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-{"05e7e5aa-01c1-5eb2-8d63-892574f025d5":{"name":"Silk fragment.","description":"A fragment of linen and silk textile that is tapestry-woven. It has four horizontal silk panels that alternate between areas of woven linen and vertical blue silk stripes. The uppermost band shows a broad, gathered band that is interlaced in gold and outlined in red. The spaces within the interlacing are filled with gold-coloured motifs above and below, and abstract floral motifs rendered in gold and green in the centre; the entirety is flanked above and below by gold-coloured split-palmette scroll borders set against a red background. Below this is a band of cursive Arabic script, rendered in blue and set against a plain background, again flanked by gold-coloured split-palmette scroll borders. The stripe beneath this, which features borders identical to those above, shows an elegant gold-coloured *kufic* inscription, with red detailing, set against a deep-blue background. The final band consists of two superposed strips of gold-coloured split-palmette scrolls with red outlines.","short_description":"Textile fragments with this type of decoration and epigraphic detail are typical of Fatimid Egypt, famous for the production of luxury textiles. Many were found in burials in Upper Egypt. This textile was collected by Henry Wallis (1830–1916), a famous painter and expert on Middle Eastern ceramics.","type":"Fatimid textile linen, woven silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira the 540s to 70s / AD second quarter of the 12th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height 20.32 cm, width 26.67 cm.","method_for_datation":"The style of the inscription encountered on this fragment is closely related to a linen fragment with tapestry-woven silk elements in the Bouvier Collection in Geneva, which has been attributed to Fatimid Egypt during the 540s to 570s / second quarter of the 12th century.","method_for_provenance":"It is assumed that textile fragments with this type of decoration and epigraphic detail were produced in Fatimid Egypt. This is due to so many having been found in burials and excavations throughout Upper Egypt in particular.","provenance":"From a tomb at al-Drounka, Egypt.","obtention":"This textile together with several other Fatimid textile fragments were acquired by NMS in 1898 from Henry Wallis, a famous Pre-Raphaelite painter, who travelled and painted extensively in Egypt and elsewhere. Subsequently he became a highly respected expert on Egyptian and Persian ceramics.","bibliography":"*Tissus d’Egypte: Témoins du Monde Arabe VIIIe – Xve siècles*, Collection Bouvier,Geneva / Paris 1993, pp. 250–1, cat. no. 151 (for a similar textile).","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Linen and woven silk."],"keywords":["Al-Drounka; silk; linen; kufic script; Henry Wallis; Fatimid textiles; textile"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"0ee82313-3b00-5065-9b57-8b032c634961":{"name":"Gold coin (*dinar*).","description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in AH 380 / AD 990. The legend is in *kufic* script.  \n  \nObverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: ''.لا اله الا الله، محمد رسول الله، علي خير صفوة الل'  \n  \n'There is no God except God, Muhammad is the Messenger. Ali is the best God's prime.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **محمد رسول الله أرسله بالهدى ودين الحق ليظهره على الدين كله ولو كره المشركون.**  \n  \n'Muhammad is the Messenger of God. He sent him with guidance and the true religion to prevail over all other religions, even though the idolaters may object.'  \n  \nReverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: **عبد الله ووليه نزار الإمام العزيز بالله أمير المؤمنين.**  \n  \n'Abd Allah and his supporter the Imam Al-'Aziz Billah Commander of the Faithful.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **بسم الله ضرب هذا الدينار بالمهدية سنة ثمانون وثلثماية.**  \n  \n'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in the year 380.' (AD 990).","short_description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) from Ayla in Aqaba. On the reverse is the name of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), the place of minting, al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia, and the date 380 / 990. Ali is mentioned in addition to the Prophet Muhammad on the obverse. The legend is in *kufic* script.","type":"Coin, dinar, gold","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 380 / AD 990.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Diameter 18 mm, weight 4 g.","method_for_datation":"The coin is dated and the place of mint recorded: 'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in the year 380.' (AD 990).","method_for_provenance":"The place of mint is inscribed on the coin as al-Mahdiyya.","provenance":"Al-Mahdiyya, Tunisia.","obtention":"The coin was acquired by the Museum as a result of an archaeological excavation carried out at the site of historic Ayla (Aqaba) in 1993–4.","bibliography":"Unpublished, but for similar coins see:  \n  \nPool, R. S., The Coinage of Egypt: (AH 358–922) under the Fatimee Caliphs, the Ayyobees and the Mamlook Sultan, Classes XIV.XV.XVI, London, 1879, p.17 (year AH 384).  \n  \nالعجابي. حامد، \"جامع المسكوكات العربية بإفريقية\", تونس،1988، ص 228، قطعة رقم 296، اللوحه 28.  \n  \nداود. مايسه، \"المسكوكات الفاطمية بمجموعة متحف الفن الإسلامي بالقاهرة\"، دار الفكر العربي، القاهرة، ص 53-55.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TN_EN_001","materials":["Struck gold."],"keywords":["Coin; coinage; gold; kufic script; al-Mahdiyya; numismatics."],"author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"153c5ddb-dd1d-5e3c-9e80-de0b66684f95":{"name":"Parts of a *minbar*.","description":"These elements of the facing of the *minbar* are formed by two distinctive parts. The first one consists of two longitudinal panels from the upper parts of the lateral faces of the *minbar*. Their surfaces, divided into sections and surmounted by an arch, are decorated with stacks of pinecones and acanthus rosettes borrowed from Abbasid flora. The panels are framed by a band bearing an inscription in angular *kufic* script also in an Eastern style. The inscription in the right panel, whose spandrels are adorned with half-sprays of acanthus, includes the date the Fatimids founded the *minbar*. The one in the left panel shows Qur'anic texts from verse 36 of Sura 24, 'The light'.  \nThe second part includes the three elements from the back.  \nThe top, arched panel is topped by an inscription in *kufic* script, which indicates the name of the Umayyad patron and the date the *minbar* was repaired. Its surface, framed by a border of small floral medallions, is decorated in two styles: the upper section is occupied in the centre by a rectangular panel with a poly-lobed arch with floral medallions and on the sides by festoon acanthus rosettes. The lower section is adorned with an acanthus rosette flanked by poly-lobed medallions containing polygonal knotwork based on an eight-pointed star.  \nThe rectangular middle part, bordered with a votive inscription, is adorned with a central motif of tiered chevrons with palm foliage and serrated acanthus rosettes inscribed in squares.  \nThe lower part is decorated with half-balusters in turned and painted wood, glued on a slab.  \nThese facings, which illustrate a historic period of Morocco when two political and religious movements fought for the hegemony of the country, play an important role in the history of Moroccan art, which, from that time forward, would be influenced both from the East and from Andalusia.","short_description":"These *minbar* parts illustrate a historical episode and the beginnings of Islamic art in Morocco, when Fatimids and Córdoban Umayyads were fighting for control of the country. The Fatimids incorporated Eastern decoration when making the *minbar*, and the Umayyads added Western elements when converting it.","type":"Woodwork, minbar, wood","holder":"Batha Museum.","initial_owner":"*Habus (waqf)*.","dates":"Sides: Hegira 369 / AD 979; back: Hegira 375 / AD 985.","location":"Fez.","dimensions":"Back: height 146 cm, width 75 cm, depth 3–4.5 cm; panels: height 56 cm, width 20.6 cm, depth 2.5–4.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Two inscriptions mention the dates. The date of foundation is shown on the arcature in the right panel: 'This *minbar* was made in the month of Shawwal in the year 369 \\[April / May 979\\]' and the date it was repaired appears on the upper part of the back: '… this is what was commissioned by the mayor of the palace …, al-Mansur, sword of the empire of the *imam* and servant of God … Hisham … Abi Amir Muhammad … son of Abi Amir … in the month of Jumada II in the year 375 \\[October–November 985\\]'.","method_for_provenance":"These parts were removed from the *minbar*, which remained in use at the Andalusian Mosque from its creation in 369 / 979 until 1353 / 1934.","provenance":"Andalusian Mosque, Fez.","obtention":"*Habus*.","bibliography":"Cambazard-Amahan, C., *6000 ans d'art au Maroc*, catalogue, Paris, 1990.  \nLévy-Provençal, É., *Histoire de l'Espagne musulmane*, Vol. III, Paris, 1953.  \nTerrasse, H., *La Mosquée des Andalous à Fès*, Paris, 1934.","dynasty":"Sides: Tunisian Fatimid; back: Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba","linkcatalogs":"IAM_MA_EN_001","materials":["Carved, turned, painted cedarwood."],"keywords":["liturgical object; habous; vegetal decoration; floral decoration; geometric decoration; epigraphic decoration; mosque interior decoration"],"author":"Naima El Khatib-Boujibar","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"Albertina Torres, Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"15799f73-15e1-5251-abef-c106415b6f88":{"name":"Aqmar Mosque.","description":"Al-Aqmar Mosque is considered one of the most beautiful Fatimid mosques and the oldest of the remaining examples of small mosques in Egypt. Perhaps the most prominent of its distinctive features is its western façade, among the oldest stone facades, decorated in this rich varied style, in Islamic architecture in Egypt. Possibly the decorative elements on the façade of the projecting portal of al-Hakim Mosque in Cairo (built AH 403 / AD 1012) influenced the construction and decoration of the entrance to this building. Historical sources indicate that stone was used in Fatimid architecture alongside brick. The great traveller, Nasir Khasraw, who visited Egypt in AH 439 / AD 1048, describes the Fatimid palaces that he saw as having walls of stone that fitted into each other so smoothly that the viewer could imagine that it had been hewn out from one single block of rock.  \nOn the façade and on the entrance, the decoration has been carved out symmetrically and includes a number of components including shell forms, blind-arched niches borne on spiral columns, in addition to vases, rosettes and diamond shapes. The façade also consists of chamfered-edged niches (*muqarnas*); a new architectural element to be introduced into Egyptian Islamic architecture, and a device previously seen only on a gate, Bab al-Futuh in Cairo (built AH 480 / AD 1087). The façade is also embellished with inscription bands carved in the floriated *kufic* script. To the left of the entrance is a minaret that was constructed in AH 799 / AD 1396, built by order of Amir Yalbugha al-Salimi, who was in the service of Sultan al-Zahir Barquq who reigned twice (AH 784–91 / AD 1382– 9 and in AH 792–801 / AD 1390–9).  \nThe mosque's interior measures 28 m x 17.50 m. At the centre is an open square courtyard whose length at the side is 10 m, and which is surrounded by four roofed areas with rows of columns. The deepest of these is the *qibla* area*,* which consists of three colonnades, while there is only one colonnade in each of the other three areas. All the arches of the colonnades are made of brick. The colonnades of the mosque – with the exception of that, which precedes the *mihrab* – are covered with small shallow domes, built of brick. The transition zones of all the domes consist of spherical-triangular pendentives, a style previously applied in Bab al-Nasr and Bab al-Futuh in Cairo, and both built in the Fatimid period, in around AH 480 / AD 1087. The style was used subsequently in the Mamluk period for the construction of Khanqah Faraj ibn Barquq in Cairo (built AH 813 / AD 1410). The convention of spherical-triangular pendentives became widespread in Ottoman mosques where a number of small domes were used to cover the colonnades.  \nOne of the most distinguishing aspects of the floor plan of this mosque is its response to the street alignment, which deviates from the direction of the *qibla*, and where the western façade of the building and the entrance lies. There is, however, a respect for the direction of the *qibla*, brought about by means of a rectangular cross-section that forms a transition area, since on the outside it faces the street whereas the inside faces the direction of the *qibla*. This mosque is considered one of the earliest examples in the Islamic world of a building that used a triangular section to adapt to the residential fabric surrounding it.  \nThe mosque was exposed to encroachments in the AH 13th / AD 19th century, the most prominent of which led to the loss of the right-hand side of the western façade, which was replaced by a residential building. In the 20th century the building that had encroached on the mosque was pulled down. The façade of the mosque was then restored to its original form based on the features of the left-hand side of the façade, which was supposed to be identical to that on the right.","short_description":"One of the most beautiful Fatimid mosques and the oldest extant example of small mosques in Egypt. It is recognised for its rich and varied decorations especially in the façade. The arches inside are built with bricks while the arcades (except that of the *qibla*) are covered with small shallow domes which appear later in Ottoman mosques.","dates":"Hegira 519 / AD 1125.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"The dating of this building is based on two foundation epigraphs which were written in large *kufic* script, which include the name of the sponsor of the building, the supervisor and the date of construction. One of them is located on the western façade of the building and the other on the northern façade.","bibliography":"Abd al-Wahab, H., *Tarikh al-Masajid al-Athariya \\[History of Monumental Mosques\\],* Cairo, 1994.  \nBerchem, M., Van, *Une Mosquée du Temps des Fatimides au Caire,* Cairo, 1889.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Muslim Architecture of Egypt*, Vol. I,Oxford, 1960.  \nAl-Maqrizi, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthār \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the Recollection of Plans and Monuments\\],* 2 Vols, Cairo, Egypt, 1853.  \nWilliams, C., *Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide,* Cairo, 2002.","patrons":"Caliph al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (r. AH 495–525 / AD 1101–31).","architects":"Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad ibn Fatik supervised construction of the building and was vizier to Caliph al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah. His name was written along with that of Caliph al-Amir in the foundation text on the building’s façade.","dynasty":"Fatimid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Kufic script; epigraphic decoration; decoration carved in stone; vegetal decoration; religious architecture."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"16551d17-12a4-5f03-9ee7-aeb60bdf3479":{"name":"Brooch.","description":"A gold brooch that was designed to hang from the chest by means of a pin attached to the wearer's clothing. It takes the shape of an upside-down heart and was produced from a web of moulded gold. On its frame are tiny rings, from which hang chains that terminate in different forms: a ball, a bird, a crescent-moon and a knot, all fashioned from woven gold filaments.  \nThroughout the ages, the women of Syria held as important gold and silver jewellery for decoration and self-beautification, as well as a source for financial security. Finds from numerous archaeological sites have included bracelets, armlets, anklets, brooches, earrings, and rings.","short_description":"This heart-shaped pendant with dangling charms is an example of Fatimid jewellery and would have been attached to the clothing by a pin or possibly woven through by using the small loops along its edge.","type":"Jewellery, brooch, gold","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 5th–6th century / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 7 cm.","method_for_datation":"This style and quality of ornamentation is typical of the Fatimid period (358–567 / 969–1171) during which time the production of highly refined gold jewellery flourished in Egypt and Syria. Techniques included filigree, granulation, twisted ropes of gold, and occasionally inlay work with gems. Production included bracelets, armlets, earrings, pendants, rings, belts, brooches, and hair ornaments.","method_for_provenance":"During the Fatimid period, the gold-production centres of Syria and Egypt flourished, particularly in Aleppo and Cairo. It is not possible, therefore, to determine a definitive provenance for this object.","provenance":"Possibly Raqqa, Syria.","obtention":"Purchased in 1949 in Raqqa.","bibliography":"Atil, E. et al, *Islamic Metalwork in the Freer Gallery of Art*, Washington DC, 1985.  \nSeipel, W., *Schätze der Kalifen: Islamische Kunst zur Fatimidenzeit*, Wien, 1998, pp.119–20; fig. 78.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven gold."],"keywords":["Brooch; gold; woven; filigree; bird; crescent-moon; Aleppo; Cairo; Raqqa"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"1fb2f6df-1383-5523-b767-c9a42193803e":{"name":"Stucco-covered wooden side-rib.","description":"A wooden side-rib belonging to a collection of pieces comprising wood covered with carved, painted and gilded stucco. The carvings of vegetal and geometric motifs and pseudo calligraphic script are gilded and painted using a palette of blue, red, green and white against a background of various colours but predominantly black.  \nThe side-rib once formed part of the decoration of the interior dome of al-Aqsa Mosque, whose damaged parts were replaced in 1938 after gradual deterioration caused by moisture and water infiltration. The importance of this piece lies in its being practically the sole witness to the Fatimid restoration of the dome of al-Aqsa Mosque during the period of the Fatimid caliph al-Zahir bi- Amrillah (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36). It is worth mentioning that other similar parts were lost as a result of a fire which broke out in the mosque in 1969; this led to the destruction of most of the parts of the wooden dome in addition to other sections of al-Aqsa Mosque.  \nThe domes were typically composed, of an inner and outer shell. The inner shell consisted of a wooden skeleton, plated on the inside with circular wooden panels. Palm fibres were affixed to the wooden panels by means of wooden nails. The fibres were then covered with a layer of plaster (stucco) several centimetres thick. After that, the stucco was carved to form the requisite decorations which were painted with different colours and gilded. The outer shell consists of a wooden skeleton which is covered on the outside with metal plates. Lead is normally used, as noted in the dome of al-Aqsa Mosque today, but copper is sometimes employed as can be seen to this day in the Dome of the Rock. The dome of the Dome of the Rock is, however, no different from the dome of al-Aqsa Mosque in terms of its construction.","short_description":"This rib from the interior dome of al-Aqsa Mosque features vegetal and geometric decoration and a gilded inscription against a coloured background.  It is almost the sole witness to the restoration of the dome in the Fatimid period during the reign of Caliph al-Zahir. Other pieces of evidence were lost in the arson attack on the mosque in 1969.","type":"Woodwork, rib, woodm stucco","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem.","dates":"Probably about hegira 424 / AD 1033.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 152 cm, width 140 cm, depth 4 cm.","method_for_datation":"The piece was dated by comparison with the remaining parts from the same period still on site.","method_for_provenance":"Jerusalem was narrowed down as the place of production because typically architectural pieces were made and decorated *in situ*.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from al-Aqsa Mosque to the Museum during the restoration work carried out in 1938.","bibliography":"Hamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of al-Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Cleaning from the Repairs of 1938–42,* London, 1949.","dynasty":"Probably Fatimid","materials":["Wood covered with carved, painted and gilded stucco."],"keywords":["Carved stucco; Fatimid woodwork; plasterwork; gilded wood; woodwork; pseudo-inscription"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"20a5b8ea-ca93-57ec-988d-ddcba1b332c4":{"name":"Oliphant.","description":"With regard to its decoration, this completely carved ivory horn belongs to the largest group of Islamic ivory horns. The even, deeply carved decoration consists of three sections. A row of medallions runs along each of the two openings of the horn. In the middle section, five rows of medallions are arranged alternating and interconnected with circles and rhombs. The medallions show repeated hares, lions, other quadrupeds and birds, except the peacock occurs only once. All animals are shown running to the right. The right hind legs of the quadrupeds and the tails of the birds protrude outside the medallion frame in which they are placed. Two plain bands flanked by arabesque tendrils mark the places where the shoulder straps used for carrying the horn were attached.  \nAbout 30 specimens of these carved ivory horns have survived, though exclusively in collections located outside the Islamic world. The horns are believed to have been made for European patrons, but are attributed to Fatimid craftsmen working in the artistic centres of the Norman kingdom of southern Italy and Sicily. The horns also show close parallels in style and iconography to the ivory caskets made in Sicily and southern Italy during the same period. The ivory used for these objects was most probably imported from North Africa.  \nThe term oliphant occurs for the first time in the French poem of 'Chanson de Roland' (probably written 1075–1100). The poem describes the horn that Roland, commander of the Frankish king, used when he called Charlemagne (747–814) to come to Roncesvalles to help him against the advancing Muslims. Above all, ivory horns were symbols of honour and were used by dignitaries as signal horns. Ivory horns decorated with representations of animals were possibly used for hunting, though it is not known in what way.","short_description":"Carved ivory horn called an oliphant. In three sections vine scrolls and rows of medallions cover the whole surface. The medallions show animals: hares, lions, quadrupeds, birds and a peacock. Horns such as this were symbols of honour and used as signal horns.","type":"Islamic horn","holder":"Museum of National Antiquities (Historika Museet).","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th centuries /AD 11th–12th centuries.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Length 52.5 cm, diameter 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"A carved horn showing close parallels to this horn, sold by Bukowski's in Stockholm in 1999 and now in the National Museum in Qatar, was dated by radiocarbon to within 45 years either side of 452 / 1060.","method_for_provenance":"After Kühnel 1971, cat. no. 70 (see Bibliography), who attributed this horn to the 'Saracen group' on the basis of the medallion decor. For this group he assumed southern Italy to be the place of manufacture.","provenance":"Southern Italy or Sicily.","obtention":"Most likely brought to Sweden in 1632 as part of the booty of the Thirty Years War (1618–48).","bibliography":"Kühnel, E., *Die Islamischen Elfenbeinskulpturen, VIII–XIII. Jahrhundert*, Berlin, 1971.  \nSievernich, S. and H. Budde, H. (eds.), *Europa und der Orient: 800–1900*, Exhibition catalogue, Gütersloh, 1989, pp.537–42.  \nShalem, A., *The Oliphant: Islamic Objects in Historical Context*, Leiden, 2004.  \nTegnér, G., “Den GÅtfulla Olifanten”, in *Sverige och den Islamiska Världen: Ett Svenskt Kulturarv*, (ed. K. Ådahl), Värnamo, 2002, pp.186–9.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Ivory; carved."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; floral decoration; ivory; hunting; animal decoration; zoomorphic imagery; bird; court life; patronage; Siculo-Norman; southern Italy"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"24c4d60c-f039-586c-b878-b41f99dc6b12":{"name":"Panel.","description":"The rectangular panel consists of an arch with small plain sections on each side. Its carved decoration shows a symmetrical floral composition. The centre forms a vase-like motif with a flower. Leaves of different sizes and shapes fill the space inside and outside the arch. The decoration consists of a variety of small elements, but the overall composition appears integrated since the curves form a relationship through all parts. The deep carved patterns are of charming clarity and possess sculptural depth.  \nThis type of decoration goes back to the stuccoes and wood carvings at Samarra. Samarra, situated some 60 miles up the Tigris from Baghdad, was the capital of the Abbasid caliphs from AH 224 / AD 838until AH 270 / AD 883. Ahmad ibn Tulun, the founder of the Tulunid dynasty in Egypt (AH 254–94 / AD 868–906) spent many years in Samarra and brought the Abbasid style of decoration and Abbasid craftsmen to his own capital, al-Qata'i. The so-called style C of the Samarra stuccoes is characterised by bevelling carved, symmetrical abstract patterns of leaf and vase motifs which match the shapes within the arch of the wooden panel. The wood carvings made in Tulunid Egypt at the end of the AH 3rd / AD 9th century represent the culmination of this style, although they have a tendency to break up the originally broad sculptured surface into smaller elements as in the case of this panel. The specific function of the panel is not known; it was possibly part of the architectural decoration.","short_description":"The carved decoration on this rectangular wooden panel shows a vase-like motif, with a flower in the centre and leaves inside and outside the arch. This decorative style goes back to Abbasid stuccoes and wood carvings in Iraq. The panel was possibly part of Tulunid architectural decoration.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet).","owner":"National Museum of Fine Arts, Stockholm. In order to reorganise the expanding collections, the main part of the Islamic collection has been on permanent loan to the Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities since 1982.","dates":"Hegira late 3rd century / AD late 9th century.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Height 29 cm, width 68 cm.","method_for_datation":"The architectural decoration of the mosque of Ahmad ibn Tulun in al-Qata'i, completed in 266 / 879, is close to the style of this panel.","method_for_provenance":"The object was found during excavations in Egypt.","provenance":"Probably al-Qata’i, Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the Crown Prince of Sweden in December 1934 in Cairo.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., “Early Islamic Woodwork in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent”, Ph.D. dissertion, University of Oxford, 1985.  \nAnglade, E., *Catalogue des Boiseries de la Section Islamique,* Paris, 1988.  \nPauty, M. E., *Catalogue Général du Musée Arabe du Caire: Les Bois Sculptés*, Cairo, 1931.","dynasty":"Tulunid","materials":["Wood, carved."],"keywords":["Woodwork; floral decoration"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"2686bfec-8eb0-5ef5-b318-9e3c7c3c966a":{"name":"Fragment of a glass vessel.","description":"Half a glass vessel with a brim that slightly widens outwards. It is decorated on the outside by a layer of blue glass mounted onto a base layer of uncoloured glass. Decorations are cut into the upper layer of glass creating in high-relief the outlines of two confronting animals. Above them is a band of epigraphic decoration in *kufic* script, which reads: 'delight to its owner'.The bodies of the animals are ornamented with tiny circles cut into the uncoloured lower layer of the vessel itself. This method of production and decoration on a vessel with two layers of glass is considered to have a special value, for it is an extremely rare example of a style that was not prolific either in the arts of the Middle East or during the Middle Ages.","short_description":"This is one half of a vessel formed of two layers of glass, an extremely rare example of a style of glass decoration little known in the Orient.","type":"Vessel, glass","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 4th century / AD 10th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 8 cm, diameter: 12 cm.","method_for_datation":"The fragment is dated based on its decorative style, known to be prevalent during this period, and also by comparison with other contemporary pieces of carved rock-crystal. Furthermore Egypt acquired considerable fame for the production of this type of glass during the Fatimid period. There are also pieces extant that closely resemble this piece, some of which are still preserved in the Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo (registered nos. 3885 and 5/7023).","method_for_provenance":"This style of cut high-relief decoration reached the height of its development in Egypt during the Fatimid period when glassmakers resorted to producing decorative thick-glass vessels in an attempt to imitate contemporary rock-crystal pieces, which were extremely costly.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This glass fragment was bought in 1955 from a dealer of antiquities, Bentazi.","bibliography":"Al-Pasha, H., et al, *Al-Qāhira, tārikhuha, fūnunuha, Āthāruha \\[Cairo, Its History, Arts and Monuments\\],* Cairo, 1970.  \nCarboni, S., *Glass from Islamic Lands,* New York, 2000.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Funun al-Islamiya \\[Islamic Arts\\],* Cairo, 1948.  \nMarzuq, Muhammad Abd al-Aziz, *Al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya al-Islamiya fi Masr qabl 'Asr al-Fatimiyyin \\[Islamic Decorative Arts Before the Fatimid Period\\],* Cairo, 1974.  \nWiet, G., *Catalogue général du Musée arabe du Caire,* Cairo, 1929.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glass with cut high-relief decoration."],"keywords":["Vessel; glass; relief decoration; glass; cut; figurative decoration; figurative representation; animal decoration; inscription band; sumptuary art; rock-crystal"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"2761dfdd-179f-5f5e-bc92-ae41bdd8bcc2":{"name":"Door of the ante-chamber of the *maqsura*.","description":"This huge rectangular door is made up of a main-door framework containing two pass-doors. The door is divided into panels separated by uprights and cross-pieces which stand out in relief, carved with rich floral decoration. This decoration also covers the main surrounding framework, on which alternating relief panels (long hexagons and diamond shapes) make a base for even more striking carving. These panels are filled with furled tri-lobed fleurons all connected to a curving stem, which, according to some mysterious symmetry, seems to weave in and out in ever more fantastical convolutions. The top centre panel of the frame is a 16-sided star polygon, even more boldly and exuberantly decorated with pine cones and chalices, palm leaves and stalks, some carved with certain symmetry. One feels that this is the beginning of a break-away from the decorative repertoire of the *minbar* of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (built AH 248 / AD 866) towards the Fatimid art of Egypt, which itself had absorbed some Abbasid themes.  \nThe simpler decoration of the internal panels of the door and of the pass-doors is confined to a few geometric motifs. Some of these panels seem to have been restored during the Hafsid period.","short_description":"The decoration and manufacturing technique of this door are identical to those used for the *maqsura* (recess) at the Great Mosque of Kairouan. The framing and decoration of the panels that make up the two halves are simple and limited to geometric motifs, presenting similarities with Egyptian Fatimid art.","type":"Woodwork, door, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"The Zirid prince, al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis.","dates":"Hegira, second quarter of the 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 284 cm, width 221 cm.","method_for_datation":"The decoration and structure of this door are absolutely identical to those of the *maqsura* built by the Zirid prince, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis. In fact, some believe it to be the door of the *maqsura* itself. But taking into consideration the differing dimensions of the two objects in question, especially the height, and the absence of any calligraphic inscription, some studies have concluded that this door was the entrance to a room adjacent to the *maqsura* and which is now the imam's audience-chamber. It is likely to have been the room from which the prince and his attendants entered the *maqsura* to join in prayers. This would date the door from the same period as the *maqsura* of al-Mu'izz (second quarter of the 5th / 11th century).","method_for_provenance":"The decoration leaves no doubt that the door is Kairouanese. The cedarwood used in its construction probably came from the forests of northwest Tunisia or from Sicily.","provenance":"Kairouan.","obtention":"Until the mid-1960s, this door was part of the relics of the Great Mosque of Kairouan and was kept in one of its storage rooms. As from 1978, it was displayed in the museum of the Great Mosque and then, in 1992, transferred to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada. It will be on display in the second section, which is now undergoing refurbishment (2005).","bibliography":"*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.159–62.","dynasty":"Zirid","materials":["Carved cedarwood."],"keywords":["Carving; floral decoration"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"27fd657d-1477-5d30-8c73-b434cb8975b0":{"name":"Ivory casket.","description":"A rectangular casket, with a desk-like lid, made of individual pieces of ivory that have been joined together. The lid is attached by two silver clasps/hinges, which were made at a later date, and the padlock has been lost. Various holes that have been bored through the casket demonstrate its chequered history and the possibility that it had an indefinite number of iron fittings. The bottom excepted, the entire box is covered in decorative animal-motif friezes, which are framed by narrow bands of tendrils of half-palmettes. Animals and animal fights, composed in both a stylised and a freehand form, are found on the panels. Circular tendrils overlap the animals. A great variety of animals are represented: lions, hares, ibex, stags, camels, giraffes and birds. Mythological creatures such as griffins are also included. The animals are portrayed as fighting one another or as being pursued by hunters. The human figures appear as hunters or camel leaders. One of the caskets from the Egyptian group, of which this one is part, states in Latin script the name of one of its patrons, which leads to the assumption that these caskets could have been made by Arab craftsmen, working in the Fatimid tradition in southern Italy, on the commission of wealthy patrons. The animals belonging to this group bear such a close resemblance to those on a group of oliphants that it is possible that the workshops produced both caskets and oliphants.  \nA similar stylistic depiction of animals can also be seen on 11th–12th century buildings in southern Italy, so it can therefore be assumed that the animal motifs held a particular fascination in Europe as well.","short_description":"Caskets with carved decoration from southern Italy had a widespread use at court or in noble families. The scenes that cover this casket show birds and animals (rabbits, stags, lions and a giraffe) and mythological creatures attacking each other or being hunted and two warriors with shields","type":"Casket, ivory","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","owner":"Museum of Arts and Crafts, Berlin, Germany.","initial_owner":"Probably part of the treasure held by the Cathedral of Speyer; in the 19th century became part of Prussia’s art collection.","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th centuries / AD 11th–12th centuries.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 17 cm, length 39.5 cm, width 23 cm.","method_for_datation":"Because of close stylistic similarities in its manufacture, this ivory casket has been included in a group made either in southern Italy or Sicily and dated to the 11th–12th century.","method_for_provenance":"This ivory casket has been included in the same group as ones made in southern Italy or Sicily because of its close stylistic similarities. It is thought that it was made in a workshop in this area, although provenance will only be more accurately established in the event of future findings.","provenance":"Sicily or southern Italy.","obtention":"Transferred from the Arts and Crafts Museum in Berlin in 1906.","bibliography":"Budde, H. and Sievernich, G. (eds.), *Europa und der Orient*, Catalogue, Gütersloh-Munich, 1989, no. 4/20, fig. 646.  \nKühnel, E., *Die Islamische Elfenbeinskulpturen VIII–XIII Jh.*, Berlin, 1971, no. 82, pl. 82–4.  \nShalem, A., *The Oliphant: Islamic Objects in Historical Content*, Leiden, 2004, 63–5, fig. 33, 58–61.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":["Ivory, carved."],"keywords":["Ivory; Sicily, southern Italy; Fatimid; vegetal decoration; animal decoration; imaginary animal; zoomorphic imagery; inscription; hunting; patronage"],"author":"Jens Kröger","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"2a768548-ee78-5645-b436-21f2d9bcf5cd":{"name":"Fragment of woven linen.","description":"A linen textile fragment comprising a horizontal panel of embroidered decoration with a repeat composition of two wider sections that alternate twice with two narrow sections. These are separated from each other by double borders in black wove. The wider panels have alternating blue and purple cursive inscriptions bordered by scrolling bands above and below. The narrow sections contain S-scrolls arranged vertically, beneath which is a continuous border of alternating inverted crescents and circles.","short_description":"Many Fatimid and Mamluk textiles have been found in burials in Upper Egypt, an area famous for its linen-weaving industry manned by Coptic Christian as well as Muslim textile workers. This textile was collected by Henry Wallis (1830–1916), a famous painter and expert on Middle Eastern ceramics.","type":"Fatimid textile, woven linen","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira late 5th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height 38.10 cm, width 10.16 cm.","method_for_datation":"This textile has been tentatively dated to the late 5th–7th / 12th–13th centuries on the basis of general similarities with other textiles of the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"This textile comes from a tomb in al-Drounka, Egypt.","provenance":"From a tomb at al-Drounka, Egypt.","obtention":"This textile together with several other Fatimid textile fragments were acquired by NMS in 1898 from Henry Wallis, a famous Pre-Raphaelite painter, who travelled and painted extensively in Egypt and elsewhere. Subsequently he became a highly respected expert on Egyptian and Persian ceramics.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven and embroidered linen."],"keywords":["Al-Drounka; Fatimid textiles; textile"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"2ce846c0-44cf-593b-a417-5ec441dd4212":{"name":"Bas-relief in carved marble.","description":"In the right-hand section of the bas-relief is a seated figure wearing a richly embroidered tunic. The heavy crown on his head defines him as a sovereign or military leader. With his right hand he lifts a cup to his lips. To his right a musician plays the flute. The man's head is covered with a veil and the sleeves of his tunic are decorated with bands containing geometric motifs. His eyes are almond-shaped and very prominent.  \nThis bas-relief is one of those rare gems of Ifriqiyan art representing people and their daily life. The artist is totally unconcerned with anatomical detail. The musician's face does not betray age, type or expression. This work probably has its roots in a very ancient North African tradition. Some art historians hold that the style recalls various funeral stelae which the Romano-Africans dedicated particularly to Saturn and to Caelestis. Common features are the frontal poses, their rigidity, the indifference to spatial considerations and the prominence of the eyes. The similarities of this piece to several carvings in wood and ivory from the Spanish Umayyad, the Egyptian Fatimid and the Eastern Abbasid eras are astonishing, especially the face of the flute player, the costumes and the veils. The crown has been described as Norman by some experts. Similar crowns have been found on ivory panels from Fatimid Egypt and also on Mesopotamian pottery from the same era.","short_description":"This bas-relief is one of the few Ifriqiyan pieces depicting an animal scene. A person dressed in a rich, embroidered tunic is sat on the right side of the bas-relief. He is wearing a crown on his head, suggesting that he is a king or military leader. To his right, a musician is playing the flute.","type":"Bas-relief, marble","holder":"Bardo Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Tunis.","dimensions":"Length 53 cm, width 35 cm.","method_for_datation":"The bas-relief was discovered at Mahdiyya, capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids during the 4th–5th / 10th–11th centuries, which tends to establish its dating in that era. This is corroborated by the large number of human figures and scenes from daily life produced in Ifriqiya at the same time.","method_for_provenance":"The Ifriqiyan origin of the decoration suggests the object was carved *in situ* re-using an old piece of Italian marble.","provenance":"Mahdiyya.","obtention":"Following its chance discovery at Mahdiyya, the piece was acquired and shown at the Bardo Museum.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (catalogue de l'exposition de Séville)*,* Tunis*,* 1992, p.265.  \nMahfoudh F., “Entre Mahdiyya et la Sicile: Analyse d'un bas-relief sculpté”, *Africa*, 20, 2004, pp.5–33.  \nMarçais, G., “L'art musulman du XIe siècle en Tunisie d'après quelques trouvailles récentes”, *Revue de l'art ancien et moderne*, XLIV, 1923, pp.161–73.  \nMarçais, G., *L'architecture musulmane d'Occident*, Paris, 1954, p.197.  \nYacoub, M., *Chefs-d'œuvre du musée du Bardo, Tunis, 1978, pp.230–2.*","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Carved marble."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; carving; marble; Zirid; relief"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"33a6c84f-b10f-5856-b654-7f8c5f9a715b":{"name":"Rectangular piece of wood.","description":"A rectangular piece of wood decorated with low-relief carvings, which was probably once part of a high frieze. The decorations are arranged along two narrow bands, which hem-in a wider band lying in between them. Both of the narrow bands are embellished with vegetal decorative motifs, such as branches, surrounded by tri-lobed rosettes and fan-leaf palmettes. The central band is embellished with scenes of naturalistic human and animal activity, such as a hunting scene; a bird with a human face is also present. The scene is played out against a background of vegetal decoration, and surrounded by geometric compositions. The decorative components were originally painted which would have highlighted the detail. Symmetry and alternation were the twin dynamics that helped harmonise and defuse the decorative components.  \nThis panel was unearthed together with some other rectangular wooden pieces in the tomb of the Mamluk Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun, and in the Bimaristan (hospital) Qalawun where they were used to cover the upper frieze. The decorative mode of this panel bears no relationship to the Mamluk period, but is exclusively in the Fatimid style. It is likely, therefore, that this wooden panel once graced a Fatimid palace, specifically the Fatimid Western Palace, which was built by Caliph al-Aziz bi-Allah and completed by al-Mustansir bi-Allah. However, it was on the ruins of the Fatimid Western Palace that the Bimaristan Qalawun was later built and it is, therefore, likely that these wooden frieze components were later re-used to embellish the hospital walls.  \nThese decorative panels are considered an important source for the study of Fatimid painting for they include scenes of hunting, music, entertainment, battle and excursions, as well as depictions of birds and other animals and reveal the life of opulence led by the Fatimid elite.","short_description":"This item is an example of carving on wood from the Fatimid period, influenced by Abbasid styles from Samarra that spread all over the Islamic world. Decoration is based on hunting scenes and animal shapes on a background of vegetation.","type":"Woodwork, low-relief carving, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 370 cm, width 30 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated through study of the decorative components that appear on it, the style of representation, and by comparison with other analogous decorative pieces.","method_for_provenance":"In view of the fact that the panel was almost certainly made for the Fatimid Western Palace, it is likely that it was made by craftsmen employed in the atelier of Caliph al-Aziz bi-Allah and produced especially to furnish the palace.","provenance":"Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"The object was transferred from the Mausoleum of Qalawun in the *Nahassien* (coppersmith's) district, and received by the Museum in 1909.","bibliography":"Abu Sadira, al-Said T., *Al-Hiraf wa al-Sana'at fi Masr al-Islamiyya \\[Handicrafts and Manufacture in Islamic Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991.  \nAl-Pasha, H., et al, *Al-Qāhira, tārikhuha, fūnunuha, Āthāruha \\[Cairo, Its History, Arts and Monuments\\],* Cairo, 1970.  \nAl-Maqrizi, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthār \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the Recollection of Plans and Monuments\\],* 2 Vols, Cairo, 1853.  \n  \nHassan, M. Z., *Kunuz al-Fatimiyyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids\\],* Cairo, 1938.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Wood; decorated with low-relief carving."],"keywords":["Low-relief; wood; figurative decoration; vegetal decoration; geometric decoration."],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"37690bf6-e1be-58cb-a87c-157e41138520":{"name":"Uscibene","description":"The palace, now in a state of ruin, probably once consisted of more storeys, and the remains are clearly the ground floor rooms of the body of the main building. This was made up of an *iwan* linked on one side to two large, adjacent rooms (of which only the outer walls remain) and on the other to a vaulted rectangular room – possibly a sirocco room (subterranean cool chamber) – leading to an old natural cave. The *iwan*, still distinguishable, is a cross-vaulted rectangular room with three rectangular niches. The vault of the niche opposite the entrance was decorated with stone and plaster *muqarnas*, of which only traces of the lower part remain. The side niches have umbrella vaults and are still in part recognisable. A stream of water rose from the *muqarnas* niche on the back wall (strategically set against the rocks from which the water rose naturally) and ran through the room and the entrance to the fishpond, in the manner of the pool at Zisa.  \nThe palace was set in a large garden, now vanished, that was probably a pleasure garden similar to those surrounding the Cuba and Zisa palaces and the Castello della Favara di Maredolce.","short_description":"This complex, built in Norman times, is similar to the type of pleasure garden found at the Cuba and Zisa palaces and Castle of the Favara at Maredolce. A stream of water rose from the *muqarnas* niche in the main room (which opened onto the garden), ran through the main entrance and fed the fishpond, a system borrowed from the Zisa palace.","dates":"Second half of the 12th century.","location":"Palermo","method_for_datation":"It is assumed to be from the 12th century on the basis of type and style. There is no documentary evidence that the palace existed in the preceding Islamic period.","bibliography":"Anastasi, L., *L’Arte nel Parco Reale Normanno di Palermo*, Palermo, 1935.  \nBellafiore, G., *Giardini e Parchi nella Palermo Normanna*, Palermo, 1996.  \n*Siculo-Norman Art: Islamic Culture in Medieval Sicily*, pp.83–4.","dynasty":"Norman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["residential architecture"],"author":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"3c0a8afd-9a9e-52f1-a2f3-a48c17f4d63f":{"name":"Great Mosque of Mahdiyya.","description":"This mosque was built on a rectangular plan measuring 75 m x 55 m. It is flanked by two round towers which served to catch the water running from the terraces. It seems the mosque did not have a minaret. The call to prayer was probably proclaimed from one of the towers. In front of the main entrance stands a porch claimed to be the first to figure in Maghrebin architecture. Harmoniously proportioned, this porch is roofed with a round horseshoe arch with *mihrab*\\-shaped niches placed high up on either side. Lower down, the different faces of the porch are ornamented with flat-backed niches. This decoration, a main feature of Fatimid monuments (best exemplified by the lateral façade of the Great mosque at Sfax) was carried over into the early Zirid period. This porch is reminiscent of the triumphal arches built by the Romans.  \nThis entrance porch leads into a courtyard surrounded by four galleries with a room at each corner. These are supported by arches and pillars rising from the courtyard on each side. Pointed arches for the north gallery simply rest on pillars whilst the three other galleries have round horseshoe arches and columns with capitals. From the southeast gallery one comes into the prayer-hall which has nine naves and three bays. The central nave and the transept form a T-shape. At their intersection is a dome supported on multifoil columns, under which a reproduction of the AH 5th-/ AD 11th-century *mihrab* has been built. This comprises a niche with fluted walls, each flute terminating in a shell motif. A *cul-de-four* on top of the niche is bordered by a horseshoe arch positioned on small corner columns incorporating Zirid capitals. The Great Mosque at Mahdiyya was the inspiration for several Egyptian mosques, notably al-Hakim and al-Aqmar mosques in Cairo.","short_description":"The Great Mosque of Mahdiyya was built by the caliph al-Mahdi. It was modified on several occasions before being rebuilt by the French architect A. Lézine between 1961 and 1965. The mosque does not appear to have had a minaret, with the call to prayer being made from the top of one of its towers. The Great Mosque of Mahdiyya inspired a number of mosques in Fatimid Egypt, such as al-Hakim Mosque and al-Aqmar Mosque in Cairo. This monument owes its beauty to the simplicity of its forms and materials, as the absence of any superfluous decoration.","dates":"Hegira 297 / AD 910.","location":"Mahdiyya","method_for_datation":"Historical sources, for example Ibn Idhari (7th / 13th century), as well as geographical authorities such as al-Bakri (5th / 11th century), attribute the Mahdiyya mosque to the Fatimid caliph al-Mahdi. However, the north gallery and the old *mihrab* can be dated from the Zirid era through comparisons with contemporary monuments such as the Great Mosque at Sfax and the *mihrab* of the Great Mosque at Monastir.","bibliography":"Lezine, A., *Mahdia,* *Recherches d'archeologie islamique*, Paris, 1965.  \nLezine, A., *Mahdia*, Tunis, 1968.  \nMarçais, G., *L'architecture musulmane d'Occident*, Paris, 1954.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia, pp.178–80.*","history":"The mosque was built on a fairly tangential piece of land which was in-filled and reclaimed from the sea. Several re-workings of the original building have taken place, mainly during the Zirid period after the collapse of the *qibla* wall. Other works were carried out during the Ottoman era in the 11th / 17th century. The mosque was rebuilt between 1961 and 1968. Only the porch and the north gallery are authentic.","patrons":"The Fatimid caliph al-Mahdi.","dynasty":"Fatimo-Zirid (Beginning of the dynasty).","materials":[],"keywords":["Mosque; architecture; porches"],"author":"Saloua Zangar"},"3c8378b6-b15a-5c21-874e-d7a334e3dab5":{"name":"Frescoed architectural fragment from a bathhouse.","description":"A frescoed architectural fragment that once formed part of a bathhouse, consisting of a niche with a pointed arch. The imagery within the niche portrays a figure, executed in black and red watercolours against a white background, executed in the fresco technique. The subject is a seated youth – who might have been a prince – and who holds a cup in his hand. He is wearing a loose robe-like garment, which is decorated with red vegetal motifs. His upper arms are encircled by two bands, and his head is covered by a pleated turban. A complete circular halo appears around the youth's head, perhaps to emphasise his status. He wears a scarf placed around his back, the two ends emerging from under his armpits and then left hanging down, suspended in mid-air. Two parts of the youth's hair can be seen beneath the turban, one in the front and the other at the back.  \nThe niche is framed by an arch composed of bead-like roundels. The fresco itself resembles paintings found in Samarra, Iraq in terms of both the figures; the shape of the heads and the circular halo, for instance, as well as in the repetitive decorative motifs; the frame in the form of an arch, for example. In addition the implementation of style is far from realistic, and leans more towards the decorative, with clear Persian influences. The Fatimid frescoes are not too different in form, style, or thematic content from depictions executed on metallic lustre ceramics, which were being produced in Egypt during this period. It is possible to study the pictorial representation on this architectural fragment by comparing it to similar Fatimid-period examples executed on various media: ceramics, some wooden pieces and on many textiles. Furthermore it is interesting to consider the role of painting itself as a distinctive decorative component of the applied arts during the Fatimid period.","short_description":"Baths were buildings of importance in the Islamic world due to their role in purification and hygiene. The walls of bathhouses were commonly decorated with frescoes, like the example we see here.","type":"Fresco, bathhouse","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 24.5 cm, width 60 cm.","method_for_datation":"Painting on all the applied arts is a distinctive feature of the Fatimid period, it also makes comparison with other paintings of the period a useful means of dating an object.","method_for_provenance":"Fustat was narrowed-down as the place of production for this architectural fragment as the piece was discovered *in situ* in a Fatimid bathhouse.","provenance":"Fustat, Egypt.","obtention":"Archaeological excavations undertaken by the Centre of Arab Antiquities in 1932 revealed the presence of a Fatimid bathhouse in the region of Fustat. Some of its constituent parts, including this architectural fragment, were transferred and registered as acquisitions of the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo in 1934.","bibliography":"Al-Pasha, H., *Al-Taswir al-Islami fi al-Usur al-Wusta \\[Islamic Painting During the Middle Ages\\]*, Cairo, 1959.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Trésors fatimides du Caire*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1998.  \nGrübe, E., *Cobalt and Lustre: The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery,* London, 1994.  \nHassan, Z. M.,“Tuhaf Jadida min al-Khazaf al-Fatimi dhi al-Bareeq al-Ma'dani \\[New Pieces from Fatimid Metallic Lustre Ceramics\\]”, *Majalat Kuliyat al-Adab \\[of the Faculty of Arts\\],* December, 1951.  \nHassan, Zaki M., *Kunuz al-Fatimiyyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids\\],* Beirut, 1981.  \nPhilon, H., *Early Islamic Ceramics: Ninth to Twelfth Centuries,* Athens, Vol. 1, London, 1980.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Fresco: stucco-painted with watercolour in red and black."],"keywords":["Stucco; bathhouse; figurative representation; fresco"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"4df720fc-29e6-59ab-9430-1945b274992e":{"name":"Pair of earrings.","description":"The Fatimid period is distinguished by the development of precisely executed objects with high levels of decorative concentration. This is evident in wood, metal, and gold objects from the period.  \nThis pair of earrings is made from a gold web that is hollow from the inside. Each individual earring is in the form of a bird carrying in its beak a small gold ball. The loop provided for hanging the earring from the ear of the wearer connects the head of the bird with the rear of its body, making the arch of the bird's back straddle the earlobe.  \nThe earrings were made from gold wire carefully soldered together and accentuated with a few gold granules. The granule technique creates a light and hollow whole that is both aesthetically and practically pleasing. This technique was also used to create spherical or bi-conical beads that were then strung together into necklaces and other kinds of jewellery.","short_description":"This small but meticulously executed pair of gold earrings is a prime example of dexterity in the technique of filigree. Birds were a favoured ornamental motif and the filigree technique maintained the lightness of the subject without compromising their opulence.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 5th–6th century / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length (at longest point) 3.5 cm, depth (at deepest point) 1.21 cm.","method_for_datation":"The production of this type of hollow, woven gold object was well known in the Fatimid period, specifically in the first half of the 5th / 11th century.","method_for_provenance":"Although purchased in Raqqa, the method of production described above was associated with multiple sites in Egypt and Syria, such as Cairo and Aleppo. It is difficult to determine, therefore, a definitive provenance.","provenance":"Possibly Raqqa.","obtention":"Purchased in 1940.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R., Grabar, O., and Jenkins-Madina, M., *Islamic Art and Architecture 650–1250*, New Haven, 2001, fig. 340.  \nSeipel, W., *Schätze der Kalifen: Islamische Kunst zur Fatimidenzeit*, Wien, 1998, pp.119–20; fig. 76.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven gold."],"keywords":["Earring; gold, woven; Aleppo; Cairo; Raqqa; bird"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"539cc0cc-894e-5945-b4c9-b62fae0a412d":{"name":"Bottle.","description":"A small cylindrical rock-crystal bottle, narrowing at the foot, with a silver mount. Carved with angular bevelled incisions on the sides is an abstract design, resembling a stylised leaf form. Rock-crystal is the purest kind of quartz and was particularly popular during the Fatimid period. The historian al-Maqrizi (AH 766–845 / AD 1364-1442) recounts that amongst the treasures of the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt were: '17,000 boxes, each one containing rock-crystal either decorated in relief, or plain'. It was also highly prized in Europe. Many of the surviving pieces of Islamic rock-crystal can be found in church treasuries in Europe where they were adapted for liturgical purposes, such as reliquaries. The silver mount on this object would have been added when the object reached Europe.","short_description":"Rock-crystal was highly valued during the Fatimid period but also sought after in Europe. Many rock-crystal objects made during the Fatimid period were later acquired by church treasuries, and often adapted for reliquaries.","type":"Glasswork, carved rock-crystal","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th century / AD 10th–11th century","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 14.98 cm.","method_for_datation":"Church inventories record pieces of rock-crystal arriving in Europe from Islamic countries by the second half of the 4th / 10th century. Although not identical in style, this bottle can be associated with a carved rock-crystal ewer in the treasury of San Marco, Venice, which bears the name of the Fatimid Caliph al-'Aziz (r. 365–86 / 975–86).","method_for_provenance":"That carved rock-crystal was fostered by Fatimid patrons in Egypt, probably in the capital Cairo, is proven by the existence of a few dated objects together with descriptions of the court treasuries.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Acquired by the British Museum in 1894.","bibliography":"Contadini, A. *Fatimid Art at the Victoria and Albert Museum*, London, 1998, pp.26–36.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Carved rock-crystal with silver mount."],"keywords":["Incision; carving; rock-crystal; reliquary; religious object; sumptuary art"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5443b49b-dc27-5556-9034-4775ba220542":{"name":"The ‘Lady of Sabra’ plate.","description":"Round-based plate. It has a low, upstanding rim, slightly curved and sloping outwards. On the plate is drawn a female figure in profile with a large almond-shaped eye. The full mouth and the delicate nose are very finely drawn.  \nThe long hair starts in a pony-tail and ends in plaits hanging down to the knees. The figure is standing, wearing a brown-striped dress covered in fringes. She holds a glass in one hand and in the other a flower drawn in a naturalistic manner. The figure is surrounded by four stylised, fan-shaped flowers and by two rectangular shapes each containing a eulogy, probably ‘al-Mulk’ (Sovereignty).  \nAs from the advent of the Fatimids, Ifriqiyan ceramics began to show a preference for the figurative, showing a definite Mesopotamian influence. This trend is undoubtedly connected with the attitude of Shi'ite dogma towards the representation of the human form, more tolerant than that of the Malikite conformists.  \nThe face, with its huge eyes, is a common denominator of almost all human Ifriqiyan figures of the period, whether carved, modelled or painted, and seems to go back to a distant, Roman, North African past. By contrast, the style of the Lady of Sabra's dress had been in fashion since the Umayyad era and lasted right through the Abbasid period.","short_description":"This green bowl has a round base and depicts a female silhouette. The face is identified by an almond-shaped eye, a full mouth and an extremely fine nose. The profile is reminiscent of Ifriqiyan figures.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 4th century / AD 10th century.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11 cm, diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object comes from the site of Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the short-lived capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids, which lasted just over 100 years (337–444 / 948–1053). It was retrieved from one of the oldest layers of the site, which dates it from the second half of the 4th / 10th century. The date is corroborated by the green colour and by the decoration.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery on the Sabra site of this plate and of two other identical plates, painted with Fatimid–Zirid decoration and made in the Ifriqiyan manner, suggests they were produced in series locally at the Sabra potteries or at those of Kairouan, the nearest economic capital.","provenance":"Kairouan or Sabra al-Mansuriyya, which both had potteries.","obtention":"The plate was among objects discovered on site during the 1979 excavations at Sabra al-Mansuriyya. It was acquired in 1986 directly from the site by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada.","bibliography":"Ajjabi, H., “La ceramique de Sabra al-Mansuriya”, *Africa*, XI-XII, Tunis, 1992–3, pp.57–8.  \n*Le Vert et le Brun* (exhibition catalogue), Avignon, 1995, p.84.  \n*Tunez, Tierra de Culturas* (exhibition catalogue), Valencia, 2004, p.218.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glazed ceramic."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; women; Zirid; figurative representation"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"548ee63e-6bb4-531b-bdd0-c6728fff90d5":{"name":"Bab al-Futuh.","description":"Bab al-Futuh is composed of a large block-like structure built of stone. Its facade consists of two towers, projecting from the walled enclosure. The width of the gate's façade is 23 m; it is 25 m thick and 22 m high. The towers of this gate are semi-circular, similar to the two towers of Bab Zuwayla in the southern wall (built AH 485 / AD 1092), but they are not square like the two towers of Bab al-Nasr which is on the same, northern, wall (built AH 480 / AD 1087). The towers of Bab al-Futuh are massive and reach up to the same height as the northern walls of the city. The upper section of each tower comprises a defensive room with arrow slits.  \nThe gate entrance is covered with a shallow dome consisting of transition zones of four spherical-triangular pendentives. This is the first appearance of this type of dome in Islamic Egypt. The Gate retains beautiful decorative elements on its external arch that includes a variety of vegetal and geometric motifs, representing a stage of development with regard to stone decoration in Islamic architecture. The entrance is also decorated with brackets, some of which assume the form of rams' heads. The two sides of the towers are adorned on their interiors with a large arch that is carved in stone and whose curvature is adorned with a series of regular lobes, the like of which can be seen on the entrance of the Small Dome in Palermo (Piccola Cuba) in Sicily, which dates to the AH 6th / AD 12th century.  \nBab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr are connected by the northern wall of the city, the upper third of which is composed of vaulted passages, with arrow slits, as well as towers to defend the city. The names of some of the commanders of the French expedition against Egypt, under Napoleon Bonaparte (AH 1213–16 / AD 1798–1801), are written on the towers of Bab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr as a witness to their residence in Egypt and their use of those forts during their campaign.","short_description":"Bab al-Futuh is one of three extant gates of the Fatimid walls of Cairo, built by two Armenian brothers who came from the city of Raha, and is considered to be one of the oldest-known examples of military architecture in the Islamic world. The gate entrance is covered by a shallow dome consisting of transition areas composed of four spherical triangles, a model appearing in Egypt for the first time.","dates":"Hegira 480 / AD 1087.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"The dating of this edifice is supported by historical sources, for example Al-Maqrizi (d. 845 / 1442) mentions the date of construction in his book, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthā* (Cairo, 1853).","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Muslim Architecture of Egypt,* Vol. I, Oxford, 1952.  \nAl-Maqrizi, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthār \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the Recollection of Plans and Monuments\\],* 2 Vols, Cairo, 1853.  \nTaghri Bardi, Jamal al-Din Abi al-Mahasin (d. 874 / 1469), *Al-Nujum al-Zahira fi Muluk Masr wa al-Qahira \\[Shining Stars in the Rulers of Egypt and Cairo\\],* Cairo, 1942.  \nSameh, Kamal al-Din, *Al-'Emara al-Islamiya fi Masr \\[Islamic Architecture in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991.  \nZaki, Abd al-Rahman, *al-Azhar wa ma hawlahu min al-Athar \\[Al-Azhar and its Monumental Environs\\],* Cairo, 1970.","patrons":"The Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir bi Allah (r. AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94).","architects":"Amir al-Juyush Badr al-Jamali supervised the construction.","dynasty":"Fatimid.","materials":[],"keywords":["entrance; vegetal decoration; geometric decoration; war-time architecture; military architecture."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"57c9e92a-cab4-5c9c-a712-2d7757fdd1cc":{"name":"Four ivory panels.","description":"The four panels made of carved and openworked pieces of ivory are outstanding examples of the repertoire of work commissioned by the court of the Fatimid period. They are among the most important works of art from this period.  \nTwo of these panels display a horizontal pattern, while the other two have been decorated linearly along the vertical axis. These latter vertical panels have been shortened slightly. Traces of red indicate that there was once a coloured frame or mount.  \nFigures, carved to stand out in high relief, are depicted undertaking a variety of activities. Spiralling grapevines form a backdrop against which people are portrayed in action. Thick grapes hang off the plants. Huntsmen with falcons, helpers carrying small hoofed game, musicians (flute, oboe, lute, plucked stringed instruments), a reveller, pouring into his goblet from a jug, workers picking grapes, and falcons on the hunt – are all depicted in a lifelike and realistic fashion. The illustrations of animal fighting show a lion hunting down a bull, a falcon hunting a deer. A prince reclines on a bolster holding a goblet in his left hand. Everyone wears robes common to that era, made of fabrics decorated with a variety of designs. Even the headdresses are illustrative of the period rather than creations of fantasy.  \nSome depictions refer to pre-Islamic art and reflect the continuing existence of older traditions. It was especially during the Fatimid period that the ban on pictures was circumvented in courtly circles and that representations of the human form were undertaken.  \nFrom stylistic and thematic similarities, a good comparison can be drawn between the works on ivory and the woodwork and ceramics created during the Fatimid period, in which the finer technique seen in the ivory engraving demonstrates greater skill.  \nWhat remains unexplained is their function. The panels could have been used to decorate or coat a wooden surface (such as a door or large trunk), or could have been used as part of a throne. The Arab historian al-Maqrîzî (AH 766–845 / AD 1364–1442) described a Fatimid throne made of ebony and ivory.","short_description":"The function of these panels with themes from princely life is not known, but the carving of hunters with hawks, musicians and revellers against a background of vine scrolls demonstrates the artistic quality of Fatimid ivory carving at its best and thus may be a ruler’s commission for a palace.","type":"Panel, ivory","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","initial_owner":"Freiherr von Zu-Rhein Collection; F. v. Amerling Collection; A. Figdor Collection.","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th centuries / AD 11th–12th centuries.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Horizontal panels: length 36.5 cm, width 5.8 cm. Vertical panels: height 30.3 cm, width 5.8 cm. Depth of panels 1–1.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The fact that these panels have not been attributed to a particular building, and that stylistic comparisons to other works of ivory from southern Italy have demonstrated substantial differences, indicates that they might date from the Fatimid period, as they compare stylistically to other artworks from Egypt, above all to Fatimid woodwork.","method_for_provenance":"As Fatimid woodwork from Egypt is the only art form that bears close stylistic comparison to these panels, so far it is thought that these most probably come from Egypt.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Bought from a private art gallery in 1936.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R. and Grabar, O., *The Art and Architecture of Islam, 650–1250*, Harmondsworth, 1987, pp.202–206.  \nHoffman, E. R., “A Fatimid Book Cover: Framing and Re-framing. Cultural Identity in the Medieval Mediterranean World”, in *L’Egypte Fatimide: Son Art et Son Histoire*, (ed. M. Barrucand), Paris, 1999, pp.403–19.  \nKühnel, E., *Die Islamischen Elfenbeinskulpturen, VIII-XIII. Jh*., Berlin, 1971, pp.68–9, no. 88, plates 97–8.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Berlin, 1979, no. 21.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Stuttgart; Zürich, 1980, no. 19, pp.50–1.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Ivory."],"keywords":["Ivory; Fatimid; engraving; framed/mounted"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"5956a116-f2da-52fd-9a46-aa5a243e3598":{"name":"Coin (*dinar*).","description":"The coin, produced at the Egyptian mint, can be dated to the reign of Abu ‘Ali al-Hakim bi-‘amr Allah (AH 386–411 / AD 996–1021). The coin has a four-line inscription with *kufic* characters on both sides. The inscription on the front reads ‘*‘Alî lâ ilâ illâ Allâh wahda-hu lâ sarik la-hu Muhammad rasûl Allâh wâli Allâh*’ (‘There is no God but Allah, the One, there is none like unto him. Muhammad is the Messenger of God’) and the inscription around the edge reads ‘*Muhammad rasûl Allâh arsala-hu bi-l-hudâ wa al-haqq li-yuzhira-hu alâ al-dîn kulli-hi wa la-hu kariha al-musrikûn*’ (‘Muhammad is the messenger of God. He has sent His messenger with the guidance and the true religion, and will make it dominate all religions, in spite of the idol worshipers’).  \nThe inscription ‘*Abd Allâh wûliya al-Mansûr Abû Ali al-imâm al-Hakîm bi-amr Allâh amir al-mu’ minîn*’ appears in the middle of the front side, and the edge bears the inscription ‘*bismi-llâh duriba hadâ-l-l-dînâr bi-Mis'r sana talat wa arba maya*’ (‘This coin was minted in the name of God in Egypt in the year three and four hundred’).","short_description":"The *dinar*, which takes its name from its Byzantine predecessor the *denarius*, is decorated with an inscription in *kufic* characters. This coin was minted during the reign of the Caliph al-Hakim.","type":"Coin, dinar, gold","holder":"Museum of Civilisations | Museum of Oriental Art “Giuseppe Tucci”","dates":"Hegira 403 / AD 1012.","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Diameter 2.2 cm; weight 4.17 g.","method_for_datation":"From the inscription on the edge of the obverse.","method_for_provenance":"From the inscription on the edge of the obverse.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchase.","bibliography":"Lane-Poole S., *Catalogue of Oriental Coins in the British Museum*, IV, London, 1879, p.21, fig. 85.","dynasty":"Fatimid; reign of al-Hakim","materials":["Gold / minting."],"keywords":["dinar; coinage; coin; Fatimids; al-Hakim; calligraphy; numismatics"],"author":"Paola Torre","copy_editor":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"5aeefe19-f129-5cd0-9a57-c3e72577cfaa":{"name":"Two gold bracelets.","description":"Identical bracelets made of gold, each of which is decorated with bands of ornamentation consisting of pseudo inscriptions. Both bracelets have clasps characterised by two ornamented intersecting triangular shapes. The clasps are decorated with vegetal motifs in the form of whorls, and are framed by pierced circles that cohere together.  \nThe cities of Fustat and Alexandria were among the most important centres for the production of jewellery and precious stones in Egypt during the Fatimid period. These centres were active during the Fatimid period from the middle of the AH 4th / AD 10th century onward since the Fatimids were known to love acquiring gold and jewels to reveal the splendour of their wealth, serving to elevate their prestige as a consequence. A fact that affirms their encouragement for the production of ornamentation is that the Caliph al-Aziz bi Allah undertook the construction of the Palace of Gold, as had Caliph al-Muizz li-Din Allah before him, undertaking the creation of the Hall of Gold in the Eastern Palace. The Palace of Gold and the Hall of Gold were designated to house the different precious-metal acquisitions for which the Fatimids had such a great passion. It is worth mentioning that the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah used to wear a shield (*'asgada*) made of gold and silver. Furthermore his sister, Sitt al-Mulk, presented him with a crown of gold that was studded with diamonds and other gems. The Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo includes amongst its collections a set of gold rings decorated with depictions of animals, plants and epigraphic decorations, as well as brooches all worked in the filigree technique, with the addition of coils of gold thread. Likewise, the museum has also acquired earrings of different forms and two gold bracelets, adorned by inscriptions in *kufic* script.","short_description":"Cairo knew the art of jewellery making and many pieces were produced there over the ages. Jewellers decorated their work with attractive patterns. Production centres in Egypt became active in the time of the Fatimids who loved acquiring gold and jewels as a mark of luxury and wealth.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AH 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 6.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"The bracelets are dated based on the style of filigree decoration, made famous by the Fatimids.","method_for_provenance":"Egypt was earmarked as the place of production in view of the fact that production of similar types of gold jewellery was widespread throughout Egypt during the Fatimid period.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Both bracelets were bought from a dealer of antiquities, Mikhail, in 1941.","bibliography":"Abu Sadira, al-Sayed Taha al-Sayed, *Al-Hiraf wa al-Sina'at fi Masr al-Islamiyya \\[Handicrafts and Manufacture in Islamic Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991.  \nAl-Maqrizi, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthār \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the Recollection of Plans and Monuments\\],* 2 Vols, Cairo, Egypt, 1853.  \nAl-Pasha, H., et al, *Al-Qāhira, Tārikhuha, Fūnunuha, Āthāruha \\[Cairo: Its History, Arts and Monuments\\],* Cairo, 1970.  \nMaurice, L., “Al-Dhahab al-Islami mundhu al-qarn al-Sabi' ila al-qarn al-Hadi 'ashar al-Miladi \\[Islamic Gold from the 7th century to the 11th century\\]”, *(Trans. T Iskandar ),* in *Al-Majala al-Tarikhiya al-Masriya \\[Journal of Egyptian History\\],* Cairo, 1984.  \nMuhammad, H. Z., *Kunuz al-Fatimiyyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids\\],* Cairo, 1938.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold decorated with filigree and superimposed coils."],"keywords":["Ornamentation; gold; filigree; jewellery"],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"63c1b0eb-c6f5-5394-abeb-d76e3c3b5dca":{"name":"Pair of earrings.","description":"The two earrings are crescent-shaped. They are double-sided and open at the top. The earrings’ two sides differ from one another. One side consists of a crescent-shaped area in which two spiralling tendrils mirror each other symmetrically. The area is bordered by a row of gold pearls. The other side consists of a small semi-circular area encompassing symmetrical tendrils, framed by a wide border that is made up of six half-spheres, their surface completely granulated. The presence of eyelets demonstrates that at one time each side of both earrings were hung with strings of pearls. The pearls no longer exist.  \nBecause of what the literature terms their ‘box construction’, the earrings are typical examples of Fatimid art of the AH 5th / AD 11th century. They probably come from a big city environment like Cairo. Similar earrings have been found in excavation sites in Tunisia, Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Coins found alongside provide a date for the objects. Many of the excavated items of jewellery had been used as currency for trading, valued purely for their worth in gold; probably rather less consideration was given to the lavish craftsmanship with which they were made and which was evidence of the high level of art practised by jewellers during the Fatimid period.","short_description":"This pair of gold earrings, which once had additional pearls, is typical of Fatimid art. In the shape of a crescent, the two sides have different designs. One side has a symmetrical plant pattern, while the other is adorned by a row of six half-pearls. Jewellery was widely traded in the Islamic world.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 3.3 cm, width 3.5 cm; weight of a single earring approx. 18 g.","method_for_datation":"A sister pair of earrings formed in the same shape was found in Fustat (Old Cairo) indicating that these earrings have come from Fatimid Egypt.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery in Fustat (Old Cairo) of a sister pair made in the same shape, as well as the markings, which betray certain origins, point to an Egyptian provenance for this pair of earrings.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Bought from a dealer in Aleppo, 1913.","bibliography":"Gladiss, A. v., *Schmuck im Museum für Islamische Kunst*. Berlin, 1998, no. 23, 94, ill. 73.  \nKeene, M. and Jenkins, M. (eds.), *Islamic Jewelry in the Metropolitan Museum of Art*,New York, 1982, no. 51a, p.85.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst Berlin*, Catalogue, Berlin, 1973, no. 217.  \nSeipel, W., *Schätze der Kalifen: Islamische Kunst der Fatimidenzeit*, Mailand, 1998, pp.119–29.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold, granulated filigree."],"keywords":["Earrings; jewellery; Fatimid"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"63ca903e-e911-5013-b005-27189e25dc6f":{"name":"A pair of earrings.","description":"A pair of circular-shaped earrings, the clasps for which are achieved by twisting the two ends together. Each earring is decorated by a central band that cuts the circle in half. The band is ornamented with geometric forms, created from filigree, or entwined gold wire. Below this decorative band, is the sculptural form of two confronting birds whose bodies are decorated with golden granules. Between these two birds, are a series of three small circles. A glass bead is suspended from each earring, surrounded by a number of tiny pearls.","short_description":"Earrings took various shapes with a multitude of decorative styles. The filigree technique used to decorate these earrings was widely used in the Fatimid period for the decoration of jewellery and in the applied arts in general.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 4 cm.","method_for_datation":"These earrings are dated based on similar examples from the period since the filigree technique was widely used in the Fatimid period for the decoration of jewellery such as rings and earrings and in the production of the applied arts in general.","method_for_provenance":"Cairo was narrowed down as the place of production of these earrings in view of the close resemblance to other pieces that have been uncovered during the course of archaeological excavations undertaken in the city of Fustat, south of Cairo.","provenance":"Cairo.","obtention":"This pair of earrings was bought by the Museum in 1936 from an antiquities dealer, Abi Mayor.","bibliography":"Al-Ali, Z. O., *Al-Tazyeen wa al-Huly ' ind al- Mar'a fi al-'Asr al-'Abbasi \\[Decoration and Ornamentation of Women in the Abbasid Period\\],* Baghdad, 1976.  \nHamdi, A., et al, C*atalogMa'rid al-fan al-islāmi fi misr \\[Catalogue of the Islamic Art Exhibition in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1969.  \nHamdi, A. A., *Al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya al-'Arabiya al-Islamiya \\[Arab-Islamic Decorative Arts\\],* Baghdad, 1982.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold with filigree decoration executed using the openwork / entwining technique."],"keywords":["Gold; figurative decoration; filigree; earrings"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"6568b7c0-a3a3-5d41-9f89-21aa75b86c2f":{"name":"Shrine (Mausoleum) of Sayyida Ruqayya.","alternate_name":"Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya.","description":"The Shrine is associated with the venerated lady known as Al-Sayyida Ruqayya, daughter of the Imam 'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Righteously Guided Caliph (*Rashidun).* This monument was also used as a viewing platform where visitors could climb to the roof and view the new moon. In this way the beginning of the Arabic months in the Islamic calendar could be pinpointed.  \nWhat remains of the building is rectangular with a tripartite structure. The biggest, middle section is square in plan with all four sides measuring 12 m, and it is covered by a dome. It opens out onto two side bays, which are rectangular in shape, by means of two entrances with horizontal lintels.  \nOne of the most important and distinctive features of this monument is in the middle section's transition zone from the square to the drum of the dome. The transition is made by a row of small keel-arched niches resembling *muqarnas*, a device that represents a transformation in the design and layout of dome architecture, in which previously the zone of transition had consisted of large keel-arched openings in the corners of the square. Following the innovative breakthrough of this dome, *muqarnas* appeared in the domes of the Ayyubid period.  \nAround the drum of the dome, is an inscription band in *kufic* script containing Qur'anic verses. This band is considered the oldest epigraphic inscription to be seen on a mausoleum in Egypt. The base of the octagonal dome is characterised by eight windows in stucco; there are two windows on each side. The lower parts of these windows are embellished with beautiful stucco work, considered to be a unique example of arabesque decoration in the Fatimid period. The dome from the outside is lobed in shape.","short_description":"One of the charitable constructions commissioned by the wife of the Fatimid caliph, al-Amir bi Ahkam Allah, the shrine was dedicated to the memory of Sayyida Ruqayya, daughter of Imam 'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Righteously Guided Caliph. A prominent architectural feature of the building is the transition zone of the dome composed of arched niches, which later developed, in the Ayyubid period, into the *muqarnas* or stalactite decoration.","dates":"Hegira 527 / AD 1133.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"This building was dated based on the epigraphic inscription in the dome, which includes the name of the builder and the date of construction.","bibliography":"Behrens-Abouseif, D., *Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction*, Cairo, 1998.  \nBerchem, M. van, *Une Mosquée du Temps des Fatimides au Caire,* Cairo, 1889.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *The Muslim Architecture of Egypt*, Vol. I, Oxford, 1952.  \nMaher, S. M., *Masajid Masr wa Awliya'uha al-Salihoon \\[Mosques of Egypt and their Devout Sponsors),* Cairo, 1971.  \nSameh, Kamal al-Din, *Al-'Imara al-Islamiya fi Misr \\[Islamic Architecture in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991. Williams, C., “The Cult of Alid Saints in the Fatimid Monuments of Cairo”, (Part II: The Mausolea), *Muqarnas* 3, pp.39–60.","patrons":"Al-Sayyida Ulam al-Amiriyya, the wife of the Fatimid caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (r. AH 495–524 / AD 1101–30).","dynasty":"Fatimid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Arabesque; keel-arched corner opening; vegetal stucco decoration; shrine; mausoleum; funerary architecture; dome; transition zone of a dome."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"672e5d81-e294-5bdc-9691-e88fb689a760":{"name":"Page from a Qur’an.","description":"The Fatiha *sura* ('the Opening', verses 1 and 2), taken from a Qur'an copied on parchment.  \nThe writing combines the *kufic, naskhi* and the *rayhani* styles. Its identity has still not been well established. The laying out of the cursive script is more rectangular than curved.  \nVowel-points are absent from this writing, but, in keeping with the system developed by al-Khalil ibn Ahmad, there is an abundance of orthographic signs. Vowels are marked in red, *sukun* and *shadda* in blue and *hamza* and *maddah* in brilliant green.  \nStanding out on this page is a strip containing the title and number of verses in the following *sura*, written in gold.  \nThe title is inscribed in a series of superimposed frames in which geometric decoration alternates with floral decoration using the multi-lobed fleuron. Some strips are engraved in gold and all the surrounds are brown. A palm-leaf motif made up of floral arabesques projects towards the edge of the page.  \nAt the top of the page in the right-hand margin there is a geometrically decorated gold and brown lozenge; the corners each have a crown in the same colour and the sides have blue and brown circles on the outer edge.  \nThe central area contains gilded *kufic* script indicating the number of the verses.","short_description":"This page is from a Qur'an copied on vellum. Bands of geometric decoration with the name of the *sura* and the number of verses it contains, in gold, are particularly distinctive. The colophon of the Qur'an mentions the deed of gift by the governess of Prince Badis to the Great Mosque of Kairouan.","type":"Manuscript, Qur'an, parchment","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"Fatima al-Hadinah, governess to the Zirid prince, Badis.","dates":"Hegira 410 / AD 1020.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 45.5 cm, width 31 cm; 5 lines, 1 folio.","method_for_datation":"The deed of gift clearly mentions that the legacy took place in 410 / 1020.","method_for_provenance":"This Qur'an was copied, illuminated and bound by Ali ibn Ahmad al-Warraq for Fatima al-Hadinah, the governess of the Zirid prince, Badis. The work was supervised and financed by Durah al-Katibah – 'Durah the lady-scribe', the governess's secretary. The colophon of the Qur'an mentions the deed of gift by Badis's governess to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. The deed is authorised by the *qadi* (judge) of Kairouan, Abdullah ibn Hashim.","provenance":"Kairouan.","obtention":"After the abolition of the *habus* foundation in Tunisia, this Qur'an was obtained by the Bardo Museum. In 1986 it was transferred to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada where it is currently on display.","bibliography":"Lings, M., and Safadi, Y.-H., *The Arts of Islam* (exhibition catalogue), London, 1976, p.30, plate no. 25.  \n*De Carthage a Kairouan* (exhibition catalogue), Paris, 1982, p.273, plate no. 357.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.175–6.","artist":"'Ali ibn Ahmad al-Warraq.","dynasty":"Fatimid-Zirid","materials":["Parchment."],"keywords":["Calligraphy; floral decoration; geometric decoration; rihani; religious manuscript"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"6838b186-6323-54a8-99c8-c1e5f66d8df8":{"name":"Mosque.","description":"The remains of the mosque, which at the current stage of archaeological investigation appears to be the only surviving sacred Islamic building in Sicily, are located in the immediate vicinity of the ancient theatre of Segesta, outside the fortified area of the late medieval settlement. It is laid out over an irregular rectangle 20.5 m long and 11.4 m wide, and was constructed in a single phase using a uniform building technique (limestone blocks bound with mud). The floor is bare rock. The *mihrab* niche on the south side, correctly oriented to within a few degrees of southeast, is 2 m wide on the inside and 1.5 m deep. It is rectangular on the outside and protrudes from the wall by about a metre. There are no traces of a *minbar*.  \nThe mosque was split into two naves by a line of three columns, of which only the bases have survived. It would have been covered with a tiled roof and did not have a porticoed courtyard or a minaret nor even, at the current stage of excavation, did it appear to have a fountain for ablutions.","short_description":"The remains of the mosque can be found in the immediate vicinity of the ancient theatre of Segesta, outside the fortified area of the late medieval settlement. It is laid out over an irregular rectangle with the *mihrab* niche on the south side, correctly oriented a few degrees to the southeast. It was probably a rural mosque from Norman times, which was built, along with the fortified settlement, on high ground by an Islamicised people fleeing the lands gradually being conquered by the Normans.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Segesta","method_for_datation":"From the discovery during excavations of ceramic remains dating back to the 6th / 12th century.","bibliography":"Molinari, A., *Segesta II: Il Castello e la Moschea (Scavi 1989–1995)*, Palermo, 1997.  \n*Siculo-Norman Art: Islamic Culture in Medieval Sicily*, pp.213–15.","history":"It was probably a rural mosque from the Norman period that was built, along with the fortified settlement, on high ground by an Islamised population fleeing the lands that were being progressively conquered by the Normans. It is not clear whether it served just the village or the entire surrounding area. An Islamic necropolis has been discovered nearby.  \nThe arrival of a Christian feudal lord towards the end of the AH 6th / AD 12th century saw the area become a lordly residence, with new building work carried out within the Islamic settlement and a church erected. As a result, the mosque was demolished and the building materials reused.  \nThe settlement was slowly abandoned and even the lord’s residence fell into ruin during the second half of the 13th century.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["religious architecture"],"author":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"694dde47-bada-58b2-bcc0-6d5bd86a4ac0":{"name":"Great lantern of al-Mu‘izz.","description":"The lantern is made up of a bronze hook supporting a shallow-domed hemispherical basin with an outwardly inclined upper rim. Attached to the six-faceted outer sides of the basin are three perforated chains with geometric and stylised floral decoration in the form of tracery and tri-lobed leaves. This is a common type of decoration in Middle-Age Kairouan. The chains support the large hammered-brass basin, which is shaped like a circular vase and allows light to shine through the myriad perforations. At the lowest point of the basin a six-point star has been punched out. This is surrounded by three inscriptions, one around the collar; another between the ring supports and a third circling the star. On the first strip, *kufic* calligraphy proclaims: 'Praise be to God … May he bestow blessings, good fortune, happiness, success, prosperity, health and glory on all who embrace Him.' On the circumference of the base is inscribed: 'The work of Muhammad son of Ali al-Qaysi al-Saffar \\[the metalworker\\] for al-Mu'izz.' This lantern closely resembles a mosque lamp kept at the Chicago Art Institute and a lantern of Persian origin belonging to the David collection in Copenhagen (Denmark). Both date from the AH 4th or 5th centuries (AD 11th century). All the evidence suggests that the lantern of al-Mu'izz, which lit up the Great Mosque of Kairouan, is an example of Byzantine–inspired craftsmanship, which was in vogue throughout the Arabic-Islamic world during the AH 4th and 5th centuries (AD 10th and 11th).","short_description":"Used to light the Great Mosque of Kairouan, this lantern is an example of Byzantine-inspired craftsmanship fashionable in Arab-Islamic society in the AH 4th–5th / AD 10th–11th centuries. A bronze hook supports a shallow basin from which three chains suspend a large circular brass basin perforated with holes for light.","type":"Lantern, metalwork","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"Prince al-Mu’izz ibn Badis.","dates":"Hegira 424–43 / AD 1032–51.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 118 cm, diameter (max) 51.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The last inscription states that the lantern was a gift from the Zirid prince, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 406–54 / 1016–62) to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. This donation could be contemporaneous with the legacy of the *Mudawwana* volumes, the work of the great Sunni legal expert Sahnun ibn Said (160–240 / 777–855), from the same prince to the Great Mosque of Kairouan in 424 / 1032. It was certainly before the Hilalian invasions of 443 / 1051.","method_for_provenance":"This lantern was part of the furniture of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. It was specially made by a lamp-maker for the reigning Zirid prince, so it was probably fabricated in a Kairouanese workshop.","provenance":"Kairouan.","obtention":"After the founding of the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada in 1986 it was decided to return this lantern, which was on display at the Bardo Museum, to its original location.","bibliography":"Marçais, G. and Poinssot, L., *Objets Kairouanais*, XI, fasc. 2, Tunis, 1952, pp.411–33.  \n*Tunez, Tierra de Culturas* (exhibition catalogue), Valencia, 2004, p.218.  \nWard, R., *Islamic Metalwork*, Milan, 1993, pp.11, 68.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.159–62.","artist":"Muhammad, son of Ali al-Qaysi al-Saffar (‘the metalworker’).","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Moulded, perforated bronze."],"keywords":["Furnishing; floral decoration; calligraphy"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"69b67921-210d-5179-a7f6-620452e75cc6":{"name":"Pendant earring.","description":"The earring is one of an identical pair shaped like a necklace. It consists of a halter of thick gold wire on which are threaded five filigree gold balls. The two balls on each side are spherical. The upper ball is smaller than the lower ball. They are separated by spirals of twisted gold wire. Beneath these, flanked on each side by a solid gold bead, sits the fifth, slightly larger, ellipsoid ball. Joined between the three larger balls is a medallion representing a stylised face with the eyes, nose and mouth drawn in filigree and semi-circular eyebrows joined at the nose. Below the central ball is a small pendant sphere formed of two rings of plaited filigree. The jeweller has shown great skill in working with this fine but tough gold wire. There is no apparent system of attachment to the ear.  \nThis pendant appears to be of Iranian manufacture, with striking similarities to certain pieces of jewellery from Jurgan. But the resemblance to Syrian and Egyptian earrings of the same period is also apparent.","short_description":"This piece consists of a solid gold semi-circle with an openwork ball in filigreed gold on either side separated by four strands of filigreed gold in a plait. It was probably made in Iran, although the similarity with Syrian and Egyptian earrings from the same time is also significant.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th centuries / AD 11th–12th centuries.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 3.2 cm, width 2 cm, thickness 0.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Similar earrings found in Iran and Syria have been dated from the 5th–6th / 11th–12th centuries.","method_for_provenance":"This earring is similar to other objects of Egyptian origin.","provenance":"Very probably Egypt.","obtention":"Acquired by the Monastir Museum, the earring was displayed there from 1958, transferring to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada in 1995.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold filigree-work."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; floral decoration; jewellery"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"6da7c160-94fa-5f96-a7c1-9c73200419b5":{"name":"Mihrab.","description":"A wooden *mihrab* with a rectangular section in the centre that is a curved niche. The facade of the *mihrab* is rectangular in form and at the centre it has a rectangular opening, crowned by a pointed arch. The facade is decorated with assembled hexagonal panels, which flank other panels, in the form of six-pointed stars. This design is considered to be the starting point for the use of the decorative component known as 'the star-shaped medallion', which became one of the most important decorative components in wooden objects during the Mamluk period. This *mihrab* is the earliest dated piece on which this decorative component appears. At the top of the facade, are two lines of inscription in floriated *kufic* script that reads: 'One of the things commissioned by the honourable, protected, and great personage, al-Amiriyya, whose service was undertaken by al-Qadi Abu al-Hasan Maknun and who is served now, by al-Amir al-Sadid 'Afif al-Dawla Abu al-Hasan Yumn al-Fa'izi al-Salihi, intended for the shrine of al-Sayyida Ruqayya, the daughter of the Commander of the Faithful, 'Ali'. From the inscription, it is understood that this *mihrab* was made by order of al-Sayyida 'Ulam al-Amiriyya (d. AH 535 / AD 1140), the wife of the caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (r. 495–524 / AD 1101–30), for the tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya. The tomb was built in AH 527 / AD 1133, probably in Cairo. Qur'anic texts written in floriated *kufic* script, from 'al-Baqara' (2: 247), surround the rectangular facade of the *mihrab* and its niche.  \nBoth sides of the *mihrab,* and the back, are decorated with panels carved with vegetal stems that emerge from vases, and three- and five-lobed vine leaves which surround large clusters of grapes. These decorations indicate the apex of beauty attained in the art of vegetal decoration at the end of the Fatimid period.","short_description":"Patronage of religious institutions and providing them with furniture were not confined to men. Many women shared in this practice. This *mihrab* was commissioned by the Caliph's wife for the shrine of Sayyida Ruqayya, the daughter of the Fourth Righteous Caliph, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib.","type":"Woodwork, mihrab, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","initial_owner":"‘Ulam al-Amiriyya, wife of the caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 210 cm, width 111 cm, depth 45 cm.","method_for_datation":"The *mihrab* was dated based on the inscription present in the higher reaches of its façade which state clearly that the *mihrab* was built for the tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya in 527 / 1133","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the *mihrab* states that it was made for the tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya, the patron, who was the wife of the Fatimid Caliph who ruled in Cairo; it is very likely, therefore, that it was commissioned and made in Cairo.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"In 1297 / 1880, the Egyptian government began to collect together artefacts from the country's mosques and historic buildings and preserve them in al-Hakim Mosque. These later became the basis of the collection at the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. This *mihrab*, which was transferred from the Sayyida Ruqayya Shrine, is considered to be one of the most important of these early acquisitions.","bibliography":"Dimmand, M. S., *Al-Funun al-Islamiya \\[Islamic Arts\\], (trans.* A. Issa)*,* Cairo, 1958.  \nFikri, A., *Masajid al-Qahira wa Madarisuha \\[Mosques and Madrasas of Cairo\\],* Vol. I, Cairo, 1958.  \nHamdi, A., *et al, Katalog Ma'rid al-fan al-islāmi fi misr \\[Catalogue of the Islamic Art Exhibition in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1969.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Funun al-Islam \\[Arts of Islam\\],* Cairo, 1948.  \nPauty, E., *Bois sculptés d'églises coptes (époque fatimide*), Cairo, 1930.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Assembled wood; decorated in high relief and pierced."],"keywords":["Religious objects; high relief; panel; wood; floriated kufic script; vegetal decoration; star-shaped; mihrab; six-pointed star; mosque interior decoration; patronage"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"718874e8-d67c-57c0-aabc-505af50ed024":{"name":"Page from a Qur’an.","description":"Al-Takathur *sura* ('The Rivalry', 102: 8) and al-Asr *sura* ('The Time', 103: 1). This page is taken from a Qur'an written in black *kufic* script. The vowels are marked with red diacritic dots and the *hamza* and *shadda* are indicated by green and yellow marks in the style of Abi al-Aswad, the Arab grammarian (d. AH 61 / AD 681). The verses are divided by a gilded green-centred rosette outlined in brown dots. The magnificent title of the *sura* is contained within an ornamental line of *kufic,* terminating in a palm-leaf motif which projects into the margin of the page. This palm-leaf is composed of stylised, gilded leaves and floral arabesques and is illuminated in blue and green with delicate touches of brown. These motifs are part of the decorative repertoire of Muslim illuminators and calligraphers from the AH 5th / AD 11th century.","short_description":"Written in black *kufic* script, this page contains two Qur'anic quotations (102: 8 and 103: 1). The division of verses is marked by a gold rosette with a green centre. All of the motifs belong to the decorative repertoire of Muslim illuminators and calligraphers after the AH 5th / AD 11th century.","type":"Manuscript, Qur'an, parchment","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"The Zirid prince, al-Mu‘izz","dates":"Hegira, beginning of the second quarter of the 5th century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 32 cm, width 22.5 cm; 5 lines.","method_for_datation":"The Qur'an was given as a legacy (*habus*) by the Zirid prince, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. The deed of gift dates from later than the break with Cairo, since it mentions the hatred of the prince for the Fatimids. According to historians this split began in 424 / 1033 and came to an end by 441 / 1050.","method_for_provenance":"This Qur'an was left to the Great Mosque by the reigning Zirid prince. Given that Kairouan was at that time a great centre of book production, it is highly likely that this example was copied and bound at Kairouan on locally tanned parchment.","provenance":"Great Mosque of Kairouan.","obtention":"This Qur'an was obtained by the National Library in 1967 after the abolition of the *habus* foundation in Tunisia, and was transferred in 1983 to the Centre of Islamic Art and Civilisation at Raqqada. It has been displayed in the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada since 1986.","bibliography":"*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.210.  \n*De Carthage a Kairouan* (exhibition catalogue), 1982, p.247, cat. no. 330.  \n*The Arts of Islam* (exhibition catalogue), 1976, p.20, cat. no. 2.  \n*Tunez, Tierra de Culturas* (exhibition catalogue), Valencia, 2004, p.221.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.159–62, 182–3.","dynasty":"Zirid","materials":["Decorated parchment."],"keywords":["Calligraphy; floral decoration; habus; religious objects; religious manuscript"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"86ba73c0-7a63-5e24-ac7d-4ed99ca1aa85":{"name":"Glass weights.","description":"Dark-gray coloured glass weights used to verify the weights of coins, most of which were produced in Egypt. The weights are small, round glass discs with an impressed inscription of the name and title of the caliph or the name of the governor on them.  \n  \nThe glass weights depicted here are from the Fatimid period a dynasty which broke away from the Abbasid caliphate and established a new caliphate in North Africa and Egypt during the period AH 297–567 / AD 909–1181, such weights are principally from the reigns of the two Fatimid Caliphs al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), and al-Mustansir (r. AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94).  \n  \nThe weights bear the following titular inscriptions written in foliated kufic script:  \n  \nJ.16546: bears the name of the commander of the faithful: **الامام معد ابو تميم المستنصر (امير المؤمنين)** ('Al-Imam Mu\\`id Abu Tamim al-Mustansir Billah (Amir al-Mu\\`minin)' within an embossed frame and circle.  \n  \nJ.16547: bears the name of the commander of the faithful **الظاهر لاعزاز دين الله (امير المؤمنين)** 'al-Zahir li-izaz Dein Allah (Amir al-Mu\\`minin)' within an embossed frame and circle.  \n  \nJ.16550: bears only the name of God: **الله** 'Allah'","short_description":"Glass weights from Ayla in Aqaba, used to verify the weights of coins. These small, round glass discs have impressed inscriptions; two bear the names of the Fatimid Caliphs al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), and al-Mustansir (r. AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94), while the third bears the name of God.","type":"Weight, glass","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"J.16547. Hegira 411–27 / AD 1021–36; J.16546. Hegira 427–87 / AD 1036–94.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Diameter (in the range) 26–27 mm, weights 4.68 g; 5.02 g; 5.15 g.","method_for_datation":"The weights have inscriptions impressed on one side of them that give the names and titles of two Fatimid caliphs: al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), and al-Mustansir (r. AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94).","method_for_provenance":"These weights were probably manufactured in Egypt during the Fatimid period a dynasty which broke away from the Abbasid caliphate and established a new caliphate in North Africa and Egypt during the period AH 297–567 / AD 909–1181.","provenance":"Probably Egypt.","obtention":"The weights were recovered during the course of an archaeological excavation carried out in 1990 at the site of Islamic Ayla, modern-day Aqaba.","bibliography":"النبراوي.رأفت، الصنج الزجاجية للسكة الفاطمية المحفوظة بمتحف الفن الإسلامي بالقاهرة، القاهرة، 1997، ص 241و363.  \n  \nWhitcomb, D., *Ayla: Art and Industry in the Islamic Port of Aqaba*, Chicago, 1994, pp.18–20.","dynasty":"J.16547. Fatimid (Al-Zahir); J.16546. Fatimid (Al-Mustansir)","materials":["Cast glass."],"keywords":["Coin; coinage; numismatics; inscription; kufic script; weight; measuring instrument"],"author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9134b213-b1e4-5abb-aa86-b624a12b02ae":{"name":"Ivory casket with painted figural decoration.","description":"This unusually richly painted ivory casket belongs to a group of larger and smaller caskets that were made by Muslim workshops, probably in Palermo, Sicily, as commissions from the Norman court. They have appeared in numerous collections and have been frequently found as part of the treasure belonging to churches, where they were used to contain relics. The casket’s framework is made of wood pieces, onto which thin sheets of ivory have been attached. The painted decoration on these ivory sheets has black contours and is emphasised in brown, green and gold. The ivory sheets are attached to the wooden framework with gilded brass buckles; the casket also possessed a lock that was replaced at a later date. The inside was once most probably upholstered with a textile. The painted decoration over the front edge of the lid reveals an Arabic inscription in *kufic* script. The inscription includes good wishes for a patron whose name is not mentioned. The paintings on the casket’s front are composed of large medallions involving highly stylised tendrils, which are framed on either side by birds, including peacocks and hoopoes. Stylised lions are painted over the top of the lid and along the back, along with hunting dogs and gazelles. A female harp player is depicted on both of the casket’s narrow sides; her triangular harp is representative of a type of harp that originated in Egypt. This detail is indicative of southern Italy’s unique cultural scene, in which Fatimid styles were blended with European creations. The fine quality of painted decoration displayed on this ivory casket demonstrates that it would not be out of place in a royal court.","short_description":"Different types of caskets with painted decoration are known from southern Italy where they were probably used in noble families. Repetitive Arabic inscriptions as on this casket as well as freely drawn animals and musicians are indications of the strong Islamic influence in the Mediterranean area.","type":"Casket, ivory","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","owner":"Museum of Arts and Crafts, Berlin, Germany.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 16.5 cm, length 35 cm, width 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"Both in its painting and in its inscription, the ivory casket appears to be a work commissioned by the Norman court. It has been suggested that this group of work originates from some date within the 12th century.","method_for_provenance":"It is thought that the painted ivory caskets were made in a workshop in Sicily, possibly in Palermo.","provenance":"Sicily or southern Italy (Siculo-Arabic).","obtention":"Transferred from the Museum of Arts and Crafts, Berlin, Germany in 1906 as a long-term loan.","bibliography":"Budde, H. and Sievernich, G. (eds.), *Europa und der Orient*, Catalogue, Gütersloh-Munich, 1989, no. 4/16, figs. 242, 642.  \nCott, P. B., *Siculo-Arabic Ivories*, Princeton, 1939, no. 33, plate 16.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, 1971–9, no. 262.","dynasty":"Normans in Sicily, southern Italy","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":["Ivory, wood, various paintings."],"keywords":["Ivory; Sicily; southern Italy"],"author":"Jens Kröger","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"9376bc61-32e6-5f4f-9d2c-ec28ad8f8fe4":{"name":"Mosque of al-Hakim bi Amrillah.","description":"The principle (northwestern) façade of the mosque extends along al-Muizz Street. The centre of this façade is marked by a projecting monumental portal composed of two squat towers that flank the entrance to the mosque. The portal projects from the façade by 6 m, and is 15.50 m wide and 11 m high. The entrance is ornamented by recessed panels filled with bands of decorative motifs, and *kufic* inscriptions. This type of decorative style was introduced to Egypt by the Fatimids and originated in North Africa, seen in the Great Mosque of Susa in Tunisia (AH 236 / AD 801). The projecting portal of the Mosque of al-Hakim bi Amrillah is considered to be one of the oldest examples in Egypt, an architectural style that had appeared before in the Mahdiyya Great Mosque in Tunisia (AH 308 / AD 921).  \nAt the two ends of the principle façade are two minarets that are the work of al-Hakim bi-Amrillah, who had them built in AH 393 / AD 1002, acquiring the idea of building them at the two corners of the mosque façade from the Mahdiyya Great Mosque in Tunisia. The original section of the northern minaret is the base and the cylindrical body. The southwestern minaret is composed of a square base ending in an octagonal form. The remaining parts of the two minarets were added by Commander Baybars al-Gashanqir during the rule of the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun, after an earthquake in AH 703 / AD 1303, which resulted in the destruction of the original pinnacles of the two minarets. Eleven years after building the minarets Al-Hakim bi Amrillah had in fact added stone walls, which encased the sides of the minarets, and surrounded each of them along the outside so that they assumed the forms of towers. Inscription bands were included which contained Qur'anic verses written in the *kufic* script. Perhaps this addition was influenced by the square bases of al-Andalus and Maghreb (North African) minarets seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the Great Mosque of Córdoba. There is also clear architectural evidence to confirm that the mosque once had three domes, the middle one of which is still standing. Bricks were used in the building of the arcades, arches and domes of the mosque. However, stone was used in the construction of the outer walls, minarets and the projecting portal.  \nThe floor plan of the mosque, whose dimensions measure 120 m by 113 m, consists of a central open courtyard, measuring 78 m by 66 m, surrounded by four porticoes. The largest of these is on the eastern (*qibla*) side and consists of five arcades, interrupted by a transept aisle, which is a columned walkway lying vertical to the *mihrab*. The western portico consists of two arcades, while the northern and southern porticoes are each composed of three arcades. The mosque was influenced by earlier local styles seen at Fustat and Qatai', and especially by the Congregational Mosque of Ibn Tulun, also in Cairo (built AH 265 / AD 879). These influences are most obviously manifest in the distribution of arcades, in the borrowing of the idea of building brick-piers which support the arcade arches, in the rectangular sections of the piers, in the arrangement of corbels in the corners of the piers, and in the multiplicity of doors. Likewise, the transept aisle in the area of the *qibla* and the three domes were an innovation seen earlier in the Mosque of al-Azhar in Cairo (built AH 361 / AD 972).  \nThe mosque was subject to neglect and deterioration from the AH 9th / AD 15th century. The French used the mosque as a fortress during their campaign against Egypt (AH 1213–16 / AD 1798–1801) and used the minarets as watch-towers. After that, it was occupied by glassmakers and textile-workers. A complete restoration of this mosque took place at the end of the 20th century.","short_description":"This mosque boasts architectural and decorative elements seen previously in mosques of North Africa and Andalusia (e.g. al-Mahdiyya Mosque in Tunisia and Cordoba Mosque in Andalusia) as well as in the Ibn Tulun and al-Azhar mosques in Egypt. Construction began in the time of Caliph al-Aziz bi Allah and was completed by his son al-Hakim bi Amrillah. Originally the mosque stood outside the first walls of Cairo built by the Fatimid military commander Jawhar al-Saqalli but was later incorporated inside the new stone walls built by Badr al-Jamali, minister of Caliph al-Mustansir.","dates":"Construction of the building began during the period AH 365–86 / AD 975–96 and ended in AH 403 / AD 1012.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"The mosque has been dated on the basis of on an inscription carved along the surface of the entrance which indicates that it was commissioned by al-Hakim bi Amrillah in 390 / 1000. Historical sources such as *al-Nujum al-Zahira* by Ibn Taghri Bardi (d. 874 / 1469) mention that he completed the building of the mosque and inaugurated it in 403 (1012).","bibliography":"Berchem, M. van, *Une Mosquee du Temps des Fatimides au Caire,* Cairo, 1889.  \nBloom, J., “The Mosque of al-Hakim in Cairo”, *Muqarnas* I, 1983, pp.15–36.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “Minaret: Symbol of Islam”*, Oxford Studies in Islamic Art*, Vol. 7, 1989.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *The Muslim Architecture of Egypt*, Vol. I, Oxford, 1952.  \nHoag, J., Islamic Architecture, New York, 1987.  \nSalem, al-Sayed Mohammad Abd al-Aziz, *al-Ma'adin al-Masriya \\[Egyptian Minarets\\],* Cairo, 1959.  \nTaghri, Bardi, Jamal al-Din Abi al-Mahasin (d. 874 / 1469), *Al-Nujum al-Zahira fi Muluk Misr wa al-Qahira \\[The Shining Stars in the Rulers of Egypt and Cairo\\],* Cairo, 1942.","patrons":"Sponsor: built by order of Caliph al-Aziz bi Allah (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96) and after him, by his son, Caliph al-Hakim bi Amrillah (r. AH 386–411/ AD 996–1021).","dynasty":"Fatimid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Congregational mosque; pier; religious architecture; corbel; transept; projecting portal."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9bf8a3f3-f2b5-587e-9b91-0d1241828349":{"name":"Spherical bottle.","description":"A spherical bottle made of thick, grey-yellow glass with a short opening. Its body is completely covered with decoration that has been cut and deeply engraved into its surface. The decoration consists of a main frieze in which medallions with peacocks and with plant-motifs alternate. Minor side friezes adorn the body. The bottle’s stopper, with which its short opening would have been closed, appears to be missing.  \nThe bottle’s carefully incised patterns, along with the stylisation of the peacocks and of the ornamentation, find a parallel in the exceptional rock-crystal receptacles that were made in Egypt during the Fatimid era, and which were brought over to Europe after the dissolution of Fatimid treasures. It is therefore possible that this spherical bottle was made by a workshop in Egypt that possessed the knowledge of how to work with, and decorate, rock-crystal. The bottle’s quality suggests that the person who commissioned its making was a member of the court. Its form is similar to that of spherical ceramic vessels known as a ‘sphero-conical vessels’. There is no available information regarding its past use, but, given its workmanship, it must have contained something equally precious.","short_description":"This unique bottle of thick glass is adorned with a deeply cut frieze in which triangles with ornamental patterns alternate with birds in medallions. Fatimid Egypt was famous for its glass and especially rock-crystal vessels, which were highly esteemed in Europe where many survived in treasuries.","type":"Bottle, glass","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 10.5 cm, diameter 8 cm.","method_for_datation":"Dating the object with accuracy is very difficult as few close parallels exist. Only a general date can be offered to place it within the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"Stylistic comparison to polished glasswork from the excavations in Fustat, Cairo’s old town, as well as the particular colouring of the glass, suggest that the object probably came from Egypt. Only new research or new findings will add further information.","provenance":"Egypt (?)","obtention":"Anonymous gift in 1906.","bibliography":"Carboni, S. and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2001, pp.155–97.  \nKröger, J., “From Fustat to Nishapur: Questions about Fatimid Cut Glass”, in *L’Egypte Fatimide: Son Art et Son Histoire* (ed. M. Barrucand), Paris, 1999, pp.219–32.  \nLamm, C. J., *Mittelalterliche Gläser und Steinschnittarbeiten aus dem Nahem Osten*, Berlin, 1929–30, no. 24, plate 61.  \nMartin, F. R. and Sarre, F. (eds.), *Die Ausstellung von Meisterwerken Muhammedanischer Kunst München 1910*, Munich, 1912, Vol. 2, no. 2084.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glass, incised patterns."],"keywords":["Glass; incision; vegetal decoration; animal decoration; Egypt; Fatimid; bird; carving; sumptuary art; rock-crystal"],"author":"Jens Kröger","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"9cd3c434-a84c-5e25-9be3-4b5d88eaa44c":{"name":"Pendant.","description":"A gold crescent-shaped pendant with enamel work. Two bands of delicate gold filigree work surround a panel of cloisonné enamel with a symmetrical design of two birds arranged on either side of a tree. The pendant may have been hung with strings of pearls from the three loops along the bottom. The enamel inset imitates Byzantine designs. Gold jewellery from Byzantium was known in Fatimid Egypt originating either from Byzantine craftsmen who immigrated to Egypt or through diplomatic gifts sent by Byzantine rulers. In 1046 the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir (r.1036–94) received a large gift from the Emperor of Byzantium which included hundreds of gold vessels, brocade and gold-embroidered turbans. This exchange of diplomatic gifts is recorded in The Book of Treasures and Gifts, by Ibn Zubayr, written just before the destruction and dispersal of the Fatimid treasury in 1062.","short_description":"Gold jewellery with delicate filigree work was popular during the Fatimid period. Some pieces, such as this pendant, also feature enamel work derived from Byzantine designs. The Fatimid treasury is known to have accumulated a vast hoard of gold objects that included jewellery.","type":"Jewellery, Metalwork, decoration object, gold","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 5th / AD 11th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Width 2.1 cm.","method_for_datation":"The pendant resembles other gold jewellery from the Fatimid era; generally small in size and often decorated with filigree work, cloisonné enamel, or niello. From the mid-11th century figurative elements began to appear, such as birds. The dating of Fatimid jewellery has been derived from excavations in a number of sites, including that at Fustat in Cairo.","method_for_provenance":"The Fatimids were renowned for their rich splendid jewellery. Most of the workmanship would have taken place in Egypt, the political centre of the Fatimid dynasty.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the British Museum in 1981.","bibliography":"Al-Hijjawi al-Qaddumi, G. (ed.), Book of Gifts and Rarities (Kitab al-hadaya wa al-tuhaf'): Selections compiled in the fifteenth century from an eleventh-century manuscript on gifts and treasures, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp.108–9.  \n  \nHasson, R., Early Islamic Jewellery, Jerusalem, 1987, pp.56–91.  \n  \nInstitut du Monde Arabe, Tresors fatimide du Caire, exposition presentée a l'Institute du monde Arabe du 28 avril au 30 aout 1998 (Paris, Institut du Monde Arabe, 1998), p.135 (a similar pendant to that held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York).","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold with inset enamel."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; jewellery"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9ec702fb-8729-598a-ab20-ae8d02904fce":{"name":"Glass dish.","description":"A dish of green-tinted moulded glass, with the pattern impressed on the outside surface of the dish's base. The inside surface is plain and smooth. The design of the impression consists of a central star with seven corners, surrounded by seven roundels, each of which contains an arrangement of circles. The star is also filled with an arrangement of small circles. Mould-blown glassware was made primarily for everyday use. The green colour of the transparent dish is achieved by mixing iron oxides with the original frit mixture, from which glass is made.","short_description":"Mould-blown glassware was made primarily for everyday use. This shallow dish is plain on the inside but impressed with a pattern on the outside. Many glassmakers from different parts of the Islamic Middle East flocked to work in Fustat’s glass-making industry, which had flourished since pre-Islamic times.","type":"Glasswork, moulded glass","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"Hegira 4th–6th century/ AD 10th–12th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Diameter 17 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis: the style and manufacturing techniques used to make this dish resemble similar examples of Fatimid glass wares, especially some of those found in the Aegean Sea shipwreck at Serçe Limanı, off the south-west coast of Turkey, which has been dated to AH 415 / AD 1025.","provenance":"Fustat, Egypt.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Jenkins, M., Islamic Glass, A Brief History, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1986.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Moulded glass."],"keywords":["Crafts; commerce; daily life"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9fdca272-4041-5355-84f2-5cf19779524e":{"name":"Fragment from a mosaic floor.","description":"This panel was part of a 50 sq m mosaic floor. With a border made up of alternate geometric and floral motifs, the main area of the floor consists of a tracery of four-lobed flowers which combine to form various geometric patterns. When the floor was lifted, several panels were shared between various Tunisian museums. In the panel at the Raqqada Museum, red, white and blue-black lines alternate to represent a lilac-leaf in an octagon and four diamond-shaped petals in a circle. These elements are held within a pattern of twisting semi-circular fringes.  \nThis mosaic is unique in Ifriqiyan art of the Fatimid era. Some historians hold that this example attests to the survival of mosaic art in mediaeval Tunis. The techniques used in the Mahdiyyan mosaic certainly show continuity with the ancient traditions of Roman and Byzantine North Africa. But evidence suggests that the floor was made by Byzantine artisans or '*Rums*' who were probably taken prisoner during the many armed incursions by al-Qa'im in Italy and Sicily.","short_description":"This mosaic is unique in Ifriqiyan art from the Fatimid era, with some art historians believing that it is a continuance of the ancient traditions of Roman and Byzantine Africa. This panel was part of a mosaic covering some 58 square metres, and it combines geometric forms with floral motifs.","type":"Floor, stone","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"The Fatimid prince, al-Qa’im.","dates":"Hegira 303 / AD 916.","location":"Raqqada","province":"Kairouan","dimensions":"Length 107 cm, width 106 cm.","method_for_datation":"The mosaic was discovered in 1956 during the excavations under a reception room at al-Qa'im Palace. One could logically date it from the building of the palace in 303 / 916 (date confirmed by historical sources) but it could possibly have been constructed at a later date, when we believe improvements and refurbishments to the original building were made. These would have been accomplished during the relatively peaceful period of al-Qa'im's reign and just before the Kharijite rebellion of 332 / 944 that was led by Abu Yazid, known as the 'man on the donkey'.","method_for_provenance":"This mosaic, discovered *in situ* at the al-Qa'im Palace, was obviously built there. But we still cannot prove the origin of the artisans who built it.","provenance":"Mahdiyya.","obtention":"After being dismantled at al-Qa'im Palace at Mahdiyya, the mosaic was kept at the Bardo Museum. In 1986 three panels from this mosaic were sent to the National Institute of the Patrimony of Kairouan. In 1993 one of these panels was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada for display in the second section, currently being refurbished.","bibliography":"Ennaïfer, M., “La mosaïque africaine à la fin de l'antiquité et au début de l'époque médiévale”, *Fifth international colloquium on ancient mosaics,* USA, 1994, pp.307–18.  \nLouhichi, A., “La mosaïque de Mahdia: contexte et interprétation”, *Africa*, XX, 2004, pp.143–66.  \nZbiss, S. M., “Mahdia et Sabra Mansouriya: nouveaux documents d'art fatimide d'Occident”, *Journal asiatique,* CCXLIV, 1956, pp.79–93.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.176–7.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Limestone *tessera* (mosaic tiles)."],"keywords":["Mosaic; geometric decoration; floral decoration"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"MWNF","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a8912ca5-9dcf-581c-885c-df8260626ef3":{"name":"Plate with battle scene.","description":"Round-based plate. The rim is ribbed on the outer wall and slopes slightly outwards. The glaze has been applied direct onto the grey clay with no slip coating. Shape and technique are typical of Ifriqiyan ceramics of the high Middle Ages.  \nThe plate is illustrated with a battle scene in which horsemen at the gallop brandish shields in their left hands. This stylised, imaginative decoration is Mesopotamian and was very much in vogue in the Fatimid era. Although seeming to derive from contemporary Oriental sources, it probably has its origin in a distant, Roman, North African past. In fact, the horses drawn on this plate are less naturalistic, more stylised than those of similar Mesopotamian artefacts. From their freedom of line and their particular decoration they are more reminiscent of contemporary Ifriqiyan plates. Moreover, the riders' faces possess that huge eye which is a common denominator of almost all Ifriqiyan human figures of the time and which would confirm the fundamental North African influence behind the decoration of this plate.","short_description":"This dish has a round base and sloping sides. It is illustrated with a war scene, suggesting a North African influence, while the stylised, fantasy decoration suggests a link with contemporary Eastern decoration. This type of decoration was extremely popular during the Fatimid era.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 4th–first half of the 5th century / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11 cm, diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object comes from the site of Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the short-lived capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids, (337–444 / 948–1053). This dates it from the second half of the 4th / 10th century to the first half of the 5th / 11th century. No publication exists identifying exactly the stratigraphic layer the object came from and so a more precise dating is not possible.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery of this plate on the Sabra site painted with Fatimid–Zirid decoration and made in the Ifriqiyan manner suggests it was produced locally at the Sabra potteries or at those of Kairouan, the nearest economic capital.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya or Kairouan.","obtention":"The plate was among objects discovered on site during the 1979 excavations at Sabra al-Mansuriyya. It was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada where it has been displayed since 1986.","bibliography":"*Couleurs de Tunisie* (exhibition catalogue), 1994, p.133, plate no. 73.  \n*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.250, plate nos. 4-40.  \n*Tunisie: du Christianisme a l'Islam* (exhibition catalogue), Lattes, 2001, p.188.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Glazed ceramic."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; arms; Zirid"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a9696cec-e2a4-5df3-86c8-4f47e45be0d4":{"name":"Pendant.","description":"Archaeological excavations in the Egyptian City of Fustat have furnished us with some pieces of jewellery such as bracelets, rings, earrings and pendants of gold and silver. A number of techniques in jewellery-making and ornamentation were widespread in Egypt during the Fatimid period. Some of the most important techniques were carving, piercing and enamel inlay. The piece illustrated here is a good example of decorative enamel inlay.  \nGenerally, decorative enamelling was done in one of two ways: one way – called lobed enamel – involves pouring the enamel into small metallic lobes, closely resembling moulds. After firing the lobes in a kiln, they are then mounted in specific places in accordance with the design on to the gold surface of the piece of jewellery. The other way involves making deep-grooved decorative carvings of the desired design on the surface of the piece; enamel is then poured into the grooves and the piece is then fired in a kiln. The former method is a quicker and faster way than the latter. The piece illustrated here is an exquisite example of lobed enamel jewellery – the first method of decoration with enamel.  \nThis is a circular pendant whose form assumes a concave surface. Its decorative layout is arranged along three horizontal sections. The central section, which is the broadest, is filled with an inscription in *kufic* script set in white, decorated in red, and placed against a background of ash-green. The text reads: “… God is best to take care \\[of him\\]” and is part of verse (*ayah)* 64 of the Chapter of Joseph (*Yusuf;* no. 12). The sections above and below the inscription are decorated with a vegetal branch, each of which is depicted in red, and set against a green background.","short_description":"Women used all kinds and shapes of jewellery, such as bracelets, rings, earrings, brooches and pendants. Techniques in ornamentation included engraving, incising, piercing and enamel inlay. This piece is good example of decorative enamel inlay.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 2.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The pendant is dated by means of studying the *kufic* script used in the decoration. Dating was also greatly assisted by a comparative study of the pendant's craftsmanship that, together with some objects made of stucco, have been uncovered in archaeological excavations in the Egyptian City of Fustat, and which are attributed to the same period.","method_for_provenance":"A study of the pendant's craftsmanship with reference to stucco objects also uncovered in archaeological excavations in Fustat suggests that the pendant may have been produced there.","provenance":"Possibly Fustat, Egypt.","obtention":"The object was discovered during the course of archaeological excavations that took place in Fustat in 1916.","bibliography":"Hassan, Z. M., *Atlas al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya wa al-Tasawir al-Islamiya \\[Atlas of Islamic Decorative Arts and Pictorial Representations\\], Beirut, 1981.*  \nHamdi, A. M., *Mu'addat al-Tajmil bi-Mathaf al-Fan al-Islami \\[Cosmetic Implements at the Museum of Islamic Art\\],* Cairo, 1959.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ et al, *Katalog Ma'rid al-fan al-islāmi fi misr \\[Catalogue of the Islamic Art Exhibition in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1969.  \nSayour, S. A., “Les bijoux au cours de l'ère islamique”, in *Prisma*, No. 19, 1999, p.36.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “Las Joyas en la época Islamica”, in *Prisma,* No. 7, 1998, p.25.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold embellished with enamel."],"keywords":["Ornamentation; kufic script; gold; enamel; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; enamel."],"author":"Salah Sayour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"aab7756a-7fbc-5383-97de-198c2614e471":{"name":"Token or weight.","description":"Green glass token with a relief border, in a reasonable state of conservation, weighing slightly less than one whole *dirham*, which is 2.97 g. The token is marked only with a three-line inscription in *kufic* characters within a circle in the middle of the front face. The first line reads ‘*al-imâm al-Zâhir*’, the second ‘*al azaz din Allâh*’ and the third ‘*amîr al-mu minin*’.  \nTraditional Byzantine glass tokens were generally used as monetary weights, and this use was particularly common among Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs as well as among the Egyptian Tulunids and the Aglabids of North Africa. Shi’ite caliphs also used tokens for other means, particularly from the time of al-Mu’izz (AH 341–65 / AD 953–75). The fact that many of the tokens found are of identical weight suggests that they were used as ‘fiduciary coins’ in place of bronze coins, particularly as bronze was extremely rare in Egypt at that time. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that no glass tokens have ever been found in Syria, where bronze was abundantly available. These tokens are inscribed on at least one of their faces, bearing the name of the caliph and sometimes even the mint. Most Fatimid tokens come from the time of two caliphs in particular, Abu ‘Ali al-Hakim (AH 386–411 / AD 996–1021) and al-Mustansir (AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94), although a large number also come from the time of al-Zahir, al-Amir and other caliphs.","short_description":"Glass token probably used as a fiduciary coin in place of bronze coin.","type":"Token, weight, glass","holder":"Museum of Civilisations | Museum of Oriental Art “Giuseppe Tucci”","dates":"Hegira 411–27 / AD 1020–35.","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Diameter 2.2 mm, depth 4 mm, weight 2.4 g.","method_for_datation":"Historical chronology (years of reign of Fatimid caliph).","method_for_provenance":"From the inscription with the name of the caliph.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchase.","bibliography":"Balog, P. “The Fatimid Glass Jetons”, *Annali dell’Istituto Italiano di Numismatica* 20, 1973, no. 177, p.121.  \nLane-Poole, S., *Catalogue of Arabic Glass Weights in the British Museum*, London, 1891.  \nLaunois, A., *Estampilles et Poids Musulmans en Verre du Cabinet des Médaille*s, Cairo, 1959.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Green glass."],"keywords":["token; weights; coin; coinage; Fatimids; inscriptions; numismatics; measuring instrument"],"author":"Paola Torre","copy_editor":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"ae76a20b-77b1-575a-ab1c-36776cb0c633":{"name":"Fragment of a robe.","description":"This fragment shows two dark blue friezes facing each other, each featuring white *kufic* inscriptions surrounded by pink tendrils with white blossoms. A third frieze, composed of red rosettes with white four-petalled flowers, and framed on either side with waves of brown tendrils on a green background, sits between the two inscription friezes.  \nThis small fragment, which originally formed part of a much larger *tiraz* band, was identified as having been commissioned for the Fatimid ruler Al-Mustansir billah by comparing it with a similar inscription on a nearly identical piece in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The *kufic* text in the upper frieze on the Berlin fragment reads ‘In the name of God the merciful and good. There is no God other than God. M(ohammed is the envoy of God)’. This represents, therefore, the message of Islam. The text in the lower frieze reads ‘…this was commissioned by the vizier, the great…’. The term *tiraz* was derived from the name of the workshops where the cloths with the inscriptions, the *tiraz*, were woven. These robes of honour were manufactured for caliphs and high-ranking nobles in the workshops of the royal court. The *tiraz* were given to local or foreign high-ranking persons as a reward for their services. Medieval sources referred to them as valuable objects. The majority of *tiraz* bands come from Egypt, as these fabrics were preserved very well in the very dry climate and, if buried, the extremely dry earth.","short_description":"Cotton textiles with silk embroidery were produced in court workshops in Fatimid Egypt and were called *tiraz* because of the inscriptions which often gave the name of the workshop and the ruler. On special occasions they were presented to people who had rendered services to the state.","type":"Robe, fragment, textile","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 427–87 / AD 1036–94.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 16 cm, width 13 cm.","method_for_datation":"An inscription on a similar piece of fabric in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, into which the name of the Fatimid Caliph Al-Mustansir billah (r. 427–487 / 1036–94) is woven, places this object within the same reign.","method_for_provenance":"Comparisons with other fabrics have proved that the two nearly identical fragments – the London one inscribed with the name of the Caliph al-Mustansir billah and the Berlin one – have been produced in a royal workshop in Egypt from which caliphs commissioned the creation of their cloths.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Obtained from the Reinhardt Collection.","bibliography":"Kühnel, E., *Islamische Stoffe aus ägyptischen Gräbern*, Berlin, 1927, pp.22–3 no. 3132, plate 7.  \nKühnel, E. and Bellinger, L., *Catalogue of Dated Tiraz Fabrics, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid*, Washington, 1959, p.75.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Berlin, 1979, cat. no. 301.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Stuttgart; Zürich, 1980, no. 16, pp.44–5.","dynasty":"Fatimid; reign of Al-Mustansir billah","materials":["Cotton and silk, weft rep, woven-in text."],"keywords":["Tiraz fabric; robe; kufic; royal workshop; royal manufacture; Fatimid textiles; geometric patterns"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"afc571f4-5986-5e46-b1ec-3dde40394350":{"name":"Mosque of al-Azhar.","description":"The Mosque of al-Azhar, was the first to be built in the Fatimid city of Cairo, and is the oldest and biggest Islamic university in the Islamic world, attracting students from a multiplicity of nations. The present standing structure does not date back in its entirety to the original Fatimid mosque, the rectangular surface area of which occupied only 70 m x 85 m. Today the building occupies over double that area, the dimensions reaching to 120 m x 130 m, owing to the various additions made at different periods. The ground-plan of the mosque at the time it was built was an open courtyard surrounded by three porticoes, the largest of which is the eastern portico (that of the *qibla*), which is composed of five arcades. The arcade that overlooks the courtyard is supported by piers, while the remaining arcades are supported on marble columns. The southern and northern porticoes are composed of three arcades. The western side of the courtyard was not originally colonnaded. In the middle of the western wall was the main portal, which used to be crowned by a minaret. In the past there were two other entrances on the north and south walls of the mosque. The present entrance, on the western façade, was built by Amir Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in the year AH 1167 / AD 1753. Its creation allowed the two Mamluk *madrasas*: Taybarsiyya and the Aqbughawiyya to be incorporated into the mosque.  \nThe Mosque of al-Azharis the first example of a mosque with a transept aisle in Islamic Egypt. The eastern portico of the mosque is interrupted by a transept aisle with columned arches running vertical to the *qibla* wall. The ceiling of the transept aisle is higher than that of the *qibla* portico. The curvatures of the transept arches are decorated with inscriptions in *kufic* script taken from the Qur'an, and the arches themselves are decorated with leafy vegetal decorative motifs. The arches of the transept aisle, in addition to those extending along the courtyard of the mosque, are all that remains of the original arches of the mosque.  \nThe innovation of the transept aisle in mosque architecture had been seen before in the Umayyad Great Mosque in Damascus (built AH 96 / AD 714) as well as the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia (built AH 155 / AD 772, and renovated in AH 221 / AD 836).  \nThe original Fatimid *mihrab* in the Mosque of al-Azhar is crowned by a Mamluk dome which dates back to the AH 9th century / AD 15th century; it replaced the original Fatimid dome. There were once two domes in the two corners of the *qibla* area but they no longer exist. Similar examples of the two-dome style can be seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and in the Great Mosque of Susa in Tunisia.  \nThe Fatimid Caliph al-Hafiz li Din Allah (r. AH 524–44 / AD 1130–49) added a single arcade around all four sides of the courtyard of the mosque. This addition was influenced by Maghrebi (North African) mosque design, where they are known as side wings. Similar examples can be seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, the Great Mosque of Susa and in the Mosque of Zaytuna in Tunisia.  \nVarious modifications and additions have been made to the mosque throughout its long history: Al-Hafiz li Din Allah undertook the construction of a dome over the entrance of the transept. It is considered the oldest inscribed dome in Egypt and some of its carvings and *kufic* inscriptions are still preserved. In AH 1167 / AD 1753, Amir Abd al Rahman Katkhuda added a large area enclosed by four arcades behind the *qibla* area of the mosque. The minarets belonging to this mosque do not date to the Fatimid period; the present minarets are attributed to Sultan Qaytbay in AH 873 / AD 1468; Sultan al-Ghuri in AH 915 / AD 1510 and Amir Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in AH 1167 / AD 1753.  \nThe Mosque of al-Azhar was built to be the congregational mosque of Fatimid Cairo, specifically designated for the Shi'a congregation – the movement aligned to the Fatimid state – avoiding a clash with those people in Egypt who were Sunni. Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) eliminated the *khutba* (sermon) in the Mosque of al-Azhar in AH 567 / AD 1171 but later Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77) resumed the *khutba* in the mosque, which flourished in the Mamluk period and became the equivalent of the Great Islamic University. The Azhar Mosque was at the centre of the opposition movement against the French in the latter half of the AH 12th / AD 18th century and today it is a university of religion and modern sciences that has become the destination of students from all over the Islamic world.","short_description":"The first mosque to be built in Fatimid Cairo and the oldest religious university, it was designated initially to teach Shi'ite jurisprudence (later Sunni). Salaries were paid by the Caliph to its 35 *faqihs* (jurisconsults) who resided in the vicinity of the mosque. Throughout the ages students from Islamic countries circled around their instructors in the four Sunni schools around its open courtyard.","dates":"Hegira 359–61 / AD 970–72.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"Dating of the monument is based on evidence of a text inscribed within the drum of the dome to the right of the *minbar* and the *mihrab*, which includes the names of the builder and the supervisor of construction, as well as the date of the construction of the dome: 360 (971).","bibliography":"Behrens-Abouseif, D., *Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction,* Cairo, 1998.  \nBerchem, M., van, *Une Mosquee du Temps des Fatimides au Caire.* Cairo, 1889.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Muslim Architecture of Egypt,* Vol. I, Oxford, 1952.  \nAl-Jabarti, Abd al-Rahman, (d. 1240 / 1825), *Aja'ib al-Athar fi al-Tarajim wa al-Akhbar \\[The Wonders of Monuments in Biographies and News\\],* Cairo, 1958.  \nZaki, Abd al-Rahman, *Al-Azhar wa ma hawlahu min al-Athar \\[Al-Azhar and Surrounding Monuments\\],* Cairo, 1971.","patrons":"The Fatimid Caliph al-Muizz li Din Allah (r. in Egypt AH 358–65 / AD 969–75).","architects":"General Jawhar al-Saqalli who conquered Egypt in AH 358 / AD 969 supervised the construction.","dynasty":"Fatimid.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["University; kufic script; inscription; vegetal decoration; educational architecture; religious architecture; transept aisle; congregational mosque."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b55d65e0-7851-5d7f-94f3-89e36361d38d":{"name":"Door wings of al-Hakim bi-Amrillah.","description":"The door from the Congregational Mosque of al-Azhar is made up of two leafs, each of which contains seven rectangular panels, some of which are vertical and others, horizontal. The two top panels are decorated by a two-line inscription in floriated *kufic* script. It should be noted that the position of these two door panels were switched around when they were remounted. In order to read the text in the appropriate way, one must read in reverse order and begin by reading the top line of the panel on the left-hand side and then continue with the top line from the panel on the right-hand side, in the following manner: “Our Lord, the Commander of the Faithful / the Imam, al-Hakim bi-Amrillah / May the Blessings of God be upon him and upon / his ancestors, al-Tahireen, and his descendants”.  \nAl-Hakim bi-Amrillah was the specific title assumed by the Fatimid Caliph, al-Mansur. His agnomen was *Abu Ali* (Father of Ali). The inscription ends with a prayer on behalf of the Fatimid caliph, and is a well-known Fatimid supplication that ascribes the attribute, *al-Tahireen*, to the ancestors of the Fatimid caliphs. This is a term that alludes to those who are considered as being far beyond reproach, stain, or sin and it was an attribute applied to those who belonged to the family of the Prophet Muhammad and those who were related to this family, such as the Fatimid caliphs. The 12 remaining panels are ornamented with carved vegetal motifs in low relief. These decorations clearly reveal the particularities of the early Fatimid style of wood carving, a style of slanted, bevelled engraving, and one which is distinctive of the Tulunid style. It may be observed that the decorative elements assume the form of vegetal stems, marked by their length, and the use of decoration in the form of bi-segmented palm fronds. It should also be noted that the decorative vocabulary includes a new design motif, in the form of a kidney-shaped blossom developed from the winged leaf. Thus the door of al-Hakim sheds light on the development of Islamic woodcarving and assists in the dating of some other wooden objects of the period.","short_description":"An example of the flourishing woodcarving industry in Fatimid Cairo, this door, donated by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah to al-Azhar Mosque, stands proof of the patronage of Fatimid caliphs of religious institutions and their maintenance and reconstruction.","type":"Woodwork, door wings, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 386–411 / AD 996–1021.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 325 cm, width 200 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by the name of the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah which appears on it. Furthermore, dating is based on the known interest that al-Hakim took in the building and maintenance of the al-Azhar Congregational Mosque, for he enlarged the mosque by adding two colonnaded arcades (*riwaqs)* in the courtyard. Historians also allude to the *waqf* (endowment) in the name of al-Hakim that dates to 400 / 1009 and the fact that revenues from the endowment are reverted to al-Azhar Mosque to be spent on the salaries of the *Khatib* (orator), *a'imma* (*imams*, prayer leaders), *mu'addiniin* (muezzins), servants, furnishing, other implements and for lighting and lighting accessories.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the door alludes specifically to Al-Hakim bi-Amrillah which was the title assumed by the Fatimid Caliph, al-Mansur. It is known that the caliph took an active interest in the building and maintenance of the al-Azhar Congregational Mosque and that the *waqf* in the name of al-Hakim directs revenues from the endowment to al-Azhar Mosque. The door was transferred from the mosque to the Museum of Islamic Art in the early 20th century.","provenance":"Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"This door was transferred from the Congregational Mosque of al-Azhar and preserved in the Museum of Islamic Art; as one of the museum's first acquisitions in around 1903 it formed the basis of the collection.","bibliography":"Al-Pasha, H., et al, *al-Qāhira, ārikhuha, fūnunuha, Āthāruha \\[Cairo, its History, Arts and Monuments\\],* Cairo, 1970.  \nEttinghausen, R., and Grabar, O., *The Art and Architecture of Islam 650–1250,* New Haven and London, 1987.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Atlas al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya wa al-Tasawir al-Islamiya \\[Atlas of Islamic Decorative Arts and Pictorial Representations\\], Beirut, 1981.*  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Kunuz al-Fatimiyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids\\],* Cairo, 1937.  \nPauty, E., *Catalogue du musée arabe du Caire,* Cairo, 1931.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Carving on wood."],"keywords":["Door; high relief; bevelled style; wood; kufic script; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; carving; patronage"],"author":"Salah Sayour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b6c68555-4721-5c09-8439-5598ae6f7fdd":{"name":"Fragment of woven linen.","description":"A textile fragment of plain-woven linen with tapestry-woven decorative bands executed in silk, the pattern comprising three horizontal, superposed decorative bands, each separated by areas of plain weaving. The uppermost band, flanked by golden scrolling borders with red outlines and blue detailing, contains a zigzag band with a simple scroll outlined in red on a golden ground. Blue trident-like motifs fill the remaining spaces above and below the zigzag pattern. Below this is a slightly narrower decorative stripe that has a cursive inscription set against a deep-red background, flanked by stylised split-palmette borders above and below. The third and narrowest band has a central wavy green strip on a gold background, and two gold palmette-scroll borders set on a red ground.  \n  \nThis textile fragment is a good example of the artistic influence that the Coptic communities who settled in Egypt had on textile production during the Fatimid period. There remains to this day a sizeable Coptic population in Egypt.","short_description":"Islamic Egypt was famed for the production of sophisticated wool, linen and silk textiles made in specialist workshops. These were manned by Coptic Christian textile workers as well as Muslims. This textile was collected by Henry Wallis (1830–1916), a famous painter and expert on Middle Eastern ceramics.","type":"Fatimid textile, woven linen, tapestry silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height 33.02 cm, width 33.02 cm.","method_for_datation":"This textile has been tentatively dated to the 6th/12th century on the basis of general similarities with other textiles of the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"It is assumed that textile fragments with this type of decoration and epigraphic detail were produced in Fatimid Egypt. This is due to so many having been found in burials and excavations throughout Upper Egypt in particular.","provenance":"From a tomb at al-Drounka, Egypt.","obtention":"This textile together with several other Fatimid textile fragments were acquired by NMS in 1898 from Henry Wallis, a famous Pre-Raphaelite painter, who travelled and painted extensively in Egypt and elsewhere. Subsequently he became a highly respected expert on Egyptian and Persian ceramics.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Plain-woven linen, and tapestry-woven silk."],"keywords":["Al-Drounka; linen; silk; Henry Wallis; Fatimid textiles; textile"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"bf4c064f-18e5-529c-9e76-c152ef139f78":{"name":"Ribat and Mosque of the Sayyida.","description":"The only surviving parts of the *ribat* are the mosque in the south part and the western wing of the small fort, both discovered during site excavations. A single-storey building, the *ribat* does not have a lookout tower. Whereas most Tunisian *ribat*s have circular towers, the Sayyida Ribat excavations have exposed polygonal towers at the corners and the centre of the western wall. Several tiny cells made of quarry-stone rubble have been found. These probably served to accommodate warrior monks. Leading to these is a gallery which must have been supported by a square pillar. However, the most well-preserved part of the site is the mosque. It consists of a rectangular prayer hall (10 m x 6.75 m) with three naves and two bays. This room is roofed with groin-vaults supported by very high-pitched semi-circular arch-beams. These come to rest on cruciform pillars. The *mihrab* is at the back and consists of a fluted half-dome above a frieze of flowery *kufic* script, with Qur'anic verses dating from the AH 5th century (AD 11th).  \nThe niche of the *mihrab* has five blind arcades with horseshoe-shaped back walls containing medallions of stylised rosettes. The decoration of this *mihrab* is identical to that of the Great Mosque at Monastir and similar to that of al-Qsar Mosque in Tunis, dating from the Fatimo-Zirid period.","short_description":"All that remains of the original *ribat* is the mosque and the west wing of the fort. Built on a single storey, the *ribat*, which was probably named after a princess, has no watchtower. The mosque, which consists of a rectangular prayer room, is the best preserved part of the monument. It is not known exactly when the *ribat* was abandoned as the oratory continued to be used for worship until recently.","dates":"Hegira mid-3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Monastir","method_for_datation":"The remaining parts of the *ribat*, along with its floor plan, show that it is of the same design as the Aghlabid *ribat*s which were built in the early to mid-3rd / 9th century. Furthermore, the decoration of the *mihrab* in the oratory, and the *kufic* inscription which adorns it, are typical of the Ifriqiyan decorative repertoire of the late 4th–mid-5th century (AD 10th–11th century).","bibliography":"Marçais, G., *L'art musulman*, Paris, 1962, pp.110–12.  \nZbiss, S. M., *A travers les monuments musulman de Tunisie, Tunis, 1963, p.59.*  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.212–14.","history":"The *ribat* was built in the mid-3rd / 9th century but its oratory was very probably renovated between the end of the 4th and the first half of the 5th century (AD 10th–11th). The *ribat* was abandoned for an indeterminate period, whereas the oratory continued to be used for prayer until quite recently.","patrons":"Probably an Aghlabid princess of unrecorded name. Or it could be that the *ribat* carries the name of a Zirid princess who was buried there at the time of the renovation of the oratory or later.","dynasty":"Aghlabid and Zirid.","materials":[],"keywords":["ribat; mosque; Aghlabid period; Zirid period; military architecture"],"author":"Saloua Zangar"},"c9e57bf4-504f-5953-928e-e4f5dacd9861":{"name":"Fragment of woven linen and silk.","description":"A woven linen and silk slit-tapestry fragment in cream, golden yellow, crimson and blue. The design consists of three superposed bands, the uppermost and the lowest identical in appearance. The design is tripartite, with two bands of *naskhi* script rendered in red on a gold background, and flanking a gold-coloured central guilloche band outlined in red with gold-coloured rabbit-like motifs in the centre of every loop. Narrow stripes with wavy patterning complete the pattern. The inscriptions in the epigraphic panels read: *‘… wa al-iqbal’* (‘… and prosperity’). In between these two bands is a broader panel with a complex, gathered linear interlaced design in gold and red which employs individual gold-coloured rabbit-like motifs set against a red ground.","short_description":"Fatimid Egypt was famous for the production of sophisticated silk textiles produced in court-sponsored workshops known as ‘*tiraz*’ workshops. Most were fashioned into royal garments for the sultan and his court or robes of honour to be bestowed on worthy courtiers, dignitaries or foreign diplomats.","type":"Fatimid textile woven linen and silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira 570–96 / AD third quarter of the 12th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 24 cm, width 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"The decorative style of this textile fragment places it within the category of very late Fatimid textiles, characterized by the exclusive use of golden yellow and red, together with the complexity of the interlace designs which covers the central band completely. The inscription in *naskhi* script also helps to place the production of this piece within the reign of the last Fatimid rulers. Furthermore this item has been dated on the basis of its striking similarity to a linen and silk fragment in the Bouvier Collection in Geneva, which is dated 570–96 / third quarter of the 12th century.","method_for_provenance":"It is assumed that textile fragments with this type of decoration and epigraphic detail were produced in Fatimid Egypt. This is due to so many having been found in burials and excavations throughout Upper Egypt in particular.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the NMS in 1979 from Spink and Son Ltd, London.","bibliography":"*Tissus d’Egypte: Témoins du Monde Arabe VIIIe – Xve siècles,* Geneva / Paris 1993, p.259, cat. no. 158 (for discussion of similar piece).  \nKendrick, A. F., *Catalogue of Muhammadan Textiles of the Medieval Period,* London 1924, p.18, cat. no. 887, plate iv (for a very similar piece).","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven linen and silk."],"keywords":["Silk; linen; naskhi script; textile; workshop; Fatimid textiles"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"cb759986-93f3-578a-a7c7-9068cd703d02":{"name":"Jar.","description":"A jar with tiered decoration consisting of four bands: two with a chain of leafs, one with a row of five running hares and another with a row of calligraphy. The calligraphy consists of a repetition of the word *Baraka*, meaning blessings or bounty. The use of words or phrases that blessed the owner or user on the one hand, while acknowledging God's bounty in being able to posses such items and their contents on the other, was common on Islamic ceramics of the time. The row of running hares shows two of the five looking backwards, while the other three run facing forwards. All the hares wear a studded collar-band.  \n  \nTowards the end of the AH 4th century / AD 10th century the Egyptian potters began to use lustre-painted decoration on their pots. They seem to have learned the technique from Iraqi potters who had migrated to Egypt; they in turn had first learned to paint-in-lustre from the glassmakers of Syria and Egypt during the AH 3rd century / AD 9th century.","short_description":"The expensive lustre-painted decorative technique on this Fatimid Egyptian ceramic jar came from Iraqi with potters migrating to Fustat. Its typical Fatimid decoration and calligraphic band of script also find their origin in the decorative style developed originally in the Abbasid city of Samarra in Iraq.","type":"Earthenware","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"Hegira late 4th–early 5th century / AD late 10th–early 11th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height 20.3 cm, width 21.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis: the style of the hares and the band of *kufic* script resemble those on other ceramic objects and fragments found in Fustat that have been attributed to the Fatimid period in Egypt.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Grube, E. J., *Islamic Pottery of the Eighth to the Fifteenth Century in the Keir Collection*, London, 1976.  \n  \nRaby, J., (ed), *Cobalt and Lustre: The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery*, the Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Oxford, 1994.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glazed and lustre-painted earthenware."],"keywords":["Crafts; calligraphy; zoomorphic imagery; animal decoration"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"cfe5bd9c-e197-550b-b7be-fc5f83730d8f":{"name":"One of a pair of earrings.","description":"Gold manufacturing has been known in Syria from at least 2000 BC. Gold artefacts, moulds, and various goldsmiths' tools have been found in numerous Syrian archaeological sites, including those at Ugarit, Mushrifa, and Ebla. During the Classical period, gold jewellery was widely produced in Syria, particularly in Hawran, Palmyra (Tadmur) and Homs.  \nThe development of gold manufacturing in Syria continued during the Islamic period, as exemplified by surviving examples such as this single earring, made from woven gold in the form of a circular disk with radiating edges lined by a string of pearls. In the centre of the disc is a triangular formation of two red rubies and a green emerald. A circular ruby instead of a pearl indicates the top side of the disc, out of which protrudes a link to another triangular set of three precious stones mirroring the ones on the filigree disk, a green emerald and two red rubies set within gold mounts. Above them, located near the ear wire, is a final decorative feature of a little pierced golden sphere also containing a precious stone; an emerald.","short_description":"This gold filigree earring encrusted with precious emeralds, rubies and pearls indicates the high quality of jewellery production for which the Fatimid period is famed. Similar finds from Egypt and Syria abound.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 5th–6th / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 5 cm, width (of disk) 2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The production of highly refined gold jewellery flourished in Egypt and Syria during the Fatimid period (358–567 / AD 969–1171). The techniques employed included filigree and a method using granules of gold; twisted rope-like gold, and occasionally inlay work with gems were also employed. Products include bracelets, armlets, earrings, pendants, rings, belts, brooches, and hair ornaments.","method_for_provenance":"During the Fatimid period, the gold-production centres of Syria and Egypt flourished, particularly those in Aleppo and Cairo. Although this item was obtained by the Museum from Raqqa, it is not possible to determine the provenance of this object definitively.","obtention":"Purchased in 1949.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.196.  \nAtil, E. et al, *Islamic Metalwork in the Freer Gallery of Art*, Washington DC, 1985.  \nSeipel, W., *Schätze der Kalifen: Islamische Kunst zur Fatimidenzeit*, Wien, 1998, pp.119–20; fig. 77.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven gold."],"keywords":["Earrings; gold, woven; Aleppo; Cairo; Raqqa"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"d1baf7da-b838-5564-a184-03f1f16c1457":{"name":"Fragment of woven linen.","description":"A fragment with two superposed decorative bands separated from each other by an area of plain weave. Both bands are identical in design: guilloches rendered in a yellowish gold colour, set against a blue background. The central areas of the guilloche’s loops have light-coloured palmette-leaves in them, which are set against either a red or black background. The guilloche band of is flanked above and below by two red stripes, each containing a light-coloured *kufic* inscription enhanced by regularly disposed, gold-coloured scrolling motifs; the outer borders of these are formed by a system of interlocking wave-like designs. The inscription has been deciphered as: ‘victory comes from God’. Akhmim in Egypt lies on the east bank of the River Nile. The linen-weaving industry was an important one there, and textiles and handicrafts are still produced in Akhmim today.","short_description":"Many Fatimid and Mamluk textiles have been found in burials around Akhmim, an important Egyptian textile centre with a famous linen-weaving industry. Interestingly, the history of Akhmim is closely linked with that of the Coptic community in Egypt and retains a sizeable Coptic population to this day.","type":"Fatimid textile, woven linen and silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira, late 5th–early 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height: 16 cm, width: 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"A fragment in the Bouvier Collection in Geneva bears a close stylistic resemblance with this piece and it has been dated to the late 5th–early 6th / first half of the 12th century.","method_for_provenance":"The item was found in Akhmim, Egypt and belongs to a group of well-defined Fatimid textiles.","provenance":"Akhmim, Egypt.","obtention":"Bought from the Hilton-Price Collection, 1911.","bibliography":"*Tissus d'Egypte: Temoins du Monde Arabe VIIIe - XVe siecles*, Collection Bouvier, Geneva, Geneva / Paris, 1993, pp.244–5, cat. no. 146 (for a similar fragment).","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven linen and silk."],"keywords":["Akhmim; silk; linen; kufic script; Coptic; workshop; textile; Fatmid textiles"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"d4d8f026-9350-59c7-985e-107aaa7a0acb":{"name":"Wooden panel.","description":"A wooden panel with a sloping undecorated frame. The highly decorative subject of the panel itself is carved in high relief, depicting two identical bridled horse heads facing in opposite directions. The horses, which are of a highly stylised arabesque form, are set against a background of vegetal-stem and leaf motifs. The manes and the bridles of the two horses are decorated in low relief. The surface of the panel is ornamented with vegetal motifs in the shape of two branches, which emanate from the middle of the base and extend in two directions, conjoining between the necks of the two horses, hemming in between them beautiful sprouting leaf designs. The two branches then wind their way to the top with foliage decoration in the form of two semi palm-leaf fan designs. The panel clearly manifests the even division of sections on the surface, the harmony of decoration in each section and the detailed symmetry between the two vertical halves of the panel.  \nIt is possible to compare this panel with another, similar, housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. It too is carved in wood, adorned by two horse heads facing in opposite directions, and carved in high relief. This piece may have furnished a door, a cupboard, or a wooden screen.","short_description":"Fatimid artisans were skilled in combining different animal and vegetal elements in their decorative designs. One of their techniques was carving in high and low relief. This wooden panel carved in high relief resembles another housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 33 cm, width 22 cm.","method_for_datation":"This panel was dated based on the detail and skill in the animal and vegetal depictions as decorative motifs, as well as the detail in the carvings of these decorative portrayals, which are extremely naturalistic, and part of an art form, which reached its climax during the Fatimid period. The prolific appearance of the horse with specific traits in the decorative vocabulary of this era also assisted in the dating. At the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo there is a wooden door that dates to the Fatimid period that was discovered in the Maristan of Qalawun, which was originally part of the Western Fatimid Palace. One of the panels from this door is adorned by two horses whose style of carving and decoration closely resembles that used in the execution of the panel discussed here.","method_for_provenance":"The art of wood carving flourished in Islamic Egypt and continued to develop until it reached a high level of skill after the Fatimid Conquest of Egypt in 358 / 969. The style of carving and decoration on this panel closely resembles that used in the decoration of the panels of the Fatimid door whose provenance has been narrowed down to Egypt.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This piece was bought by the museum in 1909 from an antiquities dealer, Ilyas Khatoun al-Taji.","bibliography":"\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Trésors fatimides du Caire*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1998.  \nGrabar, O., “Imperial and Urban Art in Islam: The Subject Matter of Fatimid Art”, *Colloque International sur l'histoire du Caire,* 1969, Cairo, 1972, pp.173–89.  \nHamdi, A., et al, *Katalog Ma'rid al-fan al-islāmi fi misr \\[Catalogue of the Islamic Art Exhibition in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1969.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Funun al-Islam \\[Arts of Islam\\],* Cairo, 1948.  \nKhadr, M. Y., *Tarikh al-Funun al-Islamiyya \\[History of Islamic Arts\\],* UAE, 2003.  \nYasin, Abd al-Nasir, *Al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya al-Islamiyya fi Masr mundhu al-Fath al-Arabi hatta Nihayat al-'Asr al-Fatimi: Dirasa Athariya wa Hadariya lil-Ta'thirat al-Wafida \\[Islamic Decorative Arts in Egypt from the Time of the Arab Conquests to the End of the Fatimid Era: A Study of Emanating Influences on Archaeology and Civilisation\\],* Alexandria, 2002.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Wood, carved in high relief with incised decorations for some of the details."],"keywords":["Panel; high relief; low relief; figurative decoration; vegetal decoration."],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e0d8deeb-f886-5cc2-84a5-fd934f5025aa":{"name":"Column with *kufic* inscription.","description":"Column with a slight entasis (swelling)and an echinus (convex moulding). On the top of the shaft, within a rectangular scroll, there is an Arabic inscription in *kufic* characters that recites a *basmala*, according to M. Amari’s interpretation (see Bibliography): ‘In the name of God, the merciful and compassionate’. In the centre of the column, within a square scroll, is inscribed the *shahada*, or profession of faith: ‘There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet’. Until 1874, it was outside the main gateway of the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, on the right. It originally came from a religious building, a mosque possibly transformed into an oratory, that was probably erected in the vicinity of the medieval church. There is another column in the Regional Gallery of Sicilia (inventory no. 5100) with very similar inscriptions, also from a church in Palermo, which no longer exists: San Giacomo la Mazzara. The austere Fatimid style, offering almost no decoration, was also adopted in Sicily and remained in use during the Norman era.","short_description":"This column can be dated to the time of Islamic rule in Sicily by the *kufic* characters in the inscription that appears in the centre of the column inside a square scroll.","type":"Column, marble","holder":"Regional Gallery of Sicilia, Abatellis Palace","dates":"Around Hegira 5th / AD 11th century.","location":"Palermo","dimensions":"Height 166 cm, width 27 cm.","method_for_datation":"Attributable to the period of Islamic domination in Sicily due to the presence of the inscription in *kufic* characters.","method_for_provenance":"From documents that attest to the column originating from the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi.","provenance":"Uncertain, from near the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, Palermo.","obtention":"Deposited with the Royal Museum of Palermo.","bibliography":"Amari, M., *Le Epigrafi Arabiche di Sicilia: Iscrizioni Edili*, New edition (ed. F. Gabrieli), Palermo, 1971, no. XX, pp.107–8.  \nDelogu, R., *La Galleria Nazionale della Sicilia*, Rome, 1977, pp.9, 58.  \nScerrato, U.,“Arte Islamica in Italia”, in *Gli Arabi in Italia*, (eds. F. Gabrieli and U. Scerrato), Milan, 1979, pp.282–3 and fig. 179.","artist":"Fatimid epigraphist active around the AH 5th / AD 11th century.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Sculpted marble."],"keywords":["Arab-Norman; mosque; kufic; column."],"author":"Rita Bernini","copy_editor":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"e179ff65-79d3-5bba-97ab-c8056af7e861":{"name":"Handkerchief/ textile fragment.","description":"A handkerchief square, bordered along two of its sides by a series of silk-embroidered bands of chain stitch in red, yellow, black and white. Each series of bands is composed of an outer band, embellished by two undulating branches, flanking smaller ones. Next to this decorative band, is a broader one that is composed in its turn, of three smaller bands: The two border bands are decorated with a repetitive inscription in *kufic* script of the owner's name: 'al-bi-Allah'. The middle band is embellished by a successive series of birds with flying leaves drifting from their necks; this band is flanked by two thin borders filled with geometric decorative motifs.  \nThis handkerchief is attributed to the Fatimid caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah who ruled from AH 365–86 / AD 975–96, and who was known for his tolerant policies towards the Copts, and his patronage and encouragement of the craftsmen of the Coptic community to the point where they exerted great efforts to excel in their arts and craftsmanship. The artisans used decorative components that were influenced to a large extent by Coptic art, such as for instance the portrayal of pigeons inside roundels.  \nVarious types of textile production flourished during the Fatimid period, and silk was used extensively in the decoration and embellishment of textiles. The Fatimid Empire enjoyed great wealth, and this was reflected in splendid appearances in various aspects of their lives, and in particular in their apparel, which included richly woven and embroidered turbans, cloaks and handkerchiefs.","short_description":"Fatimid caliphs paid great attention to the textile industry and appointed a master of *Tiraz* to supervise textile affairs. Some silk textiles were made only for the caliph, including this piece, which bears the name of the Fatimid Caliph al-'Aziz bi-Allah in embroidery.","type":"Handkerchief, textile","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 365–86 / AD 975–96.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 40 cm, width 40 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated based on the band of inscription, which consists of the name of the Fatimid caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah (r. 365–86 / 975–96).","method_for_provenance":"This handkerchief is attributed to the Fatimid caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah who ruled in Egypt from AH 365–86 / AD 975–96.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This object was given as a gift to the museum in 1930, by Maurice Nahman, who was a dealer in antiquities.","bibliography":"Baker, P., *Islamic Textiles*, London, 1995.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Kunuzal-Fatimiyyin \\[Fatimid Treasures\\],* Beirut, 1981.  \nMarzuq, Muhammad Abd al-Aziz, *al-Zakhrafa al-Mansuja fi al-Aqmisha \\[Woven Design on Fabrics\\],* Cairo, 1942.  \nRizq, 'Asim M., *Marakiz al-Sina'a fi Masr al-Islamiya \\[Manufacturing Centres in Islamic Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1989.  \nSpuhler, F., *Islamic Carpets and Textiles in the Keir Collection,* London, 1978.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Linen decorated with silk embroidery."],"keywords":["Embroidery; silk; figurative decoration; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; chain stitch; textile; costume; workshop; kufic; animal decoration; bird; figurative representation; geometric decoration; patronage; Fatimid textiles"],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e69c15fd-110a-59c2-9a6e-7ae708a7ea8e":{"name":"Ewer.","description":"A ewer carved from a single piece of rock-crystal. It has a pear-shaped body, beaked rim, and slightly splayed foot; a handle, which originally had a vertical thumb-piece at its apex, joins the rim to the lower part of the body. The body of the ewer is decorated on either side with identical scenes of a bird of prey attacking a four-legged animal with horns (a gazelle?). These vignettes are framed by large, leafy arabesque motifs. The whole design is contained within a delicate raised band which goes around the neck and down the body of the ewer on either side of the handle. This band acts as a frame and gives the design the feel of a textile wrapped around the ewer’s body. All of the details are drilled and cut with great skill, including the texturing in the form of lines and dots covering the bird and animal and the leaves of the arabesque patterns. Objects like this ewer were among the thousands of precious items looted from the Fatimid treasury during the unrest of 450 AH / AD 1060. A number of these made their way to Europe, where they were used as reliquaries in church treasuries.","short_description":"A pear-shaped ewer carved from a single block of the clear, colourless quartz known as rock-crystal. It is one of a number of luxury wares carved from rock-crystal for the Fatimid court in Cairo. Many such objects made their way into European church treasuries, where they were used as reliquaries.","type":"Glasswork","holder":"Victoria and Albert Museum.","dates":"About hegira 391–452 / AD 1000–1060.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 19.4 cm, diameter (of base) 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"There is a clear relationship between this ewer and a group of others in European collections, one of which has an inscription naming the Fatimid Caliph al-‘Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96). The decoration on the V&A ewer, including the arabesque pattern, is more complex and mature than is that on the others, suggesting a later date. Finally, Fatimid rock-crystal production was severely disrupted when violent social upheavals began in AH 452 / AD 1061.","method_for_provenance":"Cairo was the Fatimid capital and thus the likeliest place that an object of such quality would have been made.","provenance":"Probably Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the Museum in 1862.","bibliography":"Contadini, A., Fatimid Art at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 1998, pp.16–38.  \n  \nStanley, T., with Rosser-Owen, M. and Vernoit, S., Palace and Mosque: Islamic Art from the Middle East, London, 2004, pp.94–5.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Carved rock-crystal."],"keywords":["figurative decoration; floral decoration; rock-crystal; carving; incision; animal decoration; bird; arabesque; reliquary; sumptuary art"],"author":"Barry Wood","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e7f528ce-cc22-5805-85cd-54b2590d990f":{"name":"Chess piece.","description":"A large, circular chess piece with incised concentric circles, dots and lines. This abstract piece probably represents a King or Queen. The game of chess originated in India and reached Persia (Iran) during the Sassanid period in the AH 1st / AD 6th century. Arabic treatises on chess appear in the mid- AH 3rd / AD 9th century. From the Arab World, knowledge of the game passed to the West where pieces were often modelled on Islamic prototypes. This chess piece must have been part of a particularly impressive set. An almost identical piece is now in the Museum of Islamic Art in Berlin. The Fatimids in Egypt were active patrons of luxury objects made of ivory. After conquering Sicily in the early AH 4th / AD 10th century, the way was opened for Muslim craftsmen to travel to Sicily. This resulted in the transference of Fatimid-style painting and decorative arts to Sicily, which continued even after the Normans conquered the island in AH 477/ AD 1085.","short_description":"Chess originated in India but soon became popular throughout the Islamic world and beyond. This large ivory chess piece must have belonged to a luxury set made for a patron of high rank or for the Fatimid royal court.","type":"Ivory","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th or 5th century / AD 10th or 11th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 5.6 cm, diameter 5.1 cm.","method_for_datation":"The shape and material of this piece relates to other pieces made in Fatimid Egypt in the 4th or 5th / 10th or 11th centuries. Given that there is a similarity in shape with another King or Queen chess piece made of rock crystal at the Victoria and Albert Museum, which is dated to the early 4th / 10th century, it is likely that this ivory piece is contemporaneous.","method_for_provenance":"This piece would have been made in Fatimid Egypt or Sicily in the 4th–5th / 10th–11th centuries.","provenance":"Egypt or Sicily.","obtention":"Acquired in 1862.","bibliography":"Contadini, A., \"Islamic Ivory Chess Pieces, Draughtsmen and Dice in the Ashmolean Museum\", in *Islamic Art in the Ashmolean Museum: Oxford Studies in Islamic Art*, Oxford, 1995.  \n  \nPhillips, T., (ed.), *Africa: The Art of a Continent*, London, 1996, pp.582–3, cat. no. 7.49.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Ivory."],"keywords":["Game; ivory; southern Italy"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e918c2ab-31e1-5d30-a10e-dc11b5fe5e5f":{"name":"Bowl.","description":"An intact aquamarine-coloured glass bowl with a short flared neck, stained with dark-brown silver that resembles lustre painting. Blown in a mould with 15 vertical ribs, the glass is thick with numerous small bubbles. The decoration consists of vertical lines radiating from the base and a frieze of curling motifs just below the neck, between two horizontal bands. A further band runs around the rim of the bowl. When viewed from below the ribs and rays create a solar design, suggesting that this object may have been used as a lamp, suspended from the neck. The radial pattern recalls earlier glassware, whereas the curling motif is a common type of decoration on stained-glass from this period. Glassmakers in Egypt were particularly prolific during the Fatimid period, using skills inherited from the glass workshops of the Roman period.","short_description":"This bowl is remarkable: despite being made of finely moulded glass some 900 yeas ago, it remains completely intact. Lustre-painted glass was one of the many luxury objects that were prized during the Fatimid era.","type":"Stained glass","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 8.5 cm, diameter 10.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"Restrained designs painted with stains are usually attributed to the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"The technique and decoration resemble other Fatimid glassware produced in Egypt. Furthermore, the bowl was found in Atfih in Egypt.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the Museum in 1902.","bibliography":"Carboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., Glass of the Sultans, New Haven and London, 2001, cat. no. 109, pp.220–1.  \n  \nHarden, D. B., and others, The British Museum: masterpieces of glass, a selection, London, 1968, p.112, no. 150.  \n  \nLamm, C. J., Mittelalterliche Gläser und Steinschnittarbeiten aus dem Nahen Osten, 2 vols. Forschungen zur islamischen Kunst, 5, Berlin, 1929–30, plate 37:9.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Mould-blown, stained glass."],"keywords":["Mould; blown; stained glass;"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f182ff55-9430-5024-a039-37fa558855a8":{"name":"Large dish.","description":"A large dish with a surface edge that bends outward to a rim embellished by a consecutive series of triangles that resemble the jagged teeth of a saw. The interior of the dish is painted with a portrayal of a seated woman playing a stringed instrument that looks like a guitar. She wears a long garment with a V-shaped collar and wide sleeves, which is decorated with thick stripes and cross shapes. She wears a choker-type necklace, the V-shape of which sits inside the neck of her garment. The designs on her garment, in which the folds around the legs are embellished with decorations, are distinctive to Fatimid apparel. The musician's face is portrayed in profile. A toque, which resembles a turban, crowns her head and two locks of her hair appear from under the headdress on either side of her face along with a small tuft of hair behind her neck. The background around the figure is embellished with irregular surfaces demarcated by thin strokes filled with circles, dots and painted branches from which cone-shaped leaves grow. On the left-hand side of the woman is a delicately designed ewer surrounded by stylised vegetal-leaf designs; from the mouth of the ewer two flowering branches emerge. Below the rim of the dish underneath the painted serrated edge are a series of thick lines.","short_description":"Economic prosperity in the Fatimid period led to the flourishing of the lustre-ware ceramic industry. Such lustre-ware vessels, where the metallic lustre resembles gold, incorporate a variety of decorations including splendid scenes of Fatimid daily and social life.","type":"Dish, ceramics","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 40 cm.","method_for_datation":"The dish was dated based on the study of its painted female musician, and specifically the design and decoration of the clothing she wears. The figure reflects the distinguishing traits that mark the portrayal of people in Fatimid art, including circular moon-shaped faces and almond-shaped eyes. The turban seen on the heads of men, and the toques on the heads of women, are also indicative of the period. In addition, the decorations that are present on the dish are borrowed from the vegetal and non-vegetal decorative motifs seen most commonly on wood, ivory and metal objects of the Fatimid period. This date is further supported by a comparison between this dish and other similar examples that bear the signatures of potters who are associated with the period.","method_for_provenance":"The place of manufacture was narrowed down to Egypt in view of the fact that ceramic production and metallic lustre-ware products were renowned in Fatimid Egypt. This industry grew and flourished in Fustat where archaeological excavations have uncovered a large number of ceramic pieces similar to this dish.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"The dish was bought in 1944 from a dealer of antiquities, Fuqyan Jaan.","bibliography":"\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Trésors fatimides du Caire*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1998.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Funun al-Islam (Arts of Islam),* Cairo, 1948.  \nJenkins, M., “Islamic Pottery: A Brief History”, *Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin,* Vol. 40 (4), spring, 1983.  \nKhadr, M. Y., *Tarikh al-Funun al-Islamiya \\[History of Islamic Art\\],* UAE, 2003.  \nPhilon, H., *Early Islamic Ceramics: Ninth to late Twelfth Centuries*, Athens,Vol. 1, London, 1980.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Ceramic with metallic lustre decoration over a glazed surface."],"keywords":["Metallic lustre; ceramics; figurative decoration; vegetal decoration, dish; female figure; music; musician"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f22479d3-546f-553a-8322-e8c56a9254ef":{"name":"Chess piece.","description":"The game of chess probably has its origin in India and reached the Islamic world via Sassanid Persia. Abstract game figures made out of precious materials like ivory, such as this chess piece, were characteristically used by Arabs. Other materials, such as rock-crystal, were also exploited. A number of pieces made from rock-crystal became part of the treasure collections that belonged to European churches.  \nIts size alone makes this chess piece remarkable and it must have needed the largest and most expensive section of a tusk of the highest quality. Only the most elite circles of society would have commissioned ivory game pieces of this size.  \nThe chess piece has a short and fat cylindrical form, with a rounded cap and button-like top. Its shape guarantees its place among the group of abstract game pieces. This piece is probably the king. The decoration is of particular interest. Stylised cross-shaped, blossom-like ornaments cover its central area at the front and back as well as on the top. They are flanked around the body by stylised trees, and on the top they are surrounded by small crosses and triangles. This decoration is formed from circular drill-holes and dots. The underside of the chess piece has a peculiar feature: three circular holes have been drilled and filled with lead. No single explanation for this has yet been determined. Could it have been to make the piece heavier?  \nThe cross-shaped ornamentation is repeated conspicuously. It is probable that this chess piece was made in Sicily. It has been made according to the traditional manufacture of abstract Arab game pieces, which were customarily employed in southern Italy up until the AH 6th / 12th century.","short_description":"In Islamic countries the game of chess was played with highly stylised figures such as this figure of a king. Decorated with a pattern of circles this ivory chessman is from southern Italy or Sicily, a region that once was part of the Fatimid empire and was thus deeply influenced by Islamic culture.","type":"Chess piece, ivory","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th centuries / 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 6.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"Similar chess pieces have been dated to the 11th–12th century because of their circular dot decoration, which was characteristic of some works of art made during this period in southern Italy.","method_for_provenance":"Similar chess pieces and similarly decorated ivory caskets are attributed to southern Italy or Sicily.","provenance":"Southern Italy or Sicily.","obtention":"Acquired from an art dealer in 1925.","bibliography":"*Chess: East and West, Past and Present*, Catalogue, New York, 1968.  \nContadini, A., “Islamic Ivory Chess Pieces, Draughtsmen and Dice”, in *Islamic Art in the Ashmolean Museum, Part One*, (ed. J. Allan), Oxford Studies in Islamic Art X, Oxford, 1955, pp.111–54, fig. 54.  \nKluge-Pinsker, A., *Schachspiel und Trictac: Zeugnisse Mittelalterlicher Spielfreude in Salischer Zeit*, Sigmaringen, 1991, pp.50–4, fig. 27.  \nKühnel, E., *Die Islamischen Elfenbeinskulpturen, VIII–XIII Jh.*, Berlin, 1971, no. 9, plate V.  \nWichmann, S. and Wichmann, H., *Schach: Ursprung und Wandlung der Spielfigur in Zwölf Jahrhunderten*, Munich, 1960, 282, no. 5, fig. 5.","dynasty":"Fatimid or Norman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":["Ivory, lead."],"keywords":["Ivory; rock-crystal; Sicily"],"author":"Jens Kröger","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"f5c68eab-37f6-5a2c-b181-f87cfef70a15":{"name":"Human head.","description":"The face is that of an apparently fine-featured man but the damage to the nose and mouth is very serious. He wears a turban in the Oriental manner. It reminds us of certain pictures of human figures on pottery of the Samanid era of Nishabour (Iran). The turban is V-shaped and a deep fold extends right across its width. The face is covered with a veil, like several other images of heads from Fatimid Egypt and Umayyad Spain in the AH 4th and 5th / AD 10th and 11th centuries. The man's eyes are quite prominent and seem originally to have been covered by two pieces of glass indicating the irises, like other images found on site at Sabra.  \nThe head's discovery in the Fatimid capital gives weight to the opinion that the Shi'ites, unlike the very iconoclastic Malikites, tolerated human representation in their sculptures.","short_description":"The discovery of this piece in Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the Fatimid capital, supports the idea that Shi'ite Muslims tolerated sculptures of human forms, unlike the very iconoclastic Malikites. This image is similar to others originating from Spain and Egypt at that time.","type":"Human head, plaster","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, mid-4th–mid-5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11.5 cm, width 11.5 cm, thickness 7.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This stucco head was found, among other human and animal carvings, in the excavations carried out at Sabra al-Mansuriyya in 1978. It was found in a very ploughed-up area with no clear archaeological layering. The objects were scattered around in a random manner. One has the impression that someone had tried to eradicate or hide these figurative objects for no obvious reason except that there could be a connection with the changing religious mentality in Ifriqiya. This action could indeed coincide with the persecution of the Shi'ites during the troubles in 407 / 1016 or following the split between the Zirid emirate and the Fatimid caliphate in 440 / 1048–9. This date could be a *terminus post quem*. The *terminus ante quem* is just after the founding of Sabra in 337 / 948. Any further precision is rendered impossible due to the lack of a definite archaeological layer.","method_for_provenance":"The manufacture of these objects, which is unique in Ifriqiya and in the Maghreb, appears to have taken place in Sabra al-Mansuriyya and to have been commissioned by the Shi'ites.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya","obtention":"After its discovery at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, this piece was placed in the site storehouse. It was acquired in 1992 by the Museum at Raqqada. It will be displayed in the second section of the Museum, currently under construction.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1992, p.229.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Carved plaster."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; human figure"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f934a965-24ae-5b22-965c-17838c6cb895":{"name":"Fragment of a glass vessel.","description":"Part of the base of a transparent glass vessel decorated with brown metallic lustre. Its ornamentation consists of the depiction of a mountain-goat or deer with two long horns. The animal is seen running towards the right, and carrying in its mouth a branch that ends in a heart-shaped leaf; branches similar to that being carried by the animal adorn the background. The depiction reveals details of the torso and the shanks of the animal in a naturalistic style.  \nGlass decorated with metallic lustre is considered to have been an innovation known in Egypt since the AH 2nd / AD 8th century which flourished during the Fatimid period, where paintings of animals, birds and plants were produced on glass, in the same style as those used on ceramics with metallic lustre. At the Benaki Museum in Athens, there are pieces of glass, which carry the signature of 'Sa'ad', a Fatimid ceramist who was famous during the latter half of the AH 5th / AD 11th century and the beginning of the AH 6th / AD 12th century. Fatimid ceramists had, therefore, transferred styles of decoration in metallic lustre on ceramics to glass.  \nIn addition to decorating glass with metallic lustre, Egypt was known for other kinds of decoration on glass such as ornamentation with thin glass filaments, which were added and then pressed around the vessel; cut-glass decorations in high relief; stamped decoration and a method of glass-appliqué in high relief. Thick glass, which closely resembles rock-crystal, was also popular and was decorated by cutting the design into the glass in deep recesses.","short_description":"A piece from the base of a transparent glass vessel decorated in metallic lustre, a new technique that became known in Egypt at the beginning of the Islamic era in imitation of lustre ceramics and which flourished under the Fatimids.","type":"Vessel, glass","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AH 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 11.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by comparison of its decorative style with that used in the decoration of ceramics with metallic lustre during the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"An Egyptian provenance is certain as metallic-lustre glass is known to have flourished in Egypt during the Fatimid period.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"The glass fragment was bought by the Museum from an antiquities dealer, Tano, in 1940.","bibliography":"Bierman, I. A., *Writing Signs: The Fatimid Public Text,* Berkeley, CA, 1998.  \nContadini, A., *Fatimid Art in the Victoria and Albert Museum,* Coventry, 1998.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans,* New York, 2001.  \nCarboni, S., *Glass from Islamic Lands*, New York, 2001.  \nCarboni, S., *Trèsors Fatimides du Caire*, exhibition catalogue, Institut du monde Arab, Paris, 1998.  \nGrabar, O., “Imperial and Urban Art in Islam: The Subject Matter of Fatimid Art”, in *Colloque International sur l'Histoire du Caire,* 1969, Cairo, 1972, pp.173–89.  \nGrübe, E., *Cobalt and Lustre: The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery,* London, 1994.  \nHassan, Z. M. *Kunuz al-Fatimiyyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids\\],* Beirut, 1981.  \nRomberg, H., *The Fatimid Treasury: Function and Content,* unpublished MPhil thesis, Oxford University, 1985.  \nSanders, P., *Ritual, Politics and the City in Fatimid Cairo,* New York, 1984.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glass decorated with metallic lustre."],"keywords":["Vessel; metallic lustre; glass; animal decoration; vegetal decoration"],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fa6093d9-67a1-536f-b0bb-38a5d07cb915":{"name":"Lion from a fountain.","description":"A sculpture such as this hollow lion – standing erect with its uplifted tasselled tail in the shape of a handle – is testament to the variety of Fatimid art. The open jaw of the lion once held a water pipe. The lion’s shape is based on a composition of very abstract forms. Thus its paws are flat, its ribs drawn out linearly, and the lines to describe both the extension of its ears and its bulging eyebrows are simple. The surface of its body along its back, chest and upper legs, is decorated with a spiral pattern that reinforces the sculpture’s stylised form. The engraved inscription found on both sides of the neck can be seen clearly and may date from the AH 7th / AD 13th century. It refers to bi-rasem al-amir Shams al-Din wali Misr, who was probably the governor of ‘Misr’ (Lower Egypt and Cairo).  \nA fully modelled sculpture of a living creature is of interest, as it does not conform to the specifications of Islamic dogma. However, such sculptures emerged from the Egyptian Court because, within its circles, the prohibition of the representation of living forms was not always enforced or adhered to, and also because the Fatimid Shi’ites adopted a liberal view. The Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo holds a sitting lion figure. The Berlin lion could have formed part of a sculptured fountain that featured a variety of figures. Thus, it would correspond to the lions of the well-known, bigger lion fountains of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. Given its small size, the lion could have been part of a larger construction featuring a number of sculptures such as those represented in Iraqi manuscripts from the AH 7th / AD 13th century onwards. Bronze figures like this lion were widespread across the Mediterranean, and especially across Spain. One of these Spanish lions can be seen in the Louvre Museum in Paris. One can assume that most of these bronze lions did not survive the test of time and were melted down.","short_description":"This lively little lion with an open mouth and upturned tail was used as a fountain spigot during the Fatimid period in Egypt. It is made of cast bronze that has been decorated with scrolls on the back and the legs. Fountains with animal decoration were widespread in Mediterranean countries.","type":"Fountain, lion, metalwork","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th century / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 11.5 cm, length 14.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Similar figures, cast in bronze, were made especially in Fatimid Egypt. Both the design and the decoration of the lion fountain demonstrate parallels to similar pieces that were created during the Fatimid period. Additionally, it features an inscription that names an apparent governor of Egypt.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription appears to name a governor of Egypt. Furthermore the stylistic markings testify to having originated from the Egyptian Fatimid period.","provenance":"Egypt","obtention":"From a private art gallery in 1911.","bibliography":"Enderlein, V., *Islamische Kunst*, Dresden, 1990, pp.121–4.  \nEttinghausen, R. and Grabar, O., *The Art and Architecture of Islam 650–1250*, Harmondsworth, 1987, pp.197–200.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Berlin 1979, no. 313.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Stuttgart; Zürich, 1980, 52–3, no. 20.  \nWard, R., *Islamic Metalwork*, London, 1993, pp.60–9.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Bronze casting, hollow, engraved."],"keywords":["Bronze casting; Fatimid"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"fe5a75ec-3604-55c2-8c21-6b4f292e10cd":{"name":"Carafe.","description":"The shape of this carafe is asymmetrical, like most glass objects, but particularly harmonious. The belly of the vessel is about the same height as the neck. The belly is slightly rounded, widening a little towards the top. The shoulders curve in sharply and the neck narrows towards the mouth which opens out to a flat collar.  \nThe neck is decorated with vertical indentations. Two circular grooves surround the belly above a grid of diagonal lines. Each triangular or diamond-shaped section contains an indentation made with a barley-seed.  \nThis type of decoration is used, to great effect, as a background pattern in some Kairouanese book bindings dating from the AH 3rd, 4th and 5th centuries (AD 9th, 10th and 11th). A similar pattern is seen in a painting of Jawsaq al-Khaqani (the Emperor's Pavilion) at Samarra. The form, style and manufacturing technique come probably from classical and Sassanid traditions, indeed from methods used since ancient times. However, this carafe has certain similarities to vases found at Fustat and Samarra during the excavations undertaken by the American Research Centre in Egypt in 1965 and 1981. It bears an even more striking resemblance to some of the objects (probably Fatimid) from the Serce Limani wreck found off the Turkish coast. The decoration on these was engraved using small grindstones. To cut the geometric shapes, the grooves and the scalloped, braided and floral decorations, elongated chisels were used, some tapering and some curved.  \nA kiln excavated on the site of this find at Sabra proves that glass-works in the Middle Ages were always relegated to the outskirts of the cities.","short_description":"The shape, style and manufacturing technique of this well-proportioned glass carafe are borrowed from the classical and Sassanid traditions of Antiquity. There are, however, even clearer similarities with items amongst the cargo of a Fatimid wreck found off the Turkish coast.","type":"Carafe, glass","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, end of the 4th–first half of the 5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 19 cm, diameter 7.8 to 9.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"This carafe comes from Sabra al-Mansuriyya, built in 337 / 968. It bears a striking likeness to some of the objects found in the above-mentioned Serce Limani wreck cargo. We know that the ship sank in the second quarter of the 5th / 11th century and that the Sabra site was completely abandoned after the Hilalian invasions in 449 / 1057. We can, therefore, date this carafe with assurance to between the end of the 4th / 10th century and the first half of the 5th / 11th century.","method_for_provenance":"This carafe was discovered by chance in 1992 at the Sabra al-Mansuriyya site. Brick pickers broke open a large jar with a pick-axe and found contents of priceless value: carafes, goblets, flasks and cups, each demonstrating the great skills of the artisan glass-blowers of Sabra.","provenance":"Probably from the glass-works at Sabra al-Mansuriyya or from the glass-works at Kairouan.","obtention":"This piece was kept at the Bardo Museum. It was then acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada, on its inauguration. It is currently on display there.","bibliography":"Marçais, G. and Poinssot, L., *Objets kairouanais*, XI, fasc. 2, Tunis, 1952, pp.388–9, cat. no. 8.  \n*Omeyas* (exhibition catalogue), Granada, 2001, p.83.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Engraved and gilded glass."],"keywords":["Geometric decoration"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"}}
+{"05e7e5aa-01c1-5eb2-8d63-892574f025d5":{"name":"Silk fragment.","description":"A fragment of linen and silk textile that is tapestry-woven. It has four horizontal silk panels that alternate between areas of woven linen and vertical blue silk stripes. The uppermost band shows a broad, gathered band that is interlaced in gold and outlined in red. The spaces within the interlacing are filled with gold-coloured motifs above and below, and abstract floral motifs rendered in gold and green in the centre; the entirety is flanked above and below by gold-coloured split-palmette scroll borders set against a red background. Below this is a band of cursive Arabic script, rendered in blue and set against a plain background, again flanked by gold-coloured split-palmette scroll borders. The stripe beneath this, which features borders identical to those above, shows an elegant gold-coloured *kufic* inscription, with red detailing, set against a deep-blue background. The final band consists of two superposed strips of gold-coloured split-palmette scrolls with red outlines.","short_description":"Textile fragments with this type of decoration and epigraphic detail are typical of Fatimid Egypt, famous for the production of luxury textiles. Many were found in burials in Upper Egypt. This textile was collected by Henry Wallis (1830–1916), a famous painter and expert on Middle Eastern ceramics.","type":"Fatimid textile linen, woven silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira the 540s to 70s / AD second quarter of the 12th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height 20.32 cm, width 26.67 cm.","method_for_datation":"The style of the inscription encountered on this fragment is closely related to a linen fragment with tapestry-woven silk elements in the Bouvier Collection in Geneva, which has been attributed to Fatimid Egypt during the 540s to 570s / second quarter of the 12th century.","method_for_provenance":"It is assumed that textile fragments with this type of decoration and epigraphic detail were produced in Fatimid Egypt. This is due to so many having been found in burials and excavations throughout Upper Egypt in particular.","provenance":"From a tomb at al-Drounka, Egypt.","obtention":"This textile together with several other Fatimid textile fragments were acquired by NMS in 1898 from Henry Wallis, a famous Pre-Raphaelite painter, who travelled and painted extensively in Egypt and elsewhere. Subsequently he became a highly respected expert on Egyptian and Persian ceramics.","bibliography":"*Tissus d’Egypte: Témoins du Monde Arabe VIIIe – Xve siècles*, Collection Bouvier,Geneva / Paris 1993, pp. 250–1, cat. no. 151 (for a similar textile).","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Linen and woven silk."],"keywords":["Al-Drounka; silk; linen; kufic script; Henry Wallis; Fatimid textiles; textile"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"0ee82313-3b00-5065-9b57-8b032c634961":{"name":"Gold coin (*dinar*).","description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in AH 380 / AD 990. The legend is in *kufic* script.  \n  \nObverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: ''.لا اله الا الله، محمد رسول الله، علي خير صفوة الل'  \n  \n'There is no God except God, Muhammad is the Messenger. Ali is the best God's prime.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **محمد رسول الله أرسله بالهدى ودين الحق ليظهره على الدين كله ولو كره المشركون.**  \n  \n'Muhammad is the Messenger of God. He sent him with guidance and the true religion to prevail over all other religions, even though the idolaters may object.'  \n  \nReverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: **عبد الله ووليه نزار الإمام العزيز بالله أمير المؤمنين.**  \n  \n'Abd Allah and his supporter the Imam Al-'Aziz Billah Commander of the Faithful.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **بسم الله ضرب هذا الدينار بالمهدية سنة ثمانون وثلثماية.**  \n  \n'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in the year 380.' (AD 990).","short_description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) from Ayla in Aqaba. On the reverse is the name of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), the place of minting, al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia, and the date 380 / 990. Ali is mentioned in addition to the Prophet Muhammad on the obverse. The legend is in *kufic* script.","type":"Coin, dinar, gold","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 380 / AD 990.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Diameter 18 mm, weight 4 g.","method_for_datation":"The coin is dated and the place of mint recorded: 'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in the year 380.' (AD 990).","method_for_provenance":"The place of mint is inscribed on the coin as al-Mahdiyya.","provenance":"Al-Mahdiyya, Tunisia.","obtention":"The coin was acquired by the Museum as a result of an archaeological excavation carried out at the site of historic Ayla (Aqaba) in 1993–4.","bibliography":"Unpublished, but for similar coins see:  \n  \nPool, R. S., The Coinage of Egypt: (AH 358–922) under the Fatimee Caliphs, the Ayyobees and the Mamlook Sultan, Classes XIV.XV.XVI, London, 1879, p.17 (year AH 384).  \n  \nالعجابي. حامد، \"جامع المسكوكات العربية بإفريقية\", تونس،1988، ص 228، قطعة رقم 296، اللوحه 28.  \n  \nداود. مايسه، \"المسكوكات الفاطمية بمجموعة متحف الفن الإسلامي بالقاهرة\"، دار الفكر العربي، القاهرة، ص 53-55.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TN_EN_001","materials":["Struck gold."],"keywords":["Coin; coinage; gold; kufic script; al-Mahdiyya; numismatics."],"author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"153c5ddb-dd1d-5e3c-9e80-de0b66684f95":{"name":"Parts of a *minbar*.","description":"These elements of the facing of the *minbar* are formed by two distinctive parts. The first one consists of two longitudinal panels from the upper parts of the lateral faces of the *minbar*. Their surfaces, divided into sections and surmounted by an arch, are decorated with stacks of pinecones and acanthus rosettes borrowed from Abbasid flora. The panels are framed by a band bearing an inscription in angular *kufic* script also in an Eastern style. The inscription in the right panel, whose spandrels are adorned with half-sprays of acanthus, includes the date the Fatimids founded the *minbar*. The one in the left panel shows Qur'anic texts from verse 36 of Sura 24, 'The light'.  \nThe second part includes the three elements from the back.  \nThe top, arched panel is topped by an inscription in *kufic* script, which indicates the name of the Umayyad patron and the date the *minbar* was repaired. Its surface, framed by a border of small floral medallions, is decorated in two styles: the upper section is occupied in the centre by a rectangular panel with a poly-lobed arch with floral medallions and on the sides by festoon acanthus rosettes. The lower section is adorned with an acanthus rosette flanked by poly-lobed medallions containing polygonal knotwork based on an eight-pointed star.  \nThe rectangular middle part, bordered with a votive inscription, is adorned with a central motif of tiered chevrons with palm foliage and serrated acanthus rosettes inscribed in squares.  \nThe lower part is decorated with half-balusters in turned and painted wood, glued on a slab.  \nThese facings, which illustrate a historic period of Morocco when two political and religious movements fought for the hegemony of the country, play an important role in the history of Moroccan art, which, from that time forward, would be influenced both from the East and from Andalusia.","short_description":"These *minbar* parts illustrate a historical episode and the beginnings of Islamic art in Morocco, when Fatimids and Córdoban Umayyads were fighting for control of the country. The Fatimids incorporated Eastern decoration when making the *minbar*, and the Umayyads added Western elements when converting it.","type":"Woodwork, minbar, wood","holder":"Batha Museum.","initial_owner":"*Habus (waqf)*.","dates":"Sides: Hegira 369 / AD 979; back: Hegira 375 / AD 985.","location":"Fez.","dimensions":"Back: height 146 cm, width 75 cm, depth 3–4.5 cm; panels: height 56 cm, width 20.6 cm, depth 2.5–4.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Two inscriptions mention the dates. The date of foundation is shown on the arcature in the right panel: 'This *minbar* was made in the month of Shawwal in the year 369 \\[April / May 979\\]' and the date it was repaired appears on the upper part of the back: '… this is what was commissioned by the mayor of the palace …, al-Mansur, sword of the empire of the *imam* and servant of God … Hisham … Abi Amir Muhammad … son of Abi Amir … in the month of Jumada II in the year 375 \\[October–November 985\\]'.","method_for_provenance":"These parts were removed from the *minbar*, which remained in use at the Andalusian Mosque from its creation in 369 / 979 until 1353 / 1934.","provenance":"Andalusian Mosque, Fez.","obtention":"*Habus*.","bibliography":"Cambazard-Amahan, C., *6000 ans d'art au Maroc*, catalogue, Paris, 1990.  \nLévy-Provençal, É., *Histoire de l'Espagne musulmane*, Vol. III, Paris, 1953.  \nTerrasse, H., *La Mosquée des Andalous à Fès*, Paris, 1934.","dynasty":"Sides: Tunisian Fatimid; back: Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba","linkcatalogs":"IAM_MA_EN_001","materials":["Carved, turned, painted cedarwood."],"keywords":["liturgical object; habous; vegetal decoration; floral decoration; geometric decoration; epigraphic decoration; mosque interior decoration"],"author":"Naima El Khatib-Boujibar","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"Albertina Torres, Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"15799f73-15e1-5251-abef-c106415b6f88":{"name":"Aqmar Mosque.","description":"Al-Aqmar Mosque is considered one of the most beautiful Fatimid mosques and the oldest of the remaining examples of small mosques in Egypt. Perhaps the most prominent of its distinctive features is its western façade, among the oldest stone facades, decorated in this rich varied style, in Islamic architecture in Egypt. Possibly the decorative elements on the façade of the projecting portal of al-Hakim Mosque in Cairo (built AH 403 / AD 1012) influenced the construction and decoration of the entrance to this building. Historical sources indicate that stone was used in Fatimid architecture alongside brick. The great traveller, Nasir Khasraw, who visited Egypt in AH 439 / AD 1048, describes the Fatimid palaces that he saw as having walls of stone that fitted into each other so smoothly that the viewer could imagine that it had been hewn out from one single block of rock.  \nOn the façade and on the entrance, the decoration has been carved out symmetrically and includes a number of components including shell forms, blind-arched niches borne on spiral columns, in addition to vases, rosettes and diamond shapes. The façade also consists of chamfered-edged niches (*muqarnas*); a new architectural element to be introduced into Egyptian Islamic architecture, and a device previously seen only on a gate, Bab al-Futuh in Cairo (built AH 480 / AD 1087). The façade is also embellished with inscription bands carved in the floriated *kufic* script. To the left of the entrance is a minaret that was constructed in AH 799 / AD 1396, built by order of Amir Yalbugha al-Salimi, who was in the service of Sultan al-Zahir Barquq who reigned twice (AH 784–91 / AD 1382– 9 and in AH 792–801 / AD 1390–9).  \nThe mosque's interior measures 28 m x 17.50 m. At the centre is an open square courtyard whose length at the side is 10 m, and which is surrounded by four roofed areas with rows of columns. The deepest of these is the *qibla* area, which consists of three colonnades, while there is only one colonnade in each of the other three areas. All the arches of the colonnades are made of brick. The colonnades of the mosque – with the exception of that, which precedes the *mihrab* – are covered with small shallow domes, built of brick. The transition zones of all the domes consist of spherical-triangular pendentives, a style previously applied in Bab al-Nasr and Bab al-Futuh in Cairo, and both built in the Fatimid period, in around AH 480 / AD 1087. The style was used subsequently in the Mamluk period for the construction of Khanqah Faraj ibn Barquq in Cairo (built AH 813 / AD 1410). The convention of spherical-triangular pendentives became widespread in Ottoman mosques where a number of small domes were used to cover the colonnades.  \nOne of the most distinguishing aspects of the floor plan of this mosque is its response to the street alignment, which deviates from the direction of the *qibla*, and where the western façade of the building and the entrance lies. There is, however, a respect for the direction of the *qibla*, brought about by means of a rectangular cross-section that forms a transition area, since on the outside it faces the street whereas the inside faces the direction of the *qibla*. This mosque is considered one of the earliest examples in the Islamic world of a building that used a triangular section to adapt to the residential fabric surrounding it.  \nThe mosque was exposed to encroachments in the AH 13th / AD 19th century, the most prominent of which led to the loss of the right-hand side of the western façade, which was replaced by a residential building. In the 20th century the building that had encroached on the mosque was pulled down. The façade of the mosque was then restored to its original form based on the features of the left-hand side of the façade, which was supposed to be identical to that on the right.","short_description":"One of the most beautiful Fatimid mosques and the oldest extant example of small mosques in Egypt. It is recognised for its rich and varied decorations especially in the façade. The arches inside are built with bricks while the arcades (except that of the *qibla*) are covered with small shallow domes which appear later in Ottoman mosques.","dates":"Hegira 519 / AD 1125.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"The dating of this building is based on two foundation epigraphs which were written in large *kufic* script, which include the name of the sponsor of the building, the supervisor and the date of construction. One of them is located on the western façade of the building and the other on the northern façade.","bibliography":"Abd al-Wahab, H., *Tarikh al-Masajid al-Athariya \\[History of Monumental Mosques\\],* Cairo, 1994.  \nBerchem, M., Van, *Une Mosquée du Temps des Fatimides au Caire*, Cairo, 1889.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Muslim Architecture of Egypt*, Vol. I,Oxford, 1960.  \nAl-Maqrizi, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthār \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the Recollection of Plans and Monuments*\\], 2 Vols, Cairo, Egypt, 1853.  \nWilliams, C., *Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide*, Cairo, 2002.","patrons":"Caliph al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (r. AH 495–525 / AD 1101–31).","architects":"Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad ibn Fatik supervised construction of the building and was vizier to Caliph al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah. His name was written along with that of Caliph al-Amir in the foundation text on the building’s façade.","dynasty":"Fatimid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Kufic script; epigraphic decoration; decoration carved in stone; vegetal decoration; religious architecture."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"16551d17-12a4-5f03-9ee7-aeb60bdf3479":{"name":"Brooch.","description":"A gold brooch that was designed to hang from the chest by means of a pin attached to the wearer's clothing. It takes the shape of an upside-down heart and was produced from a web of moulded gold. On its frame are tiny rings, from which hang chains that terminate in different forms: a ball, a bird, a crescent-moon and a knot, all fashioned from woven gold filaments.  \nThroughout the ages, the women of Syria held as important gold and silver jewellery for decoration and self-beautification, as well as a source for financial security. Finds from numerous archaeological sites have included bracelets, armlets, anklets, brooches, earrings, and rings.","short_description":"This heart-shaped pendant with dangling charms is an example of Fatimid jewellery and would have been attached to the clothing by a pin or possibly woven through by using the small loops along its edge.","type":"Jewellery, brooch, gold","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 5th–6th century / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 7 cm.","method_for_datation":"This style and quality of ornamentation is typical of the Fatimid period (358–567 / 969–1171) during which time the production of highly refined gold jewellery flourished in Egypt and Syria. Techniques included filigree, granulation, twisted ropes of gold, and occasionally inlay work with gems. Production included bracelets, armlets, earrings, pendants, rings, belts, brooches, and hair ornaments.","method_for_provenance":"During the Fatimid period, the gold-production centres of Syria and Egypt flourished, particularly in Aleppo and Cairo. It is not possible, therefore, to determine a definitive provenance for this object.","provenance":"Possibly Raqqa, Syria.","obtention":"Purchased in 1949 in Raqqa.","bibliography":"Atil, E. et al, *Islamic Metalwork in the Freer Gallery of Art*, Washington DC, 1985.  \nSeipel, W., *Schätze der Kalifen: Islamische Kunst zur Fatimidenzeit*, Wien, 1998, pp.119–20; fig. 78.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven gold."],"keywords":["Brooch; gold; woven; filigree; bird; crescent-moon; Aleppo; Cairo; Raqqa"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"1fb2f6df-1383-5523-b767-c9a42193803e":{"name":"Stucco-covered wooden side-rib.","description":"A wooden side-rib belonging to a collection of pieces comprising wood covered with carved, painted and gilded stucco. The carvings of vegetal and geometric motifs and pseudo calligraphic script are gilded and painted using a palette of blue, red, green and white against a background of various colours but predominantly black.  \nThe side-rib once formed part of the decoration of the interior dome of al-Aqsa Mosque, whose damaged parts were replaced in 1938 after gradual deterioration caused by moisture and water infiltration. The importance of this piece lies in its being practically the sole witness to the Fatimid restoration of the dome of al-Aqsa Mosque during the period of the Fatimid caliph al-Zahir bi- Amrillah (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36). It is worth mentioning that other similar parts were lost as a result of a fire which broke out in the mosque in 1969; this led to the destruction of most of the parts of the wooden dome in addition to other sections of al-Aqsa Mosque.  \nThe domes were typically composed, of an inner and outer shell. The inner shell consisted of a wooden skeleton, plated on the inside with circular wooden panels. Palm fibres were affixed to the wooden panels by means of wooden nails. The fibres were then covered with a layer of plaster (stucco) several centimetres thick. After that, the stucco was carved to form the requisite decorations which were painted with different colours and gilded. The outer shell consists of a wooden skeleton which is covered on the outside with metal plates. Lead is normally used, as noted in the dome of al-Aqsa Mosque today, but copper is sometimes employed as can be seen to this day in the Dome of the Rock. The dome of the Dome of the Rock is, however, no different from the dome of al-Aqsa Mosque in terms of its construction.","short_description":"This rib from the interior dome of al-Aqsa Mosque features vegetal and geometric decoration and a gilded inscription against a coloured background.  It is almost the sole witness to the restoration of the dome in the Fatimid period during the reign of Caliph al-Zahir. Other pieces of evidence were lost in the arson attack on the mosque in 1969.","type":"Woodwork, rib, woodm stucco","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem.","dates":"Probably about hegira 424 / AD 1033.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 152 cm, width 140 cm, depth 4 cm.","method_for_datation":"The piece was dated by comparison with the remaining parts from the same period still on site.","method_for_provenance":"Jerusalem was narrowed down as the place of production because typically architectural pieces were made and decorated *in situ*.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from al-Aqsa Mosque to the Museum during the restoration work carried out in 1938.","bibliography":"Hamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of al-Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Cleaning from the Repairs of 1938–42,* London, 1949.","dynasty":"Probably Fatimid","materials":["Wood covered with carved, painted and gilded stucco."],"keywords":["Carved stucco; Fatimid woodwork; plasterwork; gilded wood; woodwork; pseudo-inscription"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"20a5b8ea-ca93-57ec-988d-ddcba1b332c4":{"name":"Oliphant.","description":"With regard to its decoration, this completely carved ivory horn belongs to the largest group of Islamic ivory horns. The even, deeply carved decoration consists of three sections. A row of medallions runs along each of the two openings of the horn. In the middle section, five rows of medallions are arranged alternating and interconnected with circles and rhombs. The medallions show repeated hares, lions, other quadrupeds and birds, except the peacock occurs only once. All animals are shown running to the right. The right hind legs of the quadrupeds and the tails of the birds protrude outside the medallion frame in which they are placed. Two plain bands flanked by arabesque tendrils mark the places where the shoulder straps used for carrying the horn were attached.  \nAbout 30 specimens of these carved ivory horns have survived, though exclusively in collections located outside the Islamic world. The horns are believed to have been made for European patrons, but are attributed to Fatimid craftsmen working in the artistic centres of the Norman kingdom of southern Italy and Sicily. The horns also show close parallels in style and iconography to the ivory caskets made in Sicily and southern Italy during the same period. The ivory used for these objects was most probably imported from North Africa.  \nThe term oliphant occurs for the first time in the French poem of 'Chanson de Roland' (probably written 1075–1100). The poem describes the horn that Roland, commander of the Frankish king, used when he called Charlemagne (747–814) to come to Roncesvalles to help him against the advancing Muslims. Above all, ivory horns were symbols of honour and were used by dignitaries as signal horns. Ivory horns decorated with representations of animals were possibly used for hunting, though it is not known in what way.","short_description":"Carved ivory horn called an oliphant. In three sections vine scrolls and rows of medallions cover the whole surface. The medallions show animals: hares, lions, quadrupeds, birds and a peacock. Horns such as this were symbols of honour and used as signal horns.","type":"Islamic horn","holder":"Museum of National Antiquities (Historika Museet).","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th centuries /AD 11th–12th centuries.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Length 52.5 cm, diameter 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"A carved horn showing close parallels to this horn, sold by Bukowski's in Stockholm in 1999 and now in the National Museum in Qatar, was dated by radiocarbon to within 45 years either side of 452 / 1060.","method_for_provenance":"After Kühnel 1971, cat. no. 70 (see Bibliography), who attributed this horn to the 'Saracen group' on the basis of the medallion decor. For this group he assumed southern Italy to be the place of manufacture.","provenance":"Southern Italy or Sicily.","obtention":"Most likely brought to Sweden in 1632 as part of the booty of the Thirty Years War (1618–48).","bibliography":"Kühnel, E., *Die Islamischen Elfenbeinskulpturen, VIII–XIII. Jahrhundert*, Berlin, 1971.  \nSievernich, S. and H. Budde, H. (eds.), *Europa und der Orient: 800–1900*, Exhibition catalogue, Gütersloh, 1989, pp.537–42.  \nShalem, A., *The Oliphant: Islamic Objects in Historical Context*, Leiden, 2004.  \nTegnér, G., “Den GÅtfulla Olifanten”, in *Sverige och den Islamiska Världen: Ett Svenskt Kulturarv*, (ed. K. Ådahl), Värnamo, 2002, pp.186–9.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Ivory; carved."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; floral decoration; ivory; hunting; animal decoration; zoomorphic imagery; bird; court life; patronage; Siculo-Norman; southern Italy"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"24c4d60c-f039-586c-b878-b41f99dc6b12":{"name":"Panel.","description":"The rectangular panel consists of an arch with small plain sections on each side. Its carved decoration shows a symmetrical floral composition. The centre forms a vase-like motif with a flower. Leaves of different sizes and shapes fill the space inside and outside the arch. The decoration consists of a variety of small elements, but the overall composition appears integrated since the curves form a relationship through all parts. The deep carved patterns are of charming clarity and possess sculptural depth.  \nThis type of decoration goes back to the stuccoes and wood carvings at Samarra. Samarra, situated some 60 miles up the Tigris from Baghdad, was the capital of the Abbasid caliphs from AH 224 / AD 838until AH 270 / AD 883. Ahmad ibn Tulun, the founder of the Tulunid dynasty in Egypt (AH 254–94 / AD 868–906) spent many years in Samarra and brought the Abbasid style of decoration and Abbasid craftsmen to his own capital, al-Qata'i. The so-called style C of the Samarra stuccoes is characterised by bevelling carved, symmetrical abstract patterns of leaf and vase motifs which match the shapes within the arch of the wooden panel. The wood carvings made in Tulunid Egypt at the end of the AH 3rd / AD 9th century represent the culmination of this style, although they have a tendency to break up the originally broad sculptured surface into smaller elements as in the case of this panel. The specific function of the panel is not known; it was possibly part of the architectural decoration.","short_description":"The carved decoration on this rectangular wooden panel shows a vase-like motif, with a flower in the centre and leaves inside and outside the arch. This decorative style goes back to Abbasid stuccoes and wood carvings in Iraq. The panel was possibly part of Tulunid architectural decoration.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet).","owner":"National Museum of Fine Arts, Stockholm. In order to reorganise the expanding collections, the main part of the Islamic collection has been on permanent loan to the Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities since 1982.","dates":"Hegira late 3rd century / AD late 9th century.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Height 29 cm, width 68 cm.","method_for_datation":"The architectural decoration of the mosque of Ahmad ibn Tulun in al-Qata'i, completed in 266 / 879, is close to the style of this panel.","method_for_provenance":"The object was found during excavations in Egypt.","provenance":"Probably al-Qata’i, Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the Crown Prince of Sweden in December 1934 in Cairo.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., “Early Islamic Woodwork in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent”, Ph.D. dissertion, University of Oxford, 1985.  \nAnglade, E., *Catalogue des Boiseries de la Section Islamique,* Paris, 1988.  \nPauty, M. E., *Catalogue Général du Musée Arabe du Caire: Les Bois Sculptés*, Cairo, 1931.","dynasty":"Tulunid","materials":["Wood, carved."],"keywords":["Woodwork; floral decoration"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"2686bfec-8eb0-5ef5-b318-9e3c7c3c966a":{"name":"Fragment of a glass vessel.","description":"Half a glass vessel with a brim that slightly widens outwards. It is decorated on the outside by a layer of blue glass mounted onto a base layer of uncoloured glass. Decorations are cut into the upper layer of glass creating in high-relief the outlines of two confronting animals. Above them is a band of epigraphic decoration in *kufic* script, which reads: 'delight to its owner'.The bodies of the animals are ornamented with tiny circles cut into the uncoloured lower layer of the vessel itself. This method of production and decoration on a vessel with two layers of glass is considered to have a special value, for it is an extremely rare example of a style that was not prolific either in the arts of the Middle East or during the Middle Ages.","short_description":"This is one half of a vessel formed of two layers of glass, an extremely rare example of a style of glass decoration little known in the Orient.","type":"Vessel, glass","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 4th century / AD 10th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 8 cm, diameter: 12 cm.","method_for_datation":"The fragment is dated based on its decorative style, known to be prevalent during this period, and also by comparison with other contemporary pieces of carved rock-crystal. Furthermore Egypt acquired considerable fame for the production of this type of glass during the Fatimid period. There are also pieces extant that closely resemble this piece, some of which are still preserved in the Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo (registered nos. 3885 and 5/7023).","method_for_provenance":"This style of cut high-relief decoration reached the height of its development in Egypt during the Fatimid period when glassmakers resorted to producing decorative thick-glass vessels in an attempt to imitate contemporary rock-crystal pieces, which were extremely costly.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This glass fragment was bought in 1955 from a dealer of antiquities, Bentazi.","bibliography":"Al-Pasha, H., et al, *Al-Qāhira, tārikhuha, fūnunuha, Āthāruha \\[Cairo, Its History, Arts and Monuments*\\], Cairo, 1970.  \nCarboni, S., *Glass from Islamic Lands*, New York, 2000.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Funun al-Islamiya \\[Islamic Arts*\\], Cairo, 1948.  \nMarzuq, Muhammad Abd al-Aziz, *Al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya al-Islamiya fi Masr qabl 'Asr al-Fatimiyyin \\[Islamic Decorative Arts Before the Fatimid Period*\\], Cairo, 1974.  \nWiet, G., *Catalogue général du Musée arabe du Caire*, Cairo, 1929.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glass with cut high-relief decoration."],"keywords":["Vessel; glass; relief decoration; glass; cut; figurative decoration; figurative representation; animal decoration; inscription band; sumptuary art; rock-crystal"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"2761dfdd-179f-5f5e-bc92-ae41bdd8bcc2":{"name":"Door of the ante-chamber of the *maqsura*.","description":"This huge rectangular door is made up of a main-door framework containing two pass-doors. The door is divided into panels separated by uprights and cross-pieces which stand out in relief, carved with rich floral decoration. This decoration also covers the main surrounding framework, on which alternating relief panels (long hexagons and diamond shapes) make a base for even more striking carving. These panels are filled with furled tri-lobed fleurons all connected to a curving stem, which, according to some mysterious symmetry, seems to weave in and out in ever more fantastical convolutions. The top centre panel of the frame is a 16-sided star polygon, even more boldly and exuberantly decorated with pine cones and chalices, palm leaves and stalks, some carved with certain symmetry. One feels that this is the beginning of a break-away from the decorative repertoire of the *minbar* of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (built AH 248 / AD 866) towards the Fatimid art of Egypt, which itself had absorbed some Abbasid themes.  \nThe simpler decoration of the internal panels of the door and of the pass-doors is confined to a few geometric motifs. Some of these panels seem to have been restored during the Hafsid period.","short_description":"The decoration and manufacturing technique of this door are identical to those used for the *maqsura* (recess) at the Great Mosque of Kairouan. The framing and decoration of the panels that make up the two halves are simple and limited to geometric motifs, presenting similarities with Egyptian Fatimid art.","type":"Woodwork, door, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"The Zirid prince, al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis.","dates":"Hegira, second quarter of the 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 284 cm, width 221 cm.","method_for_datation":"The decoration and structure of this door are absolutely identical to those of the *maqsura* built by the Zirid prince, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis. In fact, some believe it to be the door of the *maqsura* itself. But taking into consideration the differing dimensions of the two objects in question, especially the height, and the absence of any calligraphic inscription, some studies have concluded that this door was the entrance to a room adjacent to the *maqsura* and which is now the imam's audience-chamber. It is likely to have been the room from which the prince and his attendants entered the *maqsura* to join in prayers. This would date the door from the same period as the *maqsura* of al-Mu'izz (second quarter of the 5th / 11th century).","method_for_provenance":"The decoration leaves no doubt that the door is Kairouanese. The cedarwood used in its construction probably came from the forests of northwest Tunisia or from Sicily.","provenance":"Kairouan.","obtention":"Until the mid-1960s, this door was part of the relics of the Great Mosque of Kairouan and was kept in one of its storage rooms. As from 1978, it was displayed in the museum of the Great Mosque and then, in 1992, transferred to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada. It will be on display in the second section, which is now undergoing refurbishment (2005).","bibliography":"*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.159–62.","dynasty":"Zirid","materials":["Carved cedarwood."],"keywords":["Carving; floral decoration"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"27fd657d-1477-5d30-8c73-b434cb8975b0":{"name":"Ivory casket.","description":"A rectangular casket, with a desk-like lid, made of individual pieces of ivory that have been joined together. The lid is attached by two silver clasps/hinges, which were made at a later date, and the padlock has been lost. Various holes that have been bored through the casket demonstrate its chequered history and the possibility that it had an indefinite number of iron fittings. The bottom excepted, the entire box is covered in decorative animal-motif friezes, which are framed by narrow bands of tendrils of half-palmettes. Animals and animal fights, composed in both a stylised and a freehand form, are found on the panels. Circular tendrils overlap the animals. A great variety of animals are represented: lions, hares, ibex, stags, camels, giraffes and birds. Mythological creatures such as griffins are also included. The animals are portrayed as fighting one another or as being pursued by hunters. The human figures appear as hunters or camel leaders. One of the caskets from the Egyptian group, of which this one is part, states in Latin script the name of one of its patrons, which leads to the assumption that these caskets could have been made by Arab craftsmen, working in the Fatimid tradition in southern Italy, on the commission of wealthy patrons. The animals belonging to this group bear such a close resemblance to those on a group of oliphants that it is possible that the workshops produced both caskets and oliphants.  \nA similar stylistic depiction of animals can also be seen on 11th–12th century buildings in southern Italy, so it can therefore be assumed that the animal motifs held a particular fascination in Europe as well.","short_description":"Caskets with carved decoration from southern Italy had a widespread use at court or in noble families. The scenes that cover this casket show birds and animals (rabbits, stags, lions and a giraffe) and mythological creatures attacking each other or being hunted and two warriors with shields","type":"Casket, ivory","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","owner":"Museum of Arts and Crafts, Berlin, Germany.","initial_owner":"Probably part of the treasure held by the Cathedral of Speyer; in the 19th century became part of Prussia’s art collection.","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th centuries / AD 11th–12th centuries.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 17 cm, length 39.5 cm, width 23 cm.","method_for_datation":"Because of close stylistic similarities in its manufacture, this ivory casket has been included in a group made either in southern Italy or Sicily and dated to the 11th–12th century.","method_for_provenance":"This ivory casket has been included in the same group as ones made in southern Italy or Sicily because of its close stylistic similarities. It is thought that it was made in a workshop in this area, although provenance will only be more accurately established in the event of future findings.","provenance":"Sicily or southern Italy.","obtention":"Transferred from the Arts and Crafts Museum in Berlin in 1906.","bibliography":"Budde, H. and Sievernich, G. (eds.), *Europa und der Orient*, Catalogue, Gütersloh-Munich, 1989, no. 4/20, fig. 646.  \nKühnel, E., *Die Islamische Elfenbeinskulpturen VIII–XIII Jh.*, Berlin, 1971, no. 82, pl. 82–4.  \nShalem, A., *The Oliphant: Islamic Objects in Historical Content*, Leiden, 2004, 63–5, fig. 33, 58–61.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":["Ivory, carved."],"keywords":["Ivory; Sicily, southern Italy; Fatimid; vegetal decoration; animal decoration; imaginary animal; zoomorphic imagery; inscription; hunting; patronage"],"author":"Jens Kröger","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"2a768548-ee78-5645-b436-21f2d9bcf5cd":{"name":"Fragment of woven linen.","description":"A linen textile fragment comprising a horizontal panel of embroidered decoration with a repeat composition of two wider sections that alternate twice with two narrow sections. These are separated from each other by double borders in black wove. The wider panels have alternating blue and purple cursive inscriptions bordered by scrolling bands above and below. The narrow sections contain S-scrolls arranged vertically, beneath which is a continuous border of alternating inverted crescents and circles.","short_description":"Many Fatimid and Mamluk textiles have been found in burials in Upper Egypt, an area famous for its linen-weaving industry manned by Coptic Christian as well as Muslim textile workers. This textile was collected by Henry Wallis (1830–1916), a famous painter and expert on Middle Eastern ceramics.","type":"Fatimid textile, woven linen","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira late 5th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height 38.10 cm, width 10.16 cm.","method_for_datation":"This textile has been tentatively dated to the late 5th–7th / 12th–13th centuries on the basis of general similarities with other textiles of the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"This textile comes from a tomb in al-Drounka, Egypt.","provenance":"From a tomb at al-Drounka, Egypt.","obtention":"This textile together with several other Fatimid textile fragments were acquired by NMS in 1898 from Henry Wallis, a famous Pre-Raphaelite painter, who travelled and painted extensively in Egypt and elsewhere. Subsequently he became a highly respected expert on Egyptian and Persian ceramics.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven and embroidered linen."],"keywords":["Al-Drounka; Fatimid textiles; textile"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"2ce846c0-44cf-593b-a417-5ec441dd4212":{"name":"Bas-relief in carved marble.","description":"In the right-hand section of the bas-relief is a seated figure wearing a richly embroidered tunic. The heavy crown on his head defines him as a sovereign or military leader. With his right hand he lifts a cup to his lips. To his right a musician plays the flute. The man's head is covered with a veil and the sleeves of his tunic are decorated with bands containing geometric motifs. His eyes are almond-shaped and very prominent.  \nThis bas-relief is one of those rare gems of Ifriqiyan art representing people and their daily life. The artist is totally unconcerned with anatomical detail. The musician's face does not betray age, type or expression. This work probably has its roots in a very ancient North African tradition. Some art historians hold that the style recalls various funeral stelae which the Romano-Africans dedicated particularly to Saturn and to Caelestis. Common features are the frontal poses, their rigidity, the indifference to spatial considerations and the prominence of the eyes. The similarities of this piece to several carvings in wood and ivory from the Spanish Umayyad, the Egyptian Fatimid and the Eastern Abbasid eras are astonishing, especially the face of the flute player, the costumes and the veils. The crown has been described as Norman by some experts. Similar crowns have been found on ivory panels from Fatimid Egypt and also on Mesopotamian pottery from the same era.","short_description":"This bas-relief is one of the few Ifriqiyan pieces depicting an animal scene. A person dressed in a rich, embroidered tunic is sat on the right side of the bas-relief. He is wearing a crown on his head, suggesting that he is a king or military leader. To his right, a musician is playing the flute.","type":"Bas-relief, marble","holder":"Bardo Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Tunis.","dimensions":"Length 53 cm, width 35 cm.","method_for_datation":"The bas-relief was discovered at Mahdiyya, capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids during the 4th–5th / 10th–11th centuries, which tends to establish its dating in that era. This is corroborated by the large number of human figures and scenes from daily life produced in Ifriqiya at the same time.","method_for_provenance":"The Ifriqiyan origin of the decoration suggests the object was carved *in situ* re-using an old piece of Italian marble.","provenance":"Mahdiyya.","obtention":"Following its chance discovery at Mahdiyya, the piece was acquired and shown at the Bardo Museum.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (catalogue de l'exposition de Séville), Tunis, 1992, p.265.  \nMahfoudh F., “Entre Mahdiyya et la Sicile: Analyse d'un bas-relief sculpté”, *Africa*, 20, 2004, pp.5–33.  \nMarçais, G., “L'art musulman du XIe siècle en Tunisie d'après quelques trouvailles récentes”, *Revue de l'art ancien et moderne*, XLIV, 1923, pp.161–73.  \nMarçais, G., *L'architecture musulmane d'Occident*, Paris, 1954, p.197.  \nYacoub, M., *Chefs-d'œuvre du musée du Bardo, Tunis, 1978, pp.230–2.*","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Carved marble."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; carving; marble; Zirid; relief"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"33a6c84f-b10f-5856-b654-7f8c5f9a715b":{"name":"Rectangular piece of wood.","description":"A rectangular piece of wood decorated with low-relief carvings, which was probably once part of a high frieze. The decorations are arranged along two narrow bands, which hem-in a wider band lying in between them. Both of the narrow bands are embellished with vegetal decorative motifs, such as branches, surrounded by tri-lobed rosettes and fan-leaf palmettes. The central band is embellished with scenes of naturalistic human and animal activity, such as a hunting scene; a bird with a human face is also present. The scene is played out against a background of vegetal decoration, and surrounded by geometric compositions. The decorative components were originally painted which would have highlighted the detail. Symmetry and alternation were the twin dynamics that helped harmonise and defuse the decorative components.  \nThis panel was unearthed together with some other rectangular wooden pieces in the tomb of the Mamluk Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun, and in the Bimaristan (hospital) Qalawun where they were used to cover the upper frieze. The decorative mode of this panel bears no relationship to the Mamluk period, but is exclusively in the Fatimid style. It is likely, therefore, that this wooden panel once graced a Fatimid palace, specifically the Fatimid Western Palace, which was built by Caliph al-Aziz bi-Allah and completed by al-Mustansir bi-Allah. However, it was on the ruins of the Fatimid Western Palace that the Bimaristan Qalawun was later built and it is, therefore, likely that these wooden frieze components were later re-used to embellish the hospital walls.  \nThese decorative panels are considered an important source for the study of Fatimid painting for they include scenes of hunting, music, entertainment, battle and excursions, as well as depictions of birds and other animals and reveal the life of opulence led by the Fatimid elite.","short_description":"This item is an example of carving on wood from the Fatimid period, influenced by Abbasid styles from Samarra that spread all over the Islamic world. Decoration is based on hunting scenes and animal shapes on a background of vegetation.","type":"Woodwork, low-relief carving, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 370 cm, width 30 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated through study of the decorative components that appear on it, the style of representation, and by comparison with other analogous decorative pieces.","method_for_provenance":"In view of the fact that the panel was almost certainly made for the Fatimid Western Palace, it is likely that it was made by craftsmen employed in the atelier of Caliph al-Aziz bi-Allah and produced especially to furnish the palace.","provenance":"Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"The object was transferred from the Mausoleum of Qalawun in the *Nahassien* (coppersmith's) district, and received by the Museum in 1909.","bibliography":"Abu Sadira, al-Said T., *Al-Hiraf wa al-Sana'at fi Masr al-Islamiyya \\[Handicrafts and Manufacture in Islamic Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991.  \nAl-Pasha, H., et al, *Al-Qāhira, tārikhuha, fūnunuha, Āthāruha \\[Cairo, Its History, Arts and Monuments*\\], Cairo, 1970.  \nAl-Maqrizi, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthār \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the Recollection of Plans and Monuments*\\], 2 Vols, Cairo, 1853.  \n  \nHassan, M. Z., *Kunuz al-Fatimiyyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids\\],* Cairo, 1938.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Wood; decorated with low-relief carving."],"keywords":["Low-relief; wood; figurative decoration; vegetal decoration; geometric decoration."],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"37690bf6-e1be-58cb-a87c-157e41138520":{"name":"Uscibene","description":"The palace, now in a state of ruin, probably once consisted of more storeys, and the remains are clearly the ground floor rooms of the body of the main building. This was made up of an *iwan* linked on one side to two large, adjacent rooms (of which only the outer walls remain) and on the other to a vaulted rectangular room – possibly a sirocco room (subterranean cool chamber) – leading to an old natural cave. The *iwan*, still distinguishable, is a cross-vaulted rectangular room with three rectangular niches. The vault of the niche opposite the entrance was decorated with stone and plaster *muqarnas*, of which only traces of the lower part remain. The side niches have umbrella vaults and are still in part recognisable. A stream of water rose from the *muqarnas* niche on the back wall (strategically set against the rocks from which the water rose naturally) and ran through the room and the entrance to the fishpond, in the manner of the pool at Zisa.  \nThe palace was set in a large garden, now vanished, that was probably a pleasure garden similar to those surrounding the Cuba and Zisa palaces and the Castello della Favara di Maredolce.","short_description":"This complex, built in Norman times, is similar to the type of pleasure garden found at the Cuba and Zisa palaces and Castle of the Favara at Maredolce. A stream of water rose from the *muqarnas* niche in the main room (which opened onto the garden), ran through the main entrance and fed the fishpond, a system borrowed from the Zisa palace.","dates":"Second half of the 12th century.","location":"Palermo","method_for_datation":"It is assumed to be from the 12th century on the basis of type and style. There is no documentary evidence that the palace existed in the preceding Islamic period.","bibliography":"Anastasi, L., *L’Arte nel Parco Reale Normanno di Palermo*, Palermo, 1935.  \nBellafiore, G., *Giardini e Parchi nella Palermo Normanna*, Palermo, 1996.  \n*Siculo-Norman Art: Islamic Culture in Medieval Sicily*, pp.83–4.","dynasty":"Norman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["residential architecture"],"author":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"3c0a8afd-9a9e-52f1-a2f3-a48c17f4d63f":{"name":"Great Mosque of Mahdiyya.","description":"This mosque was built on a rectangular plan measuring 75 m x 55 m. It is flanked by two round towers which served to catch the water running from the terraces. It seems the mosque did not have a minaret. The call to prayer was probably proclaimed from one of the towers. In front of the main entrance stands a porch claimed to be the first to figure in Maghrebin architecture. Harmoniously proportioned, this porch is roofed with a round horseshoe arch with *mihrab*\\-shaped niches placed high up on either side. Lower down, the different faces of the porch are ornamented with flat-backed niches. This decoration, a main feature of Fatimid monuments (best exemplified by the lateral façade of the Great mosque at Sfax) was carried over into the early Zirid period. This porch is reminiscent of the triumphal arches built by the Romans.  \nThis entrance porch leads into a courtyard surrounded by four galleries with a room at each corner. These are supported by arches and pillars rising from the courtyard on each side. Pointed arches for the north gallery simply rest on pillars whilst the three other galleries have round horseshoe arches and columns with capitals. From the southeast gallery one comes into the prayer-hall which has nine naves and three bays. The central nave and the transept form a T-shape. At their intersection is a dome supported on multifoil columns, under which a reproduction of the AH 5th-/ AD 11th-century *mihrab* has been built. This comprises a niche with fluted walls, each flute terminating in a shell motif. A *cul-de-four* on top of the niche is bordered by a horseshoe arch positioned on small corner columns incorporating Zirid capitals. The Great Mosque at Mahdiyya was the inspiration for several Egyptian mosques, notably al-Hakim and al-Aqmar mosques in Cairo.","short_description":"The Great Mosque of Mahdiyya was built by the caliph al-Mahdi. It was modified on several occasions before being rebuilt by the French architect A. Lézine between 1961 and 1965. The mosque does not appear to have had a minaret, with the call to prayer being made from the top of one of its towers. The Great Mosque of Mahdiyya inspired a number of mosques in Fatimid Egypt, such as al-Hakim Mosque and al-Aqmar Mosque in Cairo. This monument owes its beauty to the simplicity of its forms and materials, as the absence of any superfluous decoration.","dates":"Hegira 297 / AD 910.","location":"Mahdiyya","method_for_datation":"Historical sources, for example Ibn Idhari (7th / 13th century), as well as geographical authorities such as al-Bakri (5th / 11th century), attribute the Mahdiyya mosque to the Fatimid caliph al-Mahdi. However, the north gallery and the old *mihrab* can be dated from the Zirid era through comparisons with contemporary monuments such as the Great Mosque at Sfax and the *mihrab* of the Great Mosque at Monastir.","bibliography":"Lezine, A., *Mahdia,* *Recherches d'archeologie islamique*, Paris, 1965.  \nLezine, A., *Mahdia*, Tunis, 1968.  \nMarçais, G., *L'architecture musulmane d'Occident*, Paris, 1954.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia, pp.178–80.*","history":"The mosque was built on a fairly tangential piece of land which was in-filled and reclaimed from the sea. Several re-workings of the original building have taken place, mainly during the Zirid period after the collapse of the *qibla* wall. Other works were carried out during the Ottoman era in the 11th / 17th century. The mosque was rebuilt between 1961 and 1968. Only the porch and the north gallery are authentic.","patrons":"The Fatimid caliph al-Mahdi.","dynasty":"Fatimo-Zirid (Beginning of the dynasty).","materials":[],"keywords":["Mosque; architecture; porches"],"author":"Saloua Zangar"},"3c8378b6-b15a-5c21-874e-d7a334e3dab5":{"name":"Frescoed architectural fragment from a bathhouse.","description":"A frescoed architectural fragment that once formed part of a bathhouse, consisting of a niche with a pointed arch. The imagery within the niche portrays a figure, executed in black and red watercolours against a white background, executed in the fresco technique. The subject is a seated youth – who might have been a prince – and who holds a cup in his hand. He is wearing a loose robe-like garment, which is decorated with red vegetal motifs. His upper arms are encircled by two bands, and his head is covered by a pleated turban. A complete circular halo appears around the youth's head, perhaps to emphasise his status. He wears a scarf placed around his back, the two ends emerging from under his armpits and then left hanging down, suspended in mid-air. Two parts of the youth's hair can be seen beneath the turban, one in the front and the other at the back.  \nThe niche is framed by an arch composed of bead-like roundels. The fresco itself resembles paintings found in Samarra, Iraq in terms of both the figures; the shape of the heads and the circular halo, for instance, as well as in the repetitive decorative motifs; the frame in the form of an arch, for example. In addition the implementation of style is far from realistic, and leans more towards the decorative, with clear Persian influences. The Fatimid frescoes are not too different in form, style, or thematic content from depictions executed on metallic lustre ceramics, which were being produced in Egypt during this period. It is possible to study the pictorial representation on this architectural fragment by comparing it to similar Fatimid-period examples executed on various media: ceramics, some wooden pieces and on many textiles. Furthermore it is interesting to consider the role of painting itself as a distinctive decorative component of the applied arts during the Fatimid period.","short_description":"Baths were buildings of importance in the Islamic world due to their role in purification and hygiene. The walls of bathhouses were commonly decorated with frescoes, like the example we see here.","type":"Fresco, bathhouse","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 24.5 cm, width 60 cm.","method_for_datation":"Painting on all the applied arts is a distinctive feature of the Fatimid period, it also makes comparison with other paintings of the period a useful means of dating an object.","method_for_provenance":"Fustat was narrowed-down as the place of production for this architectural fragment as the piece was discovered *in situ* in a Fatimid bathhouse.","provenance":"Fustat, Egypt.","obtention":"Archaeological excavations undertaken by the Centre of Arab Antiquities in 1932 revealed the presence of a Fatimid bathhouse in the region of Fustat. Some of its constituent parts, including this architectural fragment, were transferred and registered as acquisitions of the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo in 1934.","bibliography":"Al-Pasha, H., *Al-Taswir al-Islami fi al-Usur al-Wusta \\[Islamic Painting During the Middle Ages\\]*, Cairo, 1959.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Trésors fatimides du Caire*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1998.  \nGrübe, E., *Cobalt and Lustre: The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery*, London, 1994.  \nHassan, Z. M.,“Tuhaf Jadida min al-Khazaf al-Fatimi dhi al-Bareeq al-Ma'dani \\[New Pieces from Fatimid Metallic Lustre Ceramics\\]”, *Majalat Kuliyat al-Adab \\[of the Faculty of Arts*\\], December, 1951.  \nHassan, Zaki M., *Kunuz al-Fatimiyyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids*\\], Beirut, 1981.  \nPhilon, H., *Early Islamic Ceramics: Ninth to Twelfth Centuries*, Athens, Vol. 1, London, 1980.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Fresco: stucco-painted with watercolour in red and black."],"keywords":["Stucco; bathhouse; figurative representation; fresco"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"4df720fc-29e6-59ab-9430-1945b274992e":{"name":"Pair of earrings.","description":"The Fatimid period is distinguished by the development of precisely executed objects with high levels of decorative concentration. This is evident in wood, metal, and gold objects from the period.  \nThis pair of earrings is made from a gold web that is hollow from the inside. Each individual earring is in the form of a bird carrying in its beak a small gold ball. The loop provided for hanging the earring from the ear of the wearer connects the head of the bird with the rear of its body, making the arch of the bird's back straddle the earlobe.  \nThe earrings were made from gold wire carefully soldered together and accentuated with a few gold granules. The granule technique creates a light and hollow whole that is both aesthetically and practically pleasing. This technique was also used to create spherical or bi-conical beads that were then strung together into necklaces and other kinds of jewellery.","short_description":"This small but meticulously executed pair of gold earrings is a prime example of dexterity in the technique of filigree. Birds were a favoured ornamental motif and the filigree technique maintained the lightness of the subject without compromising their opulence.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 5th–6th century / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length (at longest point) 3.5 cm, depth (at deepest point) 1.21 cm.","method_for_datation":"The production of this type of hollow, woven gold object was well known in the Fatimid period, specifically in the first half of the 5th / 11th century.","method_for_provenance":"Although purchased in Raqqa, the method of production described above was associated with multiple sites in Egypt and Syria, such as Cairo and Aleppo. It is difficult to determine, therefore, a definitive provenance.","provenance":"Possibly Raqqa.","obtention":"Purchased in 1940.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R., Grabar, O., and Jenkins-Madina, M., *Islamic Art and Architecture 650–1250*, New Haven, 2001, fig. 340.  \nSeipel, W., *Schätze der Kalifen: Islamische Kunst zur Fatimidenzeit*, Wien, 1998, pp.119–20; fig. 76.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven gold."],"keywords":["Earring; gold, woven; Aleppo; Cairo; Raqqa; bird"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"539cc0cc-894e-5945-b4c9-b62fae0a412d":{"name":"Bottle.","description":"A small cylindrical rock-crystal bottle, narrowing at the foot, with a silver mount. Carved with angular bevelled incisions on the sides is an abstract design, resembling a stylised leaf form. Rock-crystal is the purest kind of quartz and was particularly popular during the Fatimid period. The historian al-Maqrizi (AH 766–845 / AD 1364-1442) recounts that amongst the treasures of the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt were: '17,000 boxes, each one containing rock-crystal either decorated in relief, or plain'. It was also highly prized in Europe. Many of the surviving pieces of Islamic rock-crystal can be found in church treasuries in Europe where they were adapted for liturgical purposes, such as reliquaries. The silver mount on this object would have been added when the object reached Europe.","short_description":"Rock-crystal was highly valued during the Fatimid period but also sought after in Europe. Many rock-crystal objects made during the Fatimid period were later acquired by church treasuries, and often adapted for reliquaries.","type":"Glasswork, carved rock-crystal","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th century / AD 10th–11th century","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 14.98 cm.","method_for_datation":"Church inventories record pieces of rock-crystal arriving in Europe from Islamic countries by the second half of the 4th / 10th century. Although not identical in style, this bottle can be associated with a carved rock-crystal ewer in the treasury of San Marco, Venice, which bears the name of the Fatimid Caliph al-'Aziz (r. 365–86 / 975–86).","method_for_provenance":"That carved rock-crystal was fostered by Fatimid patrons in Egypt, probably in the capital Cairo, is proven by the existence of a few dated objects together with descriptions of the court treasuries.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Acquired by the British Museum in 1894.","bibliography":"Contadini, A. *Fatimid Art at the Victoria and Albert Museum*, London, 1998, pp.26–36.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Carved rock-crystal with silver mount."],"keywords":["Incision; carving; rock-crystal; reliquary; religious object; sumptuary art"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5443b49b-dc27-5556-9034-4775ba220542":{"name":"The ‘Lady of Sabra’ plate.","description":"Round-based plate. It has a low, upstanding rim, slightly curved and sloping outwards. On the plate is drawn a female figure in profile with a large almond-shaped eye. The full mouth and the delicate nose are very finely drawn.  \nThe long hair starts in a pony-tail and ends in plaits hanging down to the knees. The figure is standing, wearing a brown-striped dress covered in fringes. She holds a glass in one hand and in the other a flower drawn in a naturalistic manner. The figure is surrounded by four stylised, fan-shaped flowers and by two rectangular shapes each containing a eulogy, probably ‘al-Mulk’ (Sovereignty).  \nAs from the advent of the Fatimids, Ifriqiyan ceramics began to show a preference for the figurative, showing a definite Mesopotamian influence. This trend is undoubtedly connected with the attitude of Shi'ite dogma towards the representation of the human form, more tolerant than that of the Malikite conformists.  \nThe face, with its huge eyes, is a common denominator of almost all human Ifriqiyan figures of the period, whether carved, modelled or painted, and seems to go back to a distant, Roman, North African past. By contrast, the style of the Lady of Sabra's dress had been in fashion since the Umayyad era and lasted right through the Abbasid period.","short_description":"This green bowl has a round base and depicts a female silhouette. The face is identified by an almond-shaped eye, a full mouth and an extremely fine nose. The profile is reminiscent of Ifriqiyan figures.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 4th century / AD 10th century.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11 cm, diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object comes from the site of Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the short-lived capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids, which lasted just over 100 years (337–444 / 948–1053). It was retrieved from one of the oldest layers of the site, which dates it from the second half of the 4th / 10th century. The date is corroborated by the green colour and by the decoration.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery on the Sabra site of this plate and of two other identical plates, painted with Fatimid–Zirid decoration and made in the Ifriqiyan manner, suggests they were produced in series locally at the Sabra potteries or at those of Kairouan, the nearest economic capital.","provenance":"Kairouan or Sabra al-Mansuriyya, which both had potteries.","obtention":"The plate was among objects discovered on site during the 1979 excavations at Sabra al-Mansuriyya. It was acquired in 1986 directly from the site by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada.","bibliography":"Ajjabi, H., “La ceramique de Sabra al-Mansuriya”, *Africa*, XI-XII, Tunis, 1992–3, pp.57–8.  \n*Le Vert et le Brun* (exhibition catalogue), Avignon, 1995, p.84.  \n*Tunez, Tierra de Culturas* (exhibition catalogue), Valencia, 2004, p.218.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glazed ceramic."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; women; Zirid; figurative representation"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"548ee63e-6bb4-531b-bdd0-c6728fff90d5":{"name":"Bab al-Futuh.","description":"Bab al-Futuh is composed of a large block-like structure built of stone. Its facade consists of two towers, projecting from the walled enclosure. The width of the gate's façade is 23 m; it is 25 m thick and 22 m high. The towers of this gate are semi-circular, similar to the two towers of Bab Zuwayla in the southern wall (built AH 485 / AD 1092), but they are not square like the two towers of Bab al-Nasr which is on the same, northern, wall (built AH 480 / AD 1087). The towers of Bab al-Futuh are massive and reach up to the same height as the northern walls of the city. The upper section of each tower comprises a defensive room with arrow slits.  \nThe gate entrance is covered with a shallow dome consisting of transition zones of four spherical-triangular pendentives. This is the first appearance of this type of dome in Islamic Egypt. The Gate retains beautiful decorative elements on its external arch that includes a variety of vegetal and geometric motifs, representing a stage of development with regard to stone decoration in Islamic architecture. The entrance is also decorated with brackets, some of which assume the form of rams' heads. The two sides of the towers are adorned on their interiors with a large arch that is carved in stone and whose curvature is adorned with a series of regular lobes, the like of which can be seen on the entrance of the Small Dome in Palermo (Piccola Cuba) in Sicily, which dates to the AH 6th / AD 12th century.  \nBab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr are connected by the northern wall of the city, the upper third of which is composed of vaulted passages, with arrow slits, as well as towers to defend the city. The names of some of the commanders of the French expedition against Egypt, under Napoleon Bonaparte (AH 1213–16 / AD 1798–1801), are written on the towers of Bab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr as a witness to their residence in Egypt and their use of those forts during their campaign.","short_description":"Bab al-Futuh is one of three extant gates of the Fatimid walls of Cairo, built by two Armenian brothers who came from the city of Raha, and is considered to be one of the oldest-known examples of military architecture in the Islamic world. The gate entrance is covered by a shallow dome consisting of transition areas composed of four spherical triangles, a model appearing in Egypt for the first time.","dates":"Hegira 480 / AD 1087.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"The dating of this edifice is supported by historical sources, for example Al-Maqrizi (d. 845 / 1442) mentions the date of construction in his book, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthā* (Cairo, 1853).","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Muslim Architecture of Egypt*, Vol. I, Oxford, 1952.  \nAl-Maqrizi, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthār \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the Recollection of Plans and Monuments*\\], 2 Vols, Cairo, 1853.  \nTaghri Bardi, Jamal al-Din Abi al-Mahasin (d. 874 / 1469), *Al-Nujum al-Zahira fi Muluk Masr wa al-Qahira \\[Shining Stars in the Rulers of Egypt and Cairo*\\], Cairo, 1942.  \nSameh, Kamal al-Din, *Al-'Emara al-Islamiya fi Masr \\[Islamic Architecture in Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991.  \nZaki, Abd al-Rahman, *al-Azhar wa ma hawlahu min al-Athar \\[Al-Azhar and its Monumental Environs*\\], Cairo, 1970.","patrons":"The Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir bi Allah (r. AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94).","architects":"Amir al-Juyush Badr al-Jamali supervised the construction.","dynasty":"Fatimid.","materials":[],"keywords":["entrance; vegetal decoration; geometric decoration; war-time architecture; military architecture."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"57c9e92a-cab4-5c9c-a712-2d7757fdd1cc":{"name":"Four ivory panels.","description":"The four panels made of carved and openworked pieces of ivory are outstanding examples of the repertoire of work commissioned by the court of the Fatimid period. They are among the most important works of art from this period.  \nTwo of these panels display a horizontal pattern, while the other two have been decorated linearly along the vertical axis. These latter vertical panels have been shortened slightly. Traces of red indicate that there was once a coloured frame or mount.  \nFigures, carved to stand out in high relief, are depicted undertaking a variety of activities. Spiralling grapevines form a backdrop against which people are portrayed in action. Thick grapes hang off the plants. Huntsmen with falcons, helpers carrying small hoofed game, musicians (flute, oboe, lute, plucked stringed instruments), a reveller, pouring into his goblet from a jug, workers picking grapes, and falcons on the hunt – are all depicted in a lifelike and realistic fashion. The illustrations of animal fighting show a lion hunting down a bull, a falcon hunting a deer. A prince reclines on a bolster holding a goblet in his left hand. Everyone wears robes common to that era, made of fabrics decorated with a variety of designs. Even the headdresses are illustrative of the period rather than creations of fantasy.  \nSome depictions refer to pre-Islamic art and reflect the continuing existence of older traditions. It was especially during the Fatimid period that the ban on pictures was circumvented in courtly circles and that representations of the human form were undertaken.  \nFrom stylistic and thematic similarities, a good comparison can be drawn between the works on ivory and the woodwork and ceramics created during the Fatimid period, in which the finer technique seen in the ivory engraving demonstrates greater skill.  \nWhat remains unexplained is their function. The panels could have been used to decorate or coat a wooden surface (such as a door or large trunk), or could have been used as part of a throne. The Arab historian al-Maqrîzî (AH 766–845 / AD 1364–1442) described a Fatimid throne made of ebony and ivory.","short_description":"The function of these panels with themes from princely life is not known, but the carving of hunters with hawks, musicians and revellers against a background of vine scrolls demonstrates the artistic quality of Fatimid ivory carving at its best and thus may be a ruler’s commission for a palace.","type":"Panel, ivory","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","initial_owner":"Freiherr von Zu-Rhein Collection; F. v. Amerling Collection; A. Figdor Collection.","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th centuries / AD 11th–12th centuries.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Horizontal panels: length 36.5 cm, width 5.8 cm. Vertical panels: height 30.3 cm, width 5.8 cm. Depth of panels 1–1.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The fact that these panels have not been attributed to a particular building, and that stylistic comparisons to other works of ivory from southern Italy have demonstrated substantial differences, indicates that they might date from the Fatimid period, as they compare stylistically to other artworks from Egypt, above all to Fatimid woodwork.","method_for_provenance":"As Fatimid woodwork from Egypt is the only art form that bears close stylistic comparison to these panels, so far it is thought that these most probably come from Egypt.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Bought from a private art gallery in 1936.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R. and Grabar, O., *The Art and Architecture of Islam, 650–1250*, Harmondsworth, 1987, pp.202–206.  \nHoffman, E. R., “A Fatimid Book Cover: Framing and Re-framing. Cultural Identity in the Medieval Mediterranean World”, in *L’Egypte Fatimide: Son Art et Son Histoire*, (ed. M. Barrucand), Paris, 1999, pp.403–19.  \nKühnel, E., *Die Islamischen Elfenbeinskulpturen, VIII-XIII. Jh*., Berlin, 1971, pp.68–9, no. 88, plates 97–8.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Berlin, 1979, no. 21.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Stuttgart; Zürich, 1980, no. 19, pp.50–1.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Ivory."],"keywords":["Ivory; Fatimid; engraving; framed/mounted"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"5956a116-f2da-52fd-9a46-aa5a243e3598":{"name":"Coin (*dinar*).","description":"The coin, produced at the Egyptian mint, can be dated to the reign of Abu ‘Ali al-Hakim bi-‘amr Allah (AH 386–411 / AD 996–1021). The coin has a four-line inscription with *kufic* characters on both sides. The inscription on the front reads ‘*‘Alî lâ ilâ illâ Allâh wahda-hu lâ sarik la-hu Muhammad rasûl Allâh wâli Allâh*’ (‘There is no God but Allah, the One, there is none like unto him. Muhammad is the Messenger of God’) and the inscription around the edge reads ‘*Muhammad rasûl Allâh arsala-hu bi-l-hudâ wa al-haqq li-yuzhira-hu alâ al-dîn kulli-hi wa la-hu kariha al-musrikûn*’ (‘Muhammad is the messenger of God. He has sent His messenger with the guidance and the true religion, and will make it dominate all religions, in spite of the idol worshipers’).  \nThe inscription ‘*Abd Allâh wûliya al-Mansûr Abû Ali al-imâm al-Hakîm bi-amr Allâh amir al-mu’ minîn*’ appears in the middle of the front side, and the edge bears the inscription ‘*bismi-llâh duriba hadâ-l-l-dînâr bi-Mis'r sana talat wa arba maya*’ (‘This coin was minted in the name of God in Egypt in the year three and four hundred’).","short_description":"The *dinar*, which takes its name from its Byzantine predecessor the *denarius*, is decorated with an inscription in *kufic* characters. This coin was minted during the reign of the Caliph al-Hakim.","type":"Coin, dinar, gold","holder":"Museum of Civilisations | Museum of Oriental Art “Giuseppe Tucci”","dates":"Hegira 403 / AD 1012.","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Diameter 2.2 cm; weight 4.17 g.","method_for_datation":"From the inscription on the edge of the obverse.","method_for_provenance":"From the inscription on the edge of the obverse.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchase.","bibliography":"Lane-Poole S., *Catalogue of Oriental Coins in the British Museum*, IV, London, 1879, p.21, fig. 85.","dynasty":"Fatimid; reign of al-Hakim","materials":["Gold / minting."],"keywords":["dinar; coinage; coin; Fatimids; al-Hakim; calligraphy; numismatics"],"author":"Paola Torre","copy_editor":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"5aeefe19-f129-5cd0-9a57-c3e72577cfaa":{"name":"Two gold bracelets.","description":"Identical bracelets made of gold, each of which is decorated with bands of ornamentation consisting of pseudo inscriptions. Both bracelets have clasps characterised by two ornamented intersecting triangular shapes. The clasps are decorated with vegetal motifs in the form of whorls, and are framed by pierced circles that cohere together.  \nThe cities of Fustat and Alexandria were among the most important centres for the production of jewellery and precious stones in Egypt during the Fatimid period. These centres were active during the Fatimid period from the middle of the AH 4th / AD 10th century onward since the Fatimids were known to love acquiring gold and jewels to reveal the splendour of their wealth, serving to elevate their prestige as a consequence. A fact that affirms their encouragement for the production of ornamentation is that the Caliph al-Aziz bi Allah undertook the construction of the Palace of Gold, as had Caliph al-Muizz li-Din Allah before him, undertaking the creation of the Hall of Gold in the Eastern Palace. The Palace of Gold and the Hall of Gold were designated to house the different precious-metal acquisitions for which the Fatimids had such a great passion. It is worth mentioning that the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah used to wear a shield (*'asgada*) made of gold and silver. Furthermore his sister, Sitt al-Mulk, presented him with a crown of gold that was studded with diamonds and other gems. The Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo includes amongst its collections a set of gold rings decorated with depictions of animals, plants and epigraphic decorations, as well as brooches all worked in the filigree technique, with the addition of coils of gold thread. Likewise, the museum has also acquired earrings of different forms and two gold bracelets, adorned by inscriptions in *kufic* script.","short_description":"Cairo knew the art of jewellery making and many pieces were produced there over the ages. Jewellers decorated their work with attractive patterns. Production centres in Egypt became active in the time of the Fatimids who loved acquiring gold and jewels as a mark of luxury and wealth.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AH 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 6.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"The bracelets are dated based on the style of filigree decoration, made famous by the Fatimids.","method_for_provenance":"Egypt was earmarked as the place of production in view of the fact that production of similar types of gold jewellery was widespread throughout Egypt during the Fatimid period.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Both bracelets were bought from a dealer of antiquities, Mikhail, in 1941.","bibliography":"Abu Sadira, al-Sayed Taha al-Sayed, *Al-Hiraf wa al-Sina'at fi Masr al-Islamiyya \\[Handicrafts and Manufacture in Islamic Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1991.  \nAl-Maqrizi, *Al-mawā'iz wa'l-i'tibār bi-dhikr al-khiţaţ wa'l-āthār \\[Exhortations and Contemplation of the Recollection of Plans and Monuments*\\], 2 Vols, Cairo, Egypt, 1853.  \nAl-Pasha, H., et al, *Al-Qāhira, Tārikhuha, Fūnunuha, Āthāruha \\[Cairo: Its History, Arts and Monuments*\\], Cairo, 1970.  \nMaurice, L., “Al-Dhahab al-Islami mundhu al-qarn al-Sabi' ila al-qarn al-Hadi 'ashar al-Miladi \\[Islamic Gold from the 7th century to the 11th century\\]”, *(Trans. T Iskandar *), in *Al-Majala al-Tarikhiya al-Masriya \\[Journal of Egyptian History*\\], Cairo, 1984.  \nMuhammad, H. Z., *Kunuz al-Fatimiyyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids\\],* Cairo, 1938.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold decorated with filigree and superimposed coils."],"keywords":["Ornamentation; gold; filigree; jewellery"],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"63c1b0eb-c6f5-5394-abeb-d76e3c3b5dca":{"name":"Pair of earrings.","description":"The two earrings are crescent-shaped. They are double-sided and open at the top. The earrings’ two sides differ from one another. One side consists of a crescent-shaped area in which two spiralling tendrils mirror each other symmetrically. The area is bordered by a row of gold pearls. The other side consists of a small semi-circular area encompassing symmetrical tendrils, framed by a wide border that is made up of six half-spheres, their surface completely granulated. The presence of eyelets demonstrates that at one time each side of both earrings were hung with strings of pearls. The pearls no longer exist.  \nBecause of what the literature terms their ‘box construction’, the earrings are typical examples of Fatimid art of the AH 5th / AD 11th century. They probably come from a big city environment like Cairo. Similar earrings have been found in excavation sites in Tunisia, Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Coins found alongside provide a date for the objects. Many of the excavated items of jewellery had been used as currency for trading, valued purely for their worth in gold; probably rather less consideration was given to the lavish craftsmanship with which they were made and which was evidence of the high level of art practised by jewellers during the Fatimid period.","short_description":"This pair of gold earrings, which once had additional pearls, is typical of Fatimid art. In the shape of a crescent, the two sides have different designs. One side has a symmetrical plant pattern, while the other is adorned by a row of six half-pearls. Jewellery was widely traded in the Islamic world.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 3.3 cm, width 3.5 cm; weight of a single earring approx. 18 g.","method_for_datation":"A sister pair of earrings formed in the same shape was found in Fustat (Old Cairo) indicating that these earrings have come from Fatimid Egypt.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery in Fustat (Old Cairo) of a sister pair made in the same shape, as well as the markings, which betray certain origins, point to an Egyptian provenance for this pair of earrings.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Bought from a dealer in Aleppo, 1913.","bibliography":"Gladiss, A. v., *Schmuck im Museum für Islamische Kunst*. Berlin, 1998, no. 23, 94, ill. 73.  \nKeene, M. and Jenkins, M. (eds.), *Islamic Jewelry in the Metropolitan Museum of Art*,New York, 1982, no. 51a, p.85.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst Berlin*, Catalogue, Berlin, 1973, no. 217.  \nSeipel, W., *Schätze der Kalifen: Islamische Kunst der Fatimidenzeit*, Mailand, 1998, pp.119–29.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold, granulated filigree."],"keywords":["Earrings; jewellery; Fatimid"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"63ca903e-e911-5013-b005-27189e25dc6f":{"name":"A pair of earrings.","description":"A pair of circular-shaped earrings, the clasps for which are achieved by twisting the two ends together. Each earring is decorated by a central band that cuts the circle in half. The band is ornamented with geometric forms, created from filigree, or entwined gold wire. Below this decorative band, is the sculptural form of two confronting birds whose bodies are decorated with golden granules. Between these two birds, are a series of three small circles. A glass bead is suspended from each earring, surrounded by a number of tiny pearls.","short_description":"Earrings took various shapes with a multitude of decorative styles. The filigree technique used to decorate these earrings was widely used in the Fatimid period for the decoration of jewellery and in the applied arts in general.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 4 cm.","method_for_datation":"These earrings are dated based on similar examples from the period since the filigree technique was widely used in the Fatimid period for the decoration of jewellery such as rings and earrings and in the production of the applied arts in general.","method_for_provenance":"Cairo was narrowed down as the place of production of these earrings in view of the close resemblance to other pieces that have been uncovered during the course of archaeological excavations undertaken in the city of Fustat, south of Cairo.","provenance":"Cairo.","obtention":"This pair of earrings was bought by the Museum in 1936 from an antiquities dealer, Abi Mayor.","bibliography":"Al-Ali, Z. O., *Al-Tazyeen wa al-Huly ' ind al- Mar'a fi al-'Asr al-'Abbasi \\[Decoration and Ornamentation of Women in the Abbasid Period*\\], Baghdad, 1976.  \nHamdi, A., et al, C*atalogMa'rid al-fan al-islāmi fi misr \\[Catalogue of the Islamic Art Exhibition in Egypt*\\], Cairo, 1969.  \nHamdi, A. A., *Al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya al-'Arabiya al-Islamiya \\[Arab-Islamic Decorative Arts*\\], Baghdad, 1982.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold with filigree decoration executed using the openwork / entwining technique."],"keywords":["Gold; figurative decoration; filigree; earrings"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"6568b7c0-a3a3-5d41-9f89-21aa75b86c2f":{"name":"Shrine (Mausoleum) of Sayyida Ruqayya.","alternate_name":"Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya.","description":"The Shrine is associated with the venerated lady known as Al-Sayyida Ruqayya, daughter of the Imam 'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Righteously Guided Caliph (*Rashidun*). This monument was also used as a viewing platform where visitors could climb to the roof and view the new moon. In this way the beginning of the Arabic months in the Islamic calendar could be pinpointed.  \nWhat remains of the building is rectangular with a tripartite structure. The biggest, middle section is square in plan with all four sides measuring 12 m, and it is covered by a dome. It opens out onto two side bays, which are rectangular in shape, by means of two entrances with horizontal lintels.  \nOne of the most important and distinctive features of this monument is in the middle section's transition zone from the square to the drum of the dome. The transition is made by a row of small keel-arched niches resembling *muqarnas*, a device that represents a transformation in the design and layout of dome architecture, in which previously the zone of transition had consisted of large keel-arched openings in the corners of the square. Following the innovative breakthrough of this dome, *muqarnas* appeared in the domes of the Ayyubid period.  \nAround the drum of the dome, is an inscription band in *kufic* script containing Qur'anic verses. This band is considered the oldest epigraphic inscription to be seen on a mausoleum in Egypt. The base of the octagonal dome is characterised by eight windows in stucco; there are two windows on each side. The lower parts of these windows are embellished with beautiful stucco work, considered to be a unique example of arabesque decoration in the Fatimid period. The dome from the outside is lobed in shape.","short_description":"One of the charitable constructions commissioned by the wife of the Fatimid caliph, al-Amir bi Ahkam Allah, the shrine was dedicated to the memory of Sayyida Ruqayya, daughter of Imam 'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Righteously Guided Caliph. A prominent architectural feature of the building is the transition zone of the dome composed of arched niches, which later developed, in the Ayyubid period, into the *muqarnas* or stalactite decoration.","dates":"Hegira 527 / AD 1133.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"This building was dated based on the epigraphic inscription in the dome, which includes the name of the builder and the date of construction.","bibliography":"Behrens-Abouseif, D., *Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction*, Cairo, 1998.  \nBerchem, M. van, *Une Mosquée du Temps des Fatimides au Caire*, Cairo, 1889.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *The Muslim Architecture of Egypt*, Vol. I, Oxford, 1952.  \nMaher, S. M., *Masajid Masr wa Awliya'uha al-Salihoon \\[Mosques of Egypt and their Devout Sponsors*), Cairo, 1971.  \nSameh, Kamal al-Din, *Al-'Imara al-Islamiya fi Misr \\[Islamic Architecture in Egypt*\\], Cairo, 1991. Williams, C., “The Cult of Alid Saints in the Fatimid Monuments of Cairo”, (Part II: The Mausolea), *Muqarnas* 3, pp.39–60.","patrons":"Al-Sayyida Ulam al-Amiriyya, the wife of the Fatimid caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (r. AH 495–524 / AD 1101–30).","dynasty":"Fatimid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Arabesque; keel-arched corner opening; vegetal stucco decoration; shrine; mausoleum; funerary architecture; dome; transition zone of a dome."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"672e5d81-e294-5bdc-9691-e88fb689a760":{"name":"Page from a Qur’an.","description":"The Fatiha *sura* ('the Opening', verses 1 and 2), taken from a Qur'an copied on parchment.  \nThe writing combines the *kufic, naskhi* and the *rayhani* styles. Its identity has still not been well established. The laying out of the cursive script is more rectangular than curved.  \nVowel-points are absent from this writing, but, in keeping with the system developed by al-Khalil ibn Ahmad, there is an abundance of orthographic signs. Vowels are marked in red, *sukun* and *shadda* in blue and *hamza* and *maddah* in brilliant green.  \nStanding out on this page is a strip containing the title and number of verses in the following *sura*, written in gold.  \nThe title is inscribed in a series of superimposed frames in which geometric decoration alternates with floral decoration using the multi-lobed fleuron. Some strips are engraved in gold and all the surrounds are brown. A palm-leaf motif made up of floral arabesques projects towards the edge of the page.  \nAt the top of the page in the right-hand margin there is a geometrically decorated gold and brown lozenge; the corners each have a crown in the same colour and the sides have blue and brown circles on the outer edge.  \nThe central area contains gilded *kufic* script indicating the number of the verses.","short_description":"This page is from a Qur'an copied on vellum. Bands of geometric decoration with the name of the *sura* and the number of verses it contains, in gold, are particularly distinctive. The colophon of the Qur'an mentions the deed of gift by the governess of Prince Badis to the Great Mosque of Kairouan.","type":"Manuscript, Qur'an, parchment","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"Fatima al-Hadinah, governess to the Zirid prince, Badis.","dates":"Hegira 410 / AD 1020.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 45.5 cm, width 31 cm; 5 lines, 1 folio.","method_for_datation":"The deed of gift clearly mentions that the legacy took place in 410 / 1020.","method_for_provenance":"This Qur'an was copied, illuminated and bound by Ali ibn Ahmad al-Warraq for Fatima al-Hadinah, the governess of the Zirid prince, Badis. The work was supervised and financed by Durah al-Katibah – 'Durah the lady-scribe', the governess's secretary. The colophon of the Qur'an mentions the deed of gift by Badis's governess to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. The deed is authorised by the *qadi* (judge) of Kairouan, Abdullah ibn Hashim.","provenance":"Kairouan.","obtention":"After the abolition of the *habus* foundation in Tunisia, this Qur'an was obtained by the Bardo Museum. In 1986 it was transferred to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada where it is currently on display.","bibliography":"Lings, M., and Safadi, Y.-H., *The Arts of Islam* (exhibition catalogue), London, 1976, p.30, plate no. 25.  \n*De Carthage a Kairouan* (exhibition catalogue), Paris, 1982, p.273, plate no. 357.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.175–6.","artist":"'Ali ibn Ahmad al-Warraq.","dynasty":"Fatimid-Zirid","materials":["Parchment."],"keywords":["Calligraphy; floral decoration; geometric decoration; rihani; religious manuscript"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"6838b186-6323-54a8-99c8-c1e5f66d8df8":{"name":"Mosque.","description":"The remains of the mosque, which at the current stage of archaeological investigation appears to be the only surviving sacred Islamic building in Sicily, are located in the immediate vicinity of the ancient theatre of Segesta, outside the fortified area of the late medieval settlement. It is laid out over an irregular rectangle 20.5 m long and 11.4 m wide, and was constructed in a single phase using a uniform building technique (limestone blocks bound with mud). The floor is bare rock. The *mihrab* niche on the south side, correctly oriented to within a few degrees of southeast, is 2 m wide on the inside and 1.5 m deep. It is rectangular on the outside and protrudes from the wall by about a metre. There are no traces of a *minbar*.  \nThe mosque was split into two naves by a line of three columns, of which only the bases have survived. It would have been covered with a tiled roof and did not have a porticoed courtyard or a minaret nor even, at the current stage of excavation, did it appear to have a fountain for ablutions.","short_description":"The remains of the mosque can be found in the immediate vicinity of the ancient theatre of Segesta, outside the fortified area of the late medieval settlement. It is laid out over an irregular rectangle with the *mihrab* niche on the south side, correctly oriented a few degrees to the southeast. It was probably a rural mosque from Norman times, which was built, along with the fortified settlement, on high ground by an Islamicised people fleeing the lands gradually being conquered by the Normans.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Segesta","method_for_datation":"From the discovery during excavations of ceramic remains dating back to the 6th / 12th century.","bibliography":"Molinari, A., *Segesta II: Il Castello e la Moschea (Scavi 1989–1995)*, Palermo, 1997.  \n*Siculo-Norman Art: Islamic Culture in Medieval Sicily*, pp.213–15.","history":"It was probably a rural mosque from the Norman period that was built, along with the fortified settlement, on high ground by an Islamised population fleeing the lands that were being progressively conquered by the Normans. It is not clear whether it served just the village or the entire surrounding area. An Islamic necropolis has been discovered nearby.  \nThe arrival of a Christian feudal lord towards the end of the AH 6th / AD 12th century saw the area become a lordly residence, with new building work carried out within the Islamic settlement and a church erected. As a result, the mosque was demolished and the building materials reused.  \nThe settlement was slowly abandoned and even the lord’s residence fell into ruin during the second half of the 13th century.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["religious architecture"],"author":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"694dde47-bada-58b2-bcc0-6d5bd86a4ac0":{"name":"Great lantern of al-Mu‘izz.","description":"The lantern is made up of a bronze hook supporting a shallow-domed hemispherical basin with an outwardly inclined upper rim. Attached to the six-faceted outer sides of the basin are three perforated chains with geometric and stylised floral decoration in the form of tracery and tri-lobed leaves. This is a common type of decoration in Middle-Age Kairouan. The chains support the large hammered-brass basin, which is shaped like a circular vase and allows light to shine through the myriad perforations. At the lowest point of the basin a six-point star has been punched out. This is surrounded by three inscriptions, one around the collar; another between the ring supports and a third circling the star. On the first strip, *kufic* calligraphy proclaims: 'Praise be to God … May he bestow blessings, good fortune, happiness, success, prosperity, health and glory on all who embrace Him.' On the circumference of the base is inscribed: 'The work of Muhammad son of Ali al-Qaysi al-Saffar \\[the metalworker\\] for al-Mu'izz.' This lantern closely resembles a mosque lamp kept at the Chicago Art Institute and a lantern of Persian origin belonging to the David collection in Copenhagen (Denmark). Both date from the AH 4th or 5th centuries (AD 11th century). All the evidence suggests that the lantern of al-Mu'izz, which lit up the Great Mosque of Kairouan, is an example of Byzantine–inspired craftsmanship, which was in vogue throughout the Arabic-Islamic world during the AH 4th and 5th centuries (AD 10th and 11th).","short_description":"Used to light the Great Mosque of Kairouan, this lantern is an example of Byzantine-inspired craftsmanship fashionable in Arab-Islamic society in the AH 4th–5th / AD 10th–11th centuries. A bronze hook supports a shallow basin from which three chains suspend a large circular brass basin perforated with holes for light.","type":"Lantern, metalwork","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"Prince al-Mu’izz ibn Badis.","dates":"Hegira 424–43 / AD 1032–51.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 118 cm, diameter (max) 51.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The last inscription states that the lantern was a gift from the Zirid prince, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 406–54 / 1016–62) to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. This donation could be contemporaneous with the legacy of the *Mudawwana* volumes, the work of the great Sunni legal expert Sahnun ibn Said (160–240 / 777–855), from the same prince to the Great Mosque of Kairouan in 424 / 1032. It was certainly before the Hilalian invasions of 443 / 1051.","method_for_provenance":"This lantern was part of the furniture of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. It was specially made by a lamp-maker for the reigning Zirid prince, so it was probably fabricated in a Kairouanese workshop.","provenance":"Kairouan.","obtention":"After the founding of the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada in 1986 it was decided to return this lantern, which was on display at the Bardo Museum, to its original location.","bibliography":"Marçais, G. and Poinssot, L., *Objets Kairouanais*, XI, fasc. 2, Tunis, 1952, pp.411–33.  \n*Tunez, Tierra de Culturas* (exhibition catalogue), Valencia, 2004, p.218.  \nWard, R., *Islamic Metalwork*, Milan, 1993, pp.11, 68.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.159–62.","artist":"Muhammad, son of Ali al-Qaysi al-Saffar (‘the metalworker’).","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Moulded, perforated bronze."],"keywords":["Furnishing; floral decoration; calligraphy"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"69b67921-210d-5179-a7f6-620452e75cc6":{"name":"Pendant earring.","description":"The earring is one of an identical pair shaped like a necklace. It consists of a halter of thick gold wire on which are threaded five filigree gold balls. The two balls on each side are spherical. The upper ball is smaller than the lower ball. They are separated by spirals of twisted gold wire. Beneath these, flanked on each side by a solid gold bead, sits the fifth, slightly larger, ellipsoid ball. Joined between the three larger balls is a medallion representing a stylised face with the eyes, nose and mouth drawn in filigree and semi-circular eyebrows joined at the nose. Below the central ball is a small pendant sphere formed of two rings of plaited filigree. The jeweller has shown great skill in working with this fine but tough gold wire. There is no apparent system of attachment to the ear.  \nThis pendant appears to be of Iranian manufacture, with striking similarities to certain pieces of jewellery from Jurgan. But the resemblance to Syrian and Egyptian earrings of the same period is also apparent.","short_description":"This piece consists of a solid gold semi-circle with an openwork ball in filigreed gold on either side separated by four strands of filigreed gold in a plait. It was probably made in Iran, although the similarity with Syrian and Egyptian earrings from the same time is also significant.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th centuries / AD 11th–12th centuries.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 3.2 cm, width 2 cm, thickness 0.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Similar earrings found in Iran and Syria have been dated from the 5th–6th / 11th–12th centuries.","method_for_provenance":"This earring is similar to other objects of Egyptian origin.","provenance":"Very probably Egypt.","obtention":"Acquired by the Monastir Museum, the earring was displayed there from 1958, transferring to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada in 1995.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold filigree-work."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; floral decoration; jewellery"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"6da7c160-94fa-5f96-a7c1-9c73200419b5":{"name":"Mihrab.","description":"A wooden *mihrab* with a rectangular section in the centre that is a curved niche. The facade of the *mihrab* is rectangular in form and at the centre it has a rectangular opening, crowned by a pointed arch. The facade is decorated with assembled hexagonal panels, which flank other panels, in the form of six-pointed stars. This design is considered to be the starting point for the use of the decorative component known as 'the star-shaped medallion', which became one of the most important decorative components in wooden objects during the Mamluk period. This *mihrab* is the earliest dated piece on which this decorative component appears. At the top of the facade, are two lines of inscription in floriated *kufic* script that reads: 'One of the things commissioned by the honourable, protected, and great personage, al-Amiriyya, whose service was undertaken by al-Qadi Abu al-Hasan Maknun and who is served now, by al-Amir al-Sadid 'Afif al-Dawla Abu al-Hasan Yumn al-Fa'izi al-Salihi, intended for the shrine of al-Sayyida Ruqayya, the daughter of the Commander of the Faithful, 'Ali'. From the inscription, it is understood that this *mihrab* was made by order of al-Sayyida 'Ulam al-Amiriyya (d. AH 535 / AD 1140), the wife of the caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (r. 495–524 / AD 1101–30), for the tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya. The tomb was built in AH 527 / AD 1133, probably in Cairo. Qur'anic texts written in floriated *kufic* script, from 'al-Baqara' (2: 247), surround the rectangular facade of the *mihrab* and its niche.  \nBoth sides of the *mihrab,* and the back, are decorated with panels carved with vegetal stems that emerge from vases, and three- and five-lobed vine leaves which surround large clusters of grapes. These decorations indicate the apex of beauty attained in the art of vegetal decoration at the end of the Fatimid period.","short_description":"Patronage of religious institutions and providing them with furniture were not confined to men. Many women shared in this practice. This *mihrab* was commissioned by the Caliph's wife for the shrine of Sayyida Ruqayya, the daughter of the Fourth Righteous Caliph, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib.","type":"Woodwork, mihrab, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","initial_owner":"‘Ulam al-Amiriyya, wife of the caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 210 cm, width 111 cm, depth 45 cm.","method_for_datation":"The *mihrab* was dated based on the inscription present in the higher reaches of its façade which state clearly that the *mihrab* was built for the tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya in 527 / 1133","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the *mihrab* states that it was made for the tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya, the patron, who was the wife of the Fatimid Caliph who ruled in Cairo; it is very likely, therefore, that it was commissioned and made in Cairo.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"In 1297 / 1880, the Egyptian government began to collect together artefacts from the country's mosques and historic buildings and preserve them in al-Hakim Mosque. These later became the basis of the collection at the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. This *mihrab*, which was transferred from the Sayyida Ruqayya Shrine, is considered to be one of the most important of these early acquisitions.","bibliography":"Dimmand, M. S., *Al-Funun al-Islamiya \\[Islamic Arts\\], (trans.* A. Issa), Cairo, 1958.  \nFikri, A., *Masajid al-Qahira wa Madarisuha \\[Mosques and Madrasas of Cairo*\\], Vol. I, Cairo, 1958.  \nHamdi, A., *et al, Katalog Ma'rid al-fan al-islāmi fi misr \\[Catalogue of the Islamic Art Exhibition in Egypt*\\], Cairo, 1969.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Funun al-Islam \\[Arts of Islam*\\], Cairo, 1948.  \nPauty, E., *Bois sculptés d'églises coptes (époque fatimide*), Cairo, 1930.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Assembled wood; decorated in high relief and pierced."],"keywords":["Religious objects; high relief; panel; wood; floriated kufic script; vegetal decoration; star-shaped; mihrab; six-pointed star; mosque interior decoration; patronage"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"718874e8-d67c-57c0-aabc-505af50ed024":{"name":"Page from a Qur’an.","description":"Al-Takathur *sura* ('The Rivalry', 102: 8) and al-Asr *sura* ('The Time', 103: 1). This page is taken from a Qur'an written in black *kufic* script. The vowels are marked with red diacritic dots and the *hamza* and *shadda* are indicated by green and yellow marks in the style of Abi al-Aswad, the Arab grammarian (d. AH 61 / AD 681). The verses are divided by a gilded green-centred rosette outlined in brown dots. The magnificent title of the *sura* is contained within an ornamental line of *kufic,* terminating in a palm-leaf motif which projects into the margin of the page. This palm-leaf is composed of stylised, gilded leaves and floral arabesques and is illuminated in blue and green with delicate touches of brown. These motifs are part of the decorative repertoire of Muslim illuminators and calligraphers from the AH 5th / AD 11th century.","short_description":"Written in black *kufic* script, this page contains two Qur'anic quotations (102: 8 and 103: 1). The division of verses is marked by a gold rosette with a green centre. All of the motifs belong to the decorative repertoire of Muslim illuminators and calligraphers after the AH 5th / AD 11th century.","type":"Manuscript, Qur'an, parchment","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"The Zirid prince, al-Mu‘izz","dates":"Hegira, beginning of the second quarter of the 5th century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 32 cm, width 22.5 cm; 5 lines.","method_for_datation":"The Qur'an was given as a legacy (*habus*) by the Zirid prince, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. The deed of gift dates from later than the break with Cairo, since it mentions the hatred of the prince for the Fatimids. According to historians this split began in 424 / 1033 and came to an end by 441 / 1050.","method_for_provenance":"This Qur'an was left to the Great Mosque by the reigning Zirid prince. Given that Kairouan was at that time a great centre of book production, it is highly likely that this example was copied and bound at Kairouan on locally tanned parchment.","provenance":"Great Mosque of Kairouan.","obtention":"This Qur'an was obtained by the National Library in 1967 after the abolition of the *habus* foundation in Tunisia, and was transferred in 1983 to the Centre of Islamic Art and Civilisation at Raqqada. It has been displayed in the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada since 1986.","bibliography":"*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.210.  \n*De Carthage a Kairouan* (exhibition catalogue), 1982, p.247, cat. no. 330.  \n*The Arts of Islam* (exhibition catalogue), 1976, p.20, cat. no. 2.  \n*Tunez, Tierra de Culturas* (exhibition catalogue), Valencia, 2004, p.221.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.159–62, 182–3.","dynasty":"Zirid","materials":["Decorated parchment."],"keywords":["Calligraphy; floral decoration; habus; religious objects; religious manuscript"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"86ba73c0-7a63-5e24-ac7d-4ed99ca1aa85":{"name":"Glass weights.","description":"Dark-gray coloured glass weights used to verify the weights of coins, most of which were produced in Egypt. The weights are small, round glass discs with an impressed inscription of the name and title of the caliph or the name of the governor on them.  \n  \nThe glass weights depicted here are from the Fatimid period a dynasty which broke away from the Abbasid caliphate and established a new caliphate in North Africa and Egypt during the period AH 297–567 / AD 909–1181, such weights are principally from the reigns of the two Fatimid Caliphs al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), and al-Mustansir (r. AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94).  \n  \nThe weights bear the following titular inscriptions written in foliated kufic script:  \n  \nJ.16546: bears the name of the commander of the faithful: **الامام معد ابو تميم المستنصر (امير المؤمنين)** ('Al-Imam Mu\\`id Abu Tamim al-Mustansir Billah (Amir al-Mu\\`minin)' within an embossed frame and circle.  \n  \nJ.16547: bears the name of the commander of the faithful **الظاهر لاعزاز دين الله (امير المؤمنين)** 'al-Zahir li-izaz Dein Allah (Amir al-Mu\\`minin)' within an embossed frame and circle.  \n  \nJ.16550: bears only the name of God: **الله** 'Allah'","short_description":"Glass weights from Ayla in Aqaba, used to verify the weights of coins. These small, round glass discs have impressed inscriptions; two bear the names of the Fatimid Caliphs al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), and al-Mustansir (r. AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94), while the third bears the name of God.","type":"Weight, glass","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"J.16547. Hegira 411–27 / AD 1021–36; J.16546. Hegira 427–87 / AD 1036–94.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Diameter (in the range) 26–27 mm, weights 4.68 g; 5.02 g; 5.15 g.","method_for_datation":"The weights have inscriptions impressed on one side of them that give the names and titles of two Fatimid caliphs: al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), and al-Mustansir (r. AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94).","method_for_provenance":"These weights were probably manufactured in Egypt during the Fatimid period a dynasty which broke away from the Abbasid caliphate and established a new caliphate in North Africa and Egypt during the period AH 297–567 / AD 909–1181.","provenance":"Probably Egypt.","obtention":"The weights were recovered during the course of an archaeological excavation carried out in 1990 at the site of Islamic Ayla, modern-day Aqaba.","bibliography":"النبراوي.رأفت، الصنج الزجاجية للسكة الفاطمية المحفوظة بمتحف الفن الإسلامي بالقاهرة، القاهرة، 1997، ص 241و363.  \n  \nWhitcomb, D., *Ayla: Art and Industry in the Islamic Port of Aqaba*, Chicago, 1994, pp.18–20.","dynasty":"J.16547. Fatimid (Al-Zahir); J.16546. Fatimid (Al-Mustansir)","materials":["Cast glass."],"keywords":["Coin; coinage; numismatics; inscription; kufic script; weight; measuring instrument"],"author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9134b213-b1e4-5abb-aa86-b624a12b02ae":{"name":"Ivory casket with painted figural decoration.","description":"This unusually richly painted ivory casket belongs to a group of larger and smaller caskets that were made by Muslim workshops, probably in Palermo, Sicily, as commissions from the Norman court. They have appeared in numerous collections and have been frequently found as part of the treasure belonging to churches, where they were used to contain relics. The casket’s framework is made of wood pieces, onto which thin sheets of ivory have been attached. The painted decoration on these ivory sheets has black contours and is emphasised in brown, green and gold. The ivory sheets are attached to the wooden framework with gilded brass buckles; the casket also possessed a lock that was replaced at a later date. The inside was once most probably upholstered with a textile. The painted decoration over the front edge of the lid reveals an Arabic inscription in *kufic* script. The inscription includes good wishes for a patron whose name is not mentioned. The paintings on the casket’s front are composed of large medallions involving highly stylised tendrils, which are framed on either side by birds, including peacocks and hoopoes. Stylised lions are painted over the top of the lid and along the back, along with hunting dogs and gazelles. A female harp player is depicted on both of the casket’s narrow sides; her triangular harp is representative of a type of harp that originated in Egypt. This detail is indicative of southern Italy’s unique cultural scene, in which Fatimid styles were blended with European creations. The fine quality of painted decoration displayed on this ivory casket demonstrates that it would not be out of place in a royal court.","short_description":"Different types of caskets with painted decoration are known from southern Italy where they were probably used in noble families. Repetitive Arabic inscriptions as on this casket as well as freely drawn animals and musicians are indications of the strong Islamic influence in the Mediterranean area.","type":"Casket, ivory","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","owner":"Museum of Arts and Crafts, Berlin, Germany.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 16.5 cm, length 35 cm, width 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"Both in its painting and in its inscription, the ivory casket appears to be a work commissioned by the Norman court. It has been suggested that this group of work originates from some date within the 12th century.","method_for_provenance":"It is thought that the painted ivory caskets were made in a workshop in Sicily, possibly in Palermo.","provenance":"Sicily or southern Italy (Siculo-Arabic).","obtention":"Transferred from the Museum of Arts and Crafts, Berlin, Germany in 1906 as a long-term loan.","bibliography":"Budde, H. and Sievernich, G. (eds.), *Europa und der Orient*, Catalogue, Gütersloh-Munich, 1989, no. 4/16, figs. 242, 642.  \nCott, P. B., *Siculo-Arabic Ivories*, Princeton, 1939, no. 33, plate 16.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, 1971–9, no. 262.","dynasty":"Normans in Sicily, southern Italy","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":["Ivory, wood, various paintings."],"keywords":["Ivory; Sicily; southern Italy"],"author":"Jens Kröger","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"9376bc61-32e6-5f4f-9d2c-ec28ad8f8fe4":{"name":"Mosque of al-Hakim bi Amrillah.","description":"The principle (northwestern) façade of the mosque extends along al-Muizz Street. The centre of this façade is marked by a projecting monumental portal composed of two squat towers that flank the entrance to the mosque. The portal projects from the façade by 6 m, and is 15.50 m wide and 11 m high. The entrance is ornamented by recessed panels filled with bands of decorative motifs, and *kufic* inscriptions. This type of decorative style was introduced to Egypt by the Fatimids and originated in North Africa, seen in the Great Mosque of Susa in Tunisia (AH 236 / AD 801). The projecting portal of the Mosque of al-Hakim bi Amrillah is considered to be one of the oldest examples in Egypt, an architectural style that had appeared before in the Mahdiyya Great Mosque in Tunisia (AH 308 / AD 921).  \nAt the two ends of the principle façade are two minarets that are the work of al-Hakim bi-Amrillah, who had them built in AH 393 / AD 1002, acquiring the idea of building them at the two corners of the mosque façade from the Mahdiyya Great Mosque in Tunisia. The original section of the northern minaret is the base and the cylindrical body. The southwestern minaret is composed of a square base ending in an octagonal form. The remaining parts of the two minarets were added by Commander Baybars al-Gashanqir during the rule of the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun, after an earthquake in AH 703 / AD 1303, which resulted in the destruction of the original pinnacles of the two minarets. Eleven years after building the minarets Al-Hakim bi Amrillah had in fact added stone walls, which encased the sides of the minarets, and surrounded each of them along the outside so that they assumed the forms of towers. Inscription bands were included which contained Qur'anic verses written in the *kufic* script. Perhaps this addition was influenced by the square bases of al-Andalus and Maghreb (North African) minarets seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the Great Mosque of Córdoba. There is also clear architectural evidence to confirm that the mosque once had three domes, the middle one of which is still standing. Bricks were used in the building of the arcades, arches and domes of the mosque. However, stone was used in the construction of the outer walls, minarets and the projecting portal.  \nThe floor plan of the mosque, whose dimensions measure 120 m by 113 m, consists of a central open courtyard, measuring 78 m by 66 m, surrounded by four porticoes. The largest of these is on the eastern (*qibla*) side and consists of five arcades, interrupted by a transept aisle, which is a columned walkway lying vertical to the *mihrab*. The western portico consists of two arcades, while the northern and southern porticoes are each composed of three arcades. The mosque was influenced by earlier local styles seen at Fustat and Qatai', and especially by the Congregational Mosque of Ibn Tulun, also in Cairo (built AH 265 / AD 879). These influences are most obviously manifest in the distribution of arcades, in the borrowing of the idea of building brick-piers which support the arcade arches, in the rectangular sections of the piers, in the arrangement of corbels in the corners of the piers, and in the multiplicity of doors. Likewise, the transept aisle in the area of the *qibla* and the three domes were an innovation seen earlier in the Mosque of al-Azhar in Cairo (built AH 361 / AD 972).  \nThe mosque was subject to neglect and deterioration from the AH 9th / AD 15th century. The French used the mosque as a fortress during their campaign against Egypt (AH 1213–16 / AD 1798–1801) and used the minarets as watch-towers. After that, it was occupied by glassmakers and textile-workers. A complete restoration of this mosque took place at the end of the 20th century.","short_description":"This mosque boasts architectural and decorative elements seen previously in mosques of North Africa and Andalusia (e.g. al-Mahdiyya Mosque in Tunisia and Cordoba Mosque in Andalusia) as well as in the Ibn Tulun and al-Azhar mosques in Egypt. Construction began in the time of Caliph al-Aziz bi Allah and was completed by his son al-Hakim bi Amrillah. Originally the mosque stood outside the first walls of Cairo built by the Fatimid military commander Jawhar al-Saqalli but was later incorporated inside the new stone walls built by Badr al-Jamali, minister of Caliph al-Mustansir.","dates":"Construction of the building began during the period AH 365–86 / AD 975–96 and ended in AH 403 / AD 1012.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"The mosque has been dated on the basis of on an inscription carved along the surface of the entrance which indicates that it was commissioned by al-Hakim bi Amrillah in 390 / 1000. Historical sources such as *al-Nujum al-Zahira* by Ibn Taghri Bardi (d. 874 / 1469) mention that he completed the building of the mosque and inaugurated it in 403 (1012).","bibliography":"Berchem, M. van, *Une Mosquee du Temps des Fatimides au Caire*, Cairo, 1889.  \nBloom, J., “The Mosque of al-Hakim in Cairo”, *Muqarnas* I, 1983, pp.15–36.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “Minaret: Symbol of Islam”*, Oxford Studies in Islamic Art*, Vol. 7, 1989.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *The Muslim Architecture of Egypt*, Vol. I, Oxford, 1952.  \nHoag, J., Islamic Architecture, New York, 1987.  \nSalem, al-Sayed Mohammad Abd al-Aziz, *al-Ma'adin al-Masriya \\[Egyptian Minarets*\\], Cairo, 1959.  \nTaghri, Bardi, Jamal al-Din Abi al-Mahasin (d. 874 / 1469), *Al-Nujum al-Zahira fi Muluk Misr wa al-Qahira \\[The Shining Stars in the Rulers of Egypt and Cairo*\\], Cairo, 1942.","patrons":"Sponsor: built by order of Caliph al-Aziz bi Allah (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96) and after him, by his son, Caliph al-Hakim bi Amrillah (r. AH 386–411/ AD 996–1021).","dynasty":"Fatimid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Congregational mosque; pier; religious architecture; corbel; transept; projecting portal."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9bf8a3f3-f2b5-587e-9b91-0d1241828349":{"name":"Spherical bottle.","description":"A spherical bottle made of thick, grey-yellow glass with a short opening. Its body is completely covered with decoration that has been cut and deeply engraved into its surface. The decoration consists of a main frieze in which medallions with peacocks and with plant-motifs alternate. Minor side friezes adorn the body. The bottle’s stopper, with which its short opening would have been closed, appears to be missing.  \nThe bottle’s carefully incised patterns, along with the stylisation of the peacocks and of the ornamentation, find a parallel in the exceptional rock-crystal receptacles that were made in Egypt during the Fatimid era, and which were brought over to Europe after the dissolution of Fatimid treasures. It is therefore possible that this spherical bottle was made by a workshop in Egypt that possessed the knowledge of how to work with, and decorate, rock-crystal. The bottle’s quality suggests that the person who commissioned its making was a member of the court. Its form is similar to that of spherical ceramic vessels known as a ‘sphero-conical vessels’. There is no available information regarding its past use, but, given its workmanship, it must have contained something equally precious.","short_description":"This unique bottle of thick glass is adorned with a deeply cut frieze in which triangles with ornamental patterns alternate with birds in medallions. Fatimid Egypt was famous for its glass and especially rock-crystal vessels, which were highly esteemed in Europe where many survived in treasuries.","type":"Bottle, glass","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 10.5 cm, diameter 8 cm.","method_for_datation":"Dating the object with accuracy is very difficult as few close parallels exist. Only a general date can be offered to place it within the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"Stylistic comparison to polished glasswork from the excavations in Fustat, Cairo’s old town, as well as the particular colouring of the glass, suggest that the object probably came from Egypt. Only new research or new findings will add further information.","provenance":"Egypt (?)","obtention":"Anonymous gift in 1906.","bibliography":"Carboni, S. and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2001, pp.155–97.  \nKröger, J., “From Fustat to Nishapur: Questions about Fatimid Cut Glass”, in *L’Egypte Fatimide: Son Art et Son Histoire* (ed. M. Barrucand), Paris, 1999, pp.219–32.  \nLamm, C. J., *Mittelalterliche Gläser und Steinschnittarbeiten aus dem Nahem Osten*, Berlin, 1929–30, no. 24, plate 61.  \nMartin, F. R. and Sarre, F. (eds.), *Die Ausstellung von Meisterwerken Muhammedanischer Kunst München 1910*, Munich, 1912, Vol. 2, no. 2084.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glass, incised patterns."],"keywords":["Glass; incision; vegetal decoration; animal decoration; Egypt; Fatimid; bird; carving; sumptuary art; rock-crystal"],"author":"Jens Kröger","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"9cd3c434-a84c-5e25-9be3-4b5d88eaa44c":{"name":"Pendant.","description":"A gold crescent-shaped pendant with enamel work. Two bands of delicate gold filigree work surround a panel of cloisonné enamel with a symmetrical design of two birds arranged on either side of a tree. The pendant may have been hung with strings of pearls from the three loops along the bottom. The enamel inset imitates Byzantine designs. Gold jewellery from Byzantium was known in Fatimid Egypt originating either from Byzantine craftsmen who immigrated to Egypt or through diplomatic gifts sent by Byzantine rulers. In 1046 the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir (r.1036–94) received a large gift from the Emperor of Byzantium which included hundreds of gold vessels, brocade and gold-embroidered turbans. This exchange of diplomatic gifts is recorded in The Book of Treasures and Gifts, by Ibn Zubayr, written just before the destruction and dispersal of the Fatimid treasury in 1062.","short_description":"Gold jewellery with delicate filigree work was popular during the Fatimid period. Some pieces, such as this pendant, also feature enamel work derived from Byzantine designs. The Fatimid treasury is known to have accumulated a vast hoard of gold objects that included jewellery.","type":"Jewellery, Metalwork, decoration object, gold","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 5th / AD 11th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Width 2.1 cm.","method_for_datation":"The pendant resembles other gold jewellery from the Fatimid era; generally small in size and often decorated with filigree work, cloisonné enamel, or niello. From the mid-11th century figurative elements began to appear, such as birds. The dating of Fatimid jewellery has been derived from excavations in a number of sites, including that at Fustat in Cairo.","method_for_provenance":"The Fatimids were renowned for their rich splendid jewellery. Most of the workmanship would have taken place in Egypt, the political centre of the Fatimid dynasty.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the British Museum in 1981.","bibliography":"Al-Hijjawi al-Qaddumi, G. (ed.), Book of Gifts and Rarities (Kitab al-hadaya wa al-tuhaf'): Selections compiled in the fifteenth century from an eleventh-century manuscript on gifts and treasures, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp.108–9.  \n  \nHasson, R., Early Islamic Jewellery, Jerusalem, 1987, pp.56–91.  \n  \nInstitut du Monde Arabe, Tresors fatimide du Caire, exposition presentée a l'Institute du monde Arabe du 28 avril au 30 aout 1998 (Paris, Institut du Monde Arabe, 1998), p.135 (a similar pendant to that held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York).","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold with inset enamel."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; jewellery"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9ec702fb-8729-598a-ab20-ae8d02904fce":{"name":"Glass dish.","description":"A dish of green-tinted moulded glass, with the pattern impressed on the outside surface of the dish's base. The inside surface is plain and smooth. The design of the impression consists of a central star with seven corners, surrounded by seven roundels, each of which contains an arrangement of circles. The star is also filled with an arrangement of small circles. Mould-blown glassware was made primarily for everyday use. The green colour of the transparent dish is achieved by mixing iron oxides with the original frit mixture, from which glass is made.","short_description":"Mould-blown glassware was made primarily for everyday use. This shallow dish is plain on the inside but impressed with a pattern on the outside. Many glassmakers from different parts of the Islamic Middle East flocked to work in Fustat’s glass-making industry, which had flourished since pre-Islamic times.","type":"Glasswork, moulded glass","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"Hegira 4th–6th century/ AD 10th–12th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Diameter 17 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis: the style and manufacturing techniques used to make this dish resemble similar examples of Fatimid glass wares, especially some of those found in the Aegean Sea shipwreck at Serçe Limanı, off the south-west coast of Turkey, which has been dated to AH 415 / AD 1025.","provenance":"Fustat, Egypt.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Jenkins, M., Islamic Glass, A Brief History, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1986.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Moulded glass."],"keywords":["Crafts; commerce; daily life"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9fdca272-4041-5355-84f2-5cf19779524e":{"name":"Fragment from a mosaic floor.","description":"This panel was part of a 50 sq m mosaic floor. With a border made up of alternate geometric and floral motifs, the main area of the floor consists of a tracery of four-lobed flowers which combine to form various geometric patterns. When the floor was lifted, several panels were shared between various Tunisian museums. In the panel at the Raqqada Museum, red, white and blue-black lines alternate to represent a lilac-leaf in an octagon and four diamond-shaped petals in a circle. These elements are held within a pattern of twisting semi-circular fringes.  \nThis mosaic is unique in Ifriqiyan art of the Fatimid era. Some historians hold that this example attests to the survival of mosaic art in mediaeval Tunis. The techniques used in the Mahdiyyan mosaic certainly show continuity with the ancient traditions of Roman and Byzantine North Africa. But evidence suggests that the floor was made by Byzantine artisans or '*Rums*' who were probably taken prisoner during the many armed incursions by al-Qa'im in Italy and Sicily.","short_description":"This mosaic is unique in Ifriqiyan art from the Fatimid era, with some art historians believing that it is a continuance of the ancient traditions of Roman and Byzantine Africa. This panel was part of a mosaic covering some 58 square metres, and it combines geometric forms with floral motifs.","type":"Floor, stone","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"The Fatimid prince, al-Qa’im.","dates":"Hegira 303 / AD 916.","location":"Raqqada","province":"Kairouan","dimensions":"Length 107 cm, width 106 cm.","method_for_datation":"The mosaic was discovered in 1956 during the excavations under a reception room at al-Qa'im Palace. One could logically date it from the building of the palace in 303 / 916 (date confirmed by historical sources) but it could possibly have been constructed at a later date, when we believe improvements and refurbishments to the original building were made. These would have been accomplished during the relatively peaceful period of al-Qa'im's reign and just before the Kharijite rebellion of 332 / 944 that was led by Abu Yazid, known as the 'man on the donkey'.","method_for_provenance":"This mosaic, discovered *in situ* at the al-Qa'im Palace, was obviously built there. But we still cannot prove the origin of the artisans who built it.","provenance":"Mahdiyya.","obtention":"After being dismantled at al-Qa'im Palace at Mahdiyya, the mosaic was kept at the Bardo Museum. In 1986 three panels from this mosaic were sent to the National Institute of the Patrimony of Kairouan. In 1993 one of these panels was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada for display in the second section, currently being refurbished.","bibliography":"Ennaïfer, M., “La mosaïque africaine à la fin de l'antiquité et au début de l'époque médiévale”, *Fifth international colloquium on ancient mosaics*, USA, 1994, pp.307–18.  \nLouhichi, A., “La mosaïque de Mahdia: contexte et interprétation”, *Africa*, XX, 2004, pp.143–66.  \nZbiss, S. M., “Mahdia et Sabra Mansouriya: nouveaux documents d'art fatimide d'Occident”, *Journal asiatique*, CCXLIV, 1956, pp.79–93.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.176–7.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Limestone *tessera* (mosaic tiles)."],"keywords":["Mosaic; geometric decoration; floral decoration"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"MWNF","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a8912ca5-9dcf-581c-885c-df8260626ef3":{"name":"Plate with battle scene.","description":"Round-based plate. The rim is ribbed on the outer wall and slopes slightly outwards. The glaze has been applied direct onto the grey clay with no slip coating. Shape and technique are typical of Ifriqiyan ceramics of the high Middle Ages.  \nThe plate is illustrated with a battle scene in which horsemen at the gallop brandish shields in their left hands. This stylised, imaginative decoration is Mesopotamian and was very much in vogue in the Fatimid era. Although seeming to derive from contemporary Oriental sources, it probably has its origin in a distant, Roman, North African past. In fact, the horses drawn on this plate are less naturalistic, more stylised than those of similar Mesopotamian artefacts. From their freedom of line and their particular decoration they are more reminiscent of contemporary Ifriqiyan plates. Moreover, the riders' faces possess that huge eye which is a common denominator of almost all Ifriqiyan human figures of the time and which would confirm the fundamental North African influence behind the decoration of this plate.","short_description":"This dish has a round base and sloping sides. It is illustrated with a war scene, suggesting a North African influence, while the stylised, fantasy decoration suggests a link with contemporary Eastern decoration. This type of decoration was extremely popular during the Fatimid era.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 4th–first half of the 5th century / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11 cm, diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object comes from the site of Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the short-lived capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids, (337–444 / 948–1053). This dates it from the second half of the 4th / 10th century to the first half of the 5th / 11th century. No publication exists identifying exactly the stratigraphic layer the object came from and so a more precise dating is not possible.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery of this plate on the Sabra site painted with Fatimid–Zirid decoration and made in the Ifriqiyan manner suggests it was produced locally at the Sabra potteries or at those of Kairouan, the nearest economic capital.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya or Kairouan.","obtention":"The plate was among objects discovered on site during the 1979 excavations at Sabra al-Mansuriyya. It was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada where it has been displayed since 1986.","bibliography":"*Couleurs de Tunisie* (exhibition catalogue), 1994, p.133, plate no. 73.  \n*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.250, plate nos. 4-40.  \n*Tunisie: du Christianisme a l'Islam* (exhibition catalogue), Lattes, 2001, p.188.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Glazed ceramic."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; arms; Zirid"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a9696cec-e2a4-5df3-86c8-4f47e45be0d4":{"name":"Pendant.","description":"Archaeological excavations in the Egyptian City of Fustat have furnished us with some pieces of jewellery such as bracelets, rings, earrings and pendants of gold and silver. A number of techniques in jewellery-making and ornamentation were widespread in Egypt during the Fatimid period. Some of the most important techniques were carving, piercing and enamel inlay. The piece illustrated here is a good example of decorative enamel inlay.  \nGenerally, decorative enamelling was done in one of two ways: one way – called lobed enamel – involves pouring the enamel into small metallic lobes, closely resembling moulds. After firing the lobes in a kiln, they are then mounted in specific places in accordance with the design on to the gold surface of the piece of jewellery. The other way involves making deep-grooved decorative carvings of the desired design on the surface of the piece; enamel is then poured into the grooves and the piece is then fired in a kiln. The former method is a quicker and faster way than the latter. The piece illustrated here is an exquisite example of lobed enamel jewellery – the first method of decoration with enamel.  \nThis is a circular pendant whose form assumes a concave surface. Its decorative layout is arranged along three horizontal sections. The central section, which is the broadest, is filled with an inscription in *kufic* script set in white, decorated in red, and placed against a background of ash-green. The text reads: “… God is best to take care \\[of him\\]” and is part of verse (*ayah*) 64 of the Chapter of Joseph (*Yusuf*; no. 12). The sections above and below the inscription are decorated with a vegetal branch, each of which is depicted in red, and set against a green background.","short_description":"Women used all kinds and shapes of jewellery, such as bracelets, rings, earrings, brooches and pendants. Techniques in ornamentation included engraving, incising, piercing and enamel inlay. This piece is good example of decorative enamel inlay.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 2.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The pendant is dated by means of studying the *kufic* script used in the decoration. Dating was also greatly assisted by a comparative study of the pendant's craftsmanship that, together with some objects made of stucco, have been uncovered in archaeological excavations in the Egyptian City of Fustat, and which are attributed to the same period.","method_for_provenance":"A study of the pendant's craftsmanship with reference to stucco objects also uncovered in archaeological excavations in Fustat suggests that the pendant may have been produced there.","provenance":"Possibly Fustat, Egypt.","obtention":"The object was discovered during the course of archaeological excavations that took place in Fustat in 1916.","bibliography":"Hassan, Z. M., *Atlas al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya wa al-Tasawir al-Islamiya \\[Atlas of Islamic Decorative Arts and Pictorial Representations\\], Beirut, 1981.*  \nHamdi, A. M., *Mu'addat al-Tajmil bi-Mathaf al-Fan al-Islami \\[Cosmetic Implements at the Museum of Islamic Art*\\], Cairo, 1959.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ et al, *Katalog Ma'rid al-fan al-islāmi fi misr \\[Catalogue of the Islamic Art Exhibition in Egypt*\\], Cairo, 1969.  \nSayour, S. A., “Les bijoux au cours de l'ère islamique”, in *Prisma*, No. 19, 1999, p.36.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “Las Joyas en la época Islamica”, in *Prisma,* No. 7, 1998, p.25.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Gold embellished with enamel."],"keywords":["Ornamentation; kufic script; gold; enamel; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; enamel."],"author":"Salah Sayour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"aab7756a-7fbc-5383-97de-198c2614e471":{"name":"Token or weight.","description":"Green glass token with a relief border, in a reasonable state of conservation, weighing slightly less than one whole *dirham*, which is 2.97 g. The token is marked only with a three-line inscription in *kufic* characters within a circle in the middle of the front face. The first line reads ‘*al-imâm al-Zâhir*’, the second ‘*al azaz din Allâh*’ and the third ‘*amîr al-mu minin*’.  \nTraditional Byzantine glass tokens were generally used as monetary weights, and this use was particularly common among Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs as well as among the Egyptian Tulunids and the Aglabids of North Africa. Shi’ite caliphs also used tokens for other means, particularly from the time of al-Mu’izz (AH 341–65 / AD 953–75). The fact that many of the tokens found are of identical weight suggests that they were used as ‘fiduciary coins’ in place of bronze coins, particularly as bronze was extremely rare in Egypt at that time. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that no glass tokens have ever been found in Syria, where bronze was abundantly available. These tokens are inscribed on at least one of their faces, bearing the name of the caliph and sometimes even the mint. Most Fatimid tokens come from the time of two caliphs in particular, Abu ‘Ali al-Hakim (AH 386–411 / AD 996–1021) and al-Mustansir (AH 427–87 / AD 1036–94), although a large number also come from the time of al-Zahir, al-Amir and other caliphs.","short_description":"Glass token probably used as a fiduciary coin in place of bronze coin.","type":"Token, weight, glass","holder":"Museum of Civilisations | Museum of Oriental Art “Giuseppe Tucci”","dates":"Hegira 411–27 / AD 1020–35.","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Diameter 2.2 mm, depth 4 mm, weight 2.4 g.","method_for_datation":"Historical chronology (years of reign of Fatimid caliph).","method_for_provenance":"From the inscription with the name of the caliph.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchase.","bibliography":"Balog, P. “The Fatimid Glass Jetons”, *Annali dell’Istituto Italiano di Numismatica* 20, 1973, no. 177, p.121.  \nLane-Poole, S., *Catalogue of Arabic Glass Weights in the British Museum*, London, 1891.  \nLaunois, A., *Estampilles et Poids Musulmans en Verre du Cabinet des Médaille*s, Cairo, 1959.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Green glass."],"keywords":["token; weights; coin; coinage; Fatimids; inscriptions; numismatics; measuring instrument"],"author":"Paola Torre","copy_editor":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"ae76a20b-77b1-575a-ab1c-36776cb0c633":{"name":"Fragment of a robe.","description":"This fragment shows two dark blue friezes facing each other, each featuring white *kufic* inscriptions surrounded by pink tendrils with white blossoms. A third frieze, composed of red rosettes with white four-petalled flowers, and framed on either side with waves of brown tendrils on a green background, sits between the two inscription friezes.  \nThis small fragment, which originally formed part of a much larger *tiraz* band, was identified as having been commissioned for the Fatimid ruler Al-Mustansir billah by comparing it with a similar inscription on a nearly identical piece in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The *kufic* text in the upper frieze on the Berlin fragment reads ‘In the name of God the merciful and good. There is no God other than God. M(ohammed is the envoy of God)’. This represents, therefore, the message of Islam. The text in the lower frieze reads ‘…this was commissioned by the vizier, the great…’. The term *tiraz* was derived from the name of the workshops where the cloths with the inscriptions, the *tiraz*, were woven. These robes of honour were manufactured for caliphs and high-ranking nobles in the workshops of the royal court. The *tiraz* were given to local or foreign high-ranking persons as a reward for their services. Medieval sources referred to them as valuable objects. The majority of *tiraz* bands come from Egypt, as these fabrics were preserved very well in the very dry climate and, if buried, the extremely dry earth.","short_description":"Cotton textiles with silk embroidery were produced in court workshops in Fatimid Egypt and were called *tiraz* because of the inscriptions which often gave the name of the workshop and the ruler. On special occasions they were presented to people who had rendered services to the state.","type":"Robe, fragment, textile","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 427–87 / AD 1036–94.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 16 cm, width 13 cm.","method_for_datation":"An inscription on a similar piece of fabric in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, into which the name of the Fatimid Caliph Al-Mustansir billah (r. 427–487 / 1036–94) is woven, places this object within the same reign.","method_for_provenance":"Comparisons with other fabrics have proved that the two nearly identical fragments – the London one inscribed with the name of the Caliph al-Mustansir billah and the Berlin one – have been produced in a royal workshop in Egypt from which caliphs commissioned the creation of their cloths.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Obtained from the Reinhardt Collection.","bibliography":"Kühnel, E., *Islamische Stoffe aus ägyptischen Gräbern*, Berlin, 1927, pp.22–3 no. 3132, plate 7.  \nKühnel, E. and Bellinger, L., *Catalogue of Dated Tiraz Fabrics, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid*, Washington, 1959, p.75.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Berlin, 1979, cat. no. 301.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Stuttgart; Zürich, 1980, no. 16, pp.44–5.","dynasty":"Fatimid; reign of Al-Mustansir billah","materials":["Cotton and silk, weft rep, woven-in text."],"keywords":["Tiraz fabric; robe; kufic; royal workshop; royal manufacture; Fatimid textiles; geometric patterns"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"afc571f4-5986-5e46-b1ec-3dde40394350":{"name":"Mosque of al-Azhar.","description":"The Mosque of al-Azhar, was the first to be built in the Fatimid city of Cairo, and is the oldest and biggest Islamic university in the Islamic world, attracting students from a multiplicity of nations. The present standing structure does not date back in its entirety to the original Fatimid mosque, the rectangular surface area of which occupied only 70 m x 85 m. Today the building occupies over double that area, the dimensions reaching to 120 m x 130 m, owing to the various additions made at different periods. The ground-plan of the mosque at the time it was built was an open courtyard surrounded by three porticoes, the largest of which is the eastern portico (that of the *qibla*), which is composed of five arcades. The arcade that overlooks the courtyard is supported by piers, while the remaining arcades are supported on marble columns. The southern and northern porticoes are composed of three arcades. The western side of the courtyard was not originally colonnaded. In the middle of the western wall was the main portal, which used to be crowned by a minaret. In the past there were two other entrances on the north and south walls of the mosque. The present entrance, on the western façade, was built by Amir Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in the year AH 1167 / AD 1753. Its creation allowed the two Mamluk *madrasas*: Taybarsiyya and the Aqbughawiyya to be incorporated into the mosque.  \nThe Mosque of al-Azharis the first example of a mosque with a transept aisle in Islamic Egypt. The eastern portico of the mosque is interrupted by a transept aisle with columned arches running vertical to the *qibla* wall. The ceiling of the transept aisle is higher than that of the *qibla* portico. The curvatures of the transept arches are decorated with inscriptions in *kufic* script taken from the Qur'an, and the arches themselves are decorated with leafy vegetal decorative motifs. The arches of the transept aisle, in addition to those extending along the courtyard of the mosque, are all that remains of the original arches of the mosque.  \nThe innovation of the transept aisle in mosque architecture had been seen before in the Umayyad Great Mosque in Damascus (built AH 96 / AD 714) as well as the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia (built AH 155 / AD 772, and renovated in AH 221 / AD 836).  \nThe original Fatimid *mihrab* in the Mosque of al-Azhar is crowned by a Mamluk dome which dates back to the AH 9th century / AD 15th century; it replaced the original Fatimid dome. There were once two domes in the two corners of the *qibla* area but they no longer exist. Similar examples of the two-dome style can be seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and in the Great Mosque of Susa in Tunisia.  \nThe Fatimid Caliph al-Hafiz li Din Allah (r. AH 524–44 / AD 1130–49) added a single arcade around all four sides of the courtyard of the mosque. This addition was influenced by Maghrebi (North African) mosque design, where they are known as side wings. Similar examples can be seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, the Great Mosque of Susa and in the Mosque of Zaytuna in Tunisia.  \nVarious modifications and additions have been made to the mosque throughout its long history: Al-Hafiz li Din Allah undertook the construction of a dome over the entrance of the transept. It is considered the oldest inscribed dome in Egypt and some of its carvings and *kufic* inscriptions are still preserved. In AH 1167 / AD 1753, Amir Abd al Rahman Katkhuda added a large area enclosed by four arcades behind the *qibla* area of the mosque. The minarets belonging to this mosque do not date to the Fatimid period; the present minarets are attributed to Sultan Qaytbay in AH 873 / AD 1468; Sultan al-Ghuri in AH 915 / AD 1510 and Amir Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in AH 1167 / AD 1753.  \nThe Mosque of al-Azhar was built to be the congregational mosque of Fatimid Cairo, specifically designated for the Shi'a congregation – the movement aligned to the Fatimid state – avoiding a clash with those people in Egypt who were Sunni. Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) eliminated the *khutba* (sermon) in the Mosque of al-Azhar in AH 567 / AD 1171 but later Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77) resumed the *khutba* in the mosque, which flourished in the Mamluk period and became the equivalent of the Great Islamic University. The Azhar Mosque was at the centre of the opposition movement against the French in the latter half of the AH 12th / AD 18th century and today it is a university of religion and modern sciences that has become the destination of students from all over the Islamic world.","short_description":"The first mosque to be built in Fatimid Cairo and the oldest religious university, it was designated initially to teach Shi'ite jurisprudence (later Sunni). Salaries were paid by the Caliph to its 35 *faqihs* (jurisconsults) who resided in the vicinity of the mosque. Throughout the ages students from Islamic countries circled around their instructors in the four Sunni schools around its open courtyard.","dates":"Hegira 359–61 / AD 970–72.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"Dating of the monument is based on evidence of a text inscribed within the drum of the dome to the right of the *minbar* and the *mihrab*, which includes the names of the builder and the supervisor of construction, as well as the date of the construction of the dome: 360 (971).","bibliography":"Behrens-Abouseif, D., *Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction*, Cairo, 1998.  \nBerchem, M., van, *Une Mosquee du Temps des Fatimides au Caire*. Cairo, 1889.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Muslim Architecture of Egypt,* Vol. I, Oxford, 1952.  \nAl-Jabarti, Abd al-Rahman, (d. 1240 / 1825), *Aja'ib al-Athar fi al-Tarajim wa al-Akhbar \\[The Wonders of Monuments in Biographies and News*\\], Cairo, 1958.  \nZaki, Abd al-Rahman, *Al-Azhar wa ma hawlahu min al-Athar \\[Al-Azhar and Surrounding Monuments*\\], Cairo, 1971.","patrons":"The Fatimid Caliph al-Muizz li Din Allah (r. in Egypt AH 358–65 / AD 969–75).","architects":"General Jawhar al-Saqalli who conquered Egypt in AH 358 / AD 969 supervised the construction.","dynasty":"Fatimid.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["University; kufic script; inscription; vegetal decoration; educational architecture; religious architecture; transept aisle; congregational mosque."],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b55d65e0-7851-5d7f-94f3-89e36361d38d":{"name":"Door wings of al-Hakim bi-Amrillah.","description":"The door from the Congregational Mosque of al-Azhar is made up of two leafs, each of which contains seven rectangular panels, some of which are vertical and others, horizontal. The two top panels are decorated by a two-line inscription in floriated *kufic* script. It should be noted that the position of these two door panels were switched around when they were remounted. In order to read the text in the appropriate way, one must read in reverse order and begin by reading the top line of the panel on the left-hand side and then continue with the top line from the panel on the right-hand side, in the following manner: “Our Lord, the Commander of the Faithful / the Imam, al-Hakim bi-Amrillah / May the Blessings of God be upon him and upon / his ancestors, al-Tahireen, and his descendants”.  \nAl-Hakim bi-Amrillah was the specific title assumed by the Fatimid Caliph, al-Mansur. His agnomen was *Abu Ali* (Father of Ali). The inscription ends with a prayer on behalf of the Fatimid caliph, and is a well-known Fatimid supplication that ascribes the attribute, *al-Tahireen*, to the ancestors of the Fatimid caliphs. This is a term that alludes to those who are considered as being far beyond reproach, stain, or sin and it was an attribute applied to those who belonged to the family of the Prophet Muhammad and those who were related to this family, such as the Fatimid caliphs. The 12 remaining panels are ornamented with carved vegetal motifs in low relief. These decorations clearly reveal the particularities of the early Fatimid style of wood carving, a style of slanted, bevelled engraving, and one which is distinctive of the Tulunid style. It may be observed that the decorative elements assume the form of vegetal stems, marked by their length, and the use of decoration in the form of bi-segmented palm fronds. It should also be noted that the decorative vocabulary includes a new design motif, in the form of a kidney-shaped blossom developed from the winged leaf. Thus the door of al-Hakim sheds light on the development of Islamic woodcarving and assists in the dating of some other wooden objects of the period.","short_description":"An example of the flourishing woodcarving industry in Fatimid Cairo, this door, donated by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah to al-Azhar Mosque, stands proof of the patronage of Fatimid caliphs of religious institutions and their maintenance and reconstruction.","type":"Woodwork, door wings, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 386–411 / AD 996–1021.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Height 325 cm, width 200 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by the name of the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah which appears on it. Furthermore, dating is based on the known interest that al-Hakim took in the building and maintenance of the al-Azhar Congregational Mosque, for he enlarged the mosque by adding two colonnaded arcades (*riwaqs)* in the courtyard. Historians also allude to the *waqf* (endowment) in the name of al-Hakim that dates to 400 / 1009 and the fact that revenues from the endowment are reverted to al-Azhar Mosque to be spent on the salaries of the *Khatib* (orator), *a'imma* (*imams*, prayer leaders), *mu'addiniin* (muezzins), servants, furnishing, other implements and for lighting and lighting accessories.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the door alludes specifically to Al-Hakim bi-Amrillah which was the title assumed by the Fatimid Caliph, al-Mansur. It is known that the caliph took an active interest in the building and maintenance of the al-Azhar Congregational Mosque and that the *waqf* in the name of al-Hakim directs revenues from the endowment to al-Azhar Mosque. The door was transferred from the mosque to the Museum of Islamic Art in the early 20th century.","provenance":"Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"This door was transferred from the Congregational Mosque of al-Azhar and preserved in the Museum of Islamic Art; as one of the museum's first acquisitions in around 1903 it formed the basis of the collection.","bibliography":"Al-Pasha, H., et al, *al-Qāhira, ārikhuha, fūnunuha, Āthāruha \\[Cairo, its History, Arts and Monuments*\\], Cairo, 1970.  \nEttinghausen, R., and Grabar, O., *The Art and Architecture of Islam 650–1250*, New Haven and London, 1987.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Atlas al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya wa al-Tasawir al-Islamiya \\[Atlas of Islamic Decorative Arts and Pictorial Representations\\], Beirut, 1981.*  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Kunuz al-Fatimiyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids*\\], Cairo, 1937.  \nPauty, E., *Catalogue du musée arabe du Caire*, Cairo, 1931.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Carving on wood."],"keywords":["Door; high relief; bevelled style; wood; kufic script; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; carving; patronage"],"author":"Salah Sayour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b6c68555-4721-5c09-8439-5598ae6f7fdd":{"name":"Fragment of woven linen.","description":"A textile fragment of plain-woven linen with tapestry-woven decorative bands executed in silk, the pattern comprising three horizontal, superposed decorative bands, each separated by areas of plain weaving. The uppermost band, flanked by golden scrolling borders with red outlines and blue detailing, contains a zigzag band with a simple scroll outlined in red on a golden ground. Blue trident-like motifs fill the remaining spaces above and below the zigzag pattern. Below this is a slightly narrower decorative stripe that has a cursive inscription set against a deep-red background, flanked by stylised split-palmette borders above and below. The third and narrowest band has a central wavy green strip on a gold background, and two gold palmette-scroll borders set on a red ground.  \n  \nThis textile fragment is a good example of the artistic influence that the Coptic communities who settled in Egypt had on textile production during the Fatimid period. There remains to this day a sizeable Coptic population in Egypt.","short_description":"Islamic Egypt was famed for the production of sophisticated wool, linen and silk textiles made in specialist workshops. These were manned by Coptic Christian textile workers as well as Muslims. This textile was collected by Henry Wallis (1830–1916), a famous painter and expert on Middle Eastern ceramics.","type":"Fatimid textile, woven linen, tapestry silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height 33.02 cm, width 33.02 cm.","method_for_datation":"This textile has been tentatively dated to the 6th/12th century on the basis of general similarities with other textiles of the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"It is assumed that textile fragments with this type of decoration and epigraphic detail were produced in Fatimid Egypt. This is due to so many having been found in burials and excavations throughout Upper Egypt in particular.","provenance":"From a tomb at al-Drounka, Egypt.","obtention":"This textile together with several other Fatimid textile fragments were acquired by NMS in 1898 from Henry Wallis, a famous Pre-Raphaelite painter, who travelled and painted extensively in Egypt and elsewhere. Subsequently he became a highly respected expert on Egyptian and Persian ceramics.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Plain-woven linen, and tapestry-woven silk."],"keywords":["Al-Drounka; linen; silk; Henry Wallis; Fatimid textiles; textile"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"bf4c064f-18e5-529c-9e76-c152ef139f78":{"name":"Ribat and Mosque of the Sayyida.","description":"The only surviving parts of the *ribat* are the mosque in the south part and the western wing of the small fort, both discovered during site excavations. A single-storey building, the *ribat* does not have a lookout tower. Whereas most Tunisian *ribat*s have circular towers, the Sayyida Ribat excavations have exposed polygonal towers at the corners and the centre of the western wall. Several tiny cells made of quarry-stone rubble have been found. These probably served to accommodate warrior monks. Leading to these is a gallery which must have been supported by a square pillar. However, the most well-preserved part of the site is the mosque. It consists of a rectangular prayer hall (10 m x 6.75 m) with three naves and two bays. This room is roofed with groin-vaults supported by very high-pitched semi-circular arch-beams. These come to rest on cruciform pillars. The *mihrab* is at the back and consists of a fluted half-dome above a frieze of flowery *kufic* script, with Qur'anic verses dating from the AH 5th century (AD 11th).  \nThe niche of the *mihrab* has five blind arcades with horseshoe-shaped back walls containing medallions of stylised rosettes. The decoration of this *mihrab* is identical to that of the Great Mosque at Monastir and similar to that of al-Qsar Mosque in Tunis, dating from the Fatimo-Zirid period.","short_description":"All that remains of the original *ribat* is the mosque and the west wing of the fort. Built on a single storey, the *ribat*, which was probably named after a princess, has no watchtower. The mosque, which consists of a rectangular prayer room, is the best preserved part of the monument. It is not known exactly when the *ribat* was abandoned as the oratory continued to be used for worship until recently.","dates":"Hegira mid-3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Monastir","method_for_datation":"The remaining parts of the *ribat*, along with its floor plan, show that it is of the same design as the Aghlabid *ribat*s which were built in the early to mid-3rd / 9th century. Furthermore, the decoration of the *mihrab* in the oratory, and the *kufic* inscription which adorns it, are typical of the Ifriqiyan decorative repertoire of the late 4th–mid-5th century (AD 10th–11th century).","bibliography":"Marçais, G., *L'art musulman*, Paris, 1962, pp.110–12.  \nZbiss, S. M., *A travers les monuments musulman de Tunisie, Tunis, 1963, p.59.*  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.212–14.","history":"The *ribat* was built in the mid-3rd / 9th century but its oratory was very probably renovated between the end of the 4th and the first half of the 5th century (AD 10th–11th). The *ribat* was abandoned for an indeterminate period, whereas the oratory continued to be used for prayer until quite recently.","patrons":"Probably an Aghlabid princess of unrecorded name. Or it could be that the *ribat* carries the name of a Zirid princess who was buried there at the time of the renovation of the oratory or later.","dynasty":"Aghlabid and Zirid.","materials":[],"keywords":["ribat; mosque; Aghlabid period; Zirid period; military architecture"],"author":"Saloua Zangar"},"c9e57bf4-504f-5953-928e-e4f5dacd9861":{"name":"Fragment of woven linen and silk.","description":"A woven linen and silk slit-tapestry fragment in cream, golden yellow, crimson and blue. The design consists of three superposed bands, the uppermost and the lowest identical in appearance. The design is tripartite, with two bands of *naskhi* script rendered in red on a gold background, and flanking a gold-coloured central guilloche band outlined in red with gold-coloured rabbit-like motifs in the centre of every loop. Narrow stripes with wavy patterning complete the pattern. The inscriptions in the epigraphic panels read: *‘… wa al-iqbal’* (‘… and prosperity’). In between these two bands is a broader panel with a complex, gathered linear interlaced design in gold and red which employs individual gold-coloured rabbit-like motifs set against a red ground.","short_description":"Fatimid Egypt was famous for the production of sophisticated silk textiles produced in court-sponsored workshops known as ‘*tiraz*’ workshops. Most were fashioned into royal garments for the sultan and his court or robes of honour to be bestowed on worthy courtiers, dignitaries or foreign diplomats.","type":"Fatimid textile woven linen and silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira 570–96 / AD third quarter of the 12th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 24 cm, width 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"The decorative style of this textile fragment places it within the category of very late Fatimid textiles, characterized by the exclusive use of golden yellow and red, together with the complexity of the interlace designs which covers the central band completely. The inscription in *naskhi* script also helps to place the production of this piece within the reign of the last Fatimid rulers. Furthermore this item has been dated on the basis of its striking similarity to a linen and silk fragment in the Bouvier Collection in Geneva, which is dated 570–96 / third quarter of the 12th century.","method_for_provenance":"It is assumed that textile fragments with this type of decoration and epigraphic detail were produced in Fatimid Egypt. This is due to so many having been found in burials and excavations throughout Upper Egypt in particular.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the NMS in 1979 from Spink and Son Ltd, London.","bibliography":"*Tissus d’Egypte: Témoins du Monde Arabe VIIIe – Xve siècles*, Geneva / Paris 1993, p.259, cat. no. 158 (for discussion of similar piece).  \nKendrick, A. F., *Catalogue of Muhammadan Textiles of the Medieval Period*, London 1924, p.18, cat. no. 887, plate iv (for a very similar piece).","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven linen and silk."],"keywords":["Silk; linen; naskhi script; textile; workshop; Fatimid textiles"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"cb759986-93f3-578a-a7c7-9068cd703d02":{"name":"Jar.","description":"A jar with tiered decoration consisting of four bands: two with a chain of leafs, one with a row of five running hares and another with a row of calligraphy. The calligraphy consists of a repetition of the word *Baraka*, meaning blessings or bounty. The use of words or phrases that blessed the owner or user on the one hand, while acknowledging God's bounty in being able to posses such items and their contents on the other, was common on Islamic ceramics of the time. The row of running hares shows two of the five looking backwards, while the other three run facing forwards. All the hares wear a studded collar-band.  \n  \nTowards the end of the AH 4th century / AD 10th century the Egyptian potters began to use lustre-painted decoration on their pots. They seem to have learned the technique from Iraqi potters who had migrated to Egypt; they in turn had first learned to paint-in-lustre from the glassmakers of Syria and Egypt during the AH 3rd century / AD 9th century.","short_description":"The expensive lustre-painted decorative technique on this Fatimid Egyptian ceramic jar came from Iraqi with potters migrating to Fustat. Its typical Fatimid decoration and calligraphic band of script also find their origin in the decorative style developed originally in the Abbasid city of Samarra in Iraq.","type":"Earthenware","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"Hegira late 4th–early 5th century / AD late 10th–early 11th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height 20.3 cm, width 21.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis: the style of the hares and the band of *kufic* script resemble those on other ceramic objects and fragments found in Fustat that have been attributed to the Fatimid period in Egypt.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Grube, E. J., *Islamic Pottery of the Eighth to the Fifteenth Century in the Keir Collection*, London, 1976.  \n  \nRaby, J., (ed), *Cobalt and Lustre: The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery*, the Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Oxford, 1994.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glazed and lustre-painted earthenware."],"keywords":["Crafts; calligraphy; zoomorphic imagery; animal decoration"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"cfe5bd9c-e197-550b-b7be-fc5f83730d8f":{"name":"One of a pair of earrings.","description":"Gold manufacturing has been known in Syria from at least 2000 BC. Gold artefacts, moulds, and various goldsmiths' tools have been found in numerous Syrian archaeological sites, including those at Ugarit, Mushrifa, and Ebla. During the Classical period, gold jewellery was widely produced in Syria, particularly in Hawran, Palmyra (Tadmur) and Homs.  \nThe development of gold manufacturing in Syria continued during the Islamic period, as exemplified by surviving examples such as this single earring, made from woven gold in the form of a circular disk with radiating edges lined by a string of pearls. In the centre of the disc is a triangular formation of two red rubies and a green emerald. A circular ruby instead of a pearl indicates the top side of the disc, out of which protrudes a link to another triangular set of three precious stones mirroring the ones on the filigree disk, a green emerald and two red rubies set within gold mounts. Above them, located near the ear wire, is a final decorative feature of a little pierced golden sphere also containing a precious stone; an emerald.","short_description":"This gold filigree earring encrusted with precious emeralds, rubies and pearls indicates the high quality of jewellery production for which the Fatimid period is famed. Similar finds from Egypt and Syria abound.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 5th–6th / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 5 cm, width (of disk) 2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The production of highly refined gold jewellery flourished in Egypt and Syria during the Fatimid period (358–567 / AD 969–1171). The techniques employed included filigree and a method using granules of gold; twisted rope-like gold, and occasionally inlay work with gems were also employed. Products include bracelets, armlets, earrings, pendants, rings, belts, brooches, and hair ornaments.","method_for_provenance":"During the Fatimid period, the gold-production centres of Syria and Egypt flourished, particularly those in Aleppo and Cairo. Although this item was obtained by the Museum from Raqqa, it is not possible to determine the provenance of this object definitively.","obtention":"Purchased in 1949.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus*, Damascus, 1969, p.196.  \nAtil, E. et al, *Islamic Metalwork in the Freer Gallery of Art*, Washington DC, 1985.  \nSeipel, W., *Schätze der Kalifen: Islamische Kunst zur Fatimidenzeit*, Wien, 1998, pp.119–20; fig. 77.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven gold."],"keywords":["Earrings; gold, woven; Aleppo; Cairo; Raqqa"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"d1baf7da-b838-5564-a184-03f1f16c1457":{"name":"Fragment of woven linen.","description":"A fragment with two superposed decorative bands separated from each other by an area of plain weave. Both bands are identical in design: guilloches rendered in a yellowish gold colour, set against a blue background. The central areas of the guilloche’s loops have light-coloured palmette-leaves in them, which are set against either a red or black background. The guilloche band of is flanked above and below by two red stripes, each containing a light-coloured *kufic* inscription enhanced by regularly disposed, gold-coloured scrolling motifs; the outer borders of these are formed by a system of interlocking wave-like designs. The inscription has been deciphered as: ‘victory comes from God’. Akhmim in Egypt lies on the east bank of the River Nile. The linen-weaving industry was an important one there, and textiles and handicrafts are still produced in Akhmim today.","short_description":"Many Fatimid and Mamluk textiles have been found in burials around Akhmim, an important Egyptian textile centre with a famous linen-weaving industry. Interestingly, the history of Akhmim is closely linked with that of the Coptic community in Egypt and retains a sizeable Coptic population to this day.","type":"Fatimid textile, woven linen and silk","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"Hegira, late 5th–early 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Edinburgh","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Height: 16 cm, width: 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"A fragment in the Bouvier Collection in Geneva bears a close stylistic resemblance with this piece and it has been dated to the late 5th–early 6th / first half of the 12th century.","method_for_provenance":"The item was found in Akhmim, Egypt and belongs to a group of well-defined Fatimid textiles.","provenance":"Akhmim, Egypt.","obtention":"Bought from the Hilton-Price Collection, 1911.","bibliography":"*Tissus d'Egypte: Temoins du Monde Arabe VIIIe - XVe siecles*, Collection Bouvier, Geneva, Geneva / Paris, 1993, pp.244–5, cat. no. 146 (for a similar fragment).","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Woven linen and silk."],"keywords":["Akhmim; silk; linen; kufic script; Coptic; workshop; textile; Fatmid textiles"],"author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"d4d8f026-9350-59c7-985e-107aaa7a0acb":{"name":"Wooden panel.","description":"A wooden panel with a sloping undecorated frame. The highly decorative subject of the panel itself is carved in high relief, depicting two identical bridled horse heads facing in opposite directions. The horses, which are of a highly stylised arabesque form, are set against a background of vegetal-stem and leaf motifs. The manes and the bridles of the two horses are decorated in low relief. The surface of the panel is ornamented with vegetal motifs in the shape of two branches, which emanate from the middle of the base and extend in two directions, conjoining between the necks of the two horses, hemming in between them beautiful sprouting leaf designs. The two branches then wind their way to the top with foliage decoration in the form of two semi palm-leaf fan designs. The panel clearly manifests the even division of sections on the surface, the harmony of decoration in each section and the detailed symmetry between the two vertical halves of the panel.  \nIt is possible to compare this panel with another, similar, housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. It too is carved in wood, adorned by two horse heads facing in opposite directions, and carved in high relief. This piece may have furnished a door, a cupboard, or a wooden screen.","short_description":"Fatimid artisans were skilled in combining different animal and vegetal elements in their decorative designs. One of their techniques was carving in high and low relief. This wooden panel carved in high relief resembles another housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 33 cm, width 22 cm.","method_for_datation":"This panel was dated based on the detail and skill in the animal and vegetal depictions as decorative motifs, as well as the detail in the carvings of these decorative portrayals, which are extremely naturalistic, and part of an art form, which reached its climax during the Fatimid period. The prolific appearance of the horse with specific traits in the decorative vocabulary of this era also assisted in the dating. At the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo there is a wooden door that dates to the Fatimid period that was discovered in the Maristan of Qalawun, which was originally part of the Western Fatimid Palace. One of the panels from this door is adorned by two horses whose style of carving and decoration closely resembles that used in the execution of the panel discussed here.","method_for_provenance":"The art of wood carving flourished in Islamic Egypt and continued to develop until it reached a high level of skill after the Fatimid Conquest of Egypt in 358 / 969. The style of carving and decoration on this panel closely resembles that used in the decoration of the panels of the Fatimid door whose provenance has been narrowed down to Egypt.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This piece was bought by the museum in 1909 from an antiquities dealer, Ilyas Khatoun al-Taji.","bibliography":"\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Trésors fatimides du Caire*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1998.  \nGrabar, O., “Imperial and Urban Art in Islam: The Subject Matter of Fatimid Art”, *Colloque International sur l'histoire du Caire*, 1969, Cairo, 1972, pp.173–89.  \nHamdi, A., et al, *Katalog Ma'rid al-fan al-islāmi fi misr \\[Catalogue of the Islamic Art Exhibition in Egypt*\\], Cairo, 1969.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Funun al-Islam \\[Arts of Islam*\\], Cairo, 1948.  \nKhadr, M. Y., *Tarikh al-Funun al-Islamiyya \\[History of Islamic Arts*\\], UAE, 2003.  \nYasin, Abd al-Nasir, *Al-Funun al-Zukhrufiya al-Islamiyya fi Masr mundhu al-Fath al-Arabi hatta Nihayat al-'Asr al-Fatimi: Dirasa Athariya wa Hadariya lil-Ta'thirat al-Wafida \\[Islamic Decorative Arts in Egypt from the Time of the Arab Conquests to the End of the Fatimid Era: A Study of Emanating Influences on Archaeology and Civilisation*\\], Alexandria, 2002.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Wood, carved in high relief with incised decorations for some of the details."],"keywords":["Panel; high relief; low relief; figurative decoration; vegetal decoration."],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e0d8deeb-f886-5cc2-84a5-fd934f5025aa":{"name":"Column with *kufic* inscription.","description":"Column with a slight entasis (swelling)and an echinus (convex moulding). On the top of the shaft, within a rectangular scroll, there is an Arabic inscription in *kufic* characters that recites a *basmala*, according to M. Amari’s interpretation (see Bibliography): ‘In the name of God, the merciful and compassionate’. In the centre of the column, within a square scroll, is inscribed the *shahada*, or profession of faith: ‘There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet’. Until 1874, it was outside the main gateway of the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, on the right. It originally came from a religious building, a mosque possibly transformed into an oratory, that was probably erected in the vicinity of the medieval church. There is another column in the Regional Gallery of Sicilia (inventory no. 5100) with very similar inscriptions, also from a church in Palermo, which no longer exists: San Giacomo la Mazzara. The austere Fatimid style, offering almost no decoration, was also adopted in Sicily and remained in use during the Norman era.","short_description":"This column can be dated to the time of Islamic rule in Sicily by the *kufic* characters in the inscription that appears in the centre of the column inside a square scroll.","type":"Column, marble","holder":"Regional Gallery of Sicilia, Abatellis Palace","dates":"Around Hegira 5th / AD 11th century.","location":"Palermo","dimensions":"Height 166 cm, width 27 cm.","method_for_datation":"Attributable to the period of Islamic domination in Sicily due to the presence of the inscription in *kufic* characters.","method_for_provenance":"From documents that attest to the column originating from the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi.","provenance":"Uncertain, from near the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, Palermo.","obtention":"Deposited with the Royal Museum of Palermo.","bibliography":"Amari, M., *Le Epigrafi Arabiche di Sicilia: Iscrizioni Edili*, New edition (ed. F. Gabrieli), Palermo, 1971, no. XX, pp.107–8.  \nDelogu, R., *La Galleria Nazionale della Sicilia*, Rome, 1977, pp.9, 58.  \nScerrato, U.,“Arte Islamica in Italia”, in *Gli Arabi in Italia*, (eds. F. Gabrieli and U. Scerrato), Milan, 1979, pp.282–3 and fig. 179.","artist":"Fatimid epigraphist active around the AH 5th / AD 11th century.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Sculpted marble."],"keywords":["Arab-Norman; mosque; kufic; column."],"author":"Rita Bernini","copy_editor":"Pier Paolo Racioppi","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"e179ff65-79d3-5bba-97ab-c8056af7e861":{"name":"Handkerchief/ textile fragment.","description":"A handkerchief square, bordered along two of its sides by a series of silk-embroidered bands of chain stitch in red, yellow, black and white. Each series of bands is composed of an outer band, embellished by two undulating branches, flanking smaller ones. Next to this decorative band, is a broader one that is composed in its turn, of three smaller bands: The two border bands are decorated with a repetitive inscription in *kufic* script of the owner's name: 'al-bi-Allah'. The middle band is embellished by a successive series of birds with flying leaves drifting from their necks; this band is flanked by two thin borders filled with geometric decorative motifs.  \nThis handkerchief is attributed to the Fatimid caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah who ruled from AH 365–86 / AD 975–96, and who was known for his tolerant policies towards the Copts, and his patronage and encouragement of the craftsmen of the Coptic community to the point where they exerted great efforts to excel in their arts and craftsmanship. The artisans used decorative components that were influenced to a large extent by Coptic art, such as for instance the portrayal of pigeons inside roundels.  \nVarious types of textile production flourished during the Fatimid period, and silk was used extensively in the decoration and embellishment of textiles. The Fatimid Empire enjoyed great wealth, and this was reflected in splendid appearances in various aspects of their lives, and in particular in their apparel, which included richly woven and embroidered turbans, cloaks and handkerchiefs.","short_description":"Fatimid caliphs paid great attention to the textile industry and appointed a master of *Tiraz* to supervise textile affairs. Some silk textiles were made only for the caliph, including this piece, which bears the name of the Fatimid Caliph al-'Aziz bi-Allah in embroidery.","type":"Handkerchief, textile","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 365–86 / AD 975–96.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 40 cm, width 40 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated based on the band of inscription, which consists of the name of the Fatimid caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah (r. 365–86 / 975–96).","method_for_provenance":"This handkerchief is attributed to the Fatimid caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah who ruled in Egypt from AH 365–86 / AD 975–96.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This object was given as a gift to the museum in 1930, by Maurice Nahman, who was a dealer in antiquities.","bibliography":"Baker, P., *Islamic Textiles*, London, 1995.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Kunuzal-Fatimiyyin \\[Fatimid Treasures*\\], Beirut, 1981.  \nMarzuq, Muhammad Abd al-Aziz, *al-Zakhrafa al-Mansuja fi al-Aqmisha \\[Woven Design on Fabrics\\],* Cairo, 1942.  \nRizq, 'Asim M., *Marakiz al-Sina'a fi Masr al-Islamiya \\[Manufacturing Centres in Islamic Egypt*\\], Cairo, 1989.  \nSpuhler, F., *Islamic Carpets and Textiles in the Keir Collection,* London, 1978.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Linen decorated with silk embroidery."],"keywords":["Embroidery; silk; figurative decoration; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; chain stitch; textile; costume; workshop; kufic; animal decoration; bird; figurative representation; geometric decoration; patronage; Fatimid textiles"],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e69c15fd-110a-59c2-9a6e-7ae708a7ea8e":{"name":"Ewer.","description":"A ewer carved from a single piece of rock-crystal. It has a pear-shaped body, beaked rim, and slightly splayed foot; a handle, which originally had a vertical thumb-piece at its apex, joins the rim to the lower part of the body. The body of the ewer is decorated on either side with identical scenes of a bird of prey attacking a four-legged animal with horns (a gazelle?). These vignettes are framed by large, leafy arabesque motifs. The whole design is contained within a delicate raised band which goes around the neck and down the body of the ewer on either side of the handle. This band acts as a frame and gives the design the feel of a textile wrapped around the ewer’s body. All of the details are drilled and cut with great skill, including the texturing in the form of lines and dots covering the bird and animal and the leaves of the arabesque patterns. Objects like this ewer were among the thousands of precious items looted from the Fatimid treasury during the unrest of 450 AH / AD 1060. A number of these made their way to Europe, where they were used as reliquaries in church treasuries.","short_description":"A pear-shaped ewer carved from a single block of the clear, colourless quartz known as rock-crystal. It is one of a number of luxury wares carved from rock-crystal for the Fatimid court in Cairo. Many such objects made their way into European church treasuries, where they were used as reliquaries.","type":"Glasswork","holder":"Victoria and Albert Museum.","dates":"About hegira 391–452 / AD 1000–1060.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 19.4 cm, diameter (of base) 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"There is a clear relationship between this ewer and a group of others in European collections, one of which has an inscription naming the Fatimid Caliph al-‘Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96). The decoration on the V&A ewer, including the arabesque pattern, is more complex and mature than is that on the others, suggesting a later date. Finally, Fatimid rock-crystal production was severely disrupted when violent social upheavals began in AH 452 / AD 1061.","method_for_provenance":"Cairo was the Fatimid capital and thus the likeliest place that an object of such quality would have been made.","provenance":"Probably Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the Museum in 1862.","bibliography":"Contadini, A., Fatimid Art at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 1998, pp.16–38.  \n  \nStanley, T., with Rosser-Owen, M. and Vernoit, S., Palace and Mosque: Islamic Art from the Middle East, London, 2004, pp.94–5.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Carved rock-crystal."],"keywords":["figurative decoration; floral decoration; rock-crystal; carving; incision; animal decoration; bird; arabesque; reliquary; sumptuary art"],"author":"Barry Wood","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e7f528ce-cc22-5805-85cd-54b2590d990f":{"name":"Chess piece.","description":"A large, circular chess piece with incised concentric circles, dots and lines. This abstract piece probably represents a King or Queen. The game of chess originated in India and reached Persia (Iran) during the Sassanid period in the AH 1st / AD 6th century. Arabic treatises on chess appear in the mid- AH 3rd / AD 9th century. From the Arab World, knowledge of the game passed to the West where pieces were often modelled on Islamic prototypes. This chess piece must have been part of a particularly impressive set. An almost identical piece is now in the Museum of Islamic Art in Berlin. The Fatimids in Egypt were active patrons of luxury objects made of ivory. After conquering Sicily in the early AH 4th / AD 10th century, the way was opened for Muslim craftsmen to travel to Sicily. This resulted in the transference of Fatimid-style painting and decorative arts to Sicily, which continued even after the Normans conquered the island in AH 477/ AD 1085.","short_description":"Chess originated in India but soon became popular throughout the Islamic world and beyond. This large ivory chess piece must have belonged to a luxury set made for a patron of high rank or for the Fatimid royal court.","type":"Ivory","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th or 5th century / AD 10th or 11th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 5.6 cm, diameter 5.1 cm.","method_for_datation":"The shape and material of this piece relates to other pieces made in Fatimid Egypt in the 4th or 5th / 10th or 11th centuries. Given that there is a similarity in shape with another King or Queen chess piece made of rock crystal at the Victoria and Albert Museum, which is dated to the early 4th / 10th century, it is likely that this ivory piece is contemporaneous.","method_for_provenance":"This piece would have been made in Fatimid Egypt or Sicily in the 4th–5th / 10th–11th centuries.","provenance":"Egypt or Sicily.","obtention":"Acquired in 1862.","bibliography":"Contadini, A., \"Islamic Ivory Chess Pieces, Draughtsmen and Dice in the Ashmolean Museum\", in *Islamic Art in the Ashmolean Museum: Oxford Studies in Islamic Art*, Oxford, 1995.  \n  \nPhillips, T., (ed.), *Africa: The Art of a Continent*, London, 1996, pp.582–3, cat. no. 7.49.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Ivory."],"keywords":["Game; ivory; southern Italy"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e918c2ab-31e1-5d30-a10e-dc11b5fe5e5f":{"name":"Bowl.","description":"An intact aquamarine-coloured glass bowl with a short flared neck, stained with dark-brown silver that resembles lustre painting. Blown in a mould with 15 vertical ribs, the glass is thick with numerous small bubbles. The decoration consists of vertical lines radiating from the base and a frieze of curling motifs just below the neck, between two horizontal bands. A further band runs around the rim of the bowl. When viewed from below the ribs and rays create a solar design, suggesting that this object may have been used as a lamp, suspended from the neck. The radial pattern recalls earlier glassware, whereas the curling motif is a common type of decoration on stained-glass from this period. Glassmakers in Egypt were particularly prolific during the Fatimid period, using skills inherited from the glass workshops of the Roman period.","short_description":"This bowl is remarkable: despite being made of finely moulded glass some 900 yeas ago, it remains completely intact. Lustre-painted glass was one of the many luxury objects that were prized during the Fatimid era.","type":"Stained glass","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 8.5 cm, diameter 10.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"Restrained designs painted with stains are usually attributed to the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"The technique and decoration resemble other Fatimid glassware produced in Egypt. Furthermore, the bowl was found in Atfih in Egypt.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased by the Museum in 1902.","bibliography":"Carboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., Glass of the Sultans, New Haven and London, 2001, cat. no. 109, pp.220–1.  \n  \nHarden, D. B., and others, The British Museum: masterpieces of glass, a selection, London, 1968, p.112, no. 150.  \n  \nLamm, C. J., Mittelalterliche Gläser und Steinschnittarbeiten aus dem Nahen Osten, 2 vols. Forschungen zur islamischen Kunst, 5, Berlin, 1929–30, plate 37:9.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Mould-blown, stained glass."],"keywords":["Mould; blown; stained glass;"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f182ff55-9430-5024-a039-37fa558855a8":{"name":"Large dish.","description":"A large dish with a surface edge that bends outward to a rim embellished by a consecutive series of triangles that resemble the jagged teeth of a saw. The interior of the dish is painted with a portrayal of a seated woman playing a stringed instrument that looks like a guitar. She wears a long garment with a V-shaped collar and wide sleeves, which is decorated with thick stripes and cross shapes. She wears a choker-type necklace, the V-shape of which sits inside the neck of her garment. The designs on her garment, in which the folds around the legs are embellished with decorations, are distinctive to Fatimid apparel. The musician's face is portrayed in profile. A toque, which resembles a turban, crowns her head and two locks of her hair appear from under the headdress on either side of her face along with a small tuft of hair behind her neck. The background around the figure is embellished with irregular surfaces demarcated by thin strokes filled with circles, dots and painted branches from which cone-shaped leaves grow. On the left-hand side of the woman is a delicately designed ewer surrounded by stylised vegetal-leaf designs; from the mouth of the ewer two flowering branches emerge. Below the rim of the dish underneath the painted serrated edge are a series of thick lines.","short_description":"Economic prosperity in the Fatimid period led to the flourishing of the lustre-ware ceramic industry. Such lustre-ware vessels, where the metallic lustre resembles gold, incorporate a variety of decorations including splendid scenes of Fatimid daily and social life.","type":"Dish, ceramics","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AD 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 40 cm.","method_for_datation":"The dish was dated based on the study of its painted female musician, and specifically the design and decoration of the clothing she wears. The figure reflects the distinguishing traits that mark the portrayal of people in Fatimid art, including circular moon-shaped faces and almond-shaped eyes. The turban seen on the heads of men, and the toques on the heads of women, are also indicative of the period. In addition, the decorations that are present on the dish are borrowed from the vegetal and non-vegetal decorative motifs seen most commonly on wood, ivory and metal objects of the Fatimid period. This date is further supported by a comparison between this dish and other similar examples that bear the signatures of potters who are associated with the period.","method_for_provenance":"The place of manufacture was narrowed down to Egypt in view of the fact that ceramic production and metallic lustre-ware products were renowned in Fatimid Egypt. This industry grew and flourished in Fustat where archaeological excavations have uncovered a large number of ceramic pieces similar to this dish.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"The dish was bought in 1944 from a dealer of antiquities, Fuqyan Jaan.","bibliography":"\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, *Trésors fatimides du Caire*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1998.  \nHassan, Z. M., *Funun al-Islam (Arts of Islam*), Cairo, 1948.  \nJenkins, M., “Islamic Pottery: A Brief History”, *Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin*, Vol. 40 (4), spring, 1983.  \nKhadr, M. Y., *Tarikh al-Funun al-Islamiya \\[History of Islamic Art*\\], UAE, 2003.  \nPhilon, H., *Early Islamic Ceramics: Ninth to late Twelfth Centuries*, Athens,Vol. 1, London, 1980.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Ceramic with metallic lustre decoration over a glazed surface."],"keywords":["Metallic lustre; ceramics; figurative decoration; vegetal decoration, dish; female figure; music; musician"],"author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f22479d3-546f-553a-8322-e8c56a9254ef":{"name":"Chess piece.","description":"The game of chess probably has its origin in India and reached the Islamic world via Sassanid Persia. Abstract game figures made out of precious materials like ivory, such as this chess piece, were characteristically used by Arabs. Other materials, such as rock-crystal, were also exploited. A number of pieces made from rock-crystal became part of the treasure collections that belonged to European churches.  \nIts size alone makes this chess piece remarkable and it must have needed the largest and most expensive section of a tusk of the highest quality. Only the most elite circles of society would have commissioned ivory game pieces of this size.  \nThe chess piece has a short and fat cylindrical form, with a rounded cap and button-like top. Its shape guarantees its place among the group of abstract game pieces. This piece is probably the king. The decoration is of particular interest. Stylised cross-shaped, blossom-like ornaments cover its central area at the front and back as well as on the top. They are flanked around the body by stylised trees, and on the top they are surrounded by small crosses and triangles. This decoration is formed from circular drill-holes and dots. The underside of the chess piece has a peculiar feature: three circular holes have been drilled and filled with lead. No single explanation for this has yet been determined. Could it have been to make the piece heavier?  \nThe cross-shaped ornamentation is repeated conspicuously. It is probable that this chess piece was made in Sicily. It has been made according to the traditional manufacture of abstract Arab game pieces, which were customarily employed in southern Italy up until the AH 6th / 12th century.","short_description":"In Islamic countries the game of chess was played with highly stylised figures such as this figure of a king. Decorated with a pattern of circles this ivory chessman is from southern Italy or Sicily, a region that once was part of the Fatimid empire and was thus deeply influenced by Islamic culture.","type":"Chess piece, ivory","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th centuries / 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 6.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"Similar chess pieces have been dated to the 11th–12th century because of their circular dot decoration, which was characteristic of some works of art made during this period in southern Italy.","method_for_provenance":"Similar chess pieces and similarly decorated ivory caskets are attributed to southern Italy or Sicily.","provenance":"Southern Italy or Sicily.","obtention":"Acquired from an art dealer in 1925.","bibliography":"*Chess: East and West, Past and Present*, Catalogue, New York, 1968.  \nContadini, A., “Islamic Ivory Chess Pieces, Draughtsmen and Dice”, in *Islamic Art in the Ashmolean Museum, Part One*, (ed. J. Allan), Oxford Studies in Islamic Art X, Oxford, 1955, pp.111–54, fig. 54.  \nKluge-Pinsker, A., *Schachspiel und Trictac: Zeugnisse Mittelalterlicher Spielfreude in Salischer Zeit*, Sigmaringen, 1991, pp.50–4, fig. 27.  \nKühnel, E., *Die Islamischen Elfenbeinskulpturen, VIII–XIII Jh.*, Berlin, 1971, no. 9, plate V.  \nWichmann, S. and Wichmann, H., *Schach: Ursprung und Wandlung der Spielfigur in Zwölf Jahrhunderten*, Munich, 1960, 282, no. 5, fig. 5.","dynasty":"Fatimid or Norman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_IT_EN_001","materials":["Ivory, lead."],"keywords":["Ivory; rock-crystal; Sicily"],"author":"Jens Kröger","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"f5c68eab-37f6-5a2c-b181-f87cfef70a15":{"name":"Human head.","description":"The face is that of an apparently fine-featured man but the damage to the nose and mouth is very serious. He wears a turban in the Oriental manner. It reminds us of certain pictures of human figures on pottery of the Samanid era of Nishabour (Iran). The turban is V-shaped and a deep fold extends right across its width. The face is covered with a veil, like several other images of heads from Fatimid Egypt and Umayyad Spain in the AH 4th and 5th / AD 10th and 11th centuries. The man's eyes are quite prominent and seem originally to have been covered by two pieces of glass indicating the irises, like other images found on site at Sabra.  \nThe head's discovery in the Fatimid capital gives weight to the opinion that the Shi'ites, unlike the very iconoclastic Malikites, tolerated human representation in their sculptures.","short_description":"The discovery of this piece in Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the Fatimid capital, supports the idea that Shi'ite Muslims tolerated sculptures of human forms, unlike the very iconoclastic Malikites. This image is similar to others originating from Spain and Egypt at that time.","type":"Human head, plaster","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, mid-4th–mid-5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11.5 cm, width 11.5 cm, thickness 7.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This stucco head was found, among other human and animal carvings, in the excavations carried out at Sabra al-Mansuriyya in 1978. It was found in a very ploughed-up area with no clear archaeological layering. The objects were scattered around in a random manner. One has the impression that someone had tried to eradicate or hide these figurative objects for no obvious reason except that there could be a connection with the changing religious mentality in Ifriqiya. This action could indeed coincide with the persecution of the Shi'ites during the troubles in 407 / 1016 or following the split between the Zirid emirate and the Fatimid caliphate in 440 / 1048–9. This date could be a *terminus post quem*. The *terminus ante quem* is just after the founding of Sabra in 337 / 948. Any further precision is rendered impossible due to the lack of a definite archaeological layer.","method_for_provenance":"The manufacture of these objects, which is unique in Ifriqiya and in the Maghreb, appears to have taken place in Sabra al-Mansuriyya and to have been commissioned by the Shi'ites.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya","obtention":"After its discovery at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, this piece was placed in the site storehouse. It was acquired in 1992 by the Museum at Raqqada. It will be displayed in the second section of the Museum, currently under construction.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1992, p.229.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Carved plaster."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; human figure"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"f934a965-24ae-5b22-965c-17838c6cb895":{"name":"Fragment of a glass vessel.","description":"Part of the base of a transparent glass vessel decorated with brown metallic lustre. Its ornamentation consists of the depiction of a mountain-goat or deer with two long horns. The animal is seen running towards the right, and carrying in its mouth a branch that ends in a heart-shaped leaf; branches similar to that being carried by the animal adorn the background. The depiction reveals details of the torso and the shanks of the animal in a naturalistic style.  \nGlass decorated with metallic lustre is considered to have been an innovation known in Egypt since the AH 2nd / AD 8th century which flourished during the Fatimid period, where paintings of animals, birds and plants were produced on glass, in the same style as those used on ceramics with metallic lustre. At the Benaki Museum in Athens, there are pieces of glass, which carry the signature of 'Sa'ad', a Fatimid ceramist who was famous during the latter half of the AH 5th / AD 11th century and the beginning of the AH 6th / AD 12th century. Fatimid ceramists had, therefore, transferred styles of decoration in metallic lustre on ceramics to glass.  \nIn addition to decorating glass with metallic lustre, Egypt was known for other kinds of decoration on glass such as ornamentation with thin glass filaments, which were added and then pressed around the vessel; cut-glass decorations in high relief; stamped decoration and a method of glass-appliqué in high relief. Thick glass, which closely resembles rock-crystal, was also popular and was decorated by cutting the design into the glass in deep recesses.","short_description":"A piece from the base of a transparent glass vessel decorated in metallic lustre, a new technique that became known in Egypt at the beginning of the Islamic era in imitation of lustre ceramics and which flourished under the Fatimids.","type":"Vessel, glass","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 5th century / AH 11th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Diameter 11.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by comparison of its decorative style with that used in the decoration of ceramics with metallic lustre during the Fatimid period.","method_for_provenance":"An Egyptian provenance is certain as metallic-lustre glass is known to have flourished in Egypt during the Fatimid period.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"The glass fragment was bought by the Museum from an antiquities dealer, Tano, in 1940.","bibliography":"Bierman, I. A., *Writing Signs: The Fatimid Public Text*, Berkeley, CA, 1998.  \nContadini, A., *Fatimid Art in the Victoria and Albert Museum*, Coventry, 1998.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.  \nCarboni, S., *Glass from Islamic Lands*, New York, 2001.  \nCarboni, S., *Trèsors Fatimides du Caire*, exhibition catalogue, Institut du monde Arab, Paris, 1998.  \nGrabar, O., “Imperial and Urban Art in Islam: The Subject Matter of Fatimid Art”, in *Colloque International sur l'Histoire du Caire*, 1969, Cairo, 1972, pp.173–89.  \nGrübe, E., *Cobalt and Lustre: The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery*, London, 1994.  \nHassan, Z. M. *Kunuz al-Fatimiyyin \\[Treasures of the Fatimids*\\], Beirut, 1981.  \nRomberg, H., *The Fatimid Treasury: Function and Content*, unpublished MPhil thesis, Oxford University, 1985.  \nSanders, P., *Ritual, Politics and the City in Fatimid Cairo*, New York, 1984.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Glass decorated with metallic lustre."],"keywords":["Vessel; metallic lustre; glass; animal decoration; vegetal decoration"],"author":"Muhammad Abbas Muhammad Selim","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fa6093d9-67a1-536f-b0bb-38a5d07cb915":{"name":"Lion from a fountain.","description":"A sculpture such as this hollow lion – standing erect with its uplifted tasselled tail in the shape of a handle – is testament to the variety of Fatimid art. The open jaw of the lion once held a water pipe. The lion’s shape is based on a composition of very abstract forms. Thus its paws are flat, its ribs drawn out linearly, and the lines to describe both the extension of its ears and its bulging eyebrows are simple. The surface of its body along its back, chest and upper legs, is decorated with a spiral pattern that reinforces the sculpture’s stylised form. The engraved inscription found on both sides of the neck can be seen clearly and may date from the AH 7th / AD 13th century. It refers to bi-rasem al-amir Shams al-Din wali Misr, who was probably the governor of ‘Misr’ (Lower Egypt and Cairo).  \nA fully modelled sculpture of a living creature is of interest, as it does not conform to the specifications of Islamic dogma. However, such sculptures emerged from the Egyptian Court because, within its circles, the prohibition of the representation of living forms was not always enforced or adhered to, and also because the Fatimid Shi’ites adopted a liberal view. The Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo holds a sitting lion figure. The Berlin lion could have formed part of a sculptured fountain that featured a variety of figures. Thus, it would correspond to the lions of the well-known, bigger lion fountains of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. Given its small size, the lion could have been part of a larger construction featuring a number of sculptures such as those represented in Iraqi manuscripts from the AH 7th / AD 13th century onwards. Bronze figures like this lion were widespread across the Mediterranean, and especially across Spain. One of these Spanish lions can be seen in the Louvre Museum in Paris. One can assume that most of these bronze lions did not survive the test of time and were melted down.","short_description":"This lively little lion with an open mouth and upturned tail was used as a fountain spigot during the Fatimid period in Egypt. It is made of cast bronze that has been decorated with scrolls on the back and the legs. Fountains with animal decoration were widespread in Mediterranean countries.","type":"Fountain, lion, metalwork","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum","dates":"Hegira 5th–6th century / AD 11th–12th century.","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height 11.5 cm, length 14.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Similar figures, cast in bronze, were made especially in Fatimid Egypt. Both the design and the decoration of the lion fountain demonstrate parallels to similar pieces that were created during the Fatimid period. Additionally, it features an inscription that names an apparent governor of Egypt.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription appears to name a governor of Egypt. Furthermore the stylistic markings testify to having originated from the Egyptian Fatimid period.","provenance":"Egypt","obtention":"From a private art gallery in 1911.","bibliography":"Enderlein, V., *Islamische Kunst*, Dresden, 1990, pp.121–4.  \nEttinghausen, R. and Grabar, O., *The Art and Architecture of Islam 650–1250*, Harmondsworth, 1987, pp.197–200.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Berlin 1979, no. 313.  \n*Museum für Islamische Kunst*, Catalogue, Stuttgart; Zürich, 1980, 52–3, no. 20.  \nWard, R., *Islamic Metalwork*, London, 1993, pp.60–9.","dynasty":"Fatimid","materials":["Bronze casting, hollow, engraved."],"keywords":["Bronze casting; Fatimid"],"author":"Annette Hagedorn","translator":"Maria Vlotides, Brigitte Finkbeiner","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"fe5a75ec-3604-55c2-8c21-6b4f292e10cd":{"name":"Carafe.","description":"The shape of this carafe is asymmetrical, like most glass objects, but particularly harmonious. The belly of the vessel is about the same height as the neck. The belly is slightly rounded, widening a little towards the top. The shoulders curve in sharply and the neck narrows towards the mouth which opens out to a flat collar.  \nThe neck is decorated with vertical indentations. Two circular grooves surround the belly above a grid of diagonal lines. Each triangular or diamond-shaped section contains an indentation made with a barley-seed.  \nThis type of decoration is used, to great effect, as a background pattern in some Kairouanese book bindings dating from the AH 3rd, 4th and 5th centuries (AD 9th, 10th and 11th). A similar pattern is seen in a painting of Jawsaq al-Khaqani (the Emperor's Pavilion) at Samarra. The form, style and manufacturing technique come probably from classical and Sassanid traditions, indeed from methods used since ancient times. However, this carafe has certain similarities to vases found at Fustat and Samarra during the excavations undertaken by the American Research Centre in Egypt in 1965 and 1981. It bears an even more striking resemblance to some of the objects (probably Fatimid) from the Serce Limani wreck found off the Turkish coast. The decoration on these was engraved using small grindstones. To cut the geometric shapes, the grooves and the scalloped, braided and floral decorations, elongated chisels were used, some tapering and some curved.  \nA kiln excavated on the site of this find at Sabra proves that glass-works in the Middle Ages were always relegated to the outskirts of the cities.","short_description":"The shape, style and manufacturing technique of this well-proportioned glass carafe are borrowed from the classical and Sassanid traditions of Antiquity. There are, however, even clearer similarities with items amongst the cargo of a Fatimid wreck found off the Turkish coast.","type":"Carafe, glass","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, end of the 4th–first half of the 5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada.","province":"Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 19 cm, diameter 7.8 to 9.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"This carafe comes from Sabra al-Mansuriyya, built in 337 / 968. It bears a striking likeness to some of the objects found in the above-mentioned Serce Limani wreck cargo. We know that the ship sank in the second quarter of the 5th / 11th century and that the Sabra site was completely abandoned after the Hilalian invasions in 449 / 1057. We can, therefore, date this carafe with assurance to between the end of the 4th / 10th century and the first half of the 5th / 11th century.","method_for_provenance":"This carafe was discovered by chance in 1992 at the Sabra al-Mansuriyya site. Brick pickers broke open a large jar with a pick-axe and found contents of priceless value: carafes, goblets, flasks and cups, each demonstrating the great skills of the artisan glass-blowers of Sabra.","provenance":"Probably from the glass-works at Sabra al-Mansuriyya or from the glass-works at Kairouan.","obtention":"This piece was kept at the Bardo Museum. It was then acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada, on its inauguration. It is currently on display there.","bibliography":"Marçais, G. and Poinssot, L., *Objets kairouanais*, XI, fasc. 2, Tunis, 1952, pp.388–9, cat. no. 8.  \n*Omeyas* (exhibition catalogue), Granada, 2001, p.83.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","materials":["Engraved and gilded glass."],"keywords":["Geometric decoration"],"author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"}}