ya hannan)!' in the pendants, and 'O Praise (ya subhan)!' and 'O Authority (ya sultan)!' in the circles. Textiles like this one were made under the Ottomans to cover the cenotaphs of important individuals. Since the deceased is buried facing Mecca, the inclusion of the Qur'anic verse about the *qibla* has special significance. This particular type of tomb cover appears to have been woven in large quantities, as silks with an identical pattern can be found in collections all over the world.","short_description":"A section of red silk woven with zigzag bands containing several repeating inscriptions, among them Qur’anic verses and rhyming invocations of God. Many similar textiles were made under the Ottomans as tomb covers and as linings for the Ka’ba in Mecca.","type":"Ottoman textile, woven silk","holder":"Victoria and Albert Museum.","dates":"Hegira 12th / AD 18th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Length 70 cm, width 68 cm.","method_for_datation":"In comparison with similar silks of the period.","method_for_provenance":"Assumption based on Istanbul's status as the capital.","provenance":"Possibly Istanbul.","obtention":"Gift of Dudley B. Myers, Esq., 1900.","bibliography":"Arts Council of Great Britain, *The Arts of Islam*, London, 1976, p.86, cat. no. 33.  \n  \nDenny, W., \"Textiles,\" *Tulips, Arabesques & Turbans: Decorative Arts from the Ottoman Empire* (ed. Y. Petsopoulos), London, 1982, p.138 and plate 160 (showing an identically patterned silk in a different collection).","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Woven silk."],"keywords":["religious object; funerary object"],"author":"Barry Wood","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"cb8f8517-5780-5bcc-bee9-849860cd610e":{"name":"*Sabil* Birkat al-Sultan.","alternate_name":"*Sabil* of Bab al-Khalil.","description":"The Sabil Birkat al-Sultan is one of the six *sabil*s that were erected in Jerusalem by order of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent. The *sabil* is built with cut white stone in a multiplicity of sizes, which form a rectangle 3.70 m long and 1.5 m wide. In front of the *sabil* block there is a recess 71 cm deep and 1.9 m long. Above the recess is a pointed arch composed of stone voussoirs decorated with saw-like ornamentation, in a style known as a Persian arch. The voussoirs are surrounded by moulded decoration. On each of the two sides of the arch there is a projecting circular stone medallion devoid of decorative elements. Around the bulk of the *sabil,* on both sides and above it, there is a frame of moulded decoration that terminates with more embellishment where the base of the *sabil* starts to form.  \nThe recess of the *sabil* is composed of three decorative architectural units. In the lower part of the recess there is a rectangular marble plaque which has an opening in the middle to allow water to flow from the *sabil* reservoir (located at the back) to the basin. At the top of the recess there are three tiers of *muqarnas* crowned by a small ribbed shell. In the middle of the niche, below the *muqarnas* tiers, there is an inscription panel. The panel is composed of three lines carved in Ottoman *naskhi* script which allude to the command to construct the *sabil*, the titles of the builder and the date of its construction. The inscription reads:  \n“The construction of this blessed *sabil* was ordered by our lord the Sultan, the Great Ruler, The Sovereign, The Noble, the Lord of Nations, the Sultan of Rome \\[Byzantium\\], the Arabs and the 'Ajam \\[Persians\\], Sultan Sulayman, son of Sultan Selim Khan. May God grant him a long reign and sovereignty on the date of the 10th of Muharram in the year AH 943 \\[29th June 1536\\].”","short_description":"This was the only *sabil* (public fountain) of the six commissioned by Ottoman Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent to be built outside the walls around Jerusalem. It is located on the road that connects Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Hebron. The *sabil* is provided with water from a canal linked to Solomon’s Pools. Inside a recessed niche, open at the front, in the middle of a rectangular plaque an opening allows water to pour into a wide basin. Above the basin is a large foundation inscription. The *sabil* is constructed of cut stone in different sizes with rich decorative motifs. Behind the building is a reservoir which collects the water.","dates":"Hegira 10th Muharram 943 / AD 29th June 1536.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The *sabil* was dated by the inscription on its façade, and further supported by a *waqf* document in the archive of the Shari'a Court of Jerusalem, that dates to AH 948 / AD 1541.","bibliography":"Berchem, M. van, *Materiaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarium* (Part II), Cairo, 1922.  \nAl-Imam al-Hussaini, M. A., *al-Manhal al-Safi fi al-Waqf wa Ahkamihi \\[A Clear Spring in the Waqf and its Execution*\\], Jerusalem, 1982.  \nNatsheh, Y., “Sabil Birkat al-Sultan”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part II), London, 2000.","patrons":"Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent (r. 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","architects":"The construction supervisor was Muhammad Chalabi al-Naqqash, the guardian of the sultan’s revenues as well as the construction manager for the walls of Jerusalem.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Basin; reservoir; naskhi script; moulded decoration; sabil; muqarnas; water."],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"d0bee2a2-2f3b-5679-b3ad-433e3664ca0a":{"name":"Prayer rug.","description":"A prayer rug that is typical of those produced in Ladik, a village near the city of Konya in central Anatolia. The rug has a red, central niche surrounded by three decorated frames. In the centre of the niche is an abstract tree-of-life motif springing from a stylised water-vessel. Above the vessel there is a rectangle with illegible text; above the tip of the niche there are a crescent and another rectangle with the date according to the hegira calendar, '1217' (1802) woven sideways. Made by the women in the village on a domestic handloom, the design for this type of prayer rug is inspired by the columned, court prayer rugs of the AH 10th–11th / AD 16th–17th centuries. The women also reared the sheep, sheered the wool, spun it and dyed it. Ladik lay on the main pilgrimage route from north to south, and these rugs were made to supplement the villagers' income, and were, subsequently, presented to mosques and shrines in the area and beyond as pious offerings. One such rug appears in a 17th-century European painting, a still life by Nicolaes van Gelder, dated 1664.","short_description":"This prayer rug is an example of those produced in the village of Ladik near Konya in Anatolia. Made by the women in the village, on a domestic handloom, the rugs were sold to pilgrims who passed through on their way to Mecca. They in turn donated them to mosques and shrines on their return.","type":"Wool, knotted, carpet","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"Hegira 1217 / AD 1802.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 200.6 cm, width 111.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"Woven into the rug is the date according to the hegira calendar, '1217' (1802) positioned in a rectangle above the tip of the crescent on top of the niche.","method_for_provenance":"Artistic analysis and comparison with other prayer rugs made in Ladik.","provenance":"Ladik, Anatolia, Turkey.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Bailey, J.,'Ladik Prayer Rugs', *Halı*,no. 28, October–December 1985, London, pp.18–25.  \n  \nBlack, D., *World Rugs and Carpets: A Comprehensive Guide to the Design, Provenance and Buying of Carpets*, Feltham, 1985.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Wool (warp, weft and pile); woven on a handloom."],"keywords":["Carpet; commerce; floral decoration; religious objects; pilgrimage"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"de4802a1-86e2-5973-8765-e8cc4ee04f98":{"name":"Planispheric astrolabe.","description":"The maker and final destination of this flat astrolabe, which is in reasonably good condition, are both known. All of the elements that make up a planispheric astrolabe have survived: the main part or mater; the alidade on the back of the instrument; three tympans or superposed disks on top of the mater; the rete or mobile openwork plaque (*shabaka*) representing the map of fixed stars turning around the earth; and the throne, a triangular piece for hanging it. It would have been one of the first portable astrolabes to have been made in the West on the model of the well known al-Zarqali astrolabe from Toledo, known in Europe as the Azarchel. The name of the maker is engraved on the back of the throne, and is none other than the famous Seville craftsman Muhammad ibn al-Futuh al-Khamayri, from whom four further astrolabes are known. An inscription in cursive characters on the back of the mater names the mosque to which it is dedicated: the Andalusian Mosque in Fez.  \nAn essential scientific instrument used by ancient astronomers to determine prayer times, the position of stars and horoscopes, this astrolabe was also an especially well-crafted work of art, in particular in the cutting of the flashes in the rete.","short_description":"This astrolabe includes all of the component parts of the planispheric astrolabes that were indispensable to ancient astronomers for determining prayer times and the height of the stars, and for establishing horoscopes. It is one of the first portable astrolabes in the West.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"Batha Museum.","initial_owner":"*Habus* (endowment).","dates":"Hegira 614 / AD 1217–18.","location":"Fez.","dimensions":"Height 22.5 cm, diameter 21 cm.","method_for_datation":"The inscription engraved on the suspension plate names the craftsman and the date it was made: 'This was made by Muhammad ibn al-Fatuh al-Khamayri in the year 614 [AD 1218]'. The numbers are written in letters according to the Abajid style.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the back of the astrolabe: 'This was made *habus* property to deserve the blessing and forgiveness of God the Supreme for the *minbar* of the Andalusian Mosque in the town of Fez, may God the Supreme protect it'. There were actually two *minbars* at the Andalusian Mosque, one commissioned in 369 / 980 and the other built under the Almohads.","provenance":"Andalusian Mosque, Fez.","obtention":"Restoration.","bibliography":"Amahan, A., *6000 ans d'art au Maroc*, catalogue, Paris, 1990.  \nBergé, M., *Les Arabes, Histoire et Civilisation, des origines à la chute du Royaume de Grenade*, Paris, 1978.  \nMichel, H., *Traité de l'astrolabe*, Paris, 1947.  \nRenaud, P.J., “Astronomie et Astrologie marocaines”, *Hespéris* XXIX, Rabat, 1942, pp.42–63.","artist":"Muhammad ibn al-Futuh al-Khamayri.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_MA_EN_001","materials":["Engraved brass."],"keywords":["Religious object; scientific object; habus; vegetal decoration; geometric decoration; epigraphic decoration; astronomy; science"],"author":"Naima El Khatib-Boujibar","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"e6753434-4415-5658-ba03-7a1cf0ec79f4":{"name":"Ceramic tile panel.","description":"A ceramic tile panel composed of square tiles depicting the *Ka'ba* covered by the black *kiswa*. Architectural components in the Ottoman style are also depicted including doors, domed buildings, minarets, and arches with suspended lamps hanging from them. In the bottom right-hand corner of the panel is the date of production AH 1087 (AD 1676). This date is also written in Arabic letters on the panel reading 'bidars Sulayman'. Traditionally one way for writing dates would be in letter-form in a sort of cipher named *hisab al-gummal (Calculation of total numbers)*, each letter being equivalent to a certain numerical figure, for example the Arabic letter ( **ر** ) is equivalent to 200. This tile panel closely resembles another tile piece in the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo (reg. no. 860) which bears the signature of the craftsman who made it, Muhammad al-Shami, and the date AH 1139 (AD 1726), it also has similarities to a frontispiece panel of a Qur'an that dates to the Ottoman period and which also bears a depiction of the Holy *Ka'ba* of Mecca.","short_description":"Muslim artisans did their best to depict the Ka'ba, the holy Islamic sanctuary, on their products. This panel bears the name of the sultan, the date of production and its maker's signature.","type":"Ottoman ceramics","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 1087 / AD 1676.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 240 cm, width 144 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated based on the date recorded on it.","method_for_provenance":"It is strongly believed that this tile panel was made in Istanbul where such panels were produced centrally.","obtention":"The piece was donated to the Museum in November 1915 by Prince Yusuf Kamal, who was one of the princes of the family of Muhammad 'Ali and a delaer in antiques. He donated a large collection of his acquisitions to the museum especially jewellery, textiles, ceramic and wooden pieces.","bibliography":"Arseven, G. E., *L'Art turc depuis son origine jusqu'à nos jours*, Istanbul, 1935.  \nAslanapa, O., *Turkish Art and Architecture*, London, 1970.  \nAtasoy, N., and Raby, J., *Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey*, London, 1989.  \nDenny, W. B., “Ceramics” in *Turkish Art,* (ed. E. Atil), Washington D. C., 1980.  \nMaher, Su'ad M., *al-Khazaf al-Turki \\[Turkish Ceramics*\\], Cairo, 1960.  \nMostafa, M., “Khazaf al-Anadol al-Mumawah bi al-Mina \\[Enamelled Ceramics of Anatolia\\]” in Al-*Mar'a al-Jadida \\[New Woman Magazine\\]*, No. 2, Cairo, 1947.  \nPorter, V., *Islamic Tiles*, New York, 1995.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Ceramic tiles with painted underglaze decoration; transparent glaze overall."],"keywords":["Ceramic tile panel; Hajj; ceramics; Ka’ba; tilework"],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e67f38ec-fa2d-5d97-b5a7-c6d7c6f6bd23":{"name":"Aqsa Mosque.","description":"The Aqsa Mosque is a rectangular building within the Haram al-Sharif. The Haram site slopes from the north to the south and this tendency is addressed by a platform that traverses it, and upon which the mosque was erected. The layout of the present mosque is the result of reconstructions and modifications that have characterised a number of building stages in different periods, and which are the subject of some debate among historians and researchers.  \nThe first stages of construction of the Aqsa Mosque are associated with the Caliph 'Umar bin al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) who erected a *mihrab* and a simple mosque on the same site as the present mosque. Mujir al-Din (d. AH 928 / AD 1521), an historian and authority on the architecture of Jerusalem, mentions that Caliph 'Umar while clearing the Haram area of debris, uncovered the sacred rock. He consulted those with him about the ideal position of the mosque and was advised to situate it to the north of the rock, but he refused, saying: “But we must make its *qibla*, its front \\[any part of the wall on the south\\], as has the Prophet of God made the *qibla* of our mosques, their front”. In about AH 49–50 / AD 670, the famous traveller Arculf stated that the mosque was located in the southern area of the Haram; it was erected on great wooden piers constructed from re-used material found in the region and that the mosque was widened to accommodate 3000 worshippers.  \nNothing tangible remains of the original mosque, known as the Masjid al-'Umari, since it was renovated at the beginning of AH 65 / AD 685.  \nThe Aqsa Mosque was built during the reign of Abd al-Malik. It had 15 arcades, none of which have survived intact except those on the southern wall, due to the fact that the mosque was badly damaged by a number of earthquakes and was restored a number of times.  \nDuring the Crusader period the Aqsa Mosque was converted into a church. A large recess was added in the eastern side, corresponding to the layout of churches facing the east. The recess remains to this day.  \nThe present al-Aqsa mosque has nine entrances: seven of them are located in the northern wall, one in the west wall and another in the east. The northern wall is preceded by a colonnade composed of seven slabs of stone, each covered by an intersecting vault. The colonnade opens out on to the plaza of the Haram al-Sharif through a large tapered arch.  \nThe ground plan of the mosque is a rectangle measuring 50 m x 80 m. It is composed of seven aisles extending from north to south; the middle one being the widest and highest of them. The three western colonnades are supported by large piers, while the eastern colonnades are supported by a series of marble columns imported from Italy during the restoration of this section by the High Islamic Council in the first half of the 20th century. At the southern end of the middle aisle there is a wooden semi-circular dome supported by corner squinches. Below the dome is the beautiful *mihrab* built by order of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) when he liberated the mosque from the Franks in AH 583 / AD 1187.","short_description":"The present building is a product of many architectural developments, since all the dynasties that ruled the Islamic state left their mark on this building, which also fell victim to successive earthquakes. The last catastrophe was the result of an arson attack in 1969. Not much remains of the first building stages (Umayyad); its form has changed as a result of continuous renovation and restoration and it has been lengthened and not widened as is the case for Umayyad mosques. It is now composed of seven colonnades, the widest in the middle, and is topped by a gabled roof. It is connected to the miracle of the *Isra’* and *Mi’raj* (Night of the Prophet’s Ascension) for the site was mentioned in the Qur’an.","dates":"Hegira 65–96 / AD 685–715.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by inscriptions, historical sources, as well as evidence of finds from archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Oxford, 1932.  \nHamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of the Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938–42*, London, 1949.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, pp.74–6.","patrons":"Caliph 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705) and al-Walid bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 86–96 / AD 705–15). The building was renovated several times thereafter, in the eras of: the Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja’far al-Mansur (r. AH 136–58 / AD 754–75), Caliph al-Mahdi (r. AH 158–69 / AD 775–85), the Fatimid Caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93), Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40) and a number of the Ottoman sultans.","dynasty":"Built in the Umayyad period; renovated in the Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Congregational mosque; haram; religious building; mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e7c13aac-cce7-53cb-a7a9-27eb4a31cda9":{"name":"Sidi Sahib *Zawiya* and *Madrasa*.","description":"This cultural centre was built in memory of a companion of the Prophet, Abu Zama'a al-Balawi, who died in combat in the year AH 34 (AD 654). It comprises the following sections:  \n– A main door opening onto a large courtyard paved in local bricks and surrounded with porticoes used for the shelter of horses.  \n– A depot located to the left of the entrance which served to store provisions coming from holy *habus* legacies and gifts.  \n– Above the depot, apartments reserved for the Pasha. They were once used to accommodate the chief tax collector of the region and, later on, distinguished guests of the mausoleum.  \n– Built next to the depot, the *madrasa* is the prototype of Tunisian *madrasas* with its paved courtyard surrounded by porticoes with Moorish arches. On its east and west sides are the students' cells. On the south side stands the long prayer hall with only two naves. The *mihrab* is surmounted by a dome with fluted squinches. At the northeast corner rises an elegant minaret which is reminiscent of that of the Great Mosque at Tlemcen and the Kasbah Mosque in Tunis.  \nThe door of the mausoleum, opposite the main entrance, is framed with red and white marble lintels in the Italian manner. The hallway has an angled entrance leading to a wide courtyard of the type commonly seen in al-Andalus. This is flanked by two porticoes whose Moorish arches, typically Kairouanese, rest on neo-Corinthian capitals with crescent moons, the emblem of the Ottomans, carved in relief. This patio leads to a hall surmounted with a dome mounted on squinches decorated with stucco panels representing the Hispano-Moorish repertoire, as well as the Turkish repertoire, (bouquets of flowers, pine trees). Finally one comes to the mausoleum and the courtyard reserved for devotions, which is surrounded by porticoes. The walls are covered with enamel polychrome tiles and the upper parts have very finely carved stucco panels. The tomb of the companion of the Prophet is furnished with a dome set on pendentives of recent decoration. Abu Zama'a, known affectionately as Sidi Sahbi and considered to be the patron of the town, enjoyed great veneration. His mausoleum is the one most visited by the Tunisians, who flock there during the Festival of Mulud to commemorate the birth of the Prophet.  \nFormerly, the mausoleum was the assembly point for the pilgrimage procession before the departure of the caravan to Mecca. This important event was accompanied by religious festivals and liturgical chants.","short_description":"This cultural complex was built in memory of a companion of the Prophet, Abu Zama al-Balawi, who was buried at the site before the town was founded. This venerable individual carried some of the Prophet’s hair with him, which explains why Europeans called it the Barber’s Mosque. Abu Zama, also known as Sidi Sahib, has since been considered to be the patron of the town and is particularly venerated. His mausoleum is the most commonly visited by Tunisians, who flock there, particularly during the official Mulud celebrations marking the birth of the Prophet.","dates":"Hegira 11th century / AD 17th century.","location":"Kairouan (Qayrawan)","method_for_datation":"A commemorative plaque set into the entrance porch of the *madrasa* mentions the date of the foundation of the *zawiya*, in 1072 (1662). Furthermore, a few verses of poetry on the base of the mausoleum dome in maghrebin *naskhi* script attribute the construction to the *bey* Muhammad ibn Murad.","bibliography":"Maoudoud, K., *Kairouan*, Tunis, 2000, pp.32–6.  \nMarçais, G., *Tunis et Kairouan*, Paris, 1937, pp.68–9.  \nRoy, B., et Poinssot, P., *Inscriptions arabes de Kairouan*, vol. II, fasc. I, Paris, 1950, pp.65–76.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp. 163–5.","history":"The original mausoleum was a simple dome surrounded by a wall. On this site, the *bey* Hammud Pasha (1040–75 / 1631–65) built the *zawiya* and erected a *madrasa*, (1072 / 1662). Between 1092 and 1096 (1681–1685), the *bey* Muhammad ibn Murad renovated the dome of the mausoleum.","patrons":"The Bey Hammuda Pasha rebuilt the *zawiya* and erected the madrasa and its minaret. His grandson, the Bey Muhammad ibn Murad, completely renewed the dome of the mausoleum and probably the courtyard and its surrounding galleries.","architects":"Ahmed and Mustafa al-Andalusi.","dynasty":"Muradid (Ottoman).","materials":[],"keywords":["Madrasa; Barbier Mosque; Zawiya; mausoleum; Andalusian influence; minaret; floral decoration; Muradid period"],"author":"Saloua Zangar"},"e8a8501f-19e5-5494-af52-177609f85cd8":{"name":"Wikala (caravanserai) of Qaytbay.","alternate_name":"Wikala al-Dashisha.","description":"The Wikala (or *caravanserai*) of Qaytbay is considered a model for other *caravanserais* in the Mamluk period, which included storage and commercial areas to sell merchandise, as well as providing accommodation for merchants and their clients.  \nThe façade of the building overlooks Bab al-Nasr Street, and is divided into three horizontal levels. The entrance occupies the centre of the façade. On each of the two sides of the portal are five shops, above each of which is a turned-wood window grille, known as *mashrabiyya*. On top of the *masharabiyyas* are a row of windows provided with networks of iron grills. The entrance consists of a recessed wall containing an opening for the door. It is crowned by a tri-lobed arch whose height extends to the level of the window-openings located on the sides of the entrance. The spandrel of the arch is decorated with carved, stone vegetal motifs. On the upper corners of the arch is a projecting stone ornament consisting of two rows of *muqarnas*. Above the entrance arch is a band of inscription, carved in Mamluk *thuluth* script stating the reason for building this edifice. In general, the entrance to the *caravanserai* resembles the entrance to the Madrasa of Qaytbay in the Mamluk Cemetery in Cairo.  \nThe floor-plan of the building is a rectangular courtyard that, on the ground floor, is surrounded by a group of storage areas. Above it are three stories, which include residential units for merchants.","short_description":"This *wikala* has shops on either side of the entrance and storerooms and lodgings for merchants around the open internal courtyard. Its patron, Sultan Qaytbay, endowed it to provide crushed grain for the poor of Medina al-Munawara in Hijaz. This function is registered on an epigraphic band on the entrance.","dates":"Hegira 885 / AD 1480.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"Dating of the building is supported by historical documents which include the specific *waqf* dedicated to the building (No. 885, dated 894 / 1489). The *waqf* is in the name of Sultan Qaytbay and is kept in the archives of the Ministry of Awqaf in Cairo. The *waqf* document indicates that Sultan Qaytbay endowed the *caravanserai* for the purpose of earning revenue to buy *dashisha* (ground grain) to be distributed amongst the poor in Medina in the Hijaz, whose poverty he had witnessed when he led the *Hajj* (pilgrimage) in 884 / 1479.","bibliography":"Al-Pasha, H., *Madkhal ila al-Athar al-Islamiya \\[Introduction to Islamic Art*\\], Cairo, 1979.  \nSameh, Kamal al-Din, *Al-'imara al-Islamiya fi Masr \\[Islamic Architecture in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991.","patrons":"Sultan al-Ashraf Abu al-Nasr Qaytbay (r. AH 872–901 / AD 1468–96).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Trade; vegetal decoration; civil architecture; mashrabiyya; muqarnas; caravanserai"],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"eeadc3f4-cf85-5e38-bce5-3c6d8631b78c":{"name":"Maghrebi *rab’a*.","alternate_name":"Maghrebi Qur’an manuscript.","description":"A *rab’a*, a Qur'anic manuscript divided into 30 parts, each of which has an independent binding. The *rab’a* was preserved in a square wooden box covered on the outside with leather and embellished by four embossed decorative bands that incorporate geometric patterns outlined with silver thread. In between the four bands are three silver belts which reach from the back to the front of the box to support it. Each belt is decorated with three star-like shapes made from silver and overlaid with blue enamel. In all, the box bears 10 decorative forms in the same style; on the four corners of the box, for example, there are geometric shapes inlaid with mother-of-pearl and red and blue enamel.  \nThe bindings of all 30 parts are made from embossed red leather, with both the front and back embellished with ornamentation and text, which is identical on all the volumes. On each cover there are four inscription bands that form a square, and which are encircled by silver thread. The text is gilded, and in the middle of each front cover there is a silver-braided circle. Within the circle in gilded text is a Chapter from the Qur'an (14: 52), which tells the story of Ibrahim (Abraham). It reads: “Here is a message for mankind. Let them take warning there from, and let them know that he is (no other than) One God. Let men of understanding take heed”.On the back cover there is another quote from the Qur'an “al-Baqara” (“the Cow”, 2: 181), which reads: “If anyone changes the bequest after hearing it. The guilt shall be on those who make the change. For Allah hears and knows (All things)”.  \nEach part of the *rab'a* begins with two identical illuminated panels that differ in design from one volume to the next. Most of the square-shaped panels are surrounded by broad illuminated frames and contain decoration consisting of lines, circles and squares painted in more than one colour, but predominantly in gold. The *rab'a* is written in Maghrebi-style script with black ink, with five lines to each page. Verses are divided from each other by the word “verse” written in gold and surrounded by three circles. The *waqf* charter of the *rab'a,* written in an illuminated *kufic* script within a square that is also illuminated, is on the last two pages of each volume.","short_description":"A *rab’a*, a Qur’anic manuscript in 30 parts, preserved in a wooden box covered with leather and decorated with silver bands. The texts are in Maghrebi *kufic* script, written with saffron water on gazelle parchment. The *rab’a* is filled with decorative motifs, colours and illumination. This is one of three *rab’a* written for Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem; only the last copy has come down to us.","type":"Maghrebi, rab'a, parchment, manuscript","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Commander of the Faithful, Abu al-Hasan Ali, the first Marinid (ruled in the Maghreb AH 732–49 / AD 1331–48).","dates":"Hegira 745 / AD 1344.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 22 cm, width 20 cm, depth 5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The *rab’a* is dated by an inscription.","method_for_provenance":"The Maghreb was narrowed down as the place of production for this manuscript based on the *waqf* charter that appears at the end of each volume. For example, the *waqf* in the eighth volume reads: “The eighth volume of this Holy Qur'anic manuscript completes a part of a thirty volume series, all of which have been written in the handwriting of Abd Allah Ali, *amir* of the Muslims, son of the *amir* of the Muslims, Abi Said Uthman, son of the *amir* of the Muslims, Abi Yusuf Ya'qub bin Abd al-Haqq, ruler of the Maghreb, May God bless him, and it has been endowed for recitation in al-Aqsa Mosque.”","provenance":"Maghreb.","obtention":"The piece was transferred at an unknown date from al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem to the Islamic Museum.","bibliography":"Al-Makri, A., (d. 1041 / 1631), *Nafaha al-Tayab (al-Tayb) min Ghasan Ghusn al-Andalus al-Ratib \\[A Pleasant Breeze from the Branch of Verdant al-Andalus\\],* Vol. 2, Leiden, 1860.  \nAl-Maqrizi, A., (d. 845 / 1442), *Al-Suluk li Ma'arifat duwal al-Muluk \\[The Right Ways to Know the Lands of the Rulers),* Vol. 2, Cairo, 1971.  \nAl-Qalakshandi, A., (d. 821 / 1418), *Subah al-'Asha fi Sana'at al-Inasha' \\[The Break of Evening in the Making of Literary Creation\\]*, Cairo, 1913.  \nRosen-Ayalon, M., “Some Comments on a Maghrebi Qur'an”, in *Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam,* No. 19, 1995, pp.73–80.  \nSalameh, K., *Al-Makhtutat al-Qur'aniya fi al-Muthaf al-Islami fi al-Haram al-Sharif, al-Quds \\[Qur'anic Manuscripts in the Islamic Museum in al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem\\],* Paris, 2003.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.72–3.","artist":"Calligrapher: Abu al-Hasan al-Marini.","dynasty":"Marinid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Black ink on gazelle parchment; binding of illuminated leather."],"keywords":["Abu al-Hasan al-Marini; illumination; kufic script; Maghrebi script; parchment; Qur’an; mashaf; religious manuscript"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f542a798-8c47-5278-ad25-50059baf16a0":{"name":"Distance marker (milestone).","description":"A distance marker or milestone usually erected to indicate distance between two stations along a pilgrimage or trade route, this one belonging to the period of the fifth Umayyad caliph, 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (r. AH 66–86 / AD 685–705). The milestone is nearly square and has an inscription incised on its surface. The inscription consists of eight lines of *kufic* script. It cannot be read in its entirety because the upper section of the milestone has broken off and is missing. The legible portion reads: 'The slave of God, the commander of the faithful 'Abd al-Malik – may God's mercy be upon him – erected this stone. From here to Damascus is 109 miles'.  \n  \nVery few inscriptions have survived from the Umayyad period to the present. In addition, this milestone is significant because it shows the stylistic development of *kufic* script on stone during the Umayyad period.  \n  \nHow was object obtained by museum: The inventory states that the object was transferred from the ruins of Khan al-Hatrura at Eriha (Jericho) to the Tiled Pavilion (Çinili Köşk) in 1884 as part of the 19th-century initiative to collect artworks from across the country. The object was transferred to the Museum in 1941.","short_description":"In the early years of Islam, distance markers were erected on important trade and pilgrimage routes in order to show the distances to the travellers. These milestones bear date, patron names and toponyms related to the region, and are thus of documentary importance.","type":"Marker, marble","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","dates":"Hegira 66–86 / AD 685–705.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul","dimensions":"Height 40 cm, width 30 cm, depth 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated to 66–86 / 685–705 based on the mention in the inscription of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, who was the caliph during this period.","method_for_provenance":"Inventory records indicate that the object was found amongst the ruins of Khan al-Hatrura at Eriha and taken to the Tiled Pavilion in 1884. Since Khan al-Hatrura is further from Damascus than the inscription would infer (109 miles) it is thought that the milestone was brought to the khan from a place further to the north.","provenance":"Eriha (Jericho), near Jerusalem.","obtention":"The inventory states that the object was transferred from the ruins of Khan al-Hatrura at Eriha (Jericho) to the Tiled Pavilion (çinili Köşk) in 1884 as part of the 19th-century initiative to collect artworks from across the country. The object was transferred to the Museum in 1941.","bibliography":"Clermont-Ganneau, C., “Notes d'épigraphie et l'histoire arabes”, *Journal Asiatique* (e serie IX, avril–mai–juin) 1887, p.472–497.  \n  \nKerametli, C., “Türk ve Islam Eserleri Müzesi'nde Erken Islam Devrine Ait Kitabeler”, *Şarkiyat Mecmuası* VI (1965), Istanbul, 1966, p.20.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, p.32.  \n  \nVan Berchem, M., *Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum*, *deuxieme partie, Syrie du Sud, Tome Premier, Jerusalem 'la ville'*, Cairo, 1922, p.17–18, catalogue no. 1.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","materials":["Incised marble."],"keywords":["Distance marker (milestone); marble"],"author":"Gönül Tekeli","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f7659710-c4d1-5ed6-87b1-2c8bdcfaa1e1":{"name":"*Kursi* (throne) of Sulayman.","alternate_name":"Dar al-Hadith al-Sharif (present name).","description":"The *kursi* (throne) of Sulayman is a commemorative building, the intention of which may have been to encourage visits to the Haram al-Sharif, and in this way to associate the Haram with various Prophets.  \nThe building has only three facades since the fourth, eastern façade conjoins with the eastern wall of the Haram al-Sharif, so the eastern wall of the building became part of the enclosure wall of the old city of Jerusalem. The three facades are made of fine dressed stone. The entrance portal is in the northern façade. It is 1.1 m wide and 2 m high. The lintel above the entrance is surmounted by a relieving arch made up of three joggled stones. Surrounding the portal are three identically sized rectangular windows. The third window is located east of the eastern window. All three windows are provided with metal grills of similar designs. A rectangular sunken stone panel, which measures 75 cm x 50 cm, is placed four stone-courses above the lintels of the windows. Above this panel is an elongated window measuring 25 cm x 90 cm. The façade ends with a stone frame or cornice which projects slightly from the façade and which extends over to the western and southern façades. The western section of the building is crowned by two shallow domes; and while the western and southern facades resemble the northern façade in terms of the fabric of the building, they are different from it in the arrangement of the windows.  \nThe interior is composed of a large hall with a rectangular ground plan, divided by means of two tapered arches into two divisions: western and eastern. The two arches are supported by a central pillar at one end, and by one of the walls of the building from which the arches emerge, at the other end. The western section of the hall is a prayer area (a mosque). It extends from north to south and is composed of two spaces each covered by a shallow dome without a zone of transition. On the southern wall of the western section is a *mihrab* of 1 m wide and 50 cm deep. It is crowned by a tapered arch with a semi-domed ceiling decorated with vegetal stucco motifs. The eastern section of the hall has a barrel vault that is supported on the west side by the two arches – which divide the hall into two sections – and from the east, by the east wall of the building. An imposing stone shrine (tomb), 9.5 m long and 2 m high, lies in this section. It is likely that this shrine was originally a rock and that two dressed stones were added to both ends of it in order to create a symbolic tomb (each with a diameter of 50 cm) of the Prophet Sulayman. On the east side of the shrine there is a rectangular panel upon which a Qur'anic verse is inscribed from the chapter “al-Naml” (“the Ants”, 27: 30–33).","short_description":"This is a memorial that was probably built to commemorate the Prophet Sulayman (Solomon). It is located within the plaza of al-Haram al-Sharif, which supports its eastern wall. The building has a large hall divided into different areas, one of which is the prayer area with a *mihrab*. It is surmounted by two shallow domes. The hall also includes a symbolic tomb which might allude to the tomb of Sulayman or his throne. The building is presently used as an institute for Hadith (Dar al-Hadith).","dates":"The building bears no date, but it is likely that it was built after hegira 1017 / AD 1608.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by information available in the registers of the Shari'a Court of Jerusalem, and also by comparison of its architectural elements with those specific to the Zawiya al-Qadiriyya and the Zawiya al-As'adiyya in Jerusalem.","bibliography":"Natsheh, Y., “Kursi Sulaiman” in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds.), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part II), London, 2000.","dynasty":"Ottoman.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Commemorative architecture; religious architecture; throne"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fe0665ae-557f-5721-993c-8b5887d08251":{"name":"Qubbat al-Su’ud (Dome of Ascension).","description":"Qubbat al-Su'ud (Dome of Ascension) is an independent commemorative building the design of which is based on an octagonal plan on the outside, and a circular one on the inside. The building is located at the centre of a walled-in area with unequal sides. It is built from medium-sized white stone blocks which have turned to ash-grey due to the climate.  \nThe Dome of Ascension is Byzantine in origin (AH 17 / AD 638) and circular in form. The Franks replaced it in AH 492–583 / AD 1099–1187 with a roofless octagonal building which was renovated and then abandoned, during the Ayyubid period after the Battle of Hattin (AH 583 / AD 1187). It was then turned into a mosque but only on the condition that Christians could still use it during festivals, special events and even on ordinary days, without any restrictions or conditions.  \nThe present building has a stone octagonal façade and is composed of three sections. The first section is the “body”, composed of eight tapered arches supported on piers with compact marble columns. The columns terminate with capitals adorned with representations of animals and humans, which are associated with the Christian era. The arches, originally open, were blocked off in the Ayyubid era by a series of stone courses. The opening for a door was prepared on the western façade, and the capitals with their multiplicity of decorative motifs were restored.  \nThe second section of the building is the drum of the dome, which is circular in form and forms a zone of transition between the octagonal body and the dome. This section of the building is closed; there are no openings, except a long window on the western façade. The third section of the building is the dome, which is covered on the outside by tesserae, and which is crowned by a small stone crescent.  \nThe entrance to the building is emphasised by means of a tiled passageway leading from the door on the western façade. The interior floor is also tiled with tesserae. The area where “the footprint of Christ” lies is slightly elevated and surrounded by a rectangular stone frame. On the southern side of the octagon lies a *mihrab* that was placed there during the Ayyubid period, and which become an important Islamic landmark alongside the Christian relic, represented by the spot from which Christ ascended to heaven.","short_description":"This is a commemorative building located on the heights of the nearby summit of the holy Mount of Olives that overlooks Jerusalem. From the outside the building assumes an octagonal form, while the interior has a circular plan. The site was the location for a Byzantine church, which was built to commemorate the Ascension of Christ to heaven. The distinguishing features of this Byzantine building were completely changed by the Franks and Salah a-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin). The site is sacred to Muslims and Christians.","dates":"Hegira 595 / AD 1198.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by architectural comparisons with the domes of the Haram al-Sharif, and supported by other historical information such as travelogues. Archaeological excavations uncovered fragments of Byzantine ceramics, confirming that the site was originally Byzantine.","bibliography":"Abu Rayya, R., *Al-Mawqi' al-Islamiya 'ala Jabal al-Zaytun/Tur Zita \\[The Islamic Site on the Mount of Olives\\],* MA Thesis, al-Quds University, 1999.  \nBieberstein, K., and Bloedhorn, H., *Jerusalem Grundzuege der Baugeschichte vom Chalkolithikum bis zur Fruhziet der Osmanischen Herrschaft,* Vol. III. Wiesbaden, 1994.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nPierotti, E., *Jerusalem Explored*, London, 1864.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.138–9.","patrons":"The overseer of the building is not known, but the renovation and addition of the mihrab was likely to have been ordered by Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","dynasty":"Ayyubid / Crusader.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ascension; commemorative architecture; dome; church; mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"ff3db0a2-4bc7-576e-bbd7-b0882e3ea217":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"An astrolabe that has a hollowed-out central disc; a sort of base plate (a mater), that is formed by riveting the back plate to the raised edge (the limb), which is inscribed in *kufic* script. The jointed ring (or throne), from which the instrument is suspended perpendicular to the ground to give a reading, is not all original. The *rête* (the pierced front plate showing the positions of the stars) is a replacement made in the 13th century. The astrolabe can be taken apart by unscrewing the central knob (horse) to reveal seven plates. Engraved on the plates in simpler *kufic* script to that seen on the limb, are seven names of places: Mecca, Medina, Saragossa, Samarra, Cairo, Toledo and Constantinople, along with the latitude and the hours in the longest day. The plates are engraved with azimuths as well as almucantarsand there are lines indicating times of prayer. The interior of the *mater* is engraved with the markings of 66 degrees, it is a plate of ecliptic co-ordinates, while the back bears four scales of altitude and two ecliptic and calendrical scales. The maker’s signature is on the back of the *mater*.  \nThe astrolabe is a device known from at least the AH 2nd / AD 8th century, and it represents the notion of heaven with all its stars, based on the assumption that earth is at the centre of a spherical universe. The astrolabe had many purposes. It served as an astronomical calculating device allowing the observation of solar and stellar altitudes. It was also used for navigational purposes. Time-keeping was another important function of the astrolabe in the Muslim sphere, for it was exploited in particular to calculate the precise timing of the five daily prayers.  \nSpain was invaded by the Muslims in the AH 2nd / AD 8th century and subsequently a vibrant civilisation evolved, one that collected, incorporated and disseminated the ideas of ancient as well as contemporaneous Arab scientists and scholars. This European-made and dated astrolabe is the earliest known, produced in AH 417 / AD 1026–7 by Muhammad ibn al-Saffar. Interestingly, Ibn al-Saffar, brother of Muhammad ibn al-Saffar, was the author of the first known treatise from Islamic Spain on the astrolabe. Two contemporary astrolabes survive from this period; both signed by Muhammad ibn al-Saffar, this one is the earlier of the two. In Europe production and use of the astrolabe had waned by the 18th century, but in the Islamic world they were made and used into the 20th century.","short_description":"The Muslim world inherited the astrolabe from Antiquity. It was an essential astronomical calculation device used for observing the stars, navigation and time keeping. In the AH 2nd / AD 8th century, following the Muslim conquest of Spain, it was introduced to Europe.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork, cast copper","holder":"National Museums of Scotland.","dates":"Hegira 417 / AD 1026–7.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Diameter 15.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"On the back of the astrolabe the inscription in *kufic* script states: ‘Work of Muhammad bin \\[ibn\\] al-Saffar in Córdoba in the year 17 and 400’ (417 / 1026–7).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the back of the astrolabe gives the place of origin as Córdoba.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain.","obtention":"A gift to the Royal Museum, NMS, from James H. Farr, F.I.M.I., Edinburgh, in 1959.","bibliography":"NMS Object Record File, containing material directly reproduced from the following references:  \nKing, D. A., ‘Some Medieval Astronomical Instruments and their Secrets’, **in** Mazzolini, R. G. (ed.), *Non-Verbal Communication in Science prior to 1900*, Florence 1993, pp.29–52.  \nMaddison, F., and Turner, A., *Science and Technology in Islam*, exhibition catalogue, London 1976, pp.104–6.  \nPhillips, P., *The Collectors’ Encyclopeadia of Antiques*, London 1973, p.604, fig. a.  \nPlenderleith, R. W., ‘Discovery of an Old Astrolabe’ in *The Scottish Geographical Magazine,* Vol. 76, No. 1, 1960: 25.","artist":"Muhammad ibn al-Saffar.","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus","materials":["Cast brass, incised."],"keywords":["Astrolabe; Cordoba; Muhammad ibn al-Saffar; kufic script; astronomy; science"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"}}