@museumwnf/islamicart-data 1.0.39 → 1.0.43

package/translations/timeline_events.en.json

@@ -1 +1 @@
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Split into several different kingdoms, Ifriqiya falls to the invaders.","date_from_description":"1050–1052"},"a9f8cc0a-2c36-5734-b15f-a19d6ddf08b1":{"description":"On 11 October the governor of Sham, Junbalat, goes to southern Jordan to stop Bani Sakher tribes attacking pilgrim caravans and kills 20 of them.","date_from_description":"1499"},"3016577c-60dd-55c3-8277-61f4d6fcb408":{"description":"The Mamluk Amir Sarghatmish builds a madrasa in Amman; it became the headquarters of Balqa, to teach Hanafi rites (one of the four Sunni rites in Islam).","date_from_description":"1356"},"87c22453-97fc-510d-8609-c93ccb1d12bb":{"description":"The first Normans arrive in Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1009"},"a4d54dd8-b667-5fa3-aca7-bc57f43322ab":{"description":"After several attempts to conquer Constantinople, the Umayyads and Byzantines agree to a truce. Frontier warfare continues under the Abbasids but Constaninople is left unconquered until the Ottomans.","date_from_description":"679"},"d8ecdf6b-5b33-5360-b5d3-32068d0ed13e":{"description":"Abolition of the Caliphate of Cordova.","date_from_description":"1031"},"962f6a76-8ff2-573e-963e-d54a0fb7fe5f":{"description":"Hugh Capet, son of Odo Count of Paris, takes the crown of France and starts a new dynasty.","date_from_description":"987"},"b1ce405d-02ce-57e6-b472-f5efa37d7128":{"description":"The First Crusaders on their way to the Holy Lands arrive in Constantinople in December.","date_from_description":"1096"},"5e9e3338-513d-5a14-a122-2da2720762e4":{"description":"The composer Richard Wagner (1813–83) writes his opera Tristan and Isolde. This is a new form of musical theatre and musical language which he calls music drama.","date_from_description":"1859"},"448e2952-7f34-5034-9f9b-bf57836f2d10":{"description":"Expulsion of the Jews and the Muslims.","date_from_description":"1496"},"fc7da7f1-b6bf-500a-8a58-2f899e4344d5":{"description":"The geographer al-Sharif al-Idrissi is born in Sebta. Half a century later he writes a geography book entitled *Kitab nuzhat al-Mouchtaq* at the request of the Norman King Roger II.","date_from_description":"1100"},"32a440a3-8f52-5588-82d1-6b7f499325f1":{"description":"Unsuccesful peasant revolt led by György Dózsa. The presentation to the Hungarian Parliament of the *Tripartitum*, a collection of Hungarian unwritten laws compiled by jurist István Werbőczy (published Vienna, 1518).","date_from_description":"1514"},"6868d06f-73a3-5df8-ab72-5906914451c4":{"description":"In the church of Our Lady of Pirates in Komiža on the island of Vis Stjepan Killarevich from Krakow builds one of three preserved 17th-century organs in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1670"},"5a5b6211-3311-558d-8528-c8304db64111":{"description":"Sijilmasa taken by the Almoravids.","date_from_description":"1055"},"1cca0a62-f5d5-504c-aa2a-4dc46801148f":{"description":"The Sassanian invasion of Syria (Bilad al-Sham) begins under the  leadership of Shahrbaraz, causing the destruction of many cities.","date_from_description":"613"},"32bb5381-b440-58d3-b4c0-e94e9f40869d":{"description":"After the Plombières meeting between Napoleon III and Cavour, an alliance is signed between France and Piemont. War with Austria results in the Armistice of Villafranca, the first step towards Italian unity (Rome remains under papal control for the time being). Savoy and Nice become part of France following a referendum.","date_from_description":"1859"},"f704610f-7c5d-53b9-8bce-736a2aac4d85":{"description":"The short-lived First Constitutional Period.","date_from_description":"1876–1877"},"8b2181da-e6d7-56c0-8fd9-a5101b4879eb":{"description":"Issue of the Charter of Felicianus mentioning the founder of the Diocese, King Ladislas, the first bishop of Zagreb, Bishop Duh, and other clergy.","date_from_description":"1134"},"9fe03546-402e-5ee1-88c0-63096d5187dc":{"description":"Conquest and settlement: the Hungarian tribes spread through the Carpathian basin led by Árpád, the father of the first Hungarian royal dynasty, the Árpáds, whose first king was (St) István (1000–38).","date_from_description":"895"},"816a8455-d337-5d96-9ffb-6bf4ab2ef50c":{"description":"Construction of the Great Mosques of Constantine and Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1136"},"bf2a3eee-32a7-59e6-a08f-d1f67a936713":{"description":"Algiers founded by Buluggin ibn Ziri.","date_from_description":"960"},"6a1fa53b-578d-5d8e-956d-417412847f45":{"description":"Consecration of the worship of the patron saint of Algiers Alger ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Thaalibi.","date_from_description":"1470/1471"},"156d8464-f294-5c24-bab6-fe3806d2a9d0":{"description":"Frequent incursions by Portuguese, French, Spanish and Italian fleets in the ports of Central Maghreb: Honain, Oran, Algiers and Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1390–1400"},"8f17df9c-3af3-55db-ba92-cc38b1e7b7c8":{"description":"Mua’yyad Shaykh retakes Syria and rules until his death in 824 / 1421.","date_from_description":"1412"},"ac405094-1617-53c9-b850-3eecd1e25865":{"description":"St Columba and a small group of monks sail from Ireland to the west coast of Scotland. They establish a monastery that becomes the head of the Celtic church in Britain and a major political centre.","date_from_description":"563"},"60e0abb3-d972-5461-ab87-276eac092632":{"description":"The inauguration of the Aqsa Mosque by the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid Ibn ‘Abd al-Malik (r. 705–15).","date_from_description":"709"},"1c3233e2-5df3-5ec8-9e6f-4f6649c63ddc":{"description":"The assasination of Austria’s crown prince leads to the beginning of the First World War in which Germany fights on the sides of the Central Powers against the Allied Powers.","date_from_description":"1914"},"ec698fe7-4144-5e90-a847-26e3e1fbe964":{"description":"Establishment of towns. German colonisation. Invasion of the Mongolians (1241). Introduction of mining law (1249), the provincial court (1253) and provincial statutes. The Inquisition introduced (1257).","date_from_description":"Around 1234"},"94e43014-84ba-5a4e-b222-f019edb670f4":{"description":"The beginning of the Baroque city of Vukovar, building of the city centre, Franciscan monastery, parish church and the Palace of the Counts Eltz.","date_from_description":"1720"},"dc118738-02b5-525d-888b-545b10c9c60f":{"description":"Political stability under the reign of the Hafsid princes.","date_from_description":"1370–1394"},"26cadaf0-aa1b-5dc9-9eec-cfa4060a7250":{"description":"The first period of Iconoclasm begins when Byzantine Emperor Leo III forbids the worship of religious images.  \nEmpress Irene, who took power as regent for his son, Constantine VI (780–97), brought this period to an end with a council held in Nicea in 787 in favour of icon worship.","date_from_description":"730"},"fcf06ed2-f35a-5b2a-b4d6-b03e8c7621d3":{"description":"The Saracens establish a base in Fraxinetum, Provence, in the mountains now known as the Maures, staying for more than two generations.","date_from_description":"890"},"be05c3dc-95d8-5943-a914-04c1689110f3":{"description":"King Mátyás I dies and the all’ antica Renaissance presence in Hungary (see the Renaissance Buda castle, Mátyás I’s famous Corvina library) wanes. Struggle for the Hungarian throne.","date_from_description":"1490"},"01ca3cd0-5cf6-5255-80ea-9d687b6979f7":{"description":"Hungarian King Ladislaus Pohrobek takes the Czech throne. Order to evict Jews from royal towns. George of Poděbrady elected Czech king (1485). Attempt to create union of European rulers aiming to avert Turkish expansion, restrict Catholic church hegemony and secure peace.","date_from_description":"1453"},"aa33b06c-4e59-5f3d-ac59-c14a054e3995":{"description":"In November the Fatimids of Egypt take control of Jordan during the region of al-Mu’izz Li-Deenillah.","date_from_description":"969"},"d8faf424-dbf7-5084-8268-7865f0071002":{"description":"Brief reign of Shajar al-Durr, widow of al-Salih Ayyub, as Sultana for 80 days.","date_from_description":"1250"},"671e6324-d0a5-5e33-9558-75f954c4ecfa":{"description":"Birth of the illustrious scholar Ibn Khaldun in Tunis.","date_from_description":"1332"},"334291dc-172a-596a-a24a-379f1e1d9428":{"description":"The Siege of Vienna by the Ottomans ends in the defeat of the Ottomans by a united army. A gradual retreat of the Ottomans begins.","date_from_description":"1683"},"8b2697d2-dfa5-56b4-bf1b-b92a400f86da":{"description":"The beginning of a long period of cultural revival under Sultan Qaytbay.","date_from_description":"1468"},"926714b9-3c86-5caf-94f9-53fc3832be91":{"description":"Bede, a priest, monk and the first English historian, publishes the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.","date_from_description":"731"},"a5f9a990-c7d1-5889-a8ba-99b39c362f02":{"description":"Garibaldi leads the Expedition of the Thousand, and the second war of independence spreads to the South. Thanks to Garibaldi, the Kingdom of Sardinia annexes the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.","date_from_description":"1860"},"05f2113f-d487-5b04-8dac-309357a3c344":{"description":"Svenska Akademien (the Swedish Academy) is founded by King Gustavus III in order to advance the Swedish language and literature. The Academy has also awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature since 1901.","date_from_description":"1786"},"e8c6d968-01d5-5e81-ab22-4a0c07fcbb2b":{"description":"Acknowledgement of Portugal’s independence.","date_from_description":"1668"},"cb81d3bf-ba06-5fd6-bead-e6de159d3027":{"description":"First expedition of Muslim Arabs in Ifriqiya. Victory at Sufetula (Sbeitla).","date_from_description":"647"},"9fcefd8c-cca1-5f03-adc7-dd277fbc1360":{"description":"In Dubrovnik the Jesuit church of St Ignatius is built according to the plans of Andrea Pozzo.","date_from_description":"1700"},"e3639455-9b9f-5abe-95de-b7e69fe3fc26":{"description":"On 20 August the Muslim armies overrun the Transjordan highlands. They go on to win a decisive battle against the Byzantines on the banks of the Yarmouk River, which opens the way to the conquest of Syria.","date_from_description":"636"},"e7a0564c-2fde-525e-beda-c6a62ccba83a":{"description":"The Goths attempt to occupy the town of Sebta.","date_from_description":"544 or 548"},"b8d722c9-0e0e-535a-9a57-a4dca583c9d5":{"description":"Austria takes Milan and the Kingdom of Naples.","date_from_description":"1707"},"33154f08-3836-548b-bcda-a749c70d2d84":{"description":"The assassination of Henry III ends the reign of the Valois, which was marked by Wars of Religion between Catholics and Protestants. The Catholic League’s recognition of Henry IV, now converted to Catholicism, allows the kingdom to be reunited.","date_from_description":"1589"},"fa9f4dbb-b807-5fc1-a3c9-429ad618eac1":{"description":"Privateering starts.","date_from_description":"1434–1488"},"e744318c-cf49-5f17-9561-66e10cc83c25":{"description":"The Abbasids conquer Palestine, which loses its former centrality of rule and investment.","date_from_description":"750"},"835c65e2-a28f-5ff2-8926-18707e76dd0d":{"description":"Treaty of Tordesillas between the Catholic Kings and John II, dividing the world into two spheres of influence: the Portuguese part and the Spanish part.","date_from_description":"1494"},"41779435-72d2-5d45-8768-1dceddd75d06":{"description":"The Second Crusades arrive in Anatolia on the way to the Holy Lands.","date_from_description":"1147"},"6e4f8911-7f21-5808-b370-e65892592750":{"description":"The recapture of Buda by the allied armies of the Holy Alliance led by Karl von Lothringen (Charles of Lorraine). The last Pasha of Buda dies in the struggle.","date_from_description":"1686"},"0200499f-0355-5d46-95d6-be6a10389569":{"description":"Giordano Bruno, philosopher and theologian, is burned at the stake in Rome, condemned by the Church for heresy. His death marks one of the darkest and tragic moments of the Counter-Reformation.","date_from_description":"1600"},"01abf43a-c670-559b-8424-96f9384c2c44":{"description":"Edward the Elder, King of England, wins a decisive victory against the Danes at Tettenhall in Staffordshire and extends his kingdom north to the Humber estuary.","date_from_description":"910"},"b8a0cdd3-362b-5853-8129-fb536221d40a":{"description":"The English bombard Algiers.","date_from_description":"1824"},"c0aba31a-80c6-5273-a220-b84597e0f473":{"description":"On the 4th of July, the American Congress passes the Declaration of Independence, which formalises the 13 colonies’ independence from British rule.","date_from_description":"1776"},"e4b3dde1-a78c-56cf-8875-f0ac737c666c":{"description":"The Armada defeated by England.","date_from_description":"1588"},"093ad85b-36a2-56f3-9f2f-c1793233d4d6":{"description":"The Ayyubid army leader Usama bin Mungidh erects Ajlun castle to counter the Crusader castle of Belvoir (Kawkab al-Hawa) to the west. In August of this year the Ayyubids besiege Karak Castle under the leadership of Salah al-Din (Saladin) the dynasty’s founder.","date_from_description":"1184"},"48133435-09eb-53ab-b185-f93d5f3346e1":{"description":"Barbarossa’s fleet comes to the aid of the French in their struggle against Charles V.","date_from_description":"1543"},"0195a905-bb4f-5e13-b237-f98ad8774abe":{"description":"Victory of Selim I the Grim over Shah Ismail at the Battle of Çaldıran.","date_from_description":"1514"},"ff240b80-84a8-553d-b0d4-03478e5bfb99":{"description":"Benito Mussolini Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Groups) in Milan.","date_from_description":"1919"},"d448e324-dea8-57ed-b5a0-3c7e59d063ad":{"description":"Pope Boniface VIII (1295–1303), in conflict with the French for political reasons, is arrested by the French, but immediately released following a popular uprising.","date_from_description":"1303"},"7542ab53-207e-5790-ad12-9d6767a20507":{"description":"Saint Francis of Assisi writes his Rule, inspired by the principles of poverty, errant preaching and Christian charity. Frederick II (1211–50), already King of Sicily, is crowned emperor.","date_from_description":"1210"},"729ec165-6619-50b1-97b2-215c22bcac7b":{"description":"The Regency of Algiers founded by Khaïr-Eddine. Algiers becomes the first vassal town of the Ottoman Empire in Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1518"},"d9284d5a-fbf9-5b26-9f54-b06fcf1fb2fc":{"description":"Coronation of (St) István who affirms his authority over the Hungarian leaders (e.g. in 1003 over Gyula in Transylvania) and establishes Hungary’s legal, administrative and ecclesiastical system.","date_from_description":"1000"},"ab2086dd-5008-5695-870e-cee4f7734ffb":{"description":"The Hafsid ruler of Tunis takes refuge in Egypt. The Sultan helped him to take back his throne and he became the deputy of the Egyptian Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun. The death of Ibn Mandhur, the author of Lisan al-Arab (‘The Arab Tongue’).","date_from_description":"1311"},"2a212264-a53f-550f-852b-e14e9c7fb3d0":{"description":"Murad I captures Edirne (Adrianople). As the third Ottoman capital, Edirne now becomes the headquarters for the further expansion.","date_from_description":"1361"},"973c6b8b-7a18-5ba3-8988-dd148f9de463":{"description":"King James IV of Scotland is killed, along with much of the Scottish aristocracy and thousands of Highlanders and Lowlanders, by the English forces of Henry VIII at Flodden Field in Northumberland.","date_from_description":"1513"},"b7a35988-6bae-5f8a-83fe-4a762ab7b7fd":{"description":"Reorganisation of the Byzantine Empire and institution of the Exarchate of Carthage, consolidating the pre-eminence of the military.","date_from_description":"582–602"},"bc9ad394-a1da-54aa-8d59-da7b490761ae":{"description":"Sulayman I the Great occupies Buda. Hungary torn into three parts: Turkish *vilajet* (province); Upper Hungary under Ferdinand I; the rest under Queen Isabella and János II (János Zsigmond), son of the Queen and János I.","date_from_description":"1541"},"0dd31216-4bae-5058-8390-89942d202c20":{"description":"The Nibelungenlied is written down. During the Age of Chivalry numerous texts, ballads and songs were written by Minnesänger singers such as medieval lyricist Walter von der Vogelweide (c.1170–c.1230).","date_from_description":"1200"},"844ea8e6-3c36-57a2-a6e7-503cea5c081d":{"description":"Prussia, Austria and Russia gain a decisive battle against Napoleon I (1769–1821) near Leipzig. This is seen as the peak of the German freedom movement.","date_from_description":"1813"},"84a32f77-9f95-5c58-8100-9528d44554ec":{"description":"The Ayyubid king al-Nasir Dawud establishes an emirate at Karak; he erects a hospital (bimaristan) to treat the sick and to teach medicine.","date_from_description":"1229–49"},"458024a5-91ec-5bdd-8a07-af31da303332":{"description":"Venice conquers Karlobag attacking Novi Vinodolski, the city of the Frankopans. This marks the beginning of the Austro-Venetian war, at this stage known as the Uskok war.","date_from_description":"1615"},"d7bbafec-4995-54c2-9b69-d9f7a93f9e10":{"description":"The ‘Triumph of Orthodoxy’ that marks the end of the second Iconoclastic Period (814–42) in the Byzantine Empire. Theodora, the regent for her son Michael III, orders the restoration of the icons.","date_from_description":"842"},"c82b56d8-1f36-56eb-9d96-985565899101":{"description":"Lund University is founded in Scania, the southernmost part of the country, which had then recently become part of Sweden.  \nIn the same year a series of witch trials and executions begins in Dalarna. It spreads over large parts of Sweden in the following nine years. Many innocent women are accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake.","date_from_description":"1668"},"fe3499d5-b4ca-50ce-a116-199c95627bef":{"description":"Death of Emperor Justinian I soon after his construction of the Ibn Wardan fortress in the Syrian desert. The long and intermittent Byzantine–Persian war is refuelled.","date_from_description":"565"},"a40a2962-a846-54e9-a366-75e11eaece36":{"description":"Almohad defeat at Navas de Tolosa, marking the beginning of their decline.","date_from_description":"1212"},"3f178cfd-a839-5dff-b912-dc73471fb7ee":{"description":"The invention of the printing machine with movable metal types by Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398–c. 1468) results in the first printing of the Gutenberg Bible (Biblia Sacra) in 1455.","date_from_description":"1455"},"1f15d9fb-a195-5f6b-9f40-b3f1c20345ac":{"description":"The naval battle of Preveza off the Adriatic coast. Barbarossa defeats Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.","date_from_description":"1538"},"b8915690-0a5e-5709-a657-6a93c2f4cd39":{"description":"Death of the scholar Ibn Khaldun in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1406"},"c97e8963-bfc2-5a43-b2bf-c81b0ecc5b58":{"description":"The Hafsids take several town in Central Maghreb: Constantine (1233) and Béjaia (1235).","date_from_description":"1233–1235"},"a2ab2f86-d4d6-5d09-9e9f-dc2197107ed1":{"description":"Muhammad ibn Tughj rules Egypt autonomously under the title of al-Ikhshid given to him by the Abbasid Caliph.","date_from_description":"935"},"1884ecf3-5742-5cdc-85e9-3961fdd618ba":{"description":"Scots under Robert Bruce (Robert I) comprehensively defeat the invading English army at the Battle of Bannockburn, re-establishing Scotland’s independence.","date_from_description":"1314"},"2d945522-a203-5f90-9c18-0c592affebc6":{"description":"Peace of Westphalia marks the end of the Thirty Years’ War. Habsburg rule in the Czech lands officially acknowledged. Moravia lost almost half of its population. Inflow of foreign aristocracy. Brno became the capital of Moravia.","date_from_description":"1648"},"4042dc9f-88b1-598c-a239-a83682f1058b":{"description":"Saracen raid on the Lerins Islands (the most significant of a series of raids on the Provençal coast). The monks taken are bought back through the Abbey of Saint-Victor.","date_from_description":"1047"},"54547a63-b6e6-52c9-be7a-11522e48f89e":{"description":"Start of the reign of Louis VI. Establishment and growth of the commune movement in France.","date_from_description":"1108"},"0fdd53a2-dd15-5287-9b24-e77691cfea02":{"description":"Estates defeated at Battle of White Mountain resulting in mass punishment and persecution. Uprising of the Wallachians (Carpathian pastoral culture). Charles University made over to the Jesuits.","date_from_description":"1620"},"4b8b1ac1-fdef-5ff1-bd9d-bc3fc36c1e27":{"description":"Badis, son of al-Mansur, leaves Qalaa for the last time and goes to Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1104"},"379adc29-287b-5b4e-9d83-375ab79250cb":{"description":"The Battle of Nikápoly: Sultan Bayazid I defeats the crusaders of King Sigismund of Luxemburg, sole ruler of Hungary after the death of his first wife, Queen Mary, daughter of Lajos (Louis) I in 1395.","date_from_description":"1396"},"3f9af882-80c2-5359-a845-09c7be4e0fd2":{"description":"Circassians, non-Arab Islamic people from the Caucasus region of western Asia, are forced to emigrate from their lands to the south by the Russians. The Ottoman empire helped them to reach Arab countries and settled them there.","date_from_description":"1878"},"546f4c69-4e94-55e6-bba7-ca5df34c3ff0":{"description":"Siege of Constantinople by the Muslim Arabs.","date_from_description":"674–678"},"2e10d16d-0c4d-585e-b2b4-02defffc0781":{"description":"Foundation of the abbey at Cluny (near to Mâcon), whose monks followed the Benedictine order. The monks at Cluny travelled throughout Europe and played an important role in 11th-century reform.","date_from_description":"910"},"c40011c6-a118-5cd6-852d-ecb3cffbf6bc":{"description":"Palestine in general and Jerusalem in particular celebrate the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople.","date_from_description":"1453"},"58fd9645-d24f-5ff7-9e13-9e18a9a195d5":{"description":"Reforms under Emperor Joseph II: tolerance patent permitting non-Catholicism (Catholicism remains the official religion). Abolition of serfdom. Closure of monasteries not dedicated to publicly beneficial work.","date_from_description":"1781"},"51191f52-ddd5-54ef-bffe-e6a8289b64ae":{"description":"Revolts in Kabylie.","date_from_description":"1796"},"c6035d9a-14a2-5e29-8236-99c2ed96bd1a":{"description":"Charles IV elected Roman king. The period of his rule embraced the greatest flourishing of the Czech lands. Origination of the Czech crown jewels. Cult of St Wenceslas disseminated.","date_from_description":"1346"},"fe803dfc-b069-516e-a06c-06714e3116d8":{"description":"Reorganisation of the Suebian Church by Saint Martin of Dumes.","date_from_description":"555"},"0ea6dfd1-d6f1-5b9a-83da-258f2b054093":{"description":"Stockholm, Sweden’s capital today is founded by Birger Jarl.","date_from_description":"1250"},"3f4cb0ce-5c63-5da8-bc07-f731381c9d73":{"description":"Restoration of the Bourbons with Alfonso XII.","date_from_description":"1875"},"524c3bcc-fc78-5fc9-8cf8-bd35b6f1c912":{"description":"The Ottomans, led by Sinan Pasha, oust the Spanish from Tunis and annex the town to the Ottoman empire.","date_from_description":"1574"},"6a4fe4b4-097b-5df9-9864-32aebc48c49f":{"description":"The Mirdasid dynasty takes control of Aleppo amidst numerous rivalling emirates, thanks to its skilful diplomacy, particularly with the court of Badr al-Din Lu’lu’ in Mosul.","date_from_description":"1023–1079"},"735fcfa4-79e8-5584-9768-c75fbe0f8cc5":{"description":"The Turkomans under the command of Utsuz, in the name of the Seljuqs, invade Palestine, defeating and ejecting the Fatimid army. The Fatimids reconquer it 25 years later.","date_from_description":"1072"},"4d885000-7c9e-55fe-b2ab-87459f40e258":{"description":"Establishment of the Portucuese Counties.","date_from_description":"1095"},"be037dae-57a2-56b8-82d6-1085352b1f7c":{"description":"Muslims and Jews expelled from Castile, La Mancha and Extemadura, Andalusia, Catalonia and Murcia begin to settle in Morocco and other countries in the Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1609"},"ed94200b-ec0d-532a-bae6-046ab22f6779":{"description":"Dante Alighieri begins his masterpiece of universal literature, the Divine Comedy, completed in 1313.","date_from_description":"1307"},"df91e41a-78ac-53b4-93f5-9d311ce78485":{"description":"The Battle of Varna: Sultan Murad II defeats the Hungarian army. King Ulaslo I dies but commander-in-chief János Hunyadi survives. Stripes and a double cross first appear together in Hungary’s coat of arms.","date_from_description":"1444"},"0671960e-152c-59b9-8ba9-e7dc3a5cb490":{"description":"Sulayman Ibn ‘Abd al-Malik, the governor of Palestine, begins to build the city of Ramla as a new administrative centre.","date_from_description":"712"},"426d1d37-8fd0-5398-af00-f51502b04de6":{"description":"During the reign of Abu Hammu Musa I, the Tachfiniya madrasa is built in Tlemcen, the town is fortified and the kingdom is expanded to Constantine and Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1308-1318"},"c7ae992c-e206-51a0-b860-847bb3d2ab40":{"description":"Army conscription is introduced in the Ottoman empire; there is evidence of the contribution of Ajlun inhabitants to army life.","date_from_description":"1886"},"7c0b3274-7bcb-5ba7-b3fd-f7e5edd13bab":{"description":"The Ikhshidid dynasty, based in Egypt, extends its rule to Damascus. The Abbasid empire begins to fragment.","date_from_description":"935–969"},"f9b7ced4-fc8e-58c0-8c65-3d4abb460248":{"description":"Zagreb and a major part of Croatia are stricken by plague of epidemic proportions.","date_from_description":"1599"},"d57ef1fd-9b93-512c-adf0-5ac932aba9b0":{"description":"Return of Ferdinand VII and restoration of autocracy.","date_from_description":"1814"},"efddb048-fe19-5c4d-92af-28eb7b156ac6":{"description":"Fire causes great damage to the Holy Sepulchre Church.","date_from_description":"938"},"6d4f9ede-e846-50b7-b846-12f530be1e23":{"description":"It was around this time that the first Viking expeditions to the East, conducted by people who called themselves Svear (Swedes), are successful enough to bring home the first Arabic silver coins.","date_from_description":"800"},"e47cdabf-08c6-59c7-ba21-0ad6dba27cc6":{"description":"Szatmár Peace Treaty ends the unsuccessful freedom fight of Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II. Publication of *Harmonia Coelestis* composed by Prince Pál Esterházy, Palatine of Hungary.","date_from_description":"1711"},"6f340f5a-d8bf-599e-8d60-2909d33f5e45":{"description":"The Abbasid family left al-Humayma in Jordan for Kufa in Iraq in order to lead the revolt against the Umayyads. Their plotting reaches a successful conclusion in this year.","date_from_description":"749"},"63b574c5-53e1-5522-85b2-bfade2f695b1":{"description":"Death of Meister Eckhart (1260–1328), a Dominican monk who was a theologian, philosopher and mystic. His writings on metaphysics and mysticism were of importance for the intellectual spirit of the late Middle Ages.","date_from_description":"1328"},"372f2dcd-a881-5181-ae34-488d9d454235":{"description":"John of Luxemburg marries Elizabeth Przemyslid. First Czech-langauge publication *Dalimil Chronicle* (1314); the first guild code in the Czech lands published (1318).","date_from_description":"1310"},"27dd0edc-9407-5509-9877-9ef53d79fbca":{"description":"Having already founded the Zagreb bishopric, King (St) László I founds the St Egid Benedictine monastery in Somogyvár (his first burial site before Várad [today: Oradea, Romania]), inviting monks from Saint Gilles.","date_from_description":"1091"},"22c92de3-b426-5587-b678-4e9a4377b322":{"description":"Trianon Peace Treaty: Hungary loses two-thirds of its territory – 190,000 square km – (Transylvania, the Uplands, part of Western, Eastern and Southern Hungary).","date_from_description":"1920"},"7e0715c0-0290-5b4e-9499-96a9b018b319":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min starts the construction of the Great Mosque of the Koutoubiya in Marrakesh.","date_from_description":"1158"},"129e1619-237c-5252-9906-6ce2910d2524":{"description":"The Zirid princes share out the kingdom of Ifriqiya and the fortress of the Bani Hammad.","date_from_description":"1015"},"5e78536c-7cd6-5345-850f-16b157d05fdc":{"description":"Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179), a mystic and a composer of hymns who had visions of God, collects her visions in the book Scivias (‘Know the Way’).","date_from_description":"1151"},"900be75a-9ad3-5cbe-a28d-b01531cf470d":{"description":"After the defeat of France at the hands of Prussia, the Commune proclaimed in Paris is crushed by the Thiers government sitting in Versailles. The repression is brutal, with thousands deported to join some of the victims of the Kabyle insurrection of the same year.","date_from_description":"1871"},"42cec425-fe67-5db6-9273-f3e6dbac1020":{"description":"Penda establishes his kingdom of Mercia as the pre-eminent Anglo-Saxon realm after defeating and killing Oswald of Northumbria at the Battle of Maserfield.","date_from_description":"642"},"266cc2c7-1e9e-5cf3-992e-efa0cddaa017":{"description":"Sweden enters the Thirty Years’ War under Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf). This war involved most European nations.","date_from_description":"1630"},"a5b40142-4553-5368-8f86-cf0fed358889":{"description":"Peace of Westphalia: Holland achieves independence and replaces Spanish hegemony with French.","date_from_description":"1648"},"e5e3cc5c-5c18-54c0-8aa7-b65207704ff5":{"description":"Queen Christina abdicates at Uppsala castle.","date_from_description":"1654"},"496ad0eb-f1dc-5b9b-8da1-c440a8be3b8c":{"description":"Carthage conquered by the Arabs under the leadership of Hassan ibn Numan.","date_from_description":"698"},"cdb44628-286e-58a4-a172-35be0c6e4cef":{"description":"The fez is introduced, along with judicial, military and administrative reforms on more Western models in the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1828"},"b4d0e6d3-2101-5e35-aa03-dbfc992a7426":{"description":"Displeased with the king’s rule noblemen force King András II to sign the Golden Bull that limits his power. In another order the king strengthens the privileges of the ecclesiastical order.","date_from_description":"1222"},"629c996b-bda5-57d3-86c9-0704ac1e8c46":{"description":"The peace of Zadar seals the defeat of the Venetian Republic by Louis of Anjou, King of Hungary–Croatia, and marks the reunification of Dalmatia with the Croatian crown within a common kingdom.","date_from_description":"1358"},"ce5a2b73-bf3c-5d8e-8ead-a7760392a485":{"description":"Work starts on the palace-convent of Mafra, commissioned by John V (r. 1705–50).","date_from_description":"1717"},"4232ff9c-1256-5deb-96fe-5d0ebb21e721":{"description":"Bey Husayn bin ‘Ali founds the dynasty that will run the country until 1881 independently, and then under the French protectorate until 20 March 1956. Eighteen different beys come into power. The word bey refers to a political-military position dating back to the Turkish conquest, like pasha and dey.","date_from_description":"1705–1728"},"e41722a0-a639-58a4-abf5-46e09f85eb27":{"description":"Ottoman Empire enters World War I on the German side.","date_from_description":"1914"},"0e46db9d-a4fd-5082-8c26-25d11901cbed":{"description":"The Crusaders occupy Jordan and Palestine during their first campaign to the area until 1187.","date_from_description":"1099"},"2e841549-695a-56ea-97fc-8cd7ad6c5b2a":{"description":"The Almoravids take the town of Sijilmassa.","date_from_description":"1055"},"2a5051fd-c8ce-5190-9301-2ebfde469594":{"description":"Philip the Fair, surrounded by his ‘jurists’, consolidates the authority of the King of France. Levying taxes on Jews and ‘Lombards’ and confiscating the riches of the Knights Templar, he enters into a conflict with the papacy which is only resolved in 1305 with the election of a French pope.","date_from_description":"1285"},"15efcbdb-4dcb-5878-9a4c-13426648045a":{"description":"The Young Turks Revolution overthrows Sultan Abdulhamid II. The Second Constitutional Period begins.","date_from_description":"1908"},"58f04dcc-14c3-570e-91a1-26058adc783d":{"description":"The reign of Henry II (1002–24) sees the establishment of a feudal system, particularly in Northern Italy, which will leave a lasting mark on Italy’s social and economic make-up.","date_from_description":"1002"},"d27c91d8-b51a-5f96-9b4f-43602e02ce25":{"description":"The birth at Mecca on 2 July of Prophet Muhammad, the messenger of God who introduced Islam to the whole world.","date_from_description":"570"},"01b6aded-ecb9-54cd-9373-b8298b8164cb":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja’far al-Mansur (r. 754–75) visits Palestine, stays in Jerusalem and orders a renovation project in the Haram al-Sharif and elsewhere, damaged as a result of the earthquake","date_from_description":"758"},"cd81a354-8325-5bdf-a706-90372cee8350":{"description":"Reign of Barsbay marks the beginning of a period of peace, cultural vitality and increased trade.","date_from_description":"1422"},"08bdd8d5-6c10-5db7-842c-d43cd59bc83f":{"description":"Crowning of the first Croatian king, Stjepan Držislav (969–97), a member of the Trpimirović Dynasty. The Byzantine Emperor Basil II gave him symbols of royal power.","date_from_description":"969"},"9aaaeb56-9081-5d5f-b3f9-350631115f35":{"description":"Christopher Polhem is asked to construct a new kind of steam engine, which is later used successfully in the copper mines at Stora Kopparberg in Sweden.","date_from_description":"1690"},"3e7a6480-896d-5bfb-ad87-fdd66ac7fb34":{"description":"During the conquest of Jordan, a plague called ‘Emwas’ starts in Palestine and spreads all over Jordan. Among the 25,000 people who die are the companions of the Prophet who ruled the Jordan valley.","date_from_description":"639"},"a99c00f7-02dc-529a-9a6a-40115a72fc5d":{"description":"Gold discovered in Brazil.","date_from_description":"1696"},"41204c10-4ff6-558d-8cab-bc6fcc7e525a":{"description":"Babylon (the Roman settlement south of present-day Cairo) capitulates to the Muslim armies led by Amr ibn al-'As.The first Islamic capital of Egypt, Fustat, is founded.","date_from_description":"641"},"de958d36-f511-5186-ad55-a694e77e7543":{"description":"English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle at the Plantation of Ulster in the north of Ireland on land confiscated from Irish Catholic landowners.","date_from_description":"1611"},"d8898867-5089-58c8-b7a6-cc7af47bbef9":{"description":"Vienna was surrounded by Turkish armies and Moravia was plundered before the Turks were forced back to the Balkans. The last Turkish war in Europe.","date_from_description":"1683"},"e5ec69f1-3f2a-58a8-9d89-34296fd7ca61":{"description":"Rumour has it that in this year King Hugleikr, possibly from what is Sweden today, was slain with all his men in Friesland by the Frankish, i.e. Merovingian, Prince Theodebert.","date_from_description":"521"},"9712f917-16c8-5108-980f-45c135da3741":{"description":"Having conquered all of North Africa and established Arab rule, ‘Uqba (Okba) ibn Nafi is killed. His mausoleum and mosque are erected near Biskra at Sidi Okba.","date_from_description":"682"},"b6765682-4a1a-5ec4-9bd7-aeaabcaaf66b":{"description":"On 10 June a great Arab revolt is launched by Husayn ibn ‘Ali, Sharif of Mecca and king of the Arabs, against the Ottomans to liberate Arab lands from Turkish occupation.","date_from_description":"1916"},"5a220c3a-13cf-51aa-aa83-4ae726f3e068":{"description":"The Russian Nestor Chronicle tells of an agreement in this year, stating, among other things, that: If a Rus (Swede) kills a Christian or a Christian a Rus he has to die where he commits this manslaughter. This law is typical for regional Scandinavian jurisdiction. Laws like this were written down in the 13th century, but this is one of very few proofs that they existed much earlier.","date_from_description":"911"},"2a878e02-8441-5986-ba7c-d99f0404125b":{"description":"William of Normandy lands at Pevensey, defeats and kills Harold II at the Battle of Hastings and becomes William I, the Conqueror; the first Norman King of England (until 1087).","date_from_description":"1066"},"0f5da38b-dc05-5751-b40d-56d8ee6e5800":{"description":"End of the First Empire. Violence of the White Terror (massacre of Mamluks in Marseille who had come from Egypt with Bonaparte). Acceptance of a constitutional charter by the instigators of the Restoration.","date_from_description":"1815"},"31bb7f1e-29db-5a59-b2b2-95c8964ab870":{"description":"The Norse (Viking) raids on England and Scotland begin with a raid on the Lindisfarne monastery on the north-east coast of England.","date_from_description":"793"},"4f5c68b0-eb71-5363-9d15-78b719a872dc":{"description":"Byzantine Emperor Justinian orders the construction of St. Catherine’s Monastery at the foot of Mount Moses in Central Sinai. It became the third pilgrimage site after Jerusalem and Rome.","date_from_description":"527"},"1dfb515f-0c54-5471-b716-2910b7723024":{"description":"The crisis that besets all of the countries at war in Russia takes the form of a genuine revolution whose repercussions will be felt far beyond its borders.","date_from_description":"1917"},"61a16d8a-1d45-5af9-977e-81cfe163258c":{"description":"Franz II (1768–1835), Austrian Emperor, lays down the German crown and thus dissolves the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.","date_from_description":"1806"},"273d70c1-c2bb-571c-a79a-844701148f75":{"description":"The most well-known Swedish saint, Saint Birgitta, is born. Her Order, Ordo Sanctissimi Salvatoris (the Order of the Most Holy Saviour), is approved by a Papal Bull in 1370.","date_from_description":"1303"},"103bfb7f-3909-5a55-9170-c2bc8871d5a9":{"description":"Golden Bull of Sicily: Roman King Friedrich II defines the relationship between Czech kings and the Holy Roman Empire. The Czech king becomes one of seven electors privileged to elect the Roman king.","date_from_description":"1212"},"7dc58a1d-8843-5df5-a976-5067e5b3251f":{"description":"The Peace of Augsburg results in recognition of Lutherism and Roman Catholicism. Each ruler now has the right to decide on the religion to be practised in his state.","date_from_description":"1555"},"0416c65f-724c-5f08-935b-358a5277b79e":{"description":"New Capitulations negotiated by the Marquis of Villeneuve. Rapid expansion of trade with the Ports of the Levant and North Africa.","date_from_description":"1740"},"79c792fd-77c1-59f8-a733-cb0125a9752e":{"description":"Northern Morocco is shaken by the Kharijite revolt lead by Maysara al-Matghari.","date_from_description":"740"},"47a1f2b0-9844-5245-b45b-dd2a1c34746e":{"description":"The British and Austrian fleets with the support of the Ottomans attack Palestinian shores, putting an end to Egyptian rule. European influences, including architectural, began to appear in the landscape.","date_from_description":"1840"},"9bb23d04-4eb9-5a0b-99fb-b6e49c6ba414":{"description":"Almohad victory over the Christians at the Battle of Alarcos (Ciudad Real).","date_from_description":"1195"},"f66036f1-4e15-58e2-b837-641dd3ec6f7e":{"description":"Salah al-Din dies and the Ayyubid empire is fragmented.","date_from_description":"1193"},"0122123e-63bc-54b7-b032-d30da0fb5de7":{"description":"The foundation of the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1299"},"28d336d1-ae64-5425-af71-3104c121f1f7":{"description":"Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d.1111), the great philosopher, visits Palestine and takes refuge for three years in the Haram al-Sharif.","date_from_description":"1095"},"6046c8ef-6db5-5a44-8caf-4c437bee3ef1":{"description":"Diet of Pozsony (Pressburg, today: Bratislava, Slovakia): coronation of Maria Theresia (Theresa), daughter of Karl (Charles) VI, as Queen of Hungary. The diet offers military help for the Habsburgs in the Austrian Succession Wars.","date_from_description":"1741"},"b416af05-98cc-5124-a312-cb7cbfcdb093":{"description":"A notary of King Béla III (Anonymus ‘Magister P.’) writes a chronicle of the Hungarian conquest and settlement (Gesta Hungarorum). The beginning of the rebuilding of the Kalocsa abbey (built in the 11th century).","date_from_description":"c. 1210"},"ca23cae6-e740-535b-ba20-c9ca85b8f263":{"description":"Charles IV is the first Czech sovereign to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In 1356 he issued the Golden Bull confirming the autonomous Czech state and making the Czech king foremost among the electors.","date_from_description":"1355"},"175052f1-afe4-51a6-9bfd-e303319a98f9":{"description":"Pippin the Younger, son of Charles Martel, is proclaimed King of the Franks and turns his attention to the south. He leads expeditions against the Lombards, recovers Narbonne from the Muslims and helps to revitalise trade in the Mediterranean.","date_from_description":"751"},"c00fe438-1fca-56ab-a07f-59e48b5ac90e":{"description":"After the town is forcibly taken by the King of France in 1660, Colbert grants the Marseilles Chamber of Commerce a special statute, giving it the power to authorise French subjects to establish themselves in the Ports of the Levant, and he pays his ‘consuls’ by levying a 20% tax on goods carried by foreign ships.","date_from_description":"1669"},"9e4585bb-151b-5ced-a846-8ee7434d9791":{"description":"Salah al-Din recaptures Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1193"},"02feb94c-ba95-584d-8f8e-8da2fdaf322a":{"description":"Construction of the El-Eubad mosque.","date_from_description":"1394"},"be990659-2366-541e-8272-7d59e40d54da":{"description":"Peace of Utrecht: Spain loses its European territories.","date_from_description":"1713"},"4c20974b-4462-568c-b57b-1f721ff80056":{"description":"Birth of the first organised Tunisian nationalist party named the Destour after the constitutions, suspended since 30 April 1864.","date_from_description":"1920"},"ff3cdecc-faf7-5ed5-a218-9028d5dd2390":{"description":"Death of Frederick II.","date_from_description":"1250"},"49101bbd-fd62-5af9-8332-7152a64fb22f":{"description":"Foundation of the abbey at Alcobaça.","date_from_description":"1153"},"827243e0-8b70-5c0f-881d-47e68fe1a3ee":{"description":"Atabeg ‘Imad Zangi rules Aleppo, uniting it with Mosul and strengthening the northern frontier against the Crusaders.","date_from_description":"1128–1146"},"2abc9658-095d-5a98-a9e3-b1c1ecb1ccd6":{"description":"The Battle of Ankara between Tamerlane and Bayezid and the start of the Interregnum (Fetret) Period.","date_from_description":"1402"},"97f3fb7e-3209-5e2c-a5bb-df21a46512a1":{"description":"At the synod (church assembly) at Uppsala this year it is decided to keep Sweden in the Lutheran faith, banning foreign religions in the country.","date_from_description":"1593"},"1fbf7f36-ff20-50d7-9aa7-e8cb6774fb4a":{"description":"V. M. Kramerius publishes the first Czech revival newspaper, the first mass reading material in the Czech language in 170 years.","date_from_description":"1789"},"940a5973-8f4e-5448-b47e-26a4a83bd6c9":{"description":"Battle of Maysalun, on the outskirts of Damascus, between the Syrians and the French. Yusuf Al-Azmeh, leader of the Syrian army, is killed in battle and considered a nationalist hero. Beginning of the French Mandate.","date_from_description":"1920"},"1cb440c0-2d91-5e8e-80da-66e695173cb5":{"description":"The Lombards officially convert to Catholicism, a process that began with the work of Gregory the Great.","date_from_description":"653"},"fa146fb6-5a64-5ce2-a03a-bcd8beeda8a5":{"description":"The failure of the second siege of Vienna of the Ottoman Army.","date_from_description":"1683"},"d084e8e7-42cc-5ea4-a428-d0fdca31f841":{"description":"Division of the Carolingian Empire. Charles the Bald’s West Francia is attacked from the north by the Normans and the south by the Saracens (after 838). Royal authority is limited by the growth of large regional principalities.","date_from_description":"843"},"01b860d5-66df-5df2-847b-12a9e31906c3":{"description":"Death of Katip Çelebi (1609–57), famous Turkish geographer, historian and bibliographer.","date_from_description":"1657"},"f5f5b17f-a9eb-550d-9e35-66616bc304b7":{"description":"First Spanish constitution (Cadiz).","date_from_description":"1812"},"bcc4f78d-382c-5228-b921-04b37590d1f6":{"description":"Foundation of the Anatolian Seljuqs (1077–1308).","date_from_description":"1075"},"dfe631ee-5cdf-519b-9900-189432eb9818":{"description":"The victory of the Byzantine army over the Persian army in the Battle of Nineveh on 12 December, which breaks the power of the Sassanid dynasty.","date_from_description":"627"},"c7f4290b-1cb7-515d-a3bb-a56997bc66da":{"description":"Gustav Vasa is elected King at Strängnäs, freeing Sweden from Danish sovereignty.","date_from_description":"1523"},"aa3c2868-4847-59d7-87f3-bd8e285faa75":{"description":"The Council of Trent begins, to end in 1563. The Council marks the beginning of the Counter-Reformation.","date_from_description":"1545"},"3ba4b872-d15e-5f19-9276-3532d502974b":{"description":"The Lancastrian Henry Tudor defeats the Yorkist monarch Richard III at Bosworth Field and claims the throne as Henry VII, marking the end of the Plantagenet dynasty and the ascendancy of the Tudors.","date_from_description":"1485"},"a7d7da5f-d9ca-552b-8ee8-2a0514822156":{"description":"Victory of the Great Seljuqs over the Byzantine army at Manzikert.","date_from_description":"1071"},"728da759-de05-5c27-bc42-0c6b3447d427":{"description":"Death of Louis IX at the gates of Carthage during the Eighth Crusade against the Kingdom of Tunis.","date_from_description":"1270"},"67114bbc-bcc1-5ef7-89b5-bdf1410a7e63":{"description":"Foundation letter of the Benedictine abbey in Tihany by King András I (its Latin text contains the first Hungarian text fragment). 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Annexed to it was a bimaristan (hospital) to treat the poor and it also served as a shelter for the disabled.","date_from_description":"877"},"9859ec0a-bd29-51ca-98b9-98dad01d443d":{"description":"The Ninth Symphony of the composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) is seen as the peak of Viennese classical music.","date_from_description":"1823"},"b10de746-5b07-5d02-acce-b16eb208bec2":{"description":"Muhammad Ali Pasha expels Ottoman governor and, achieving virtual independence from the Ottoman court, begins comprehensive efforts to modernise Egypt.","date_from_description":"1805"},"3e3954f1-27ae-55d2-9fb6-0379bad29d5e":{"description":"The Representation of the People Act 1918 allows women over the age of 30 with the minimum property qualifications to vote in the United Kingdom’s elections for the first time.","date_from_description":"1918"},"22a3799f-f1a9-5a4c-a5f4-276e3a29522a":{"description":"Discovery of the Cabo Verde archipelago.","date_from_description":"1456"},"0d316bf4-dace-54b4-b01c-4ebad06ad7a4":{"description":"First regular Ottoman ambassador in Europe (London).","date_from_description":"1793"},"a2d5c3bb-ba69-5544-a238-47e55a8cf383":{"description":"Sulayman the Magnificent takes the throne.","date_from_description":"1520"},"658ef359-7ae8-5fe3-83de-ac691a869bf9":{"description":"As a part of the freedom fight of Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II against the Habsburgs (began in 1703) the Parliament of Ónod declares the Habsburg dynasty deposed in Hungary.","date_from_description":"1707"},"72da6f8a-03d8-51b9-8f7a-1411e201ef2f":{"description":"The Guelphs and Ghibellines, supporters of the Papacy and the Emperor respectively, clash in Florence.","date_from_description":"1280"},"b4e565db-820f-5c5a-9daa-d2b536ddcd1d":{"description":"Start of the Castilian War of the Communities.","date_from_description":"1520"},"007d5a6b-6ab8-5ca9-a62c-9d6eaf447206":{"description":"The Marinid sultan Abu Inan extends his authority over Constantine, Béjaia and Tunis.","date_from_description":"1353"},"a91baf1b-b592-53e3-9cd6-8a1ef4b64d6c":{"description":"During the 1870s a series of crop failures lead to starvation and the beginning of large-scale emigration from Sweden to America.","date_from_description":"1870"},"6a3d1e30-1204-5b2c-b985-91771bd6d521":{"description":"The Croatian–Hungarian King Bela IV grants the Golden Bull to Gradec, as a token of appreciation for the citizens who provided him shelter during the Tatarian invasion.","date_from_description":"1242"},"61264f6f-b22b-5433-93a5-c21f758f3450":{"description":"Phillip III orders the expulsion of Moors from his kingdoms.","date_from_description":"1609"},"c0d92fc5-643e-5316-bbd3-ecb8e503fb82":{"description":"Ibrahim Pasha administers Syria on behalf of his father Muhammad Ali Pasha (in Cairo) following the process of Westernisation.","date_from_description":"1832–1840"},"ed825c92-debf-58b2-8d13-a0228b632940":{"description":"Preaching of the Second Crusade, in particular by Saint Bernard. 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The reigning princes manage to ensure the dynastic succession.","date_from_description":"1735–1782"},"9a3916ce-d256-5c92-a102-e3cc2179fc41":{"description":"Carl von Linné’s Systema naturae, a pioneering work on plant classification, is published.","date_from_description":"1735"},"a492532c-ed86-52ec-9670-8a65064e1a3c":{"description":"Conquest of Lisbon and Santarém.","date_from_description":"1147"},"21cce328-4c0c-54bc-9dba-0ae3df9eb063":{"description":"King Ferdinand I promulgates the Sesmaria law on agriculture.","date_from_description":"1375"},"a88260ac-0d11-50b8-9b3a-2d7220cc6a02":{"description":"On 4 September Prophet Muhammad emigrates with the Muslims to the town of Medina. This event known as Hijra and marks the beginning of the Hijri calendar.","date_from_description":"622"},"af36b9c9-6f1e-5a17-981f-ad357810e44d":{"description":"Great Mosque of Algiers built. Yusuf ibn Tashufin, having conquered Spain and Central Maghreb, promotes the emergence of Afro-Andalusian Moorish art: stalactite domes, poly-lobed arches and mosque orientation.","date_from_description":"1097"},"eede12ef-3df3-5d4e-83ac-3847e6efc9f0":{"description":"Ottoman Sultan Murad III ibn Salim Khan orders the renovation of Aqaba Castle; his name is inscribed on a medallion above the inscription which bears the name of the Mamluk Sultan Qansawh al-Ghawri.","date_from_description":"1587"},"e41e5dce-6445-59c9-bb41-416730136680":{"description":"In February mediation between ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib and Mu’awiya is held at Udhruh in southern Jordan after the battle of Siffin to decide who will be the caliph of Muslims. Mu’awiya wins by trickery.","date_from_description":"658"},"52dd8832-74f2-57f4-bd89-3e527329eb34":{"description":"The Italian Communist Party is formed.","date_from_description":"1920"},"a2226042-3ebf-5828-b710-7252e6703035":{"description":"The forestry department is introduced in Ajlun (Orman) to protect the woods from being collected by the inhabitants.","date_from_description":"1888"},"e05c0958-d738-51d3-acad-0a0cf634dd7b":{"description":"Jacques Cœur, based in the south of France, begins profitable trading with countries in the Near East, particularly Egypt.","date_from_description":"1446"},"5d82b804-e104-5bff-b26d-3815dc749d68":{"description":"End of the rebellion of Kharijite Abu Yazid (‘the Man of the Donkey’) against the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"946"},"3e46dcf2-c671-5ecd-8570-602dcc6b73b7":{"description":"Mulay Isma‘ïl takes the town of Mamora back from the Spanish and it is renamed al-Mahdiya.","date_from_description":"1682"},"9d779759-50b4-5c34-ab66-dc66330efe01":{"description":"Croatia forms a state union with Austria. By a decision of the Croatian Assembly, the dynasty of Habsburg comes to the Croatian throne.","date_from_description":"1527"},"65271ccb-011c-5700-8dcd-1bda086f845a":{"description":"Arudj defends the town of Jijel.","date_from_description":"1514"},"303e7baf-ffd4-5875-b983-5d32c0c22c32":{"description":"Friedrich I Barbarossa (1152–90) of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty is crowned emperor. He drowned during the Third Crusade near Konya in Turkey in 1190.","date_from_description":"1155"},"e91e593e-0e93-5e78-9d5a-8ed442a901a4":{"description":"With the decisive help of the Hungarian-Kun army Habsburg Rudolf I defeats the Czech army in the Battle of Dürnkrut (Morvamező). The beginning of the rise of the Habsburgs.","date_from_description":"1278"},"8b047a14-4113-55b1-aa73-6fc91cfdba22":{"description":"The first golden coin is minted by Mehmet II.","date_from_description":"1478"},"2100c09e-81da-5cf9-9bc3-e90abebe3635":{"description":"Sultan Sidi Muhammad Ibn ‘Abdallah succeeds his father, opens up trading relations with Europe and undertakes a huge programme of construction and fortification of the Atlantic towns.","date_from_description":"1757"},"128e76da-afcc-5b89-9153-25eec0ade885":{"description":"Duke Branimir becomes Banus of Croatia and breaks up with Constantinople. Pope John VIII gave his blessing to the duke and the whole Croatian people, as he informed Branimir in his letters.","date_from_description":"879"},"cd59198c-6c78-50bf-a618-10e0a1bd1dc1":{"description":"Treaty of Alcanises, which fixes the Portuguese border.","date_from_description":"1297"},"21c22d2f-6ed1-5ec0-8eac-e1d12598e587":{"description":"Famous Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi (1611–82) was born in Istanbul.","date_from_description":"1611"},"26cc8040-5466-5d1a-9014-b3a494b8aff8":{"description":"The physician Robert Koch (1843–1910) finds the bacillus of the Cholera disease. This is only one of the numerous findings of the pioneer of bacteriology.","date_from_description":"1884"},"25f8a351-0c67-5511-ae9a-05836ea0c1ed":{"description":"King Gustavus III, through a coup d’état makes himself absolute monarch. Twenty years later, in 1792, he is murdered at a masquerade ball.","date_from_description":"1772"},"a31468e6-3353-559a-b94d-cb213463cd1b":{"description":"Approximate date of Cantar de Mio Cid, the principal work of the epic Castilian poem.","date_from_description":"1207"},"074e50d0-7ea9-595b-942b-0501dcf146f5":{"description":"To support his ailing regime, Charles X prepares an military expedition for the conquest of Algiers, establishing a colony that would eventually encompass all of Algeria.","date_from_description":"1830"},"79a18bd9-ece7-55a7-bf23-5fa46e37f311":{"description":"Creation of the United Kingdom of Portugal and Brazil.","date_from_description":"1815"},"76ca0397-5ce3-5704-8d79-9e92e944d2ee":{"description":"Methuen Treaty between Portugal and the United Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1703"},"2ab34570-1028-519d-900b-b19f23b80e8a":{"description":"During the rule of the Merovingian Dynasty (558–629), rulers of the Frankish Dynasty gradually gain power over parts of what will later become Germany.","date_from_description":"558"},"0612710a-5768-5a65-b244-cced6749bea0":{"description":"The Seljuqs take Baghdad and northern Syria. The beginning of the Seljuq sultanate and the revival of Islamic military and urban development along Sunni doctrines.","date_from_description":"1055"},"37bc9459-586b-5e66-b94c-492828a4e324":{"description":"Moroccan resistance fighters win the Battle of Annual in the Rif, defeating the Spanish army.","date_from_description":"1921"},"d8d883ca-0ba9-51f7-b401-a8661b03fa77":{"description":"Normans attack the Portuguese coast.","date_from_description":"844"},"cde4a42a-7836-5f60-bcf4-af77253199ed":{"description":"Beginning of the Rif War. Tragic Week in Barcelona, with protests against the sending of Catalan reservists to the war in Africa.","date_from_description":"1909"},"3ead5f3b-fb93-53a2-9e44-3bc24f19c7b4":{"description":"The Sa‘dids crush the last Wattasids and enter Fez amid much ceremony.","date_from_description":"1549"},"57abb70e-9dc2-5504-be1e-d548144147d9":{"description":"A new national law codex is published. It replaces the earlier medieval laws.","date_from_description":"1734"},"f79e6586-b41d-5804-8d78-c3f4b0b49da0":{"description":"French expedition and start of the colonisation of Algeria.","date_from_description":"1830"},"60d359e4-5723-55aa-a72c-b16e64db0017":{"description":"Al-Azhar mosque becomes a centre for higher religious education under vizier Ya’qub ibn Killis, minister of the Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz Billah.","date_from_description":"988"},"33fcc702-ac35-5fa5-b9d0-4731722d1a6b":{"description":"Al-Zahir Baybars captures the city of Antioch, the second Crusader state in the Levant after al-Raha.","date_from_description":"1268"},"accee007-730c-5f1a-af2a-50916530d925":{"description":"Kenneth MacAlpin, regarded as the first king of Scotland, unites the Scots of Argyll and the Picts north of the Firth of Forth under his rule.","date_from_description":"843"},"e46b969c-0f8a-501d-a790-8a27a09b62ee":{"description":"The end of Ahmad al-Jazzar, who is succeeded by Sulayman Pasha (1804–19) and then with ‘Abdallah Pasha (1819–31).","date_from_description":"1804"},"bdd92207-0f4c-5503-baf6-bb04dce976f4":{"description":"Arrival of Jesuits in Zagreb. In 1607 they established the Classical Gymnasium, the first gymnasium (high school) that still exists today.  \nArrival of the first pharmacist J. Gasparini in Zagreb.","date_from_description":"1606"},"25e6c170-8d7e-521f-8401-3a43c5a6dd70":{"description":"Musa ibn Abi ’l-Afiya, chief of the Miknassa tribe, conquers Fez and takes control of all of Maghreb.","date_from_description":"925"},"e9fee3ff-63a7-56e1-9c33-0c0d566f8ccc":{"description":"Baldwin I (r. 1100–18) expands the Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1116"},"a7cdba2f-d59d-5f84-a190-fd4ee334011f":{"description":"Sheikh Zahir al-Omar al-Zaidani, ruler of north Jordan abstains from paying taxes to the Ottoman state; he forms an army of mercenaries to protect his land and collect taxes from the inhabitants.","date_from_description":"1769"},"a52dcdb9-fca4-5934-aa06-beb9ba79bc0a":{"description":"An earthquake destroys half of Ramla, most of Jericho and Nablus, and causes some damage in Jerusalem. A year later, the Fatimid Caliph al-Zahir (r. 1021–36) orders reconstruction of the Aqsa Mosque and repair of the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"1034"},"7fb75a2a-174f-5889-a93a-01a999249076":{"description":"A ruinous earthquake destroys Jerusalem and most of the cities of Jordan at the end of Umayyad rule.","date_from_description":"747"},"565254cf-3e05-59ae-a148-c24a6942fa18":{"description":"Código de las Siete Partidas, a return to Roman law with the unification of Castilian laws.","date_from_description":"1263"},"21c23f70-444b-57fe-b454-dcb0dce6dd69":{"description":"Establishment of the Egyptian Federation of Industries.Britain grants Egypt autonomous rule. Sultan Fouad takes the title of King.","date_from_description":"1922"},"f15b3998-59b7-5b52-a7ce-1a2847f2d9d3":{"description":"Parliament passes the Act of Supremacy declaring the monarch (Henry VIII) the supreme head of the Church of England, and outlawing any act of allegiance to the Pope.","date_from_description":"1534"},"546c0371-e65e-5d2e-9627-942bfe0f2dea":{"description":"The Battle of Mohács: the 75–80 000 Turkish soldiers defeat the Hungarian army of 25,000 men. King Lajos II dies. Both János I (Szapolyai) and Ferdinand I became Hungarian kings.","date_from_description":"1526"},"0e79de47-da1b-53f9-8eac-fd97e6187a3e":{"description":"The Fatimids conquer Palestine, annexing it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"969"},"78b04146-1861-5327-afe3-d91348a8ad18":{"description":"Visigoths defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Vouillé; collapse of the Visigoth Kingdom of Tolosa and withdrawal to the Iberian Peninsula (Kingdom of Toledo).","date_from_description":"507"},"66fc6d34-d859-55c8-9fe1-3ecc6fa4011c":{"description":"Tunis taken by King Charles V of Spain.","date_from_description":"1535"},"ad7d3d4b-5c07-5f75-989a-9bda20539d44":{"description":"Villagers (Fallahin) in Palestine revolt against the Abbasids’ taxation system. More than 10,000 people participate in this uprising.","date_from_description":"841"},"3987d218-e552-5510-8c0e-a99c8c8a201f":{"description":"Mu’awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan (r. 661–80) declares himself Caliph in Jerusalem, announcing the beginning of the Umayyad dynasty. The caliphs  ‘Abd al-Malik, Sulayman, ‘Umar II and other Umayyad caliphs did the same.","date_from_description":"661"},"2aad596a-7b63-525c-8cce-41debbeaa7a4":{"description":"Al-Afdal Ibn Badr al-Jamali (d.515/1121), the commander-in-chief of the Fatimid armies completes the construction of the huge mosque of ‘Asqalan with its magnificent minbar (pulpit), which is exhibited to this day in the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron.","date_from_description":"1097"},"cece3c05-9623-5ee2-bb38-05d397db175e":{"description":"The beginning of the compilation of the Pray codex (contains the first continuous Hungarian texts) and the oldest Hungarian chronicle, the Annals of Pozsony (Pressburg, today: Bratislava, Slovakia).","date_from_description":"1192"},"b48bd62b-fa7e-59b2-a51f-ae05444cce7d":{"description":"Construction of the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis.","date_from_description":"863"},"37daa534-8ff0-5ad7-8825-af2533e9cbbd":{"description":"Election of King Mátyás (Matthias) I Hunyadi (Corvinus) son of János Hunyadi. He made Hungary one of the greatest economical and military powers of Europe and defended Europe from the Turks.","date_from_description":"1458"},"666de82c-9280-5285-9446-d5a099a8f23e":{"description":"The Great Fire of London destroys more than 13,000 houses and nearly 90 parish churches, as well as St Paul’s Cathedral, the Guildhall and the Royal Exchange.","date_from_description":"1666"},"66a8e1ca-4616-5f53-9872-84e0851682cf":{"description":"The Kharijites leave Tahert and take refuge at Sedrata.","date_from_description":"911"},"26a2c361-31dc-55a0-87ad-7487948ea18a":{"description":"The wedding of King Lajos II and Mary Habsburg (Mary leaves Hungary after the deaths of Lajos II and as Mary of Hungary later becomes the governor of the Low Countries).","date_from_description":"1522"},"1e03d820-87e5-553c-aedf-5af513a46450":{"description":"Universal male suffrage.","date_from_description":"1890"},"e2ae8c52-993f-523b-8536-a6032f1dfc1d":{"description":"The Marinids annex the Kingdom of Tlemcen, and renovate Mansurah and the Sidi Boumediene mausoleum.","date_from_description":"1337"},"b529bd07-47c3-539d-9de7-789064fb5dfb":{"description":"Sultan Sulayman I besieges Szigetvár defended by Count Miklós Zrínyi who getting no help and with heavy odds against him dies with his soldiers in a sortie. The Sultan had died two days earlier.","date_from_description":"1566"},"618bca1f-047f-5237-854b-54d69d795327":{"description":"Idris ibn ‘Abdallah (Idris I) takes up residence at Walili, then in the Andalusian Quarter (Adwat al-Andalousiyyin) in Fez, which he founded on the right bank of the Wadi Fez.","date_from_description":"788"},"6f763c9f-2140-5a30-b6a4-22f4ac5ddf6c":{"description":"The Sa‘dids win the Battle of Oued al-Makhazin (Battle of the Three Kings – resulting in the death of ‘Abd al-Malik, Don Sebastian, King of Portugal and al-Mutawakkil) and the coronation of Ahmad al-Mansur al-Dhahabi (‘the golden’).","date_from_description":"1578"},"15ef6e9b-2925-5093-a5e2-9edeabc2b1c4":{"description":"French military victories are marked in particular by Bonaparte’s success in Italy. Under the Directoire, he prepares an expeditionary force for Egypt, which is accompanied by a team of experts intended to bring modern techniques and institutions to the country. The French are stalled in Egypt and leave the country in 1801.","date_from_description":"1798"},"f726c72d-feb1-51eb-a3f1-4b2046178dc7":{"description":"Emperor Franz Joseph enters the Dual Monarchy with Hungary. Conflicting interests prevent Austria-Hungary from uniting the South Slavs: Croatia and Slavonia fall under Hungarian control, while Austria retains Dalmatia.","date_from_description":"1867"},"83fe8d06-b6f3-5524-b5c3-50a778e3389f":{"description":"Black death.","date_from_description":"1348"},"77d1d8d4-47c4-5ddd-bc58-1a459d986cb7":{"description":"Khaïreddine, the prime minister of the bey, instigates a programme of reforms. Foundation of the Collège Sadiki, the first modern secondary school in Tunisia. Foundation of the Sadiki hospital.","date_from_description":"1870–1877"},"a2e963ba-eae3-5033-a6c3-46c4d3cd62d9":{"description":"Foundation of princely town of Sabra-al Mansuriya.","date_from_description":"947"},"22ae8d63-0806-559a-b713-b15cb56423a6":{"description":"King Konrad I (911–18) of the Conradine Dynasty becomes king.","date_from_description":"911"},"dff5d537-8122-5251-9a1f-7c0a00f69ebb":{"description":"Founding of the Ottoman governing unit in Middle Slavonia with the centre in Požega. For more than 40 years the governor was Hadži Mehmed-aga who supported Sulayman during the siege of Siget.","date_from_description":"1538"},"a62f49ef-6034-5dd7-a622-7a71e84aa249":{"description":"In the Treaty of Mersen the Frankish Empire is divided into three separate parts. The empire of King Ludwig II (843–76) of the Carolingian Dynasty is enlargened.","date_from_description":"870"},"43dd3e00-777b-59a8-9acc-29c4ba3e6d59":{"description":"French ships bombard the town of Salé.","date_from_description":"1851"},"3ff42eed-9116-5398-8f28-e68deb78aea6":{"description":"Great Seljuk Empire is founded by Tughril Beg.","date_from_description":"1037"},"60bbb9f9-ccdf-51ef-8ffe-2df92c1028a9":{"description":"French troops besiege Germany. Fighting only ends with the Treaty of the Congress of Vienna (1815). This ultimately results in a reformed Germany.","date_from_description":"1792"},"e26c8990-cb4c-5264-a88c-9d3bcba1d94c":{"description":"Olof Rudbeck the Elder publishes his Nova exercitatio anatomica, a pioneering work on the lymphatic vascular systems.","date_from_description":"1653"},"9c72d77d-ee4c-53b9-8f71-7f9d509dbc4f":{"description":"Spread of Christianity, arrival of missionaries Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius; establishment of Old Slavonic language, Glagolitic script. Archbishopric established. Conflicts with Frankish empire, invasions of Hungarian tribes. The foundation of Prague Castle.","date_from_description":"863"},"0948125d-276f-50a5-87be-a47f18ec6b58":{"description":"The Commune of Rome is born, an expression of the nascent communal civility that will have a profound effect on Italian cultural identity.","date_from_description":"1143"},"f9c9412a-9326-54c1-ac37-5ba1dcfdded8":{"description":"The National Constituent Assembly gives France the unity it needs. The 1791 Constitution establishes a constitutional monarchy, which ends the following year after the events of 10 August and the deposition of Louis XVI.","date_from_description":"1789"},"2830c84c-9afc-5074-8669-1ba50eb536d8":{"description":"Michelangelo Buonarroti starts work on David, a masterpiece of the Renaissance. The work, conceived as a symbol of the Florentine Republic, is completed in 1504.","date_from_description":"1501"},"94efe63f-8d9d-537b-b4d9-8311051449b2":{"description":"Origination of the Moravian Margraviate as part of the Czech state, with main centres Znojmo, Brno and Olomouc.","date_from_description":"1031"},"289a7e50-45dd-5fde-bd4a-48a8b218e648":{"description":"The March Revolution tried to introduce a democratic constitution. Marx (1818–83) and Engels (1820–95) publish Das Kommunistische Manifest analysing capitalist methods of production.","date_from_description":"1848"},"0f64fc28-ee1c-568d-a632-f5f818f7810b":{"description":"Lorenzo de’Medici the Magnificent (1469–92) rules Florence. Under his control, Florence becomes the driving force behind Italian art.","date_from_description":"1469"},"eca05a52-fc8e-5b80-b48c-17d51aa468e7":{"description":"Pope Kliment XIV issues a bull abolishing the Jesuit order. Establishment of learned societies; compulsory school attendance introduced (1774). Peasant uprisings. Origins of the Czech National Enlightenment. The first history of Moravian art published.","date_from_description":"1773"},"aee55dcb-e64d-56d6-8d37-339110aa7cff":{"description":"The Venetians install Krešimir III (1000–30) as king of Croatia; he ruled with his brother Gojislav. They attempted to restore rule over the Dalmatian cities that were under Venetian control.","date_from_description":"1000"},"aebb39f0-0301-5f01-95fc-a5ba5020de14":{"description":"Frederick of Aragon (1302–37) is proclaimed King of Sicily.","date_from_description":"1302"},"5f718587-3a77-5868-a61f-c951c2db29c1":{"description":"Deposing of the House of Habsburg. Lajos Kossuth appointed as governor of Hungary. The freedom fight is lost; Hungarian general Görgey capitulates at Világos to the Habsburg’s Russian allies..","date_from_description":"1849"},"fadb650a-3f77-5e92-8fbf-11335af1ebec":{"description":"First siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Army.","date_from_description":"1529"},"7daf34bc-4ae8-548a-8de3-f30fea7cf443":{"description":"At the Battle of Helge å the Danish King Canute, who has already conquered England, wins a victory and gains control also of Sweden. It does not last, but it is one of the first major battles in what will become seven centuries of war and peace between Denmark and Sweden.","date_from_description":"1026"},"a0c5565d-bcb7-5aa2-b36c-ce7301eb22c3":{"description":"Sanctification of Bishop Theodorus as a bishop of Jordan and Palestine by the Empress Theodora according to the request of al-Haritha al-Ghassani.","date_from_description":"542"},"e4df6026-d90b-5d19-9f62-9e85843131a4":{"description":"Publication of El Quijote, by Miguel de Cervantes.","date_from_description":"1605"},"a4f0fe71-bf7d-501b-9ad9-2626e2665b64":{"description":"Arrival of the Jesuit order; suppression of non-Catholics. The first independent map of Moravia (1569); the establishment of a university in Olomouc (1573). Fraternal Union published the Kralice Bible (1579); its language became the official norm.","date_from_description":"1556"},"ce5ef438-a99b-58e9-91d3-868e95d90512":{"description":"Abbasid campaigns in the south. Conquest of Lisbon and Mértola.","date_from_description":"1044"},"2e3ea087-5afe-5338-957a-9a3889459efb":{"description":"Governor Camilio Gonzaga establishes the city of Split. He proposed to the Venetian Senate to build a bulwark to defend the town.  \nThe Paulist School of philosophy was established.","date_from_description":"1656"},"0675ca02-0688-5b4b-9b3e-c117c2452fbe":{"description":"‘Abdallah the Shi’ite reaches the Kutama tribe.","date_from_description":"893"},"e2787654-cd49-577d-8bc9-13e2b3bd8ef4":{"description":"Sultan Sulyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-66) orders the construction of Jerusalem’s city wall, the citadel and the restoration of the Haram al-Sharif and the water system. His wife establishes a famous foundation","date_from_description":"1538"},"75ab6cf4-67be-510f-9810-3d8d239173a7":{"description":"Amir Ziri ibn Atiya of the Maghrawa takes Fez.","date_from_description":"991"},"e93c2f30-ccf5-5960-a67a-3e6992627c4d":{"description":"Napoleon Bonaparte’s forces enter Syria. Era of Westernisation begins, which later leads to the collapse of local craftsmanship and local economics in the face of Western industrialism.","date_from_description":"1801"},"256e947f-df5e-5b8d-9c3e-9002b6c85a2b":{"description":"On 4 September the Battle of Mu’ta begins between the Muslims and the Byzantines at the site of Mu’ta in southern Jordan. The cause of the battle is the killing of messenger of Prophet Muhammad by the Ghassanids.","date_from_description":"629"},"3af083b2-afbd-5dc1-9307-ac2a302e4b79":{"description":"Bonnie Prince Charlie’s Jacobite army is routed by government troops at the Battle of Culloden; the rebellion collapses and Charles Edward Stewart escapes, dying in Italian exile in 1788.","date_from_description":"1746"},"7a52fcdf-c442-5230-a24b-c51e8d8f749c":{"description":"On 23 August the Ottomans defeat the Mamluks in a decisive battle at Marj Dabiq, marking the end of the Mamluks’ rule in Egypt and Syria.","date_from_description":"1516"},"eb07f5c5-6af4-58d0-a002-9ad3ca83a992":{"description":"First general strike.","date_from_description":"1917"},"4b44c7bc-b668-5732-b7a9-3d74e28a7366":{"description":"Croats settle in the area between the Adriatic Sea and the Sava and Drava rivers.","date_from_description":"614"},"cada2b2a-5077-51db-b8bd-293193a7a1c8":{"description":"Joseph II abolishes all male and female religious orders except those which take care of the sick and helpless or are engaged in education.","date_from_description":"1781"},"555365e0-aaa3-513b-bd8c-ebedd6fe2db2":{"description":"War with England returns. Establishment of the Continental System and collapse of French trade in the Mediterranean.","date_from_description":"1803"},"5f811e5f-0a1e-5a53-a2b7-09f7dd899f5c":{"description":"Beginning of the Seven Years’ War between Prussia, Austria, Russia and France about the territories of Saxonia and Silesia. Prussia becomes a European power.","date_from_description":"1756"},"61bd427f-a05c-527b-9459-8e25e527c4c7":{"description":"Battle of São Mamede. Afonso Henriques takes control of the Portucuese Counties.","date_from_description":"1128"},"4d364b05-cc1a-5137-92cc-adf2648c528e":{"description":"Construction of the Sidi Abdarrahman mausoleum to house his tomb and the necropolis that formed around it.","date_from_description":"1627"},"f95ef00d-5881-5f23-a0a7-97d8a4b0ea0d":{"description":"The Fatimids of Cairo take control of Damascus, causing great turbulence. The Byzantines control northwestern Syria (999–1001). Thus Syria is pressured by expansionists on both sides.","date_from_description":"969–1076"},"d2d232be-77e5-5589-b163-5011502463c4":{"description":"The Hafsid Kingdom of Tunis exerts a remarkable influence in politics, economics and culture.","date_from_description":"1228–1236"},"b16040fb-7fff-5e4d-9880-f8a9cd6aca41":{"description":"Pico della Mirandola (1463–94) writes Oration on the Dignity of Man, an expression of the new Renaissance humanist culture that exalted man’s dignity and right to self-determination.","date_from_description":"1485"},"cc06deec-2f3e-5bd9-a760-ea299e41ce57":{"description":"The Marinids enter Marrakesh, ousting the Almohads.","date_from_description":"1269"},"e2c6e0ff-23b6-51fa-ada1-bc426edb793d":{"description":"Entry of Miklós Horthy (governor of Hungary from 1920) to Budapest as head of the national army ends the 133 days’ rule of a communist regime (Tanácsköztársaság) led by Béla Kun.","date_from_description":"1919"},"df10ab15-72a2-575f-aaea-0e1c635a99fd":{"description":"Peace of Augsburg: failure of the imperial policies of Charles V.","date_from_description":"1555"},"80f48147-44c1-557b-95d4-cf83058e2aea":{"description":"Publication of the Fuero Juzgo, a summary of Visigothic law.","date_from_description":"654"},"3c25f5fb-a621-52df-b837-a0e26676f92a":{"description":"Birth of the Tunisian nationalist movement named the Young Tunisians after the Young Turk movement in Istanbul.","date_from_description":"1907–1912"},"37fa2522-6029-5df2-b76a-817b3740c7e1":{"description":"The Lombards enter Italy. The lands occupied in the Centre and the South become the Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento respectively.","date_from_description":"568"},"7d0cc929-eae7-54e7-8ada-1acf67489c9a":{"description":"Women are given the right to vote in Swedish elections.","date_from_description":"1921"},"6ffc72de-e2ca-54a2-abbf-57ec8f88cc1e":{"description":"Italy enters World War I (1914–18) on the side of France, England and Russia.","date_from_description":"1915"},"a34bd331-c80a-5b2d-aa88-167430ae6461":{"description":"Millenium celebrations. Opening of the continent’s first underground railway in Budapest. Alfréd Hajós is the first Olympic swimming champion. István Bugarszky invents the endothermic galvanic cell.","date_from_description":"1896"},"5f070ca6-a9e8-5dbc-9d31-404cc3971902":{"description":"Sultan Salim I. (r. 1512–20) visits Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1517"},"0f0e330c-ea2b-5d7f-a70b-7cb63b7218ff":{"description":"The Almoravid amir Yusuf ibn Tashufin wins the Battle of Zallaca near to Badajoz and mints a gold coin, known as the maravedis in the Christian West.","date_from_description":"1086"},"969a9bfc-7bcf-53fd-b3a5-8951c39a7a47":{"description":"Massacre of the Janissaries by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II.","date_from_description":"1826"},"d4bbbe9d-548a-5705-8eb8-4cfc5b9910c1":{"description":"Work starts on the Hieronymites Monastery.","date_from_description":"1502"},"6831e6f1-4837-50b1-abf4-e28f9350296d":{"description":"The death of poet Mevlana Rumi (born in Belh, Afghanistan, (1207?).","date_from_description":"1273"},"551ebb0f-8760-5cad-a847-7b8053f88589":{"description":"Ottoman Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent orders the establishment of Ma’an pilgrimage station.","date_from_description":"1531"},"46074fd4-311b-50a6-8e84-ea49fd4d20a3":{"description":"The first Czech periodical newspaper (Prague). Moravian aristocracy in service of the empire. Viennese artists in Moravia. Development of pilgrimages; church celebrations.","date_from_description":"1719"},"fa3f1f07-d3b6-5a96-9e8f-4bcbc686594f":{"description":"A cast of Turkish soldiers (deys) from Istanbul govern the Regency of Tunis.","date_from_description":"1574–1612"},"68099065-5a0b-5db3-b89d-67cf2f079a0a":{"description":"Start of the Avignon Papacy: under the direct influence of the King of France, the popes set up the papal residence in Avignon.","date_from_description":"1309"},"99becd50-e409-5a29-94d2-6492740e8dfc":{"description":"An organised National Archive is established, with a Director of Antiquities.","date_from_description":"1618"},"b9cc4451-123b-507a-bae4-e230f5e04b15":{"description":"Charlemagne, King of the Franks and the Lombards, is crowned emperor by Pope Leo III. He extends his power over part of the Germanic world and southwards beyond the Pyrenees in the ‘Hispanic March’. He establishes a relationship with the Caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid.","date_from_description":"800"},"3dae562a-52d6-5555-a72f-59c79c393258":{"description":"After devastating Baghdad, the Mongols, led by Hulegu, invade Syria and put an end to the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols lose Syria when they are defeated by the Mamluks in Ain Jalut.","date_from_description":"1259–1260"},"92f9c3ca-d9e4-5e70-8dcc-3e2214584a58":{"description":"Start of the Catastro de Ensenada, an attempt to organise state taxation.","date_from_description":"1749"},"52217393-d8ee-5402-bd51-bded5e32a4d9":{"description":"Petar Zrinski and Fran Krsto Frankopan executed in Wiener Neustadt (Bečko Novo Mjesto).  \nBuilding of Dubrovnik Cathedral after the plan of A. Buffalini from Urbino which displays features of developed Roman Baroque.","date_from_description":"1671"},"f36b3e3b-8c78-5b05-b1df-4601084030aa":{"description":"The Treaties of Westfalia end the wars between the King of France and the Emperor of Germany waged since 1636.","date_from_description":"1648"},"89a5bc65-0567-5c38-865f-1a8185e9a31e":{"description":"After writing the Summa de paenintentia Paulus Hungarus, a canon lawyer, returns from Bologna and organises the Dominican order in Hungary. French architect Villard de Honnecourt visits Hungary.","date_from_description":"1221"},"55b5ac77-fa3e-5cfe-b9a7-1ebaf09d93bb":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun (r. 813–33) orders the restoration of the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"831"},"0d4c6b81-0ba3-581a-ba40-c51acba9672b":{"description":"The Danube’s great flood destroys a huge part of Pest. Contract signed to build the first permanent bridge (today: Széchenyi Lánchíd) between Buda and Pest initiated by Count István Széchenyi.","date_from_description":"1838"},"6c42f919-7aa0-50cf-bc11-abfe289fbdff":{"description":"The town of Sedrata destroyed. Kharijite exodus to Mzab.","date_from_description":"1069"},"8f4f638d-7dc8-5b7a-ab9d-c40c130ab513":{"description":"Charles V stops at Algiers, bringing the town great international prestige.","date_from_description":"1541"},"fe5f683c-10ed-5a91-b8f4-3f9d2a88fafb":{"description":"Varangians attack Constantinople, the Byzantine capital.","date_from_description":"867"},"f2daefe4-d4c9-500f-ad40-e0a5f07b9b17":{"description":"Abolition of slavery.","date_from_description":"1869"},"8975e916-f26f-5445-af2e-f433857c7b3a":{"description":"Third Arab expedition led by ‘Uqba (Okba) ibn Nafi, who founds the town of Kairouan.","date_from_description":"670"},"7c2ee146-ba53-5964-b2d9-cb23eb7cfdd7":{"description":"Foundation of Cairo (Egypt). The Fatimids leave for Cairo.","date_from_description":"971–973"},"7c1ad6bd-1974-576b-9bd8-7735354ba9b3":{"description":"English barons force King John to agree to a statement of their rights and sign the Magna Carta, which limits his power and paves the way towards a constitutional monarchy in England.","date_from_description":"1215"},"5327b6d4-3a65-5293-a606-ea64db46f1fb":{"description":"The Byzantine Emperor Justinianus (later Justinian) grants the ally of the Byzantines, al-Haritha ibn Jibla, the Arab-Christian ruler of the Ghassan tribe who settled in Syria and Jordan, the title ‘Baselues’ (king).","date_from_description":"528"},"d192615b-1534-5d7d-adf1-b637a02711eb":{"description":"Execution of the leaders of the Wesselényi revolt against the Habsburgs. All needs of the Austrian armies based in Hungary paid for by Hungary causing paupery. Continuing oppression of Protestants.","date_from_description":"1671"},"69164915-60ac-5881-b75c-9d3dc8c8e62d":{"description":"Zadar rebels against Venice and allies with Hungary.","date_from_description":"1186"},"a2519dc1-25b3-5848-94dc-d4e58e5183cd":{"description":"Death of the scholar Ibn Arfa.","date_from_description":"1401"},"d7a5e47d-dffb-5324-99c0-ea5f93794b2f":{"description":"Achir founded by Ziri ibn Manad.","date_from_description":"936"},"3d728eba-aff4-5a4f-86da-605c78b0b4c9":{"description":"The Capitulations afford French ships and subjects the freedom of the Ottoman Empire. French consuls gain the right to judge their compatriots in criminal and civil courts. Trade is greatly facilitated.","date_from_description":"1535"},"158eb698-9413-5fa7-86d3-311318547a6f":{"description":"The warship Wasa sinks in Stockholm on her maiden voyage. The ship was discovered and salvaged in 1956, and is now exhibited in Stockholm.","date_from_description":"1628"},"8c86ef04-ea21-5362-a81f-96e5cdc55dca":{"description":"Birth of the ‘Abd al-Wadid Dynasty in Tlemcen and the long reign of Abu Yahya I ibn Zayyan, making Tlemcen an important commercial, cultural and spiritual centre in Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1236"},"ab871503-57a1-540b-b6b2-c7a124254271":{"description":"The town of Blida founded by emigrants from Andalusia.","date_from_description":"1535"},"32c40eda-8fa3-56c0-be35-bfebe4210d85":{"description":"The world's first permanent passenger railway service, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opens in northern England.","date_from_description":"1825"},"4d8480d4-69c3-54c8-8ab2-240c5f2784bc":{"description":"Independent emirate with ‘Abd al-Rahman I (Umayyad dynasty).","date_from_description":"756"},"d0ebefd8-0ffb-57eb-bf50-f6d8700012eb":{"description":"Badi' al-Zaman al-Jazari (from al-Jazira) is commissioned by the Atabeg Artuqid court to write his brilliant illustrated manuscript on mechanical engineering, a milestone in technology history.","date_from_description":"1206"},"d1d1554b-3362-5368-9218-36949157048f":{"description":"The start of the new army Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order) by Selim III.","date_from_description":"1792"},"00d80670-8f46-5197-b1d8-ac61843bc10c":{"description":"A severe earthquake damages parts of the Aqsa Mosque and the Holy Sepulchre Church, as well as Umayyad palaces and public buildings all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"747"},"1db05db3-c34d-56cf-9db2-7bea8b690a56":{"description":"Publication of *Ratio Educationis*, Maria Theresia’s school reform. The Nagyszombat University (Tyrnau; today: Trnava, Slovakia), founded by Bishop Péter Pázmány in 1635, moves to Buda.","date_from_description":"1777"},"03aad4a5-0099-5ec4-a225-d2945a5c6341":{"description":"Karlóca Peace Treaty between the Holy Alliance and the Turks. The Sultan promises not to support Hungarian anti-Habsburg revolts (such as that of Imre Thököly who had earlier lost his freedom fight).","date_from_description":"1699"},"d62eb47e-c4d2-58b2-87b6-1d7f30fce072":{"description":"Austro-Hungarian monarchy ends. Charles IV agrees to the form of state chosen by the Hungarian nation but does not abdicate. Count Mihály Károlyi is Prime Minister of the People’s Republic of Hungary, which lays down arms and starts armistice talks.","date_from_description":"1918"},"fbe2c0cb-c555-56b0-921f-ba012da34ea8":{"description":"Second war of independence: Austria declares war on the Kingdom of Sardinia. The war is initially fought in Northern Italy.","date_from_description":"1859"},"951b13fd-8e49-5fd2-8d19-51539db2f274":{"description":"The Edict of Nantes ends the Wars of Religion, affording protestants considerable rights in the Kingdom of France.","date_from_description":"1598"},"8b4c0768-7ef5-5e1c-bc82-4a770beaeecf":{"description":"The Swedish King Olaf establishes a mint in his town Sigtuna, which he probably calls Sigtune Dei (God’s Sigtuna), and strikes his first coins.","date_from_description":"995"},"2d302fe6-eab4-5362-83f2-162983ff38de":{"description":"Gaza becomes an independent Mamluk governate (niyaba).","date_from_description":"1311"},"bea24b3e-94e5-5465-8187-72544a565216":{"description":"Pope Urban V affirms the Paulite order, founded by Hungarians c. 1250. King Lajos (Louis) I founds Pécs University and enriches Aachen Cathedral’s Hungarian Chapel with great artworks.","date_from_description":"1367"},"1ec47d0a-c730-5a8b-9afe-827478896737":{"description":"The first post office is founded in Irbid city during Ottoman rule under Sultan ‘Abd al Hamid II, who wanted to have telegraph offices in the empire.","date_from_description":"1883"},"1233e1c8-d1a4-58d8-8d9f-22763c0fea1e":{"description":"Highlights of the Czech radical baroque: construction of Church of St. Nicholas, Prague, began (architect K. Dienzenhofer). Charles Bridge embellished with statues by M. B. Braun and F. Brokof.","date_from_description":"1704"},"1c856a62-bfb9-5e4e-920b-d5a36439ae6f":{"description":"Council of Burgos abolishes the Mozarabic rite in favour of the Roman rite.","date_from_description":"1080"},"0468c614-d990-5735-a18a-d05014130495":{"description":"Bilad al-Sham (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) comes under the rule of the Tulunid dynasty; Ahmad ibn Tulun is the founder of this dynasty in Egypt.","date_from_description":"875"},"1962e747-521f-5cfa-a679-5538e2d26bce":{"description":"Foundation of the town of Mahdia, capital of the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"921"},"cfff96d7-be4e-591d-83a2-bf64ce44e84a":{"description":"‘Abd al- Mu’min rebuilds the mosque of Tinmel, birthplace of the Almohad dynasty and the prototype of its mosques.","date_from_description":"1148–9"},"6667dec1-e328-5965-82d9-bb3b212c863b":{"description":"Beginning with the Battle of Tertry in 687 the Carolingian Dynasty rules over larger parts of the Germanic tribes.","date_from_description":"687"},"c81b6084-c7e0-5ee6-9d42-2ebe66c13390":{"description":"Battle of Salado. Decisive victory over the Marinids of North Africa, who had led the final Muslim offensive in the Peninsula.","date_from_description":"1340"},"8512addf-1289-5cb2-8d0f-a4cfab760007":{"description":"Around this time a new and shorter Nordic runic alphabet with 16 runes instead of 24 is introduced. It turns out to be a great success which rapidly spreads literacy in Sweden.","date_from_description":"700"},"e450d568-2f2e-5dca-b923-c611fabdfc18":{"description":"In January the inhabitants of Pella sign a covenant with the new Muslim rulers after the battle of Fihl (Pella) agreeing to pay poll and land taxes; the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule at Pella was peaceful and uninterrupted.","date_from_description":"635"},"ce1bd9f9-0d3d-5f64-bbc1-ec2be2dc878e":{"description":"War breaks out in Europe following Germany’s invasion of Belgium; World War I kills more than 16 million people between 1914 and the Armistice in November 1918.","date_from_description":"1914"},"ffe284d1-ac86-5274-8902-0f9ec6a435f3":{"description":"After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Emperor Franz Joseph I leads the Austro-Hungarian monarchy into World War I on the sides of the Central Powers. Beginning of Hungarian aircraft industry.","date_from_description":"1914"},"18f48aaf-32b5-5177-bb0d-6bed68c2d15c":{"description":"Largest uprising of the serfs. Patents of King Leopold I include: corvée patent, legalisation of the Evangelical church (1691). The first textile manufactories.","date_from_description":"1680"},"9ed781be-d34c-590a-9e80-16be57da95ea":{"description":"Croatian king Stjepan I (1030–58) focused on rebuilding Croatia’s military strength and in 1032 he sent his naval fleet to assist Byzantium in its war against the Arabs.","date_from_description":"1032"},"6e35aa8a-5ab0-5618-93fc-9b29f41ba4d2":{"description":"The German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) is born. He became one of the leading figures of German literature during the period of classicism.","date_from_description":"1749"},"251dbd30-c263-51b4-af91-b2e3e1685fe3":{"description":"Mary, Queen of Scots, abdicates Scotland’s throne and her one-year-old son James VI becomes King of Scotland; Mary is executed in 1587 for plotting to kill Elizabeth I.","date_from_description":"1567"},"791d1021-9e23-57b9-a880-2a791e359eed":{"description":"Founding of Olomouc bishopric. Vratislav II made first Czech King (1085). The first Czech chronicle known as the *Chronicle of Cosmas*. Premonstratensian and Cistercian monasteries founded (1140).","date_from_description":"1063"},"481332a0-4c39-547a-aaf4-d49d9a16b02d":{"description":"The Swedish Missionary Society is founded.","date_from_description":"1835"},"381bc6c0-47ec-5252-b2e8-8016ecad32e1":{"description":"Battle of Siffin between Mu’awiya, governor of Damascus, and ‘Ali, the fourth caliph and cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, resulting in a schism in the Muslim community with Kharijites (secessionists) accepting neither.","date_from_description":"657"},"752104ff-ab92-5d24-be3f-a98a9dd4db2d":{"description":"Byzantine Emperor Maurice breaks the peace treaty with the Persians and invades Syria. War continues with both sides growing weak and weary, inadvertently easing the path for the upcoming Muslim conquerers.","date_from_description":"602"},"f8e67d66-41cf-5e60-a8c6-7bd5eaf44324":{"description":"John Wyclif, an Oxford scholar, translates the Bible into English from Latin, allowing ordinary people to read it for the first time and inspiring the Lollard political movement.","date_from_description":"1375"},"511016af-9b07-5c9f-8d6c-a30b2ea930ec":{"description":"The Portuguese take the town of Qsar al-Saghir.","date_from_description":"1458"},"7a6c3010-26aa-5cf1-a20e-8c9f84d04c4d":{"description":"The Croatian People’s Peasants’ Party – from 7 December Republican Peasants’ Party – led by Stjepan Radić refuses to acknowledge the monarchy and leads Croats to ethnic and political emancipation.","date_from_description":"1920"},"9b0e0347-84a3-5ad6-90de-36ebb5db81fe":{"description":"The battle of Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo, between the Ottoman and Mamluk armies, leads to the collapse of the Mamluk empire and the beginning of the Ottomans’ rule in Greater Syria including Palestine.","date_from_description":"1516"},"b5117dae-7ecc-5e8d-8fba-fcfbda3221e9":{"description":"Second siege of Constantinople by the Muslim Arabs.","date_from_description":"717–720"},"bf236d04-4009-51bb-ad6b-4483bda35b4a":{"description":"Under the influence of Saint-Simonian Ismail Urban, Napoleon III applies his ‘Arab kingdom’ policy in Algeria.","date_from_description":"1860"},"b00bece1-e9ef-51c4-a46d-2ca684955112":{"description":"East India Company forces win the Battle of Plassey, placing control of Bengal in the hands of Great Britain; the victory achieves a significant presence in India for the British.","date_from_description":"1757"},"27f820b6-9acd-56c6-be82-ee4130019591":{"description":"The epic Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf, consisting of 3,182 lines of Old English, is probably written; the poet is anonymous.","date_from_description":"1000"},"93eeb569-6e0c-523e-a5aa-5b5d8226c6c2":{"description":"Beginning of Entente Cordiale between France and England, resulting in the division of the Mediterranean and recognition of England’s influence in Egypt and France’s influence in Morocco. The 1912 Franco-Moroccan Agreement establishes a French protectorate in Morocco.","date_from_description":"1904"},"62a5e1c8-111e-5e0c-99c1-c922fb7b7bdf":{"description":"James VII (of Scotland) and II (of England) flees to France when William III of Orange, invited by politicians to save England from Roman Catholicism, lands in England.","date_from_description":"1688"},"c1191510-fdd8-540b-b777-5815e1913a56":{"description":"Wenceslas IV inherits Czech crown. Completion of the oldest Czech translation of the Bible. Klaret’s (Claretus) attempt to create Czech scholarly terminology. Discord among the king, his brothers and the aristocracy.","date_from_description":"1376"},"a6530bb8-72a3-535e-b0e0-fddcbbca90ca":{"description":"King Charles XII is defeated at the Battle of Poltava in Ukraine. It is the beginning of the end of Sweden as a Baltic super power.","date_from_description":"1709"},"125a41da-1f4c-5bb3-9a7b-119a5f7666f4":{"description":"Battle of Ayacucho and definitive loss of the territories in continental America.","date_from_description":"1824"},"4081d6fa-5d80-56a2-9ef3-1bb154005ea3":{"description":"Compromise with the House of Habsburg (activated by Ferenc Deák on the Hungarian side). Emperor Franz Joseph I crowned King of Hungary in Buda. Birth of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.","date_from_description":"1867"},"944f02a1-5497-571d-9cc3-b752a0d8b752":{"description":"Alliance between Portugal and England.","date_from_description":"1386"},"7aeb2f08-5d28-5ee1-a897-67339824e4f1":{"description":"The Porta Pia Breach: on 20 September, the Sardinian army liberates Rome, annexing the city and the Papal States to the Kingdom of Italy. The unification of Italy is complete","date_from_description":"1870"},"64d43c4e-1e03-5a4e-add5-79bdafe39326":{"description":"Voyage of Bartolomeu Dias around the south of Africa to the Indian Ocean. On his return, he discovers Cape of Storms, renamed the Cape of Good Hope by John II.","date_from_description":"1487"},"16bfa79f-50f4-5128-90a4-c0f159b646ee":{"description":"Death of Louis IX at the gates of Tunis during the Eighth Crusade following an initial defeat in Egypt (Seventh Crusade). Louis IX will be canonised in 1297.","date_from_description":"1270"},"5e8d3ab6-e862-58f3-ae9e-1d931d60e54b":{"description":"Sa’id ibn Khalid, a grandson of the third orthodox Caliph ‘Uthman, leads a revolt against the Abbasids at al-Fudayn in Jordan calling for the restitution of the Umayyad caliphate. Abandoned by his companions, his revolt ended.","date_from_description":"822"},"22648a84-1ebd-59b2-86ca-54573888a8e4":{"description":"Michelangelo finishes the fresco Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel.","date_from_description":"1541"},"bb458b74-6213-5c57-bc33-ed788f6bcd7c":{"description":"Hassan Pasha builds the Ketchaoua mosque.","date_from_description":"1794"},"6f214a42-95c6-55f4-8215-4011610d81f1":{"description":"The Mamluks defeat the Crusaders in ‘Akka and the rest of the Palestine and Lebanon coastal cities, putting an end to the Crusader states in Palestine and Syria, which had lasted some two centuries.","date_from_description":"1291"},"aaf64bc4-1ee7-5fb0-a695-a01a3b346ed6":{"description":"Friedrich III, Elector of Brandenburg, is crowned as Friedrich I, King of Prussia. Prussia is on its way to becoming a European power.","date_from_description":"1701"},"b22c9412-b81d-541c-ac67-550c7b3423fa":{"description":"Treaty of Tordesillas: division of the lands discovered and to be discovered in the Eastern, Portuguese, hemisphere and the Western, Spanish, hemisphere.","date_from_description":"1494"},"852b9ffa-33fc-5fd8-b385-8027966f7fda":{"description":"*Pacta conventa* between Hungarian King Koloman and Croatia. Koloman Arpadović crowned as Croatian king in Biograd and the personal union established.","date_from_description":"1102"},"12a2eeca-0b1d-517c-ac50-ab8fa7b534b8":{"description":"Pedro Álvares Cabral discovers Brazil.","date_from_description":"1500"},"66844d4f-f8ec-5442-ad5e-74fde0d86bee":{"description":"Provence becomes part of France. The Kings of France inherit the claims of the Angevins. Start of the Italian Wars.","date_from_description":"1481"},"d36604ba-45ea-57e0-adbc-56e7b6d707aa":{"description":"In this, or the following, year, King Magnus grants freedom of taxes for those who serve him in his wars as equestrians. This was important step in the development of privileged nobility.","date_from_description":"1279"},"6505f97d-840c-59a2-9be7-ed9a0b7af7ed":{"description":"The Church of St Donat in Zadar, first dedicated to Holy Trinity, is built in the 9th century, a great example of Byzantine architecture and the largest circular church of the Carolingian era in Europe.","date_from_description":"c. 820"},"6c2f1fa9-6204-570a-8919-6497aa052e19":{"description":"First maritime conquests of the Muslims, occupying Cyprus.","date_from_description":"649"},"84f53825-ab39-583f-b00b-4fbdcb2972f8":{"description":"Charles I of Spain made Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V).  \nRevolt in the Germanias.","date_from_description":"1519"},"18a3d60f-dabd-5abb-9cbc-8f4adfd349e8":{"description":"The British Army suppresses the Easter Rising, a rebellion in Dublin designed to force Ireland’s independence from Great Britain, and its leaders are executed.","date_from_description":"1916"},"f812d16c-326f-503a-8a09-b382b5cc0904":{"description":"The Dome of the Rock is built as the framework of a large construction programme on the plazas of the Haram al-Sharif, including the Dome of the Chain, the gates of the Plaza and the Aqsa Mosque.","date_from_description":"691"},"c7156df8-c0a2-5be7-b62f-c2ea87445ef9":{"description":"Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun defeats Ghazan, King of Tartars, in the Levant.","date_from_description":"1303"},"c11a8a08-9416-5eb8-b06a-3bb77699d825":{"description":"Swedish missionaries are involved in Tamil Nadu (India) for the first time.","date_from_description":"1850"},"7461a583-5319-5d96-bc8b-835aeefb8505":{"description":"Emperor Wilhelm II (1888–1918) sacks Chancellor Otto von Bismark. The era is called ‘Wilhelminische Ära’ and eventually leads to the First World War.","date_from_description":"1890"},"03fd0a03-9cc4-529c-98c3-2d1af35bd794":{"description":"Kılıç Arslan moves the capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs to Konya after being defeated by the Crusaders.","date_from_description":"1100"},"523f9595-4283-5b18-9a26-9225bab37429":{"description":"On 4 October a torrential stream destroys the buildings, markets and mosque of Ajlun.","date_from_description":"1328"},"3791815a-9bf9-5eca-a777-ee474a6db196":{"description":"On 25–28 January Emperor Henry IV (1056–1106) of the Salian Dynasty is forced on a walk of penitence to Canossa to beg forgiveness of Pope Gregor VII and to accept him as arbitrator. The Way (or Walk) to Canossa refers to the walk itself and the events surrounding his journey.","date_from_description":"1077"},"1d63bf29-4526-5efc-afcd-23dc9e584090":{"description":"Death of the great geographer al-Hassan al-Wazzan (Leo Africanus), whose works, written in Latin, illuminated many aspects of civilisation in the Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1552"},"ed37556c-6a5f-54a0-a270-11ea7b5a1e44":{"description":"The first permanent army, consisting of Swedish peasants, is created.","date_from_description":"1544"},"e7db9b2c-691b-5da5-b210-f7ebed29dc84":{"description":"Tanzimat (reformation) period: local Syrian governors are removed from their positions as the Ottoman Empire enforces tighter administration in its efforts towards Westernization.","date_from_description":"1839–1908"},"4bf552ac-f39d-59d7-b9e6-ec494b60f204":{"description":"Under Duke Henry of Saxony the term ‘Kingdom of the Germans’ (Regnum teutonicum) is used for the first time.","date_from_description":"920"},"0cd237fb-4c85-53e3-9a45-33476737ed30":{"description":"The Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars captures Karak castle from the Ayyubids, putting an end to Ayyubid rule there; he rebuilt some of its towers and transferred his wealth to it.","date_from_description":"1262"},"81f5a073-c56f-5a6e-b163-19b52ff3ef24":{"description":"The Vandals take refuge in Mauritania Tingitana (Northern Morocco in Antiquity).","date_from_description":"533"},"cb9b4b59-170b-5014-b533-c938a5423c1a":{"description":"Completion of Karlštejn Castle: Emperor’s residence housing the Czech and imperial crown jewels, the archive and relics of saints. The construction of the Stone (now Charles) Bridge, Prague.","date_from_description":"1357"},"f966e949-77bb-5cdd-8109-8790777c61f7":{"description":"Beginning of the Reformation. Luther nails his 95 theses against the abuse of indulgences to a church door in Wittenberg. His translation of the Bible established the basis of the modern German language.","date_from_description":"1517"},"a1f37412-001d-5ec1-a3f4-4c56a7a20c56":{"description":"Msila founded by the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"925"},"46751acf-b479-5590-9e2a-9b5a81257c3b":{"description":"King Boabdil, the last Nasrid king, takes refuge in Oran then Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1492"},"a1dd6d65-c01b-57b0-9fbe-2c9333ea9bc0":{"description":"France takes part in a military expedition in support of the Greek insurrection against their Ottoman rulers. The 1829 Treaty of Andrianople recognises Greece’s independence.","date_from_description":"1827"},"b9453ddd-b1fa-5026-b5b4-80c48b1d90da":{"description":"The caliphal court moves away from Syria and Baghdad, ‘City of Peace', is founded by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur, designed as a perfect circle.","date_from_description":"762"},"30714b85-a474-5cb0-984e-75bf4c136235":{"description":"Trpimir I issues a charter in Latin in which he names himself the ‘Duke of Croats’ (*Dux Chroatorum iuvatus munere divino*) and his realm as the ‘Realm of the Croats’ (*Regnum Chroatorum*).","date_from_description":"852"},"a85a1a69-0a7d-59be-bfd4-2023ac297f39":{"description":"The Jews thrown out of Spain are under the Ottoman protection.","date_from_description":"1492"},"6c8c4543-b87f-530b-b89e-d308315a1d76":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun issues a memorial golden coin carrying the name of ‘Jerusalem’.","date_from_description":"832"},"2cd8dc54-23b9-50ab-b089-94ebbecc93f8":{"description":"Famine due to the low level of the Nile for several consecutive years and an earthquake result in over 240,000 dead.","date_from_description":"1200"},"97ced9b9-f2a0-5c4d-aa0d-9fa4accd95ef":{"description":"The Portuguese found the fortress of Santa Cruz de Aguer near to the village of Founti.","date_from_description":"1505"},"85fab7c6-cee6-502d-9260-f863a373d82e":{"description":"Second Arab expedition. Victory at Hadrumetum (Sousse).","date_from_description":"665"},"78dd4d35-d6b9-5942-ab3e-7fd0b98349b5":{"description":"The Ottoman Empire's military strength and imperial patronage of religious and commercial buildings, especially in Damascus, by Lala Mustafa Pasha (1570), Darwish Pasha (1574) and Sinan Pasha (1589).","date_from_description":"1570–1590"},"9906c450-0cbb-5e4d-bc59-287aac1ff9d7":{"description":"Beginning of the reign of Francis I. Continuation of the Italian Wars, marked by victory at Marignano and defeat at Pavia (1526). The King of France effects a reconciliation with the Turks, creating a scandal in the Christian world.","date_from_description":"1515"},"097de22b-b2d5-5fc3-9e50-26f26064e7d6":{"description":"Sultan Abu Yusuf orders the construction of a new town at Algeciras.","date_from_description":"1277"},"9174a4b4-0d7f-50c2-b352-98b3ff8d8dd5":{"description":"Battle of Sarmada, between the Crusader Principality of Antioch and the Artuqid Atabeg ruler of Aleppo, witnessing the success of the local Muslim forces even without assistance from the Seljuq sultanate.","date_from_description":"1119"},"caf5e20d-1898-53d0-ac57-1bb917b199ec":{"description":"Death of al-Maqrizi, the great Egyptian historian.","date_from_description":"1442"},"0022f256-658f-51eb-901c-eedca76d2b42":{"description":"The Crusaders conquer Palestine with a huge massacre in Jerusalem; the estimated number of the victims is ca 70,000. Major parts of the cities are destroyed. Godfrey de Bouillon is elected as the leader of the Latin Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1099"},"4cb7338d-726c-597d-b2b5-2bf4487370c3":{"description":"Dynastic union between Castile and Aragon through Isabel I and Ferdinand II.","date_from_description":"1479"},"c471d86e-177b-59c8-bbc1-f86d92947636":{"description":"Sidi Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah founds the port town of Essaouira and begin the economic reorganisation of the kingdom.","date_from_description":"1765"},"110abf60-df8a-5021-a435-e437a19eff34":{"description":"King Faisal enters Damascus, celebrating the first Arab government.  \nThe French army occupies the Syrian coast (1919).  \nKing Faisal is expelled by the French, after which he becomes king of Iraq.","date_from_description":"1918–1920"},"ceb082e2-41c6-5247-9b6d-5f2c151c9212":{"description":"The personal union between Sweden and Norway is dissolved.","date_from_description":"1905"},"0280f139-a2db-51a2-ac6e-991e8017c515":{"description":"Mulay Isma‘ïl makes Meknes the capital of the kingdom and starts work on his royal fortress complete with palaces, granaries, lakes and stables. It is reminiscent of the Topkapi Sarayi Citadel in Istanbul.","date_from_description":"1672"},"2db35884-0dcb-51af-8feb-97eb2256b41b":{"description":"Peace with Spain, which recognises Portuguese independence.","date_from_description":"1668"},"984730ec-78ba-562d-aaa2-0a7e7716b621":{"description":"Manfred, son of Frederick II, becomes King of Sicily (1258–66).","date_from_description":"1258"},"fe206d6b-72a1-563f-a90c-6f64acd94d31":{"description":"The first printed work issued in the Czech lands: Statutes for the Prague Diocese (Pilsen printing works).","date_from_description":"1476"},"0ea127ca-a246-5a36-85a6-91f3c218daf8":{"description":"Ragusa falls into the hands of Lajos (Louis) I (the Great). During Medieval times Hungary was its most extensive under his rule. 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The foundation stone of the National Theatre, Prague laid (1868).","date_from_description":"1866"},"d5d144a2-c99b-5cc9-b3c1-1544828028b4":{"description":"First Christian resistance at Covadonga (Asturias).","date_from_description":"722"},"f2eece35-36f2-5ec7-953c-7b250d1a46de":{"description":"Following the Oran earthquake, the Spanish restore the ruined town, which becomes the capital of the beylik of Western Algeria.","date_from_description":"1790"},"20e3f2a9-16c9-5a27-a7ca-79342c290b07":{"description":"War with the USA. Loss of the last overseas territories (Cuba, Puerto Rico and Philippines).","date_from_description":"1898"},"3818d5fd-c5b6-507f-af3e-cc1015160262":{"description":"A time of financial difficulties and European manoeuvring. Tunisia’s state debt results in the establishment of an international financial commission, and a French–English initiative intended to control Tunisian finances.","date_from_description":"1868"},"bb4b1b57-1470-5bc6-a9fe-3412b633ab6b":{"description":"Salah al-Din becomes sultan, extends Cairo’s fortifications and constructs the Citadel.","date_from_description":"1171"},"637a86d3-8ea7-5969-af92-f14ecb20fde8":{"description":"Friedrich II (1215–50), Emperor of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty and King of Sicily, becomes King of Jerusalem during the Fifth Crusade. He was influenced by Islamic traditions.","date_from_description":"1229"},"f621f014-fec0-513d-8397-7210af9eceac":{"description":"The first Islamic gold coin devoid of iconographic representation is struck in Damascus by Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik, with Arabic declaration of faith. 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Attack on Coimbra.","date_from_description":"1111"},"fbea5e27-1a9d-5d68-b467-1d18b4d4ee21":{"description":"Tunisia becomes an Ottoman province administered by a pasha appointed by the sultan in Istanbul and assisted by political-military leaders.","date_from_description":"1587"},"fadf814c-a30e-52d2-8a58-e68572477477":{"description":"Mongol troops return to Central Asia after sending the scholars and artisans of Damascus to Samarqand and massacring the rest of the population. Mamluk leadership is weakly restored. Internal dissent and militias are rife.","date_from_description":"1404"},"80f8fda0-8020-5c16-a9df-253be322a36f":{"description":"The Tours Congress sees the rise of revolutionary ideas in France. Nonetheless, France and England seem stronger than ever, and ready to share out the remains of the Ottoman Empire. 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Al-Salih Ayyub dies and is succeeded by his son Turan Shah who shatters the Crusader army attacking the Delta.","date_from_description":"1249"},"a24b8786-9796-564e-97e8-9482d8ade191":{"description":"The Sassanian Persian ruler Chosroe I raids Syria as far as Apamea and Antioch.","date_from_description":"573"},"0f189c19-8d0e-5f2c-af07-5db542c81285":{"description":"The conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) by Mehmed II which brings the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) to an end.","date_from_description":"1453"},"a3ee0d33-6ca0-5b47-a931-404128f779be":{"description":"Following the death of Elizabeth I of England, James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England and Ireland, bringing about the ‘Union of the Crowns’.","date_from_description":"1603"},"00f26137-b599-503d-96b8-cc9b88a52cfe":{"description":"Death of Miklós Zrínyi, great Hungarian commander in the Turkish wars. Turks defeated in the Battle of Szentgotthárd but the Habsburgs’ deplorable Peace of Vasvár causes Hungarian revolt.","date_from_description":"1664"},"e5124ae0-a507-5d8b-b230-3b31d8a62c50":{"description":"The Scottish Wars of Independence begin following annexation of Scotland (and seizure of the symbolic stone of Scone) by England. Scottish victory at Stirling Bridge is led by William Wallace.","date_from_description":"1297"},"392bdf81-90a4-59c4-be66-5325b35de674":{"description":"The Anjala league is created. This is a group of Finnish officers voicing their opinion about a free Finland.","date_from_description":"1790"},"cbd2db7e-72ef-5012-a5f3-845860281f0e":{"description":"To suppress the Ahmad Orabi rising the British Fleet bombards Alexandria. The beginning of the British occupation of Egypt, which will continue for 72 years.","date_from_description":"1882"},"559f59cb-5ac1-5e93-9214-b9f88cac905d":{"description":"The Treaty of the Pyrenees ends the Franco-Spanish war and confirms French possession of Roussillon. The union between Louis XIV and Marie-Thérèse lays the foundation for a solid alliance, despite the King of France renouncing his and his successors’ right to the Spanish throne.","date_from_description":"1659"},"cae30c3c-1b20-553e-8959-9c14f0cec485":{"description":"Death of Paracelsus (1493–1541), physician, philosopher and writer of medical treatments, who was a defender of empirical medicine and rejected Gnostic traditions.","date_from_description":"1541"},"c75815d0-8188-52cd-83f8-d9af69f1a938":{"description":"The Fatimid restore the city walls of Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1033"},"da43fca1-5998-517d-be0a-aa3e6869443a":{"description":"Musa ibn Nossayr becomes the first governor of Ifriqiya.","date_from_description":"705"},"ed3b30cd-5cda-50bc-887f-5bf8435c4119":{"description":"Preaching of the Third Crusade, which is joined by the King of France Philip Augustus and Richard the Lionheart. 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Anabaptists in Moravia.","date_from_description":"1519"},"f3a4f4dc-7de1-542e-9814-56c1610cb575":{"description":"The English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins defeats the Spanish Armada; war between Spain and England continues until 1603.","date_from_description":"1588"},"d327227e-c522-5553-af40-86f52c894373":{"description":"On 20 August a local government is formalised in Salt city after the decline of the Arab Kingdom at Damascus; its council of state was headed by Mazhar Rislan and its membership was made up of deputies from Amman, Madaba and ‘Udawn tribe.","date_from_description":"1920"},"6c13c8ef-71f1-599b-a5c8-987c27675585":{"description":"Construction of the Great Mosque of Kairouan.","date_from_description":"836"},"784d1ad4-879a-5143-a5ef-97e2854c39cb":{"description":"A Yellow Fever epidemic rages through Egypt.","date_from_description":"1348"},"fb93aeda-ffde-52d7-a9a2-5207439fd8be":{"description":"March on Rome: the event confirms the rise to power of Benito Mussolini’s National Fascist Party and the beginning of the Fascist regime (1922–43).","date_from_description":"1922"},"a30b5d58-c0a4-577e-b94e-de7261f9f627":{"description":"Byzantine reconquest of Africa led by the Byzantine general Belisarius. End of the Vandal kingdom.","date_from_description":"533"},"750f20d5-2095-577c-8bd3-c0bb2460a115":{"description":"Revolt outside Cordova: Muladi protests against taxes put down with large numbers of deportations and executions.","date_from_description":"818"},"c824d709-d2ba-5633-ad39-4ee07e7b96ca":{"description":"Isabel II ascends to the throne and start of a period of regency. Process of building a liberal Spanish state begins. 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They come to be known as the Bahri Mamluks.","date_from_description":"1240"},"f1bf9f5a-062f-5064-8b4b-e29fcdbc77ad":{"description":"Turks occupy several Hungarian fortresses in the new Turkish wars. At the siege of Eger fewer than 2,000 Hungarians led by István Dobó triumph over the attacking 60–70,000 Turks.","date_from_description":"1552"},"b3e9340f-746f-5f40-8598-469c96c12b25":{"description":"The Golden Bull becomes the first constitution of the empire by which the German emperor is chosen by seven electors.","date_from_description":"1356"},"e1b83e18-7a70-583e-9f1a-ab5c213c38da":{"description":"Frederick Barbarossa (1123–90) arrives in Italy to side with the Pope against the Commune of Rome and the Normans. In the same year, Barbarossa is crowned King of Italy in Pavia.","date_from_description":"1154"},"2491f00b-fa4c-53ef-8114-252f0b7fb028":{"description":"Al-‘Adil unites the Ayyubid empire.","date_from_description":"1199"},"dce2677e-94dc-5b49-bd57-0a7cea6fe4b2":{"description":"End of the civil war in Castile and start of the Trastámara dynasty.","date_from_description":"1369"},"39792b25-cc09-5cf4-b24a-343aa7e4091e":{"description":"The Bloodbath of Stockholm. Danish King Christian II has a large number of the Swedish nobility beheaded.","date_from_description":"1520"},"b8fe4d88-fe86-55cc-8116-70dc21138999":{"description":"Restoration of independence under John IV and the start of the Bragança Dynasty.","date_from_description":"1640"},"de28ed00-1d01-5505-a1e9-e174ff172b66":{"description":"Decisive encounter between the armies of ‘Abd al-Mu’min and Tashufin ibn Ali near Oran. Death throes of the Almoravid dynasty.","date_from_description":"1145"},"d9938d03-6f40-5f32-9ebe-47a56c3e1c1b":{"description":"F. Křižík invents the self-acting regulator of the arc lamp, the first electrical lighting. His invention was received to great worldwide acclaim. The first telephone network introduced (1882).","date_from_description":"1879"},"9d57cf87-4c8a-51e0-897c-26c2ca365e63":{"description":"Inauguration of the Suez Canal for international shipping in a great celebration hosted by Khedive Ismail.Founding of Dar al-Kuttub, the first public library in Egypt.Opening of the first opera house in the Middle East.","date_from_description":"1869"},"ca350f1e-6708-5ae1-93ac-c94410b0097a":{"description":"The great geographer Ibn Battuta, born in Tangiers, begins a 25-year journey that would take him to China in Asia and Timbuktu in Africa.","date_from_description":"1304"},"1dcea065-7a87-5568-818f-1b90906eb3b2":{"description":"Third war of independence: Italy succeeds in freeing the Veneto region from Austrian control.","date_from_description":"1866"},"0ebf0190-8081-5d56-b08d-e6f6303dbcbe":{"description":"Uppsala University is founded. It is the oldest university in Scandinavia and still one of Sweden’s most renowned universities. Uppsala is located about 80 km north of the capital Stockholm.","date_from_description":"1477"},"d8b249fa-2675-5541-bf12-43109d7fb3ff":{"description":"Tulip Period starts (1718–30).","date_from_description":"1718"},"b625b9c3-b446-5b15-a72b-d1fcde8c6b1c":{"description":"Bourgeois revolution demanding end of absolutism, equality of Czech with German, freedom of the press and religion. Abolition of serfdom and the corvée obligation. 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Matthias Corvinus against George of Poděbrady.","date_from_description":"1467"},"13c15681-862c-52cb-b9a5-7003467a77ae":{"description":"The powers of the Almohads declines.","date_from_description":"1184–1209"},"65b4cbb2-b2c4-5110-b66c-5e9731bfc694":{"description":"Selim III, a dedicated reformer, ascends the throne in the same year as the French Revolution.","date_from_description":"1789"},"61fb2b70-0016-53c5-bc77-fd9ae819195e":{"description":"Kafur al-Ikhshid dies and political and economic strife encourages the Fatimid conquest of Egypt.","date_from_description":"968"},"fed1cb3f-f671-5994-be2b-f4a920bd0e4a":{"description":"During the rule of the Merovingian Dynasty (c. 500–751) Germanic tribes become subjects of the Merovingian Dynasty.","date_from_description":"500"},"c49acc6e-15c5-51b5-a7c9-07fac2322ced":{"description":"First edition of The Lusiads by Luís de Camões.","date_from_description":"1572"},"17e57512-3af9-56ad-bf1e-82fc5f7a325e":{"description":"Economic and religious interaction between Arabia and the Fertile Crescent as Muhammad joins his uncle on mercantile travel to Syria, where he meets the monk Bahira in Bosra.","date_from_description":"c.590–595"},"eda3d98c-b6d5-5d0b-8725-8080aa800a97":{"description":"Liturgical unification of Hispania.","date_from_description":"633"},"58937cc9-8073-5f41-a01b-586172119fd1":{"description":"Four knights who believe they are working on the implicit orders of King Henry II murder Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, in Canterbury Cathedral.","date_from_description":"1170"},"963f1a66-1273-5c8e-bb5a-0e563c684af7":{"description":"The Royal Academy at Åbo is founded by Queen Christina. The town Åbo (Turku) is today in Finland. The Academy was moved to the new capital Helsingfors (Helsinki) in the 19th century, and became the Imperial Alexander’s University.","date_from_description":"1640"},"14caae37-a082-5320-b2c6-8d3c41706f49":{"description":"Charlemagne (800–14) becomes the Emperor of Rome and the Holy Roman Empire is born.","date_from_description":"800"},"535178d2-75c5-5c3e-a065-3ec6deee5020":{"description":"Pope Alexander III’s papal bull Manifestis Probatum recognises the king of Portugal.","date_from_description":"1179"},"5001b852-cd6c-5311-8e47-c6bc520dca86":{"description":"Almoravid invasion following the Christian conquest of Toledo. Almoravid victory at the Battle of Sagrajas or Zallaqa (Badajoz).","date_from_description":"1086"},"f436f770-aaad-5d98-b58f-8a0d4fe080ae":{"description":"On the death of King András III the Árpád house dies out in the male line. Fights for the Hungarian throne ensue. The coronation of Károly I Róbert of Anjou (Caroberto), descended from the Árpád female line.","date_from_description":"1301"},"8c33a51c-477e-542d-ba24-ba0c468b29fe":{"description":"Peter Forsskål, in his dissertation De libertate civili (On Civil Freedom), advocates for complete freedom of print.","date_from_description":"1759"},"4fd74db0-e844-5e21-9d9e-dfa3dda881be":{"description":"Dubrovnik recognises the authority of Venice, which will last until 1358. In that period Dubrovnik was obliged to pay Venice annual tribute and to accept Venetians as its dukes and archbishops.","date_from_description":"1205"},"a5c04e3e-fa4c-5cad-98a0-dc22ae80fe84":{"description":"Charles IV’s major projects: revival of Slavonic liturgy (1347); foundation of New Town (1348), making Prague the largest European city; establishment of Prague University, the first in Central Europe; provincial statutes in Brno and Olomouc.","date_from_description":"1348"},"239ff1b5-450c-5354-b43c-92df405718b8":{"description":"Napoleon incorporates Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and western Croatia as the French Illyrian Provinces. France stimulated agriculture and commerce in the provinces and fought piracy.","date_from_description":"1797"},"ca4dab82-c037-5e7d-9cc9-f142bc8064f3":{"description":"Galileo Galilei finishes his telescope and publishes Starry Messenger, prompting scientific reflection that plunges the Church’s thinking on the universe into crisis for the first time.","date_from_description":"1610"},"2e049eef-f57d-5de3-8ec0-4c10938509ee":{"description":"Daily life in the regency is marked by civil wars and power struggles, first among the deys and then the beys.","date_from_description":"1650–1695"},"eb4c1b6e-c0de-56e2-9986-9d964c16dba5":{"description":"Fakhr al-Din II Ma‘n, the powerful Amir of Lebanon, sends his deputy to Constantinople asking the Ottoman Sultan to give him the governorate of Irbid and Ajlun to strengthen his emirate.","date_from_description":"1610"},"c34053e8-373d-51c1-9459-84324ae6402b":{"description":"On the death of Henry I of England, his nephew Stephen of Blois stages a coup and seizes the English throne in place of Henry’s daughter and designated successor, the Empress Matilda.","date_from_description":"1135"},"bb3fda76-0312-5e9a-a89e-1b9a45f32688":{"description":"Foundation of the Kharijite cities of Mzab and start of the Hilalian invasions.","date_from_description":"1050"},"13e73776-c4fc-5ef3-a4b7-9cf5eeade4e2":{"description":"On 7 March Amir Faysal, the son of Sharif Husayn, is made king of Greater Syria by the Syrian National Congress. The administrative structure of this kingdom consists of eight provinces, three of them in Jordan.","date_from_description":"1920"},"a165c9bb-32b7-5499-9d94-b7888b6bd79d":{"description":"Dagobert I, King of Austrasia, creates a united Frankish kingdom with its capital in Paris. With the help of the future Saint Eligius, his precarious reign lasts for about ten years.","date_from_description":"629"},"38b37486-4ca5-5ea5-a8ad-ff3929a1df98":{"description":"Peace in Srijemski Karlovci. The end of Turkish rule in north Croatia It remained under the rule of Habsburgs while south Croatia, with the exception of Dubrovnik Republic, was dominated by Venice.","date_from_description":"1699"},"bb592ce6-edae-5d1a-a243-b1684f29fae9":{"description":"Said Pasha grants concession to the French F. de Lesseps to construct the Suez Canal.","date_from_description":"1854"},"8989e4df-ee57-5979-ade0-7a8544768efb":{"description":"Spanish occupation of the Kingdom of Tunis and fall of the Hafsid princes.","date_from_description":"1535–1574"},"4dd40d00-a8e3-5a70-9a14-9452ce7a029a":{"description":"During the lifetime of Saint Boniface, an English missionary who lived from c. 675 to 754, the tribes in Germany become Christians.","date_from_description":"700"},"66e2c0cc-d8f8-5391-be7d-5738f2dfbd15":{"description":"King Charlemagne (768–814) is crowned as emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III (795–816).","date_from_description":"800"},"5ff73bbd-3cfe-5414-8a1a-e3dc70e1b286":{"description":"Justinian (527–65) becomes the Emperor of Byzantium and sets about reconquering the West, succeeding in destroying the Gothic Kingdom in Italy.","date_from_description":"527"},"ca9db0f2-bfab-57f5-9bb0-418ad0d229da":{"description":"Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, is elected King of Spain by the Spanish Parliament; he rules with the name of Amadeo I.","date_from_description":"1871"},"38957083-5395-5510-a2cc-c5c82063cde9":{"description":"End of the Thirty Years’ War. The Peace of Westphalia is signed in Münster and Osnabrück and results in a territorial agreement for Germany.","date_from_description":"1648"},"2b96c252-e950-5517-a8db-89da1a889f25":{"description":"Development of commercial relations with Italian towns.","date_from_description":"1394–1434"},"198d4297-6a40-5ac7-b16c-f5bc23676c10":{"description":"Emperor Rudolph II transfers his court to Prague, which became a major European centre of politics, science and arts (de Brahe, Kepler). The first public autopsy (Ján Jesenský, 1600).","date_from_description":"1583"},"891e3bca-a1af-59b5-8bad-f06a6570abb5":{"description":"Sultan Barquq seizes power, establishing the Circassian Mamluk dynasty.Ibn Khaldun arrives in Egypt, where he lectures at al-Azhar and is appointed head of the Hanafite court of justice.","date_from_description":"1383"},"dc8a4daa-7306-5da4-b957-b12cbfd3a082":{"description":"In pursuit of a South Slav cultural union bishop Josip Strossmayer founds the Yugoslav Academy of Arts and Sciences.","date_from_description":"1867"},"c23b6072-da45-5b41-93d3-84c3264c7d22":{"description":"As a result of the revolution in November 1918 Germany becomes a republic. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicates.","date_from_description":"1918"},"47eafb93-3dec-56e8-a95c-532def54b84d":{"description":"The first colonial exhibition opens in Marseille under the auspices of Jules Charles-Roux.","date_from_description":"1906"},"333b762f-21b9-587d-b2b7-a54ceeab8f8a":{"description":"Hammadid kingdom conquered by the Almohads.","date_from_description":"1152"},"53e04a9b-0217-5a73-929c-4af490d49239":{"description":"Heracles (r. 610–41) reconquers Palestine and the Emperor brings back the Holy Cross to Jerusalem. Restoration projects begin all over Palestine and in Jerusalem in particular.","date_from_description":"628"},"dc9368d3-fea8-55cb-9f02-8e9c8be66205":{"description":"Decree of Kutná Hora adjusts the university voting rights between the Czechs and other nationalities. Jan Hus appointed university chancellor. Origins of the Hussite reformation movement, critical of church rule.","date_from_description":"1409"},"e6ec5d5c-d3cc-5cec-ac30-bbc47b0c3908":{"description":"The French government supports the Pasha of Egypt Mohamed Ali and helps him to succeed to the pashalik.","date_from_description":"1834"},"29455b48-5d00-51d8-b4b7-85037c64bd9c":{"description":"Battle of Aljubarrota. Beginning of the Avis Dynasty with John I.","date_from_description":"1385"},"03ee068c-399d-542b-a408-f4cf12aab879":{"description":"The Arab conquest of Sicily is complete with the fall of Rometta, the last Byzantine stronghold.","date_from_description":"965"},"d8eb5131-93d9-5553-a4e8-12d1f3bb75b5":{"description":"Battle of Muhi: Mongolian troops led by Khan Batu defeat the army of King Béla IV. At the end of the Mongol invasion in 1242 Austrian and Styrian forces also attacked Hungary, which was rebuilt by King Béla IV.","date_from_description":"1241"},"47c305a3-f4e7-5d68-999a-faa2b8aa5b4b":{"description":"Sykes-Picot Agreement between France and Britain divides the eastern Arab countries between both countries; Palestine is allocated to Britain.","date_from_description":"1916"},"651725bb-bdea-51a5-a287-08624bc9f901":{"description":"General Sir Edmund Allenby conquers Jerusalem, declaring the end of Ottoman rule over Palestine. The Balfour Declaration (named after the Foreign Minister of England) promises the Zionist movement a homeland in Palestine.","date_from_description":"1917"},"fe0b838a-25c3-56a6-a34f-c4473f54b366":{"description":"Conquest of Alcácer do Sal.","date_from_description":"1217"},"3db76185-8b18-5ca3-add1-fdcce7e70fbf":{"description":"A severe earthquake causes great damage all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"1458"},"92f84a88-32ed-5c5a-b607-90c4a056aca6":{"description":"Mustafa Kemal Ataturk is born in Salonika.","date_from_description":"1881"},"157c2813-3d90-50aa-a7d3-6fe4e265eb85":{"description":"The Ayyubids capture the Crusader castles of Karak and Shawbak, ending the Crusaders’ rule in Jordan.","date_from_description":"1189"},"85909fbb-7bcf-5aa6-953e-747d6abe0b07":{"description":"Basil II, also known as Bulgar-Slayer, ascends the throne of the Byzantine Empire.","date_from_description":"976"},"7043adec-94a2-5cef-895e-898d5fc584f6":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph al-Rashid appoints his brother Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi governor (wali) of Jordan. It was customary to appoint the brothers and family members of caliphs to administrative positions.","date_from_description":"796"},"cd6e3fcb-a2b9-556f-9ecf-aa89e48b9b94":{"description":"A madrasa for teaching Shafi’i rites (one of four Sunni rites in Islam) is established at Karak; King Muhammad ibn Qalawun sent his sons to study at this madrasa.","date_from_description":"1311"},"58905020-ab87-5e94-a3d4-66d653a6cbc1":{"description":"The first mosque in Egypt is built in Bilbis, east of the Delta, to honour the martyrs and 120 companions of the Prophet who died in battle there during the Arab invasion of Egypt. It followed the ground plan of the Prophet's mosque in Medina.","date_from_description":"639"},"10b1382a-ff42-52fc-9d16-2a0842cd92b3":{"description":"Black Death (the plague) spreads throughout the British Isles from the south coast, killing between one-third and a half of the population.","date_from_description":"1348"},"bfae2d2e-6b0a-5b1c-acf0-f9c9f030a8f7":{"description":"In Varaždin the first Jewish commune is established.  \nJoseph II announces his ‘Patent on the abolishment of slavery’ for the territories of Hungary and Croatia.  \nThe first Real Gymnasium is opened in Senj.","date_from_description":"1785"},"92857bdd-10d7-55e6-b625-792029009380":{"description":"Around 30,000 Croatian soldiers, mainly cavalry, participate in the Thirty Years’ War. Croatian troops fight against Miklós Bethlen (1642–1716) in Bohemia and Hungary.","date_from_description":"1618–48"},"5a56a81b-2205-50a5-b646-009dd4131e0f":{"description":"The First World War begins in 1914 in the Balkans before spreading throughout Europe and touching the Mediterranean with the entry of the Ottoman Empire and then Italy (1915) into the war.","date_from_description":"1914"},"dd26d7b2-753d-5c64-a874-8775f4efc0cb":{"description":"At the Battle of Yarmuk on 15 August the Muslim army defeats the Byzantine forces. Damascus is definitively occupied and the Islamic conquest of Syria begins.","date_from_description":"636"},"07364618-fce2-5c2d-97d1-521d4ca75aa3":{"description":"Byzantium puts down the Berber revolt that flared up after local chieftains are murdered by Sergius, Byzantine Governor of Tripoli.","date_from_description":"578"},"72e976ab-7b9c-57b2-8a32-1cf00bc51a16":{"description":"Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet's cousin and companion, isappointed wali (ruler) of Egypt by ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, the third Righteous Caliph.","date_from_description":"655"},"53e2a473-6218-53e4-ae36-e9634dbb30b1":{"description":"Abolition of slavery.","date_from_description":"1846"},"f1eef633-b025-530e-9f24-58caef33da93":{"description":"Establishment of the Czech Academy of Science. K. V. Klíč invents photogravure. The first automobile with a combustion engine in the monarchy (1897); first Czech motorbike and cinema (1898). Widespread emigration to the USA due to the economic depression.","date_from_description":"1891"},"999699a8-1c62-57f7-adcb-0797447fb6b5":{"description":"Crac des Chevaliers, a critical Crusader stronghold in the Syrian coastal mountains, falls to the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (r. 1260–77).","date_from_description":"1271"},"592e7efc-8d9e-5819-bb5f-31a387a052cb":{"description":"Decisive victory of the Almohads over the nomads at Sétif. Widespread use of Almohad coinage as the industry and commerce of war flourishes. Political unity and religious dogmatism. The apogee of Almohad rule.","date_from_description":"1153"},"c325c56a-f379-5525-a0bb-71fa220749a5":{"description":"The Fourth Crusade, which will last until 1204, leaves from Venice.","date_from_description":"1202"},"18d2bdda-f67c-5529-92cd-ed765d901ec3":{"description":"The Hungarian Jacobin Conspiracy’s members are executed or imprisoned. Archduke Josef becomes the new Hungarian Palatine. Pál Kitaibel invents a vacuum-filtering process.","date_from_description":"1795"},"d42b5254-a078-5f1d-8da7-98560fa6908c":{"description":"Establishment of the independent Czechoslovak state after the end of the First World War. President T. G. Masaryk elected (1920) (d. 1937). Origins of the theory of art and art history institutions.","date_from_description":"1918"},"cca6a898-27a6-5c20-abde-316a4c04542f":{"description":"Renewal of the Capitulations by Louis XIV. The galleys run by each power ‘must not cause any damage’ to the other.","date_from_description":"1673"},"cd30deaf-8bf6-5320-b0ae-ecdc9ca88c01":{"description":"The beatification of St. John of Nepomuk, drowned in the Vltava (Prague) in 1393. The most popular saint in the Czech lands, Lower Austria and southern Germany.","date_from_description":"1729"},"62df2c36-4d0d-5358-9eec-4a9bd4bbf5cf":{"description":"Ali Bey Al-Kabir revolts against the Ottomans. The revolt is suppressed four years later.","date_from_description":"1768"},"798257f6-1021-535f-9840-0aae074a5828":{"description":"Assembly of non-Catholic Estates. ’Prague Defenestration’ incident sparked a rising of the Czech Estates against the Habsburgs and the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War. Czech Estates joined by Moravian and Austrian aristocracy and Frederick, Elector Palatine (Czech king 1619–20).","date_from_description":"1618"},"6aa487ad-149e-585f-9b86-18ae6d154edd":{"description":"On 29 October the Croatian Parliament proclaims Croatia’s administrative relations with Austria and Hungary void. In December the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes is formed.","date_from_description":"1918"},"82811ab9-6500-5319-8797-83df1e87d7f9":{"description":"The first reform-diet in Pozsony (Pressburg, today: Bratislava, Slovakia) where Count István Széchenyi donates one year’s income from his estates to establish the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.","date_from_description":"1825"},"990fa704-5564-53e4-9cd8-586641a9d33a":{"description":"Death of John II and ascension of Manuel I.","date_from_description":"1495"},"f82dac15-a8ae-54bf-b092-872543fb1559":{"description":"Damascene Ibn al-Shatir, a great Muslim astronomer, craftsman and instrument designer, composes important new planetary theories that predate Copernicus by two centuries.","date_from_description":"1305–1375"},"64b759a0-0c63-51d3-8f8d-c0ed61c040d0":{"description":"Jesuits build their church in Varaždin dedicated to the Assumption of Virgin. The church is considered to follow the style of the Roman church Il Gesù.","date_from_description":"1642"},"8a0dbd3b-c7ab-5cb0-9f80-bfd50d6c4a40":{"description":"Birth of the painter, wood carver and engraver Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528). During this period Renaissance art flourished in Germany and Dürer travelled to Italy twice.","date_from_description":"1471"},"cb1217ce-60de-563d-a0ab-97790f36d7a0":{"description":"Christopher Columbus discovers America. Lorenzo de’Medici dies.","date_from_description":"1492"},"e9e2d41f-f69c-5f10-ba54-2a75e470fc69":{"description":"Çelebi Mehmed goes to France as ambassador.","date_from_description":"1721"},"8b58cb7e-f6dc-5dda-b4a1-5d3a58fe7482":{"description":"J. Janský publishes his discovery of four blood groups. Introduction of the right to vote. Workers’ strikes. The first permanent cinema.","date_from_description":"1907"},"9faf7da9-9539-561b-97cd-a5207bb6724f":{"description":"The Council of the Lateran reorganises the Church. The Pope makes Robert Guiscard (1059–85) Duke of Puglia and Calabria. It is the first acknowledgement of Norman domination of Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1059"},"201c3e10-5a1e-511f-85ce-489ab781703a":{"description":"The Domesday Book is completed. A survey of every English county south of the rivers Ribble and Tees, it was commissioned by William I at Christmas 1085 to enable him to tax his landowning subjects.","date_from_description":"1086"},"4feb54ce-0f2f-5592-8f51-c16b2b766eea":{"description":"In Ireland, half the potato crop fails followed by almost the entire crop of 1846; around one million people subsequently die in the Irish Famine between 1845 and 1851.","date_from_description":"1845"},"f015da88-e24f-5276-a062-4dd49d86cc3e":{"description":"The Almohads take Algiers and Constantine, overcoming the last heir of the Bani Hammad, Yahia ibn ‘Abd al-Aziz (515–47/1121–52) and unifying Morocco and the Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1152"},"16d29a40-f9f8-52a9-bdaf-4de60397ce72":{"description":"The second Crusade arrives in Syria, led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, besieging Damascus for four days, but failing to conquer it.","date_from_description":"1148"},"aa8ab80f-57d0-524a-9616-51d06dc89d4f":{"description":"First French invasion. The Portuguese court takes refuge in Brazil.","date_from_description":"1807"},"9d14244d-f574-5f1a-b777-9363a577d9c6":{"description":"The Hammadids and the Zirids reach an agreement to share Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1042"},"56ad7d25-7c26-56a7-a9a4-c9f725bec018":{"description":"Vandal occupation and the Berber kingdom of the Djeddars.","date_from_description":"500"},"6556f937-3643-57de-a5ff-8c093240ecaf":{"description":"Ahmad Ibn Tulun, the Abbasid-appointed governor of Egypt, grows more independent and takes over Syria.","date_from_description":"878"},"a57c5044-ff50-5ae3-a544-ddf51a5d82c3":{"description":"The first industrial exhibition in Klementinum, Prague. Beginnings of the Czech linguistics. Origins of the nationalist movement. Establishment of the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague (1799).","date_from_description":"1791"},"3a5c7b0e-5525-51cb-9a92-f7c14cf42418":{"description":"Croats establish the principalities of Primorska Hrvatska on the Adriatic Coast and Posavska Hrvatska in north Croatia.","date_from_description":"791"},"5902e9f0-1f5e-58a0-a416-f603b26bff55":{"description":"Revolt of the Sicilian Vespers against Sicily’s French Angevin rulers. Aragon emerges victorious in Sicily, which is separated politically from Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1282"},"43a6bdfe-913d-53ed-a7e1-d1f54dbc4dee":{"description":"Aqaba Castle is established on the shore of the Red Sea during the reign of the Mamluk Sultan Qansawh al-Ghawri.","date_from_description":"1515"},"405ce77a-8dfe-54f7-8fcf-62e914fe9e08":{"description":"The ‘Fundamental law’ for military territory (the so-called ‘Vojna krajina’ of the Varaždin and Karlovac military district) in Croatia is established.","date_from_description":"1754"},"39e4a69a-c75f-5119-b55e-4bd1464fb8a9":{"description":"The mother of Caliph al-Muqtadir orders several construction works in Palestine including renewal of the gates of the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"914"},"0fb14610-e011-5b64-9a22-ae3cdae6a774":{"description":"Al-Ashraf Khalil defeats the Crusaders who retreat to Cyprus. He annexes the city of Acre in Palestine.","date_from_description":"1291"},"daa73a72-f069-50c3-abbc-df5a38d392b0":{"description":"Mazagán (al-Jadida), the last Portuguese town in Morocco, is abandoned.","date_from_description":"1769"},"4c5520e5-28db-5680-8a1c-cad3e9a665c0":{"description":"Battle of Alcácer Quibir (also known as Battle of the Three Kings) during which King Sebastian dies.","date_from_description":"1578"},"1a50617c-4ad6-5dce-adac-8976cf87e0c3":{"description":"Jerusalem is surrendered by the Patriarch Sophronius to ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab. The Plaza of the Haram al-Sharif is cleaned and prepared for a modest wooden structure. It will take the Muslim armies another ten years to control the rest of Palestine.","date_from_description":"637"},"bbf9e8be-a84b-57dd-9985-b859352a0bbd":{"description":"Cardinal Jules Mazarin becomes prime minister to the regent, Anne of Austria. He clashes with the ruling classes in the Frondes and emerges victorious.","date_from_description":"1643"},"0ef544c2-60c5-52ba-856a-222b4ea68b58":{"description":"Birth in Mecca of Prophet Muhammad from the tribe of Quraysh.","date_from_description":"571"},"0e492afd-a496-5214-be48-1845eee3182d":{"description":"The French occupy the lands of the Papal States and proclaim the Roman Republic.","date_from_description":"1798"},"4c9f1e73-78be-543a-ada9-45f90963999e":{"description":"Count Ferenc Széchenyi donates his library and collections to the Hungarian nation. This is the nucleus of the National Museum of Hungary and of the National Széchenyi Library.","date_from_description":"1802"},"6e770689-ff4e-520a-a24f-e3cc1bfb4526":{"description":"Josef II dies in February shortly after withdrawning all of his reforms concerning Hungary except for three. The Holy Crown of Hungary is again in Buda. Farkas (Wolfgang) Kempelen builds a speech-imitating machine.","date_from_description":"1790"},"4d87d64c-3e45-5ad9-b697-61f6ff3f1759":{"description":"Genoa sells Corsica to France one year before the birth of Napoleon Bonaparte.","date_from_description":"1768"},"4a9ebcf4-02f0-5f0e-9d67-1c3497d69ede":{"description":"Almohad dominance in the south.","date_from_description":"1156"},"6d36b18e-248c-56d7-b27c-f1a061880805":{"description":"Death of Clovis, the Merovingian king who converted to Catholicism, won control of most of the Frankish kingdoms and took Aquitaine from the Visigoths.","date_from_description":"511"},"8912b1e8-696f-5773-90f9-c9937abd4248":{"description":"The Hungarian King Ladislas establishes the Zagreb Diocese.","date_from_description":"1094"},"accc96bc-6ab2-539a-b0df-e6cc0b3ec739":{"description":"Erik Bloodaxe, the Scandinavian king of York, is defeated and killed; this allows Edred, King of England, to rule over a united kingdom for the first time.","date_from_description":"954"},"83240809-1a96-5e43-8888-b1f6994c8383":{"description":"Start of the Muladi revolts against their Umayyad rulers in the west of the peninsular.","date_from_description":"868"},"79af730b-ca67-5371-a316-30f78c8396eb":{"description":"Catholicism becomes the official religion of the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo.","date_from_description":"589"},"6e671705-5538-5973-a1ce-3df4d6aef618":{"description":"Berber insurrections shake the country. Arab pacification puts an end to the insecurity and prompts economic growth.","date_from_description":"739–742"},"e59d2a50-6c31-57a5-9d6d-2c1277d26e98":{"description":"Treaty of Almizra by means of which Castile and Aragon divided al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1244"},"d0682c4b-7e25-541d-9c53-2d7c70c06280":{"description":"Plague attacks cities and villages, taking many lives.","date_from_description":"1603"},"896804f5-0b98-5218-8da0-0a8feeff05d8":{"description":"In the peace treaty of Roskilde Denmark loses most of its territory to Sweden.","date_from_description":"1658"},"53111dfb-b9b9-5f55-9240-9b6e026d8d53":{"description":"Galileo is tried by the Inquisition for his scientific theories.","date_from_description":"1633"},"fb5706a8-c5d5-59fd-9e3d-856bfba165bb":{"description":"Francisco Pizarro competes the conquest of the Inca Empire (Peru).","date_from_description":"1533"},"e87499ba-1b26-5ebb-a5a6-10553c4b6652":{"description":"Muhammad Ibn Ahmad al-Maqdisi (al-Muqaddasi), the famous geographer is born in Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"946"},"c9bba37d-a0bf-5fc3-a408-e9a5dab9da60":{"description":"Sultan al-Ghawri is killed in battle against the Ottomans. His successor Tuman Bay, the last Mamluk sultan, was captured a few months later and hung on Bab Zuweila by Selim I, the Ottoman sultan. Khayrbek, governor of Aleppo, who betrayed the Mamluks was appointed first Ottoman governor of Egypt.","date_from_description":"1516"},"edb31114-c3db-5d7c-a717-ca3d34a50f9f":{"description":"Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa.","date_from_description":"1510"},"8b321ee6-41d9-5afe-ac80-5a5d90a4c313":{"description":"Sack of Rome: the imperial forces of Charles V (1520–56) made up of mercenaries (lanzichenecchi) sack Rome. This event is considered to mark the end of the Renaissance.","date_from_description":"1527"},"8128be6c-e252-53df-a192-523926903235":{"description":"Establishment of the first public museums (Opava). The first long-distance railway in Europe (České Budějovice–Linz, 1825). J. E. Purkyně introduces cell theory. Disturbances among workers and peasants.","date_from_description":"1814"},"afdb6c38-1876-5448-a684-99a1e014502c":{"description":"Nikola Zrinski defeats the Pasha of Budim near Bobocsa. The fall of Kostajnica and the arrival of Ottomans in Turopolje.","date_from_description":"1556"},"e69b3932-a14b-593e-a264-9dfa6ce7d609":{"description":"The monk Stefan becomes the first Swedish Archbishop. The ceremony was in Lund, which was then Danish but is now a town in southern Sweden. Stefan was ordained by the Danish archbishop Eskil on 5 August and Pope Alexander III was among the participants. Stefan’s see was in Uppsala. He went to work immediately and one of his letters from 1165 still exists. This is the oldest preserved letter in Sweden. It is written in Latin.","date_from_description":"1164"},"407082c9-f7f9-5726-8678-89804c243ef5":{"description":"Defeat of the Klis, the last southern fortress. Ottomans constitute the Sanđak of Klis.","date_from_description":"1537"},"e72f3a22-2b6d-5269-8bd4-6f8656211e9c":{"description":"The Fatimids restore the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"1027"},"e2a32726-d1a6-571a-bc0b-a8d154f9fead":{"description":"Ibn Khaldun teaches at Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1365"},"5dd015f4-0c93-5038-b65a-4c7dcebf0963":{"description":"Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent commissions the huge takiyya in Damascus, a pious and imperial act meant to accommodate and impress pilgrims, under the supervision of famous court architect Sinan.","date_from_description":"1554–1566"},"75e243bd-3a5f-50f8-924c-eca0449cbd00":{"description":"Tanzimat Firman  (Reform) declared.","date_from_description":"1839"},"884b6c52-4854-57c3-9a84-362a8b9c7571":{"description":"Salah al-Din Ayyub (Saladin) takes control of Egypt.","date_from_description":"1169"},"0c142f63-19e1-586e-bd42-9a313543f63f":{"description":"King John Balliol of Scotland establishes a mutual defence treaty, the ‘Auld Alliance’, between Scotland and France, directed against the English.","date_from_description":"1295"},"46f3181d-ae5c-5da3-9130-643d909e0b19":{"description":"Prague described in narration of Jewish-Arabian merchant Ibn Jákúb. Establishment of first (Benedictine) monasteries and Prague bishopric (974). Foundation of the Czech state under the Przemyslid dynasty.","date_from_description":"965"},"7d87484c-d3be-5735-a7da-c7915d51a401":{"description":"The arrival of the Aghlabids triggers the Arab conquest of Sicily.","date_from_description":"827"},"7b791ac7-d8d3-5d68-ac13-3a180cea05ea":{"description":"Disputes between Rudolph II and his brother Matthias. Moravian Estates led by Karel of Žerotín join the associations of Austrian and Hungarian Estates. Imperial charter issued by Rudolph II confirms religious freedom (1609); however, discord continues.","date_from_description":"1608-9"},"e205bea0-1c2b-5928-8567-a7336452f9c5":{"description":"Birth of Saint Fructuosus of Braga.","date_from_description":"c. 610"},"d1cbecff-0106-5906-b954-c1f48fa72143":{"description":"Fakhr al-Din al-Ma’ni (1590–1635) expands his control of Lebanon to major parts of Palestine.","date_from_description":"1624"},"5678f5be-3e06-5d07-abad-a8670a5be0f1":{"description":"The German Templars establish their first settlement in Haifa, followed in 1873 in Sarona (near Jaffa) and Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1869"},"3db937f3-6f2c-555f-87d9-3cd4d5ba7ff3":{"description":"The oldest German code of law (Sachsenspiegel), written by Eike von Repgow (ca.1180–d. after 1233) in Latin and translated to German appears in final form. It becomes a standard for all future codes of law.","date_from_description":"1275"},"ed170053-eb91-5c65-ac00-3c8cea2efc9c":{"description":"Birth of Nikolaus von Kues (1401–64). His De docta ignorantia is notable for his mystical beliefs. He suggested the earth was a nearly spherical shape that revolved around the Sun.","date_from_description":"1401"},"e628c68b-7d57-5eae-8bd7-d5c088e26ac0":{"description":"Foundation of the kingdom of al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis, which splits from the Fatimid Caliphate of Cairo.","date_from_description":"1016–1062"},"4752ff39-18ff-59d8-96d5-baeeb4555349":{"description":"Second taifas in al-Gharb. Afonso Henriques recognised as king at the Zamora Conference.","date_from_description":"1143"},"2ce84b2f-4047-5460-90db-e0c4b7e0a8a5":{"description":"The church of Haghia Sophia in Constantinople is opened on 27 December by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I having been rebuilt after its destruction in Nika Riot (532).","date_from_description":"537"},"08d3b28a-cbe0-5448-a40c-0fc8b05d11d9":{"description":"The Swedish general Königsmarck sacks the city of Prague and carries off a substantial booty to Sweden. In the same year the Peace of Westphalia finally puts an end to the Thirty Years War.","date_from_description":"1648"},"b64dbe3a-8e3c-5a90-99b8-b1317c0f5e05":{"description":"Orhan Gazi captures Bursa, which becomes the second Ottoman capital after Söğüt.","date_from_description":"1326"},"3d0779fd-2a97-5ac7-bd15-b1fc7e31bd7f":{"description":"The long reign of Bey Hammuda Pasha enhances the legitimacy of the dynasty and helps to stabilise the country.","date_from_description":"1782–1814"},"a54850a0-2512-5381-82c2-2021586cfa21":{"description":"The first Swedish Court of appeal (Svea Hovrätt) is founded by King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf).","date_from_description":"1614"},"67fc703f-3ef6-570f-8ff8-e3d369080329":{"description":"Olomouc Agreement: Matthias Corvinus rules Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia, Vladislav Jagellon rules Bohemia. After Matthias’s death (1490) Vladislav appointed King of Hungary.","date_from_description":"1478"},"7a79996f-5777-5cb7-ac04-407bc2249a9e":{"description":"Austria-Hungary reincorporates the military border into Croatia, increasing the number of ethnic Serbs in Croatia to about 25 per cent.","date_from_description":"1881"},"bb06b73c-f591-5a2b-991b-6707ab102939":{"description":"The authority of the Hungarian-Croatian parliament over Croatian internal legal questions is acknowledged at the joint council at Požun.","date_from_description":"1714–15"},"f308d5db-d4d9-5f21-bcf6-ac477b078299":{"description":"The architectural features of a new capital founded in Samarra have a strong impact on the decorative repertoire all across the Islamic empire and particularly in Egypt and Syria, as seen in Kharab al-Sayyar and al-Raqqa.","date_from_description":"836"},"52b45bf8-f440-5884-9c8b-7b9eedbddc86":{"description":"Charles IV appointed Margrave of Moravia.","date_from_description":"1334"},"f7ed8b5c-10ba-56ca-b0eb-710e579bebb2":{"description":"The Spanish built the fortress at Gibraltar after a failed attempt to take Algiers.","date_from_description":"1516"},"a142599a-d9ce-5b76-a491-1a81036d9d90":{"description":"Caliph al-Mansur builds a garrison city on the Euphrates next to al-Raqqa, called al-Rafiqa, comissioning his son, al-Mahdi, with its construction. The shape of the city is inspired by the circular plan of Baghdad.","date_from_description":"772"},"03f89fe3-cf01-58e1-8991-f61209f7a89c":{"description":"Konradin, son of King Konrad IV of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty, is beheaded. This ends the German emperorship in Italy.","date_from_description":"1268"},"b5a7407b-9961-5d8b-a7e0-332975b142d3":{"description":"Revolution ends the July Monarchy and the Second Republic is proclaimed. Slavery is abolished. Social movements lead to the June Insurrection, which is brutally put down. Algeria becomes a destination for deportees.","date_from_description":"1848"},"024386ec-a697-54b8-a7b3-67bdec18a6ca":{"description":"The Marinid Sultan Abu Yusuf takes Algeciras, Tarifa and Ronda and founds the town of Fez al-Jdid, al-Madina al-Bayda, in Fez.","date_from_description":"1276"},"a02a060e-13d0-5d16-b9b8-4878c75505a8":{"description":"Hammadid coinage minted in Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1148"},"df995303-878c-5e40-99d7-ef78b6593a65":{"description":"Around this time the emporium Birka is founded. This community or small town was situated on a small island in the Lake Mälaren, not far from today’s Stockholm.","date_from_description":"750"},"6103a30e-c153-59de-b332-251e72dc1bc4":{"description":"At Nur al-Din's death, his powerful lieutenant Salah al-Din (Saladin) defeats other claimants to the throne, marries Nur al-Din’s wife and is recognised as sultan, becoming founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty.","date_from_description":"1174"},"b4067dff-b620-5208-9c64-2fed65b17b3e":{"description":"Philip V is proclaimed King of Spain. Start of the Spanish War of Succession, which lasts until 1714. Opening of the southern sea routes.","date_from_description":"1701"},"4bb80339-3cc4-5f43-bb32-146ee218ab19":{"description":"According to the double conquest theory of Gyula László the origin of the first archaeological finds in the Carpathian basin indicate the presence of the first wave of the Hungarian tribes.","date_from_description":"670/680"},"e38eb7bb-c5e8-5f3d-99ac-8bd7b8098123":{"description":"Süleyman Bey, conquering Iznik, declares it the capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs.","date_from_description":"1080"},"9f56d2ae-5739-575f-afdc-e4ba165c8fc6":{"description":"King Gustav Vasa made Sweden a Protestant country. To complete the change from a Catholic to a Protestant country he had the Bible translated into Swedish, and the first Swedish bible is printed in this year. It is based on Martin Luther’s translation and is the foundation for all Swedish Bible translations up until 1917.","date_from_description":"1541"},"55695aa1-b0a9-5f4e-97b5-dea801f7d659":{"description":"Muhammad al-Ikhshid (r. 935–46) conquers Palestine and annexes it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"940"},"d680b239-defd-5fb4-824d-123331d240d3":{"description":"‘Uqba (Okba) ibn Nafi reaches Sebta, Tangiers then Walili (Ancient Volubilis) before going on to the town of Nfis in the Haouz and Igli in the Souss.","date_from_description":"681"},"26a23d8f-c395-5825-94d9-d5f8c8161336":{"description":"Carolina Resolutio: Emperor Karl (Charles) VI (Karl III as king of Hungary) regulates Protestant affairs. England accepts the Pragmatic Sanction in return for economic advantages.","date_from_description":"1731"},"60d59e9e-7ec2-5d98-9957-b3bac9c7f0f0":{"description":"The town of Béjaia founded by the Hammadid prince al-Nasir. Bab al-Bunud (Gateway of the Standards) and Bab al-Bahr (Gateway of the Sea) erected.","date_from_description":"1068"},"77e3d358-67fc-5942-839e-ff23d23e5cfa":{"description":"On 9 July Nikola Tesla is born in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1850"},"7cead247-b0ae-5763-9ebf-59ae5749df87":{"description":"The priest Anders Chydenius from Ostrobothnia (today part of Finland) is elected to parliament, where he actively works for freedom of trade and freedom of print.","date_from_description":"1756"},"75265dcf-e309-5623-bb92-119872b38890":{"description":"Two peace treaties: Vienna ends Hungary’s fight against the Habsburgs led by István Bocskai, Transylvanian prince; Zsitvatorok (part of Dunaradvány, today: Žitava, Slovakia) ends the fight with the Turks. Bocskai dies.","date_from_description":"1606"},"2bcdd51c-06b0-57fc-b7f9-744fb2055517":{"description":"The plague of ‘Amwasa, a town located between Jerusalem and Jaffa, in which hundreds of soldiers and officers, including the army commander Abu ‘Ubaida ‘Amir bin al-Jarrah, lose their lives","date_from_description":"639"},"5e3785a2-a521-54bb-83e6-eafc8e395933":{"description":"Almohad invasion of al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1147"},"eb8e4233-bf9c-543b-a7ae-0bf1fd6ca558":{"description":"Sayf al-Dawla al-Hamdani rules Aleppo as an independent Hamdanid emirate. His court poets, Abu Firas and al-Mutannabi, glorify his many raids on the Byzantine frontier.","date_from_description":"947–967"},"cf41c193-d7d7-55eb-ba75-fef5a91fe51c":{"description":"End of the monarchy (revolution of 5 October).","date_from_description":"1910"},"d6a1262e-96c2-576c-aaf1-286b2b02a307":{"description":"Further Capitulations allow subjects of Western Christian nations (particularly Spanish, Portuguese and Neapolitan) to trade within the Ottoman Empire ‘with the consent and protection of the banner of France’. The alliance with the ‘Grand Seigneur’ is renewed in 1597.","date_from_description":"1604"},"328f265b-a477-590d-ae49-14d4e83ef499":{"description":"The Berlin Conference sets out the manner in which colonies are to be acquired, and preludes the division of Africa. France and Jules Ferry establish a protectorate in Tunisia (1881) and Madagascar (1885). ‘French’ territories in West Africa are united in a federation in 1890.","date_from_description":"1884-85"},"d7184f37-632b-550e-8191-79287a888a15":{"description":"Death of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), last universal genius in Germany and founder of the Prussian Academy of Science, who made major contributions in philosophy and mathemathics.","date_from_description":"1716"},"d50438da-0cee-5e33-978d-cb233a2697f2":{"description":"At the Battle of Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo, the Ottoman Empire defeats the Mamluks and takes over Syria.","date_from_description":"1516"},"aed23dd2-da70-5f34-aef6-f6a964358c01":{"description":"Emperor Franz Joseph I declares the February Patent and dismisses the Hungarian Diet. Ányos Jedlik invents the dynamo. Compulsory preventive injection against pox introduced in Szabolcs County by Dr Frigyes Korányi.","date_from_description":"1861"},"246fac45-2103-5efc-93ef-b65ee8b5167c":{"description":"Nur al-Din, son of Zangi, takes control of Damascus and establishes it as a capital city. It becomes the new cultural, economic, religious, political and educational hub of the Islamic world at large, attracting many scholars.","date_from_description":"1154"},"03283052-9368-563f-8de6-2f6862950274":{"description":"Abbasid revolt in Beja, which quickly spreads to all of al-Gharb.","date_from_description":"763"},"2d648f71-76bf-5cd6-abf4-4e8acbf9fe43":{"description":"Coronation of King (St) László I who reforms Hungary’s legal codes, administrative and ecclesiastical system and life (1083: canonisation of King István and Prince Imre; 1092: synod of Szabolcs).","date_from_description":"1077"},"4081b08b-c5ec-5ae8-a186-1eb79b2a0d5a":{"description":"Badr Al-Jamali, the Fatimid vizier, consolidates Cairo’s walls while extending its perimeter.","date_from_description":"1087"},"ea659014-2186-58a5-8ced-5cd030253cdc":{"description":"Mulay Hafid signs the treaty for the French protectorate in Morocco","date_from_description":"11912"},"20a1d615-9888-5343-8c3e-bf6100e8fdb1":{"description":"Building of St Vitus Cathedral at Prague Castle commenced (master builder: Matthias of Arras, followed by Peter Parler). Foundation of Prague archbishopric.","date_from_description":"1344"},"0c9c6a2c-5309-550f-9f89-8d04b23940b9":{"description":"Arwad Island is the last Crusader position in Syria to be repossessed by the Muslims.","date_from_description":"1302"},"c450cd75-fa24-561e-a4cd-2ac9f99cdd45":{"description":"The powerful As‘ad Pasha al-‘Azm governs Damascus and comes down heavily on the local janissaries who were rising in power. He builds the ‘Azm palaces in Hama and in Damascus, as well as his famous caravanserai.","date_from_description":"1742–1757"},"9f214dfe-dd30-5976-9274-7ea677e01a05":{"description":"Muhammad ibn Tughj, governor of Amman under the Tulunids, defeats the Bedouins and bandits who attack pilgrim caravans; this gives him celebrity in Baghdad.","date_from_description":"918"},"7f434184-ddcb-5c28-8d42-ab2dbdfab6d0":{"description":"Issa ibn Yazid al-Assouad founds the town of Sijilmassa at Tafilalet, the great desert port on the gold route.","date_from_description":"757"},"b890b9a0-58fe-5006-9f93-59534db03cef":{"description":"Idris II (son of Idris I) founds the town of al-Aliya in the Kairouan Quarter (Adwat al-Qayrawaniyyin) on the left bank of the Wadi Fez.","date_from_description":"808"},"c8403923-cc76-54ee-ad2b-f2c59506b3b4":{"description":"Tarik ibn Ziyad crosses the Straits of Gibraltar, defeats King Roderick of Spain and takes Córdoba and Toledo.","date_from_description":"711"},"85d90573-8eac-5412-b1c7-11162616f0a0":{"description":"Foundation of Budapest with the unification of Buda, Pest and Óbuda. Plans by architect Miklós Ybl for the opera house in Budapest. Celebration of the 50th annniversary of Liszt’s musical career.","date_from_description":"1873"},"d0a1821f-6553-5881-8654-dca4b4851c0b":{"description":"Adrian IV grants a papal bull, Laudabiliter, which recognises Henry II of England as lord of Ireland and licenses English colonisation of Ireland; the process begins with Henry’s arrival in 1171.","date_from_description":"1155"},"592cecff-2d36-5a77-98f1-8da2b13b45fb":{"description":"Birth of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.","date_from_description":"1238"},"547fd8d0-cdb7-50cf-813e-0a6d738ad687":{"description":"A Royal Navy fleet led by Admiral Lord Nelson in HMS Victory destroys the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar; Nelson is killed in the battle.","date_from_description":"1805"},"e2c660af-cf37-5e43-bdf9-58206070e022":{"description":"A great famine strikes the country due to the low Nile flood, during the rule of Amir Yazid ibn Hakim al-Mahdi, ruler of the Abbasids.","date_from_description":"764"},"bdc520c0-d465-57f8-94ca-4cb5e75dd289":{"description":"The Muslims begin the conquest of Spain under the leadership of Tarik ibn Ziyad.","date_from_description":"711"},"52f62145-5642-55a4-937b-73eed89a215b":{"description":"Olomouc bishopric promoted to archbishopric. Foundation of a bishopric in Brno. Abolition of serfdom. Riots of the Evangelicals in Wallachia.","date_from_description":"1777"},"a1a9d06b-86f3-5944-bedc-2ce44282d5f5":{"description":"The Danelaw – the Viking area in the east and north-east of England with its own legal system – is established after the English king Alfred affirms his authority over the Viking leaders.","date_from_description":"886"},"01c4ef6b-4b90-50a4-8386-a6c9459347cd":{"description":"Berber insurrections threaten the Byzantine army, which suffered repeated setbacks.","date_from_description":"534–548"},"4daf1c53-294e-5b97-8c94-86a42bc8918a":{"description":"Karak Castle is built by Payen le Boutellier. It is named Crac de Moab or simply le Crac by the Franks. It was a very important castle to Crusaders due to its position as a watch centre of the Islamic army movements.","date_from_description":"1142"},"debccaa7-c112-539c-9761-c664285d1e7e":{"description":"Anti-Habsburg revolution and freedom fight (from March 15) led by Lajos Kossuth. Independent Hungarian government (Prime Minister: Count Lajos Batthyány). Hungarian victory in the battle of Pákozd.","date_from_description":"1848"},"35f32299-83bc-56af-8759-78e7c473b0fa":{"description":"The Umayyad Dynasty starts its caliphate in Syria and Jordan under Mu’awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, who makes Damascus his capital.","date_from_description":"661"},"0458a9da-8b4d-5ff0-87e0-da901e4ea1ac":{"description":"Wenceslas II crowned King of Bohemia. Minting of Prague kreuzers, the most sought-after European silver currency. Wenceslas crowned King of Poland 1300, of Hungary 1301. The murder of Wenceslas III (1306) ended male line of Przemyslid dynasty.","date_from_description":"1283"},"70009b19-9e8c-5af5-88a6-11f1459e79c3":{"description":"Annexation of the Kingdom of Portugal.","date_from_description":"1580"},"e8e5c1de-5a72-513d-8780-6bd0f9d01843":{"description":"The Muslim armies expand in southern Palestine, and then begin to move towards the north. In the Battle of Yarmuk the Byzantine army is defeated and Greater Syria gradually falls under the control of the Muslim army.","date_from_description":"636"},"6dd7704e-28da-54cd-994e-31a3250028c9":{"description":"Declaration of the Papal Bull of the Dissolution of the Jesuit Order. Prince Miklós Esterházy entertains Queen Maria Theresia (Theresa) in Eszterháza with splendid festivities, including Haydn’s music.","date_from_description":"1773"},"dd13de0c-ab78-5a7d-b509-d34b51f10b4d":{"description":"Battle of Hattin in which Salah al-Din defeats the Crusader army and liberates Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1187"},"e6a20dd3-2812-51b6-b796-4a720035fc27":{"description":"The Highland Clearances, where tenants are evicted to make way for sheep farming, result in thousands of Scots emigrating to America, Australia, New Zealand and Canada between 1763 and 1775.","date_from_description":"1763"},"2fc2c359-cb5d-59f7-b25c-981347b36b4b":{"description":"Conquest of Nasrid Granada and expulsion of the last Muslim power in the Peninsula.  \nExpulsion of the Jews.  \nDiscovery of America.","date_from_description":"1492"},"cea62768-a82e-516b-8739-68da41e5739c":{"description":"A Portuguese column infiltrates Moroccan lands and begin work on the Graciosa fortress on the Loukkos River.","date_from_description":"1489"},"9f93ae4f-7f45-508b-a9d1-aefe15619aba":{"description":"The famous Swedish author August Strindberg is born.","date_from_description":"1849"},"c7e39669-756d-5628-a85e-5f6e63e52e37":{"description":"A treaty is made between the Roman Empire and the Ghassanids, a Christian Arab tribe settled in southern Syria and Damascus, in order to defend the eastern frontiers against the Persians.","date_from_description":"502"},"0dbef608-f76a-5bbf-b4a4-4896564ff2b0":{"description":"First war of independence: Charles Albert of Savoy, King of Sardinia (1831–49) leads a coalition of Italian states to drive the Austrians from the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.","date_from_description":"1848"},"dbfb208e-9ef7-5de2-80cf-cbb2915bc41d":{"description":"The Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah (r. 996–1021) orders the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre Church. Ten years later he would order its rebuilding.","date_from_description":"1009"},"fb485c98-2fef-5d95-9979-b4759442a502":{"description":"The Almoravids found the town of Marrakesh, heralding the start of a new era in Maghreb and al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1062"},"5bce1a44-ff42-5246-adff-a861e0eea35a":{"description":"The end of the Tulunids in Palestine.","date_from_description":"905"},"7cbfe03b-c7db-5dae-9833-cb09f7a8e4dc":{"description":"Expounding his economic and social programme (including regulation of the lower Danube) Count István Széchenyi publishes *Hitel* (Credit) the first Hungarian socio-economic reform programme.","date_from_description":"1830"},"ed3443e2-ad25-5fe5-9e41-af9913c072da":{"description":"Timur-i-Lang (Tamerlane) sacks Damascus and the economy deteriorates; plague and famine are rife.","date_from_description":"1400"},"36e1af7c-3bb9-5f93-9462-befff7918c1f":{"description":"Insurrections and popular resistance against the occupation.","date_from_description":"1881–1885"},"de69d57f-9181-57df-a130-8edc2aaa1536":{"description":"The building of the Aswan Dam to control the Nile water and the entire irrigation system.","date_from_description":"1902"},"02290e31-334b-5a29-8261-9812e231a56e":{"description":"Start of the Bourbon dynasty with the coronation of Phillip V.  \nStart of the Spanish War of Succession.","date_from_description":"1701"},"963e3689-f49e-516d-953b-972e7f9e5da2":{"description":"A professorial chair of Semitic languages is established at Uppsala University. It is the oldest chair of Semitic languages in Sweden.","date_from_description":"1605"},"8ae3414f-1a18-5e0e-9e99-e6b89b13d3d9":{"description":"The death of Sinan, the master architect of the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1588"},"ecde9fa3-39ac-5cad-8542-8c81a363ddf5":{"description":"Ottoman Empire declares bankruptcy. Balkan uprisings.","date_from_description":"1875"},"0ac12064-9012-5038-b235-781a1675ef56":{"description":"In Torgau in Saxonia the first German opera ‘Dafne’ composed by Heinrich Schütz (1595–1672) is first performed.","date_from_description":"1627"},"a4e05eba-2359-59d5-9a95-f94cff178e1e":{"description":"Jesuits build their church in Rijeka. Dedicated to St Vitus it is the first and the biggest circular Baroque building in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1638"},"86240532-f224-5c3b-b019-d55fbe08f618":{"description":"Birth of Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634), Duke of Friedland, who became the foremost general of emperor Ferdinand II (1619–37) of the Habsburg Dynasty in the Thirty Years’ War.","date_from_description":"1583"},"c107a8ac-aa8d-5c26-b7e9-2acbaccec4fe":{"description":"Amuri, King of Jerusalem and leader of the Crusader army, captures the city of Bilbis and slaughters every man, woman and child. The burning of Fustat is ordered by Shawar, minister of the Fatimid caliph, to prevent the Crusaders from reaching Cairo. Twenty thousand barrels of oil were used for this purpose and the fire continued for 54 days.","date_from_description":"1168"},"2c3e0e21-8805-5b99-af1f-0073a37781e3":{"description":"Muhammad ‘Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, sends his army under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha to conquer Palestine and succeeds in bringing the country under his control.","date_from_description":"1831"},"87a43f83-013e-52ab-97a5-e7971a3d8fa8":{"description":"The Peace Treaty of Drinápoly (Adrianapolis). Bálint Bakfark (Valentin Greff Bakfark) whose lute pieces were published in Lyon (1552) lives at the Transylvanian princely court (in 1572 moves to Padua).","date_from_description":"1568"},"d5aa0473-92b6-535a-9451-3e271c580839":{"description":"Construction of the Sidi Bel Hassan Mosque in Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1296"},"01372f83-ca10-5ef4-866f-abb829d2045a":{"description":"Italy’s first parliament is inaugurated in Turin. Victor Emanuel II, King of Sardinia (1849–61), becomes the first king of Italy (1861–78).","date_from_description":"1861"},"afdf4a34-61cf-57cb-8a1a-f0c93d8cf7fb":{"description":"Census: 3 million people in the Czech lands. Introduction of astandardised system of measures and weights. P. Diviš constructed the first lightning conductor. V. A. Kounic-Rietberg became court and state chancellor.","date_from_description":"1754"},"2611a998-35c3-5527-a22a-5f62c77511b5":{"description":"Prince Charles Edward Stuart (‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’) lands in Scotland and starts a campaign to restore his father James Francis (the Old Pretender) to the thrones of Britain.","date_from_description":"1745"},"7afa4b50-1a4e-5434-8131-18e2304e897c":{"description":"Beginning of a power crisis for the central emirate sparking local rebellions for independence.","date_from_description":"879"},"d441d9d9-9d79-5a5d-b9e5-0730eba6dce7":{"description":"Charles of Anjou, brother of the King of France, marries Beatrice, heir to the Count of Provence. Sailors from Marseilles become special allies of the Angevins in southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1246"},"039f8476-dc69-5a48-9254-5588439d72eb":{"description":"Abu Imran al-Fassi, originally from Fez and celebrated faqih from Ifriqya (Tunisia), where he settled to teach, dies in Kairouan.","date_from_description":"1038"},"f765b2af-f1fc-560b-b967-c8a80d2cefb9":{"description":"The first wave of Eastern European Jewish immigrants settles in Palestine; this is the beginning of several waves of European Jewish immigration to Palestine.","date_from_description":"1882"},"2b15f4e6-26ad-5dcc-b2c8-592e4c9462c3":{"description":"Start of Portuguese expansion in Morocco with the conquest of Ceuta.","date_from_description":"1415"},"3ae5c9c0-9320-5c9d-b667-aa81029ad761":{"description":"Hernán Cortés completes the conquest of the Aztec Empire (Mexico).","date_from_description":"1521"},"1e25c1a1-f5e8-5679-972d-8d4abe2b9708":{"description":"Birth of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who is seen as one of the foremost composers of concertos, cantatas and oratorios in the Western tonal tradition.","date_from_description":"1685"},"5e48d6b8-ed2b-53a7-8e62-e7e65d3cb699":{"description":"Al-Mahdi ibn Tumart takes action against the Almoravids to aid the Hargha, Tinmel, Hintata tribes, etc.","date_from_description":"1123"},"2d5e5adf-59ef-5b7b-8714-644157da49f0":{"description":"The fall of ‘Asqalan, the last Fatimid military base in Palestine.","date_from_description":"1153"},"c495b5a1-d33e-5830-8f73-2b4173b274eb":{"description":"Ya‘qub al-Mansur founds the town of Rabat (Ribat al-Fath – the field of victory).","date_from_description":"1196–7"},"0f13e13f-532c-5c56-a15a-0f0dc5ac7378":{"description":"The Crusaders take Antioch in June after a nine-month siege, founding the first Crusader state in the Levant.","date_from_description":"1098"},"55a62e78-aeb7-50e8-85b5-4686d142ee47":{"description":"Victory of Charles Martel (688–741) of the Carolingian Dynasty at the battle of Tours and Poitiers (southern France) over Arab insurgents leads to their retreat to the southern valley of the Rhone.","date_from_description":"732"},"750711da-d1fc-5020-88cd-cbf8b44b3bd7":{"description":"The Ayyubid king al-Salih Najm al-Din orders the construction of a congregational mosque at Ajlun; it seems not to have had a minaret.","date_from_description":"1247"},"fc0145f9-4901-5066-af76-09df98b21db9":{"description":"Belvoir citadel (Kawkab al-Hawa) is built in a wave of citadel-building all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"1141"},"b5185e44-a403-59df-aac5-72e0072cab29":{"description":"The Portuguese Inquisition starts its work. Jesuits arrive in Portugal.","date_from_description":"1540"},"4e65e772-0a02-5bc0-b0f5-337190cf98d8":{"description":"The Battle of Hattin. The rise of the Ayyubid dynasty as a successful force against the Crusaders, combined with cultural and demographic changes, transforms the face of Palestine after many years of Crusader control.","date_from_description":"1187"},"9eae650a-ec2f-593b-8811-0ba66ad6f62a":{"description":"Edward I defeats William Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk and reconquers Scotland. Wallace goes into hiding but is captured in 1305 and executed in London for treason.","date_from_description":"1298"},"fc9476ee-fd24-5794-8618-07c87f363c41":{"description":"The first Anglican school is established in the city of Salt by Metropolitan Samuel Gobat who established 37 schools in the villages and cities of the region.","date_from_description":"1856"},"258c0bff-a9a9-5e51-af16-8f05e17c4a43":{"description":"The Pragmatic Sanction: Charles VI declared the heritability of the Habsburg crown in the female line in default of a male heir, and the indivisibility of the countries of the House of Habsburg. Plague endemics.","date_from_description":"1713"},"13a93ace-6a19-5374-9786-7b306ea3d7f4":{"description":"The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo by the United Kingdom, Prussia, Austria and Russia marks the end of the Napoleonic Wars and peace is established in Europe at the Congress of Vienna.","date_from_description":"1815"},"afaa331a-14ae-5af1-ba8c-2ab3f441e759":{"description":"Discovery of the Madeira archipelago.","date_from_description":"1419"},"d0055e62-03e6-5062-b550-94e01bccb816":{"description":"Conversion of Oghuz Turks to Islam.","date_from_description":"920–950"},"81f0fc36-c1ce-58fa-bce0-101ffd4fe578":{"description":"Bramante begins construction of the new Basilica of Saint Peter.","date_from_description":"1506"},"299920bb-2a53-53ee-8813-0d0c51f44bef":{"description":"The Act of Union unites the kingdoms of England and Scotland and transfers the seat of Scottish government to London, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain.","date_from_description":"1707"},"e21b4827-ea94-5fb0-8cf5-de9a45f8e87b":{"description":"Merchants from Amalfi (Italy) construct a huge social institution including a hospital in Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1048"},"c300e0d4-21f2-5804-b91a-5e00d38022a5":{"description":"According to Annales Cambriae, the Battle of Camlann is fought between the forces of King Arthur and Mordred; both leaders are killed in the battle.","date_from_description":"537"},"b0f65cad-ac36-5a16-9132-edb438476d9a":{"description":"Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, replaces the rule of the family of Zahir ‘Umar, taking ‘Akka as the capital of his semi-independent state, fortifying the city and constructing its beautiful mosque, which still stands today.","date_from_description":"1775"},"44eb6702-267e-5192-a6ab-eb4c560ff6a9":{"description":"Juan Sebastián Elcano completes the first circumnavigation of the globe.","date_from_description":"1522"},"8c321b63-6e09-5e87-90a9-24d28ee25683":{"description":"The Aghlabids begin the conquest of Sicily.","date_from_description":"827"},"bcbb11ff-390a-518b-99f5-f2b734224056":{"description":"The Great Nordic War breaks out, with Russia, Poland and Denmark against Sweden led by King Charles XII (Karl XII).","date_from_description":"1700"},"3203faf7-f674-56b8-9ff5-abe8897e67c3":{"description":"King Otto II (r. 973–83) marries the Byzantine princess Theophanu and Byzantine influence enters German art and culture.","date_from_description":"972"},"46c4cfb1-3593-5170-976b-ba0e420253d1":{"description":"Damascus–Beirut railway (and Damascus–Hijaz railway in 1908) built by German workers reflecting economic and industrial ties between the Ottoman Empire and Germany. The German Emperor William II visits Damascus on November 1898.","date_from_description":"1895"},"627c032e-d1d5-5cea-adb2-a0a4eb3e15f3":{"description":"War of Catalonia and Portuguese secession.","date_from_description":"1640"},"62f41fd3-1860-5be0-9c04-7a6370e10a79":{"description":"Union of the German Reich with the Kingdom of Burgundy under King Konrad II (1024–39) of the Salian Dynasty.","date_from_description":"1033"},"47812d73-1765-51c9-a1f7-9106287d7a3c":{"description":"Tunis taken by the Ottoman privateer Barbarossa Khayr al-Din Pasha.","date_from_description":"1534"},"0c16ddc8-4b72-5640-a182-52ff75fa9b1e":{"description":"The Hungarian Diet accepts the Habsburgs’ female succession. Introduction of a Newcomen-type steam machine, the first in continental Europe, in Újbánya (Königsberg; today: Nová Baňa, Slovakia).","date_from_description":"1722"},"74d3f4fa-4fe1-515b-bbb2-84c36f36cf52":{"description":"Tahert founded by the Rustamids.","date_from_description":"761"},"1d082139-5292-56e4-aac4-022bb99ea92a":{"description":"The first parliament  (Meclis-i Mebusan) is established.","date_from_description":"1877"},"1ede7a52-2e20-52ab-9f52-e95f1bdc881d":{"description":"Byzantine conquest of Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"533"},"58e49658-5d56-5cee-a255-546c446b7c9c":{"description":"The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope has an adverse effect on trade in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1492"},"066dc71a-dabf-545c-a60b-833d19fe67b2":{"description":"Charles I is tried and executed; the Commonwealth, in which England is governed as a republic, is established and lasts until 1660 (it exists in name alone through Cromwell’s Protectorate of 1653–9).","date_from_description":"1649"},"f209ded8-b80a-51ad-ba20-d1c2ab088ec1":{"description":"The Damascene theologian ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, from Sufi order called al-Naqshabandiyya, influenced by Ibn al-Arabi, writes many works on religion and mystical philosophy.","date_from_description":"1670"},"1a8d42c0-fd99-58bb-a840-10b2be8dc7a9":{"description":"In the Treaty of Verdun the Frankish Empire is divided into three separate parts called West-, Middle- and East Francia. The Germanic Empire is called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.","date_from_description":"843"},"d92743d5-0fb0-5c9a-8f0f-d125f43c5a5f":{"description":"Amir Ziri ibn Atiya of the Maghrawa founds the town of Oujda in Eastern Morocco.","date_from_description":"994"},"bff4327f-780e-50a1-b88c-190b4d016eaf":{"description":"In this year the German missionary Ansgarius visits Birka, preaching Christianity to the Swedes, according to Vita Ansgarii by the monk Rimbert.","date_from_description":"830"},"9954217a-4406-5abd-b1f8-a0d807e80755":{"description":"Ahmad Ibn Tulun (r. 868–84) conquers Palestine and annexes it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"877"},"415862c6-3b5a-5779-961a-b814e4cf1d07":{"description":"Moorish rebellion in the Alpujarras.  \nRisings in the Netherlands.","date_from_description":"1568"},"71de5983-ed40-5903-a03a-2487540de8d6":{"description":"Emperor Justinian I dies on 13/14 November. He was famous for his successful military campaigns and also for his reform of the legal code. He was also known as ‘the last Roman Emperor’.","date_from_description":"565"},"a2d7fd9a-de9f-53a2-8ead-7daca1751e64":{"description":"The Almoravid Sanhaja set out the conquer the Maghreb under the leadership of ‘Abdallah ibn Yassine.","date_from_description":"1054"},"71e546a2-7016-560d-ab53-888d66bd85df":{"description":"Great hardship due to a very high flood preventing the sowing of new crops in season; a great rise in prices and the cost of living.","date_from_description":"1620"},"f596be10-32f7-5725-a5c7-7516ddd7c5c0":{"description":"Arab nationalists are executed in May by Ottoman governor Jamal Pasha in Marjeh Square, Damascus.  \nSykes-Picot Treaty signed by the French and British imperial forces, dividing the Arab lands.","date_from_description":"1916"},"41c83dd7-921e-5b8b-b4a6-27f412fa3e00":{"description":"Chlothar I, son of Clovis, becomes the sole ruler of the Franks, having previously shared his kingdom with his brothers.","date_from_description":"558"},"653e8114-1347-5a8c-8353-1dcadec7cbb6":{"description":"Pippin of Herstal, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, reunites the Frankish kingdom, which had disintegrated under the last of the Merovingians.","date_from_description":"680"},"ca13f3c3-9178-595b-a98d-ba165ecdfeae":{"description":"Liberal victory in the civil war. Establishment of a constitutional monarchy.","date_from_description":"1834"},"c79a75fb-768d-524b-b8d4-01aa62350453":{"description":"Elizabeth I accedes to the throne of England and Ireland and rules for 45 years; she is the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn and the final monarch of the Tudor dynasty.","date_from_description":"1558"},"e2946e30-19c8-53fb-8154-96405aa99d19":{"description":"Law separating the Church and the State.","date_from_description":"1911"},"36c600ee-238c-5104-b1d5-181e80447600":{"description":"Ibn Marzuq, celebrated historian of the Marinid Sultan Abu al-Hassan, dies in Fez.","date_from_description":"1380"},"a7c94de7-b5cb-5cd4-af7b-9f2d9b779252":{"description":"Baldwin I, the Crusader king of Jerusalem, erects a huge castle at Shawbak on a high mountain in Jordan in order to dominate the area, naming it Le Crac de Montreal.","date_from_description":"1115"},"addd7ffb-1d9e-5390-9ecf-d4bae80076f7":{"description":"French expedition to Egypt, led by Napoleon, which continues for three years during which the first Arabic printing house was established in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1798"},"fb4893db-de69-5c2c-acb9-9f0032da2e9f":{"description":"Reign of the reformist prince Ahmad Pasha Bey.","date_from_description":"1837–1855"},"e8286945-4b4e-5742-8d29-67d38200b404":{"description":"Prince Géza is succeeded by his son István who continues the Hungarian conversion to Christianity. Following nomadic tradition Prince Koppány claims the rulership but is defeated and killed.","date_from_description":"997"},"d7c0ba86-2670-50a8-a0e9-229880d1cff3":{"description":"Around this time the portcullis gate in the Eketorp ring-fort on Öland falls for the last time. As far as we know, this gate, built around AD 400, was the first of its kind outside the Roman Empire.","date_from_description":"500"},"578433d4-58b0-5d8e-a4fd-1cb6e7b3c05c":{"description":"Start of the First Crusade, preached by Pope Urban II at Clermont. The People’s Crusade is mostly annihilated, but the Princes’ Crusade reaches Palestine and takes Jerusalem in 1099, establishing the Frankish Kingdom in the east.","date_from_description":"1096"},"788dca06-e404-5193-be41-f794901f648b":{"description":"The land of Thuringia is conquered by rulers of the Merovingian Dynasty with the help of the Saxons.","date_from_description":"531"},"153f92ad-21a5-5743-b4bb-1ac74cad8c8a":{"description":"Charles Martel, son of Pippin of Herstal, stops the Muslims of ‘Abd al-Rahman who had raided as far as Poitiers, and subsequently extends his rule over Aquitaine and Provence.","date_from_description":"734"},"64b55451-65d4-56b5-925b-b3fc5a3df271":{"description":"Travelling artists perform the first opera in Zagreb *I Filosofi imaginari* composed by Giovanni Paisiello, which marks the beginning of the new repertoire including Rossini, Bellini, etc.","date_from_description":"1799"},"c3385d5c-571e-559d-8bd4-9c5b2553d3d5":{"description":"The marriage of the daughter of Khumarawayh, Qatr al-Nada, to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tadid. The legendary wedding, including the trousseau, costs the Egyptian treasury over 1.2 million gold dinars.","date_from_description":"895"},"44f2f8e6-56eb-50ea-872a-14c2cdb51258":{"description":"King Charles XII (Karl XII) dies and is succeeded by his sister Ulrika Eleonora the Younger. The royal power is restricted, with more power given to council and parliament.","date_from_description":"1718"},"39331e52-56f9-57b3-aa21-c246025ffb0f":{"description":"Death of Louis XIV. A long regency period ensues, marked by the financial experience of Law and the colonisation of Louisiana.","date_from_description":"1715"},"49e447ab-f314-5806-b5f5-033f39e6eb13":{"description":"Death of the Berber resistance fighter Kahina.","date_from_description":"701"},"6e3698f2-02b9-5756-aa41-c8cf4f9b792e":{"description":"Numerous forts established to hold Kabylie (Dellys, Azzefoun, Béjaia).","date_from_description":"1721"},"c87a811f-3fcb-5dcb-a5f5-0343b00e651b":{"description":"The start of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) between Protestants and Catholics; the war has disastruous results, including death, poverty and serious economic stagnation.","date_from_description":"1618"},"81caa2dd-140e-52b3-adec-c7b1a4e46a34":{"description":"End of the Christian conquest of the west of the peninsula.","date_from_description":"1249"},"f195491d-369a-5107-b22f-925f5752f876":{"description":"Construction of the Djama’a al-Djedid mosque in Algiers, the first Hanafite mosque, inspired by Byzantine architecture.","date_from_description":"1660"},"4527189c-23d1-5794-9384-5b409f2418f1":{"description":"Conquest of Cairo by Selim I the Grim.","date_from_description":"1517"},"f2bb5e9a-aa69-5950-869b-6a56797e20ae":{"description":"Last Mongol invasion of Damascus, by Timur i-Lang (Tamerlane).  \nIbn Khaldun, Tunisian historian in Damascus at the time, pleads with Tamerlane on behalf of the city, but the Citadel is breached and the city sacked.","date_from_description":"1400-1"},"0e9b8eb8-e957-5457-940d-eed66f32c54c":{"description":"The Convention Parliament restores Charles II to the English throne; the Indemnity Act pardons all except those who had signed Charles I’s death warrant, and they are hung, drawn and quartered.","date_from_description":"1660"},"8fcec683-d1c6-572d-b49b-de8829a1ce4a":{"description":"The Synod of Whitby establishes the date of Easter in Britain and consequently the supremacy of Roman Christianity over Celtic Christianity.","date_from_description":"664"},"636b3bef-07bf-57f9-843a-faeefcb32adb":{"description":"The battle of ‘Ain Jalut, the first defeat of the Mogul armies and the rise of the Mamluk power in Greater Syria in addition to Egypt.","date_from_description":"1260"},"b742f38f-fcd3-5ba8-9605-1a54dd34a156":{"description":"The Almoravids enter Fez and take control of the Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1069"},"d11003b4-e777-5ecb-b0eb-805d3ec485fe":{"description":"Battle of Mohacs. Ludwig Jagellon defeated by the Turks, the dynasty died out. According to a contract from 1515, the Czech throne passes to the Habsburg dynasty. Anti-Habsburg movement of the Czech Estates.","date_from_description":"1526"},"6ac1e7a4-0763-567a-9aab-392a58ec9f2a":{"description":"Promulgation of a charter during the reign of Muhammad Pasha Bey guaranteeing the rights of his Tunisian subjects and people living in Tunisia.","date_from_description":"1857"},"2a28984c-7460-524b-babb-a5502f9b5da7":{"description":"The inauguration of the first railway between Jaffa and Jerusalem","date_from_description":"1892"},"152c36c0-d0a5-53f3-aaa1-1679e8b8f8d0":{"description":"Mutiny of Aranjuez and abdication of Charles IV in favour of his son Ferdinand VII. Abdications of Bayonne. Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain. Popular uprising in Madrid on 2 May and start of the War of Independence against the French occupiers (1808–13).","date_from_description":"1808"},"1ca0bf3c-392f-5a57-b07d-4bb268d08b2c":{"description":"The coronation of the last Hungarian royal couple, Charles IV and Zita. Romania declares war on Hungary and enters Transylvania. The Allies reject the peace note of the Central Powers.","date_from_description":"1916"},"fb446172-097e-5137-9d15-1e91ba397877":{"description":"The Fatimid caliphate defeats the alliance army of Bilad al-Sham, whose ambition was to establish a state for themselves, and dominates southern Bilad al-Sham again.","date_from_description":"1028"},"66fad516-8a22-5323-a257-6ffceec9710b":{"description":"Foundation of Oran.","date_from_description":"904"},"6dd3eff4-4a18-552a-855d-86149b51f527":{"description":"Building of the Great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus proclaims the imperial status of the new religion and places Islam on an equal footing with the strong Christian heritage of the region.","date_from_description":"705–15"},"ea03b14b-4d46-52b3-9829-7c5d67ea667d":{"description":"Draught and famine in Egypt because of the low Nile flood and more than 17,500 persons die that year.","date_from_description":"1296"},"2f8c1e29-2c7a-5d73-9603-1ddb08087165":{"description":"Charles VII is crowned in Reims, having been proclaimed the true king of France by Joan of Arc. A gradual reconquest of the kingdom begins, to be completed towards the end of the 15th century.","date_from_description":"1429"},"7eb8ac05-861b-5f54-869d-e7795df9ca02":{"description":"The rule of the Azem family, lasting nearly a century, indicates the rise of local urban notables into the leadership of Syria as Ottoman strength in the Arab provinces begins to weaken.","date_from_description":"1725–1820"},"9dbe88be-fa1c-5e79-b79f-e51460222b58":{"description":"The Tulunid dynasty collapses and Egypt reverts to direct Abbasid control.","date_from_description":"905"},"8e713a24-daae-5f44-8cda-86a8f557f7a3":{"description":"On the initiative of Charles VI the Karolina road from Karlovac to Bosilje, Vrbovsko, Mrkopalj, Bakar and Rijeka is built.","date_from_description":"1726"},"a5b46708-9432-5415-8f45-474e2c94e280":{"description":"Battle of Lipany, defeat of the Hussites. Sigismund of Luxemburg crowned Czech king (1436). The Basle “Compacts” acknowledging the communion of bread and wine.","date_from_description":"1434"},"dbe59a55-2cd7-53ec-b4b2-afb589fe96bd":{"description":"Jesuit mathematician Ruđer Bošković publishes his work *De natura et usu infinitorum et infinite parvorum* in Rome.","date_from_description":"1741"},"9d566a6f-e45e-5d52-9f49-fc632c7d95bc":{"description":"Italy joins the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria: Italian colonial policy begins.","date_from_description":"1882"},"2d9a0fd0-882b-5e8b-b439-eaac6a9dbd5b":{"description":"Appearance of the first taifa kingdoms in al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1013"},"1a506441-db7f-5726-acfc-932b10d3a7b1":{"description":"Al-Mahdi's son, Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, the protagonist of many tales in the ‘1001 nights’, moves his court to al-Raqqa, which becomes the ‘Abbasid capital for the next 12 years.","date_from_description":"796-808"},"c66f6fba-6819-5196-9c17-35fb4891c439":{"description":"The socio-cultural movement in Ifriqiya flourishes with individuals such as Sidi Bou Saïd and Sidi Mehrez venerated as patron saints.","date_from_description":"1253"},"c06fd0fe-9f1f-56a4-a4fe-eaa140c0ae59":{"description":"Charles I fails to arrest five members of Parliament for treason and leaves London to raise an army; the First English Civil War begins between Cavaliers (royalists) and Roundheads (parliamentarians).","date_from_description":"1642"},"92bb47f6-e25d-5b2c-8c90-6cce1133f7fd":{"description":"The first Western musical instrument in the Ottoman Palace: .an organ sent by Elizabeth I of England to Mehmet III.","date_from_description":"1595"},"44b77875-cbba-5a35-a2f4-48014c5867ec":{"description":"On the initiative of the Council of Trent the Bishop of Zagreb, Juraj Drašković, establishes the Zagreb Seminary (Seminarium Clericorum) to promote theology.","date_from_description":"1565"},"7f0247de-f0bf-5359-855d-9d7d6cfdb6e5":{"description":"Birth of the illustrious scholar Ibn Arfa.","date_from_description":"1316"},"de762d60-c903-57cf-bc84-0eeb2eadec27":{"description":"Civil war, known as the Wars of the Roses, breaks out between the rival royal houses of Lancaster and York, marked by the First Battle of St Albans.","date_from_description":"1455"},"0f5acb2c-7e7f-51ea-8a8b-9e0b1503a5d8":{"description":"The first diplomatic agreement of the Croats with the Holy See. 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The town of Dorpat (Tartu) is today in Estonia.","date_from_description":"1632"},"44829943-397f-50a4-acae-5a65332f8c8c":{"description":"Jesuits build the Church of St Catherine in Zagreb, from its architecture and inventory one of the most outstanding Jesuit churches in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1620"},"6a8e5a77-1843-5ea2-9525-f6305af2a714":{"description":"The papal residence moved back to Rome from Avignon during the pontificate of Gregory XI (1370–8).","date_from_description":"1377"},"d30aeb41-22eb-5171-b465-98b2ac76c327":{"description":"Death of the historian Ibn Khaldun.","date_from_description":"1406"},"26bcb535-5673-53d3-ad7f-5b58d2f25a57":{"description":"Cultural and economic exchange between the Italian states and Mamluk Syria, exemplified by Andreas Alpagos, physician of the Venetian consulate in Damascus, who translates many Arabic manuscripts.","date_from_description":"1491–1520"},"5a1ea0bc-5eaa-51e5-ba81-3c6a7d87d08a":{"description":"Autocracy is introduced under King Charles XI (Karl XI).","date_from_description":"1680"},"5f65d4d2-401d-512b-aa01-486fbc8f5134":{"description":"The Slavery Abolition Act makes slavery illegal throughout the British Empire, partly as a result of a ten-year campaign by evangelicals, quakers and methodists.","date_from_description":"1833"},"bfd763d5-09d1-5db0-8408-5e1f7fba178e":{"description":"On 3 September the Battle of ‘Ain Jalut takes place in Palestine between the Muslim Mamluks and the nomadic tribes of Mongols who defeated the Islamic world in the 13th century, destroying cities and killing citizens. The Mamluk victory in this battle stops the march of the Mongol army in Jordan and Palestine.","date_from_description":"1260"},"6237d70f-6572-5bfd-9e4e-469e0f9fb8c6":{"description":"The erection of al-Mudawara pilgrimage station on the pilgrim route to Mecca, the last station in Jordan before entering Saudi borders.","date_from_description":"1730"}}
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Godfrey de Bouillon is elected as the leader of the Latin Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1099"},"007d5a6b-6ab8-5ca9-a62c-9d6eaf447206":{"description":"The Marinid sultan Abu Inan extends his authority over Constantine, Béjaia and Tunis.","date_from_description":"1353"},"00d80670-8f46-5197-b1d8-ac61843bc10c":{"description":"A severe earthquake damages parts of the Aqsa Mosque and the Holy Sepulchre Church, as well as Umayyad palaces and public buildings all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"747"},"00f26137-b599-503d-96b8-cc9b88a52cfe":{"description":"Death of Miklós Zrínyi, great Hungarian commander in the Turkish wars. Turks defeated in the Battle of Szentgotthárd but the Habsburgs’ deplorable Peace of Vasvár causes Hungarian revolt.","date_from_description":"1664"},"0122123e-63bc-54b7-b032-d30da0fb5de7":{"description":"The foundation of the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1299"},"01372f83-ca10-5ef4-866f-abb829d2045a":{"description":"Italy’s first parliament is inaugurated in Turin. Victor Emanuel II, King of Sardinia (1849–61), becomes the first king of Italy (1861–78).","date_from_description":"1861"},"0195a905-bb4f-5e13-b237-f98ad8774abe":{"description":"Victory of Selim I the Grim over Shah Ismail at the Battle of Çaldıran.","date_from_description":"1514"},"01abf43a-c670-559b-8424-96f9384c2c44":{"description":"Edward the Elder, King of England, wins a decisive victory against the Danes at Tettenhall in Staffordshire and extends his kingdom north to the Humber estuary.","date_from_description":"910"},"01b6aded-ecb9-54cd-9373-b8298b8164cb":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja’far al-Mansur (r. 754–75) visits Palestine, stays in Jerusalem and orders a renovation project in the Haram al-Sharif and elsewhere, damaged as a result of the earthquake","date_from_description":"758"},"01b860d5-66df-5df2-847b-12a9e31906c3":{"description":"Death of Katip Çelebi (1609–57), famous Turkish geographer, historian and bibliographer.","date_from_description":"1657"},"01c4ef6b-4b90-50a4-8386-a6c9459347cd":{"description":"Berber insurrections threaten the Byzantine army, which suffered repeated setbacks.","date_from_description":"534–548"},"01ca3cd0-5cf6-5255-80ea-9d687b6979f7":{"description":"Hungarian King Ladislaus Pohrobek takes the Czech throne. Order to evict Jews from royal towns. George of Poděbrady elected Czech king (1485). Attempt to create union of European rulers aiming to avert Turkish expansion, restrict Catholic church hegemony and secure peace.","date_from_description":"1453"},"0200499f-0355-5d46-95d6-be6a10389569":{"description":"Giordano Bruno, philosopher and theologian, is burned at the stake in Rome, condemned by the Church for heresy. His death marks one of the darkest and tragic moments of the Counter-Reformation.","date_from_description":"1600"},"02290e31-334b-5a29-8261-9812e231a56e":{"description":"Start of the Bourbon dynasty with the coronation of Phillip V.  \nStart of the Spanish War of Succession.","date_from_description":"1701"},"024386ec-a697-54b8-a7b3-67bdec18a6ca":{"description":"The Marinid Sultan Abu Yusuf takes Algeciras, Tarifa and Ronda and founds the town of Fez al-Jdid, al-Madina al-Bayda, in Fez.","date_from_description":"1276"},"0280f139-a2db-51a2-ac6e-991e8017c515":{"description":"Mulay Isma‘ïl makes Meknes the capital of the kingdom and starts work on his royal fortress complete with palaces, granaries, lakes and stables. It is reminiscent of the Topkapi Sarayi Citadel in Istanbul.","date_from_description":"1672"},"02feb94c-ba95-584d-8f8e-8da2fdaf322a":{"description":"Construction of the El-Eubad mosque.","date_from_description":"1394"},"03283052-9368-563f-8de6-2f6862950274":{"description":"Abbasid revolt in Beja, which quickly spreads to all of al-Gharb.","date_from_description":"763"},"039f8476-dc69-5a48-9254-5588439d72eb":{"description":"Abu Imran al-Fassi, originally from Fez and celebrated faqih from Ifriqya (Tunisia), where he settled to teach, dies in Kairouan.","date_from_description":"1038"},"03aad4a5-0099-5ec4-a225-d2945a5c6341":{"description":"Karlóca Peace Treaty between the Holy Alliance and the Turks. The Sultan promises not to support Hungarian anti-Habsburg revolts (such as that of Imre Thököly who had earlier lost his freedom fight).","date_from_description":"1699"},"03ee068c-399d-542b-a408-f4cf12aab879":{"description":"The Arab conquest of Sicily is complete with the fall of Rometta, the last Byzantine stronghold.","date_from_description":"965"},"03f89fe3-cf01-58e1-8991-f61209f7a89c":{"description":"Konradin, son of King Konrad IV of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty, is beheaded. This ends the German emperorship in Italy.","date_from_description":"1268"},"03fd0a03-9cc4-529c-98c3-2d1af35bd794":{"description":"Kılıç Arslan moves the capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs to Konya after being defeated by the Crusaders.","date_from_description":"1100"},"0416c65f-724c-5f08-935b-358a5277b79e":{"description":"New Capitulations negotiated by the Marquis of Villeneuve. Rapid expansion of trade with the Ports of the Levant and North Africa.","date_from_description":"1740"},"04182081-b9f4-5a2d-8b3a-b4014646701f":{"description":"Sijilmasa taken by the Rustamids. A century of peace follows in Central Maghreb under the rule of the Kharijites.","date_from_description":"776"},"0458a9da-8b4d-5ff0-87e0-da901e4ea1ac":{"description":"Wenceslas II crowned King of Bohemia. Minting of Prague kreuzers, the most sought-after European silver currency. Wenceslas crowned King of Poland 1300, of Hungary 1301. The murder of Wenceslas III (1306) ended male line of Przemyslid dynasty.","date_from_description":"1283"},"0468c614-d990-5735-a18a-d05014130495":{"description":"Bilad al-Sham (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) comes under the rule of the Tulunid dynasty; Ahmad ibn Tulun is the founder of this dynasty in Egypt.","date_from_description":"875"},"058cb8aa-8241-51a9-a850-bd9f4460b50f":{"description":"Fraternal Union. The origination of an independent church picking up the threads of Hussite ideology. War in Moravia. Matthias Corvinus against George of Poděbrady.","date_from_description":"1467"},"05f2113f-d487-5b04-8dac-309357a3c344":{"description":"Svenska Akademien (the Swedish Academy) is founded by King Gustavus III in order to advance the Swedish language and literature. The Academy has also awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature since 1901.","date_from_description":"1786"},"0612710a-5768-5a65-b244-cced6749bea0":{"description":"The Seljuqs take Baghdad and northern Syria. The beginning of the Seljuq sultanate and the revival of Islamic military and urban development along Sunni doctrines.","date_from_description":"1055"},"066dc71a-dabf-545c-a60b-833d19fe67b2":{"description":"Charles I is tried and executed; the Commonwealth, in which England is governed as a republic, is established and lasts until 1660 (it exists in name alone through Cromwell’s Protectorate of 1653–9).","date_from_description":"1649"},"0671960e-152c-59b9-8ba9-e7dc3a5cb490":{"description":"Sulayman Ibn ‘Abd al-Malik, the governor of Palestine, begins to build the city of Ramla as a new administrative centre.","date_from_description":"712"},"0675ca02-0688-5b4b-9b3e-c117c2452fbe":{"description":"‘Abdallah the Shi’ite reaches the Kutama tribe.","date_from_description":"893"},"0724d833-b987-53e8-a245-cc4d0169410e":{"description":"The rise of Zahir ‘Umar in northern Palestine establishes a semi-independent state. During his rule several palaces and castles are established in Galilee. Palestine begins to export cotton in commercial quantities to France.","date_from_description":"1703"},"07364618-fce2-5c2d-97d1-521d4ca75aa3":{"description":"Byzantium puts down the Berber revolt that flared up after local chieftains are murdered by Sergius, Byzantine Governor of Tripoli.","date_from_description":"578"},"074e50d0-7ea9-595b-942b-0501dcf146f5":{"description":"To support his ailing regime, Charles X prepares an military expedition for the conquest of Algiers, establishing a colony that would eventually encompass all of Algeria.","date_from_description":"1830"},"0790de8f-c0ae-57c1-a116-a3ab57fba788":{"description":"The Government of Ireland Act 1920 (also known as the Fourth Home Rule Bill) partitions Ireland into the independent south and the six counties of the North, which remain part of the United Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1920"},"08bdd8d5-6c10-5db7-842c-d43cd59bc83f":{"description":"Crowning of the first Croatian king, Stjepan Držislav (969–97), a member of the Trpimirović Dynasty. The Byzantine Emperor Basil II gave him symbols of royal power.","date_from_description":"969"},"08d3b28a-cbe0-5448-a40c-0fc8b05d11d9":{"description":"The Swedish general Königsmarck sacks the city of Prague and carries off a substantial booty to Sweden. In the same year the Peace of Westphalia finally puts an end to the Thirty Years War.","date_from_description":"1648"},"0938b094-9d19-5539-847a-deaa3b19396c":{"description":"Military disaster at Annual in northeastern Morocco during the African conflict.","date_from_description":"1921"},"093ad85b-36a2-56f3-9f2f-c1793233d4d6":{"description":"The Ayyubid army leader Usama bin Mungidh erects Ajlun castle to counter the Crusader castle of Belvoir (Kawkab al-Hawa) to the west. In August of this year the Ayyubids besiege Karak Castle under the leadership of Salah al-Din (Saladin) the dynasty’s founder.","date_from_description":"1184"},"0948125d-276f-50a5-87be-a47f18ec6b58":{"description":"The Commune of Rome is born, an expression of the nascent communal civility that will have a profound effect on Italian cultural identity.","date_from_description":"1143"},"096b59db-802d-5555-9934-ec8f40f20346":{"description":"Henry V invades France as part of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) and defeats the French at Agincourt despite being considerably outnumbered.","date_from_description":"1415"},"097de22b-b2d5-5fc3-9e50-26f26064e7d6":{"description":"Sultan Abu Yusuf orders the construction of a new town at Algeciras.","date_from_description":"1277"},"09a9fe71-8e43-5d8f-bcc0-689b8ac5f38e":{"description":"On 25 April, at San Remo the United Nations imposes a British mandate on Jordan, Palestine and Iraq.","date_from_description":"1920"},"0ac12064-9012-5038-b235-781a1675ef56":{"description":"In Torgau in Saxonia the first German opera ‘Dafne’ composed by Heinrich Schütz (1595–1672) is first performed.","date_from_description":"1627"},"0b9d66a6-fdc2-5392-96bc-5d5194ccdb77":{"description":"Prophet Muhammad sends a letter to Cyrus, the Byzantine Patriarch of Alexandria and ruler of Egypt, inviting him to accept Islam. Cyrus sends gifts to the Prophet in answer, together with two sisters from Upper Egypt. The Prophet married one of them, called Maria the Copt. She bore him his only son, who died in boyhood.","date_from_description":"627"},"0bbef6a5-14bb-5277-b059-3fb2f1d42cd7":{"description":"The naturalist Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species, setting out his evidence for the development of new creatures through the process of natural selection.","date_from_description":"1859"},"0c142f63-19e1-586e-bd42-9a313543f63f":{"description":"King John Balliol of Scotland establishes a mutual defence treaty, the ‘Auld Alliance’, between Scotland and France, directed against the English.","date_from_description":"1295"},"0c16ddc8-4b72-5640-a182-52ff75fa9b1e":{"description":"The Hungarian Diet accepts the Habsburgs’ female succession. Introduction of a Newcomen-type steam machine, the first in continental Europe, in Újbánya (Königsberg; today: Nová Baňa, Slovakia).","date_from_description":"1722"},"0c9c6a2c-5309-550f-9f89-8d04b23940b9":{"description":"Arwad Island is the last Crusader position in Syria to be repossessed by the Muslims.","date_from_description":"1302"},"0cd237fb-4c85-53e3-9a45-33476737ed30":{"description":"The Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars captures Karak castle from the Ayyubids, putting an end to Ayyubid rule there; he rebuilt some of its towers and transferred his wealth to it.","date_from_description":"1262"},"0d316bf4-dace-54b4-b01c-4ebad06ad7a4":{"description":"First regular Ottoman ambassador in Europe (London).","date_from_description":"1793"},"0d4c6b81-0ba3-581a-ba40-c51acba9672b":{"description":"The Danube’s great flood destroys a huge part of Pest. Contract signed to build the first permanent bridge (today: Széchenyi Lánchíd) between Buda and Pest initiated by Count István Széchenyi.","date_from_description":"1838"},"0db574bc-e7a4-5ec9-a8f0-13f291ea264f":{"description":"The Battle of Kösedağ and the invasion of Anatolia by the Mongols.","date_from_description":"1243"},"0dbef608-f76a-5bbf-b4a4-4896564ff2b0":{"description":"First war of independence: Charles Albert of Savoy, King of Sardinia (1831–49) leads a coalition of Italian states to drive the Austrians from the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.","date_from_description":"1848"},"0dd31216-4bae-5058-8390-89942d202c20":{"description":"The Nibelungenlied is written down. During the Age of Chivalry numerous texts, ballads and songs were written by Minnesänger singers such as medieval lyricist Walter von der Vogelweide (c.1170–c.1230).","date_from_description":"1200"},"0e46db9d-a4fd-5082-8c26-25d11901cbed":{"description":"The Crusaders occupy Jordan and Palestine during their first campaign to the area until 1187.","date_from_description":"1099"},"0e492afd-a496-5214-be48-1845eee3182d":{"description":"The French occupy the lands of the Papal States and proclaim the Roman Republic.","date_from_description":"1798"},"0e79de47-da1b-53f9-8eac-fd97e6187a3e":{"description":"The Fatimids conquer Palestine, annexing it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"969"},"0e9b8eb8-e957-5457-940d-eed66f32c54c":{"description":"The Convention Parliament restores Charles II to the English throne; the Indemnity Act pardons all except those who had signed Charles I’s death warrant, and they are hung, drawn and quartered.","date_from_description":"1660"},"0ea127ca-a246-5a36-85a6-91f3c218daf8":{"description":"Ragusa falls into the hands of Lajos (Louis) I (the Great). During Medieval times Hungary was its most extensive under his rule. Compilation of a Hungarian chronicle, the Képes Krónika (Illustrated Chronicle).","date_from_description":"1358"},"0ea6dfd1-d6f1-5b9a-83da-258f2b054093":{"description":"Stockholm, Sweden’s capital today is founded by Birger Jarl.","date_from_description":"1250"},"0ebf0190-8081-5d56-b08d-e6f6303dbcbe":{"description":"Uppsala University is founded. It is the oldest university in Scandinavia and still one of Sweden’s most renowned universities. Uppsala is located about 80 km north of the capital Stockholm.","date_from_description":"1477"},"0ef544c2-60c5-52ba-856a-222b4ea68b58":{"description":"Birth in Mecca of Prophet Muhammad from the tribe of Quraysh.","date_from_description":"571"},"0f0e330c-ea2b-5d7f-a70b-7cb63b7218ff":{"description":"The Almoravid amir Yusuf ibn Tashufin wins the Battle of Zallaca near to Badajoz and mints a gold coin, known as the maravedis in the Christian West.","date_from_description":"1086"},"0f13e13f-532c-5c56-a15a-0f0dc5ac7378":{"description":"The Crusaders take Antioch in June after a nine-month siege, founding the first Crusader state in the Levant.","date_from_description":"1098"},"0f189c19-8d0e-5f2c-af07-5db542c81285":{"description":"The conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) by Mehmed II which brings the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) to an end.","date_from_description":"1453"},"0f51abf5-c8b2-569d-b23d-afe714bff765":{"description":"Hus burned at the stake at the assembly of the Council of Constance. Struggles between Catholics and Utraquists (“heretics”). Crusades, plundering of monasteries and churches, iconoclasm.","date_from_description":"1415"},"0f5acb2c-7e7f-51ea-8a8b-9e0b1503a5d8":{"description":"The first diplomatic agreement of the Croats with the Holy See. They made an agreement with Pope Agaton by which they agreed not to start wars against neighbouring Christian states.","date_from_description":"679"},"0f5da38b-dc05-5751-b40d-56d8ee6e5800":{"description":"End of the First Empire. Violence of the White Terror (massacre of Mamluks in Marseille who had come from Egypt with Bonaparte). Acceptance of a constitutional charter by the instigators of the Restoration.","date_from_description":"1815"},"0f64fc28-ee1c-568d-a632-f5f818f7810b":{"description":"Lorenzo de’Medici the Magnificent (1469–92) rules Florence. Under his control, Florence becomes the driving force behind Italian art.","date_from_description":"1469"},"0fb14610-e011-5b64-9a22-ae3cdae6a774":{"description":"Al-Ashraf Khalil defeats the Crusaders who retreat to Cyprus. He annexes the city of Acre in Palestine.","date_from_description":"1291"},"0fdd53a2-dd15-5287-9b24-e77691cfea02":{"description":"Estates defeated at Battle of White Mountain resulting in mass punishment and persecution. Uprising of the Wallachians (Carpathian pastoral culture). Charles University made over to the Jesuits.","date_from_description":"1620"},"103bfb7f-3909-5a55-9170-c2bc8871d5a9":{"description":"Golden Bull of Sicily: Roman King Friedrich II defines the relationship between Czech kings and the Holy Roman Empire. The Czech king becomes one of seven electors privileged to elect the Roman king.","date_from_description":"1212"},"10b1382a-ff42-52fc-9d16-2a0842cd92b3":{"description":"Black Death (the plague) spreads throughout the British Isles from the south coast, killing between one-third and a half of the population.","date_from_description":"1348"},"110abf60-df8a-5021-a435-e437a19eff34":{"description":"King Faisal enters Damascus, celebrating the first Arab government.  \nThe French army occupies the Syrian coast (1919).  \nKing Faisal is expelled by the French, after which he becomes king of Iraq.","date_from_description":"1918–1920"},"11b93b11-084a-5942-9d1d-2aabba0f5a0c":{"description":"The death of Frederick Barbarossa in the river of Calycadmus.","date_from_description":"1190"},"1233e1c8-d1a4-58d8-8d9f-22763c0fea1e":{"description":"Highlights of the Czech radical baroque: construction of Church of St. Nicholas, Prague, began (architect K. Dienzenhofer). Charles Bridge embellished with statues by M. B. Braun and F. Brokof.","date_from_description":"1704"},"125a41da-1f4c-5bb3-9a7b-119a5f7666f4":{"description":"Battle of Ayacucho and definitive loss of the territories in continental America.","date_from_description":"1824"},"128e76da-afcc-5b89-9153-25eec0ade885":{"description":"Duke Branimir becomes Banus of Croatia and breaks up with Constantinople. Pope John VIII gave his blessing to the duke and the whole Croatian people, as he informed Branimir in his letters.","date_from_description":"879"},"129e1619-237c-5252-9906-6ce2910d2524":{"description":"The Zirid princes share out the kingdom of Ifriqiya and the fortress of the Bani Hammad.","date_from_description":"1015"},"12a2eeca-0b1d-517c-ac50-ab8fa7b534b8":{"description":"Pedro Álvares Cabral discovers Brazil.","date_from_description":"1500"},"12eddebb-3b1f-53c0-8139-0b4499eeecf0":{"description":"Sulayman the Magnificent dies on his last expedition to the fort of Szigetvar on the Hungarian border and Selim II ascends the throne.","date_from_description":"1566"},"133fe939-8db6-5b41-902c-d3dc5bc831e0":{"description":"Louis IX is captured by the Ayyubid army in Mansourah and later released for a ransom of 100,000 dinars. Al-Salih Ayyub dies and is succeeded by his son Turan Shah who shatters the Crusader army attacking the Delta.","date_from_description":"1249"},"13a93ace-6a19-5374-9786-7b306ea3d7f4":{"description":"The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo by the United Kingdom, Prussia, Austria and Russia marks the end of the Napoleonic Wars and peace is established in Europe at the Congress of Vienna.","date_from_description":"1815"},"13c15681-862c-52cb-b9a5-7003467a77ae":{"description":"The powers of the Almohads declines.","date_from_description":"1184–1209"},"13e73776-c4fc-5ef3-a4b7-9cf5eeade4e2":{"description":"On 7 March Amir Faysal, the son of Sharif Husayn, is made king of Greater Syria by the Syrian National Congress. The administrative structure of this kingdom consists of eight provinces, three of them in Jordan.","date_from_description":"1920"},"147cd727-f65b-557a-ba84-e1a5e73b486e":{"description":"Beginning of the Western Schism, which will divide the Christian Church and see two different popes on the papal seat.","date_from_description":"1378"},"14caae37-a082-5320-b2c6-8d3c41706f49":{"description":"Charlemagne (800–14) becomes the Emperor of Rome and the Holy Roman Empire is born.","date_from_description":"800"},"152c36c0-d0a5-53f3-aaa1-1679e8b8f8d0":{"description":"Mutiny of Aranjuez and abdication of Charles IV in favour of his son Ferdinand VII. Abdications of Bayonne. Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain. Popular uprising in Madrid on 2 May and start of the War of Independence against the French occupiers (1808–13).","date_from_description":"1808"},"153f92ad-21a5-5743-b4bb-1ac74cad8c8a":{"description":"Charles Martel, son of Pippin of Herstal, stops the Muslims of ‘Abd al-Rahman who had raided as far as Poitiers, and subsequently extends his rule over Aquitaine and Provence.","date_from_description":"734"},"15505c68-ae85-5788-8b44-3a5ad2cc6bcd":{"description":"Ahmad Ibn Tulun rules independently from the Abbasid Caliphate and founds al-Qatai city, the third Islamic capital of Egypt.","date_from_description":"869"},"156d8464-f294-5c24-bab6-fe3806d2a9d0":{"description":"Frequent incursions by Portuguese, French, Spanish and Italian fleets in the ports of Central Maghreb: Honain, Oran, Algiers and Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1390–1400"},"157c2813-3d90-50aa-a7d3-6fe4e265eb85":{"description":"The Ayyubids capture the Crusader castles of Karak and Shawbak, ending the Crusaders’ rule in Jordan.","date_from_description":"1189"},"158eb698-9413-5fa7-86d3-311318547a6f":{"description":"The warship Wasa sinks in Stockholm on her maiden voyage. The ship was discovered and salvaged in 1956, and is now exhibited in Stockholm.","date_from_description":"1628"},"15ef6e9b-2925-5093-a5e2-9edeabc2b1c4":{"description":"French military victories are marked in particular by Bonaparte’s success in Italy. Under the Directoire, he prepares an expeditionary force for Egypt, which is accompanied by a team of experts intended to bring modern techniques and institutions to the country. The French are stalled in Egypt and leave the country in 1801.","date_from_description":"1798"},"15efcbdb-4dcb-5878-9a4c-13426648045a":{"description":"The Young Turks Revolution overthrows Sultan Abdulhamid II. The Second Constitutional Period begins.","date_from_description":"1908"},"16bfa79f-50f4-5128-90a4-c0f159b646ee":{"description":"Death of Louis IX at the gates of Tunis during the Eighth Crusade following an initial defeat in Egypt (Seventh Crusade). Louis IX will be canonised in 1297.","date_from_description":"1270"},"16d29a40-f9f8-52a9-bdaf-4de60397ce72":{"description":"The second Crusade arrives in Syria, led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, besieging Damascus for four days, but failing to conquer it.","date_from_description":"1148"},"175052f1-afe4-51a6-9bfd-e303319a98f9":{"description":"Pippin the Younger, son of Charles Martel, is proclaimed King of the Franks and turns his attention to the south. He leads expeditions against the Lombards, recovers Narbonne from the Muslims and helps to revitalise trade in the Mediterranean.","date_from_description":"751"},"17e57512-3af9-56ad-bf1e-82fc5f7a325e":{"description":"Economic and religious interaction between Arabia and the Fertile Crescent as Muhammad joins his uncle on mercantile travel to Syria, where he meets the monk Bahira in Bosra.","date_from_description":"c.590–595"},"18637c69-3047-5e90-8cf2-09d7de71678a":{"description":"Beylik of Salah Bey at Constantine. Renovation of the town and construction of el-Kantara bridge.","date_from_description":"1771–1792"},"1884ecf3-5742-5cdc-85e9-3961fdd618ba":{"description":"Scots under Robert Bruce (Robert I) comprehensively defeat the invading English army at the Battle of Bannockburn, re-establishing Scotland’s independence.","date_from_description":"1314"},"18a3d60f-dabd-5abb-9cbc-8f4adfd349e8":{"description":"The British Army suppresses the Easter Rising, a rebellion in Dublin designed to force Ireland’s independence from Great Britain, and its leaders are executed.","date_from_description":"1916"},"18d2bdda-f67c-5529-92cd-ed765d901ec3":{"description":"The Hungarian Jacobin Conspiracy’s members are executed or imprisoned. Archduke Josef becomes the new Hungarian Palatine. Pál Kitaibel invents a vacuum-filtering process.","date_from_description":"1795"},"18f48aaf-32b5-5177-bb0d-6bed68c2d15c":{"description":"Largest uprising of the serfs. Patents of King Leopold I include: corvée patent, legalisation of the Evangelical church (1691). The first textile manufactories.","date_from_description":"1680"},"1962e747-521f-5cfa-a679-5538e2d26bce":{"description":"Foundation of the town of Mahdia, capital of the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"921"},"1986b3e4-b784-5a0c-985e-b3ccf9fe26b3":{"description":"A military expedition to Jordan and Palestine is mounted by Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha of Egypt, who controlled the whole area for ten years.","date_from_description":"1831"},"198d4297-6a40-5ac7-b16c-f5bc23676c10":{"description":"Emperor Rudolph II transfers his court to Prague, which became a major European centre of politics, science and arts (de Brahe, Kepler). The first public autopsy (Ján Jesenský, 1600).","date_from_description":"1583"},"1a50617c-4ad6-5dce-adac-8976cf87e0c3":{"description":"Jerusalem is surrendered by the Patriarch Sophronius to ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab. The Plaza of the Haram al-Sharif is cleaned and prepared for a modest wooden structure. It will take the Muslim armies another ten years to control the rest of Palestine.","date_from_description":"637"},"1a506441-db7f-5726-acfc-932b10d3a7b1":{"description":"Al-Mahdi's son, Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, the protagonist of many tales in the ‘1001 nights’, moves his court to al-Raqqa, which becomes the ‘Abbasid capital for the next 12 years.","date_from_description":"796-808"},"1a8d42c0-fd99-58bb-a840-10b2be8dc7a9":{"description":"In the Treaty of Verdun the Frankish Empire is divided into three separate parts called West-, Middle- and East Francia. The Germanic Empire is called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.","date_from_description":"843"},"1b07e539-903c-5a05-b20b-eb21d9f608de":{"description":"Abu al-Alaa al-Ma'arri, blind Syrian poet, dies. His most famous literary work, Risalat al-Ghufran (Letter of Forgiveness), inspires Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy three centuries later.","date_from_description":"1058"},"1c3233e2-5df3-5ec8-9e6f-4f6649c63ddc":{"description":"The assasination of Austria’s crown prince leads to the beginning of the First World War in which Germany fights on the sides of the Central Powers against the Allied Powers.","date_from_description":"1914"},"1c856a62-bfb9-5e4e-920b-d5a36439ae6f":{"description":"Council of Burgos abolishes the Mozarabic rite in favour of the Roman rite.","date_from_description":"1080"},"1ca0bf3c-392f-5a57-b07d-4bb268d08b2c":{"description":"The coronation of the last Hungarian royal couple, Charles IV and Zita. Romania declares war on Hungary and enters Transylvania. The Allies reject the peace note of the Central Powers.","date_from_description":"1916"},"1cb440c0-2d91-5e8e-80da-66e695173cb5":{"description":"The Lombards officially convert to Catholicism, a process that began with the work of Gregory the Great.","date_from_description":"653"},"1cca0a62-f5d5-504c-aa2a-4dc46801148f":{"description":"The Sassanian invasion of Syria (Bilad al-Sham) begins under the  leadership of Shahrbaraz, causing the destruction of many cities.","date_from_description":"613"},"1d082139-5292-56e4-aac4-022bb99ea92a":{"description":"The first parliament  (Meclis-i Mebusan) is established.","date_from_description":"1877"},"1d63bf29-4526-5efc-afcd-23dc9e584090":{"description":"Death of the great geographer al-Hassan al-Wazzan (Leo Africanus), whose works, written in Latin, illuminated many aspects of civilisation in the Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1552"},"1db05db3-c34d-56cf-9db2-7bea8b690a56":{"description":"Publication of *Ratio Educationis*, Maria Theresia’s school reform. The Nagyszombat University (Tyrnau; today: Trnava, Slovakia), founded by Bishop Péter Pázmány in 1635, moves to Buda.","date_from_description":"1777"},"1dcea065-7a87-5568-818f-1b90906eb3b2":{"description":"Third war of independence: Italy succeeds in freeing the Veneto region from Austrian control.","date_from_description":"1866"},"1dfb515f-0c54-5471-b716-2910b7723024":{"description":"The crisis that besets all of the countries at war in Russia takes the form of a genuine revolution whose repercussions will be felt far beyond its borders.","date_from_description":"1917"},"1e03d820-87e5-553c-aedf-5af513a46450":{"description":"Universal male suffrage.","date_from_description":"1890"},"1e25c1a1-f5e8-5679-972d-8d4abe2b9708":{"description":"Birth of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who is seen as one of the foremost composers of concertos, cantatas and oratorios in the Western tonal tradition.","date_from_description":"1685"},"1eb96ee0-fce4-5fe8-af8b-27bda3c4ebef":{"description":"Coup d’etat by Louis Napoleon, who becomes emperor as Napoleon III. He takes France to war in the Crimea alongside England. The Treaty of Paris establishes the existence of an independent Romanian state.","date_from_description":"1851"},"1ec47d0a-c730-5a8b-9afe-827478896737":{"description":"The first post office is founded in Irbid city during Ottoman rule under Sultan ‘Abd al Hamid II, who wanted to have telegraph offices in the empire.","date_from_description":"1883"},"1ede7a52-2e20-52ab-9f52-e95f1bdc881d":{"description":"Byzantine conquest of Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"533"},"1f15d9fb-a195-5f6b-9f40-b3f1c20345ac":{"description":"The naval battle of Preveza off the Adriatic coast. Barbarossa defeats Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.","date_from_description":"1538"},"1faaca18-8185-5001-83b0-eb570c68caa3":{"description":"England’s Parliament issues the Bill of Rights, establishing a constitutional monarchy in England and barring Roman Catholics from the throne.","date_from_description":"1689"},"1fbf7f36-ff20-50d7-9aa7-e8cb6774fb4a":{"description":"V. M. Kramerius publishes the first Czech revival newspaper, the first mass reading material in the Czech language in 170 years.","date_from_description":"1789"},"1ffa7658-10ce-552e-9a0b-b2ba7645c278":{"description":"Revolution against British occupation led by Saad Zaghloul in which all classes of society join.","date_from_description":"1919"},"201c3e10-5a1e-511f-85ce-489ab781703a":{"description":"The Domesday Book is completed. A survey of every English county south of the rivers Ribble and Tees, it was commissioned by William I at Christmas 1085 to enable him to tax his landowning subjects.","date_from_description":"1086"},"20a1d615-9888-5343-8c3e-bf6100e8fdb1":{"description":"Building of St Vitus Cathedral at Prague Castle commenced (master builder: Matthias of Arras, followed by Peter Parler). Foundation of Prague archbishopric.","date_from_description":"1344"},"20ceb169-43cb-54ed-93ea-681457da361b":{"description":"Great victories over Turks in north Croatia. The commanders of the victorious army were Banus Nikola Erdödy, General Leslie and Johann Joseph Herberstein.","date_from_description":"1684"},"20e3f2a9-16c9-5a27-a7ca-79342c290b07":{"description":"War with the USA. Loss of the last overseas territories (Cuba, Puerto Rico and Philippines).","date_from_description":"1898"},"2100c09e-81da-5cf9-9bc3-e90abebe3635":{"description":"Sultan Sidi Muhammad Ibn ‘Abdallah succeeds his father, opens up trading relations with Europe and undertakes a huge programme of construction and fortification of the Atlantic towns.","date_from_description":"1757"},"21c22d2f-6ed1-5ec0-8eac-e1d12598e587":{"description":"Famous Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi (1611–82) was born in Istanbul.","date_from_description":"1611"},"21c23f70-444b-57fe-b454-dcb0dce6dd69":{"description":"Establishment of the Egyptian Federation of Industries.Britain grants Egypt autonomous rule. Sultan Fouad takes the title of King.","date_from_description":"1922"},"21cce328-4c0c-54bc-9dba-0ae3df9eb063":{"description":"King Ferdinand I promulgates the Sesmaria law on agriculture.","date_from_description":"1375"},"22648a84-1ebd-59b2-86ca-54573888a8e4":{"description":"Michelangelo finishes the fresco Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel.","date_from_description":"1541"},"229112dd-6bd9-56e0-926a-cc1c945f41e6":{"description":"Egypt comes under the control of the Abbasid Caliphate and al-Askar, the second Islamic capital of Egypt, is founded. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the last Umayyad Caliph in the East, is murdered in Abu Seir, Fayyum, west of the Delta.","date_from_description":"750"},"22a3799f-f1a9-5a4c-a5f4-276e3a29522a":{"description":"Discovery of the Cabo Verde archipelago.","date_from_description":"1456"},"22ae8d63-0806-559a-b713-b15cb56423a6":{"description":"King Konrad I (911–18) of the Conradine Dynasty becomes king.","date_from_description":"911"},"22b37828-9479-5d5b-96eb-d2063238fae1":{"description":"The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading guilds from the cities of Lübeck, Hamburg, Wismar and Rostock is officially founded.","date_from_description":"1259"},"22c92de3-b426-5587-b678-4e9a4377b322":{"description":"Trianon Peace Treaty: Hungary loses two-thirds of its territory – 190,000 square km – (Transylvania, the Uplands, part of Western, Eastern and Southern Hungary).","date_from_description":"1920"},"2356e8e4-2b1f-58d9-aba5-abed93fc65a0":{"description":"The Marinid sultan Abu Ya’qub lays siege to Tlemcen for seven years.","date_from_description":"1307"},"237258a4-99c7-55b3-bbdd-5ba73ea164c3":{"description":"Lisbon earthquake. Reconstruction of the city begins under the auspices of the Prime Minister, the Marquis of Pombal.","date_from_description":"1755"},"239ff1b5-450c-5354-b43c-92df405718b8":{"description":"Napoleon incorporates Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and western Croatia as the French Illyrian Provinces. France stimulated agriculture and commerce in the provinces and fought piracy.","date_from_description":"1797"},"244c912b-9393-598d-b577-23a3ebd86437":{"description":"On 17 June in this year, in the Swedish town of Kalmar, the three Nordic countries Denmark, Norway and Sweden are united under the Danish Monarch, Queen Margarethe. For Sweden this loss of independence and Danish sovereignty will last 125 years.","date_from_description":"1397"},"246fac45-2103-5efc-93ef-b65ee8b5167c":{"description":"Nur al-Din, son of Zangi, takes control of Damascus and establishes it as a capital city. It becomes the new cultural, economic, religious, political and educational hub of the Islamic world at large, attracting many scholars.","date_from_description":"1154"},"2491f00b-fa4c-53ef-8114-252f0b7fb028":{"description":"Al-‘Adil unites the Ayyubid empire.","date_from_description":"1199"},"24f27e64-f75c-5d52-97a1-b1d4c22c4e5b":{"description":"Ladislas of Naples, Croat king and a claimant to the Hungarian throne as King Ladislav of Anjou, sells Dalmatia to the Venetians for 100,000 ducats. By 1420 Venice controlled all of Dalmatia except for Dubrovnik.","date_from_description":"1409"},"250fca80-30bb-5744-8a3d-b19026ef60d8":{"description":"Egypt, Jerusalem and Damascus come under the rule of the Persian Emperor Xerxes II.","date_from_description":"619"},"251dbd30-c263-51b4-af91-b2e3e1685fe3":{"description":"Mary, Queen of Scots, abdicates Scotland’s throne and her one-year-old son James VI becomes King of Scotland; Mary is executed in 1587 for plotting to kill Elizabeth I.","date_from_description":"1567"},"256a53ec-978d-5e74-b834-40234b8fa7fe":{"description":"The Swedish East India Company is founded for trading in the Far East.","date_from_description":"1731"},"256e947f-df5e-5b8d-9c3e-9002b6c85a2b":{"description":"On 4 September the Battle of Mu’ta begins between the Muslims and the Byzantines at the site of Mu’ta in southern Jordan. The cause of the battle is the killing of messenger of Prophet Muhammad by the Ghassanids.","date_from_description":"629"},"258c0bff-a9a9-5e51-af16-8f05e17c4a43":{"description":"The Pragmatic Sanction: Charles VI declared the heritability of the Habsburg crown in the female line in default of a male heir, and the indivisibility of the countries of the House of Habsburg. Plague endemics.","date_from_description":"1713"},"25e6c170-8d7e-521f-8401-3a43c5a6dd70":{"description":"Musa ibn Abi ’l-Afiya, chief of the Miknassa tribe, conquers Fez and takes control of all of Maghreb.","date_from_description":"925"},"25f8a351-0c67-5511-ae9a-05836ea0c1ed":{"description":"King Gustavus III, through a coup d’état makes himself absolute monarch. Twenty years later, in 1792, he is murdered at a masquerade ball.","date_from_description":"1772"},"2611a998-35c3-5527-a22a-5f62c77511b5":{"description":"Prince Charles Edward Stuart (‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’) lands in Scotland and starts a campaign to restore his father James Francis (the Old Pretender) to the thrones of Britain.","date_from_description":"1745"},"266cc2c7-1e9e-5cf3-992e-efa0cddaa017":{"description":"Sweden enters the Thirty Years’ War under Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf). This war involved most European nations.","date_from_description":"1630"},"26a23d8f-c395-5825-94d9-d5f8c8161336":{"description":"Carolina Resolutio: Emperor Karl (Charles) VI (Karl III as king of Hungary) regulates Protestant affairs. England accepts the Pragmatic Sanction in return for economic advantages.","date_from_description":"1731"},"26a2c361-31dc-55a0-87ad-7487948ea18a":{"description":"The wedding of King Lajos II and Mary Habsburg (Mary leaves Hungary after the deaths of Lajos II and as Mary of Hungary later becomes the governor of the Low Countries).","date_from_description":"1522"},"26bcb535-5673-53d3-ad7f-5b58d2f25a57":{"description":"Cultural and economic exchange between the Italian states and Mamluk Syria, exemplified by Andreas Alpagos, physician of the Venetian consulate in Damascus, who translates many Arabic manuscripts.","date_from_description":"1491–1520"},"26cadaf0-aa1b-5dc9-9eec-cfa4060a7250":{"description":"The first period of Iconoclasm begins when Byzantine Emperor Leo III forbids the worship of religious images.  \nEmpress Irene, who took power as regent for his son, Constantine VI (780–97), brought this period to an end with a council held in Nicea in 787 in favour of icon worship.","date_from_description":"730"},"26cc8040-5466-5d1a-9014-b3a494b8aff8":{"description":"The physician Robert Koch (1843–1910) finds the bacillus of the Cholera disease. This is only one of the numerous findings of the pioneer of bacteriology.","date_from_description":"1884"},"273d70c1-c2bb-571c-a79a-844701148f75":{"description":"The most well-known Swedish saint, Saint Birgitta, is born. Her Order, Ordo Sanctissimi Salvatoris (the Order of the Most Holy Saviour), is approved by a Papal Bull in 1370.","date_from_description":"1303"},"27dd0edc-9407-5509-9877-9ef53d79fbca":{"description":"Having already founded the Zagreb bishopric, King (St) László I founds the St Egid Benedictine monastery in Somogyvár (his first burial site before Várad [today: Oradea, Romania]), inviting monks from Saint Gilles.","date_from_description":"1091"},"27f820b6-9acd-56c6-be82-ee4130019591":{"description":"The epic Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf, consisting of 3,182 lines of Old English, is probably written; the poet is anonymous.","date_from_description":"1000"},"2830c84c-9afc-5074-8669-1ba50eb536d8":{"description":"Michelangelo Buonarroti starts work on David, a masterpiece of the Renaissance. The work, conceived as a symbol of the Florentine Republic, is completed in 1504.","date_from_description":"1501"},"289a7e50-45dd-5fde-bd4a-48a8b218e648":{"description":"The March Revolution tried to introduce a democratic constitution. Marx (1818–83) and Engels (1820–95) publish Das Kommunistische Manifest analysing capitalist methods of production.","date_from_description":"1848"},"28d336d1-ae64-5425-af71-3104c121f1f7":{"description":"Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d.1111), the great philosopher, visits Palestine and takes refuge for three years in the Haram al-Sharif.","date_from_description":"1095"},"28ecf140-0f7f-5f9d-b485-35516c1bee43":{"description":"The arrival at Ma’an of the Hijazi Railway line from Damascus is celebrated on 1 September, on the anniversary of the accession of Sultan ‘Abd al Hamid II to the throne.","date_from_description":"1904"},"29455b48-5d00-51d8-b4b7-85037c64bd9c":{"description":"Battle of Aljubarrota. Beginning of the Avis Dynasty with John I.","date_from_description":"1385"},"299920bb-2a53-53ee-8813-0d0c51f44bef":{"description":"The Act of Union unites the kingdoms of England and Scotland and transfers the seat of Scottish government to London, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain.","date_from_description":"1707"},"29dd3711-8399-5487-8219-33352bc528eb":{"description":"Start of the islamicisation of al-Andalus. First incursions in al-Gharb.","date_from_description":"711"},"2a212264-a53f-550f-852b-e14e9c7fb3d0":{"description":"Murad I captures Edirne (Adrianople). As the third Ottoman capital, Edirne now becomes the headquarters for the further expansion.","date_from_description":"1361"},"2a28984c-7460-524b-babb-a5502f9b5da7":{"description":"The inauguration of the first railway between Jaffa and Jerusalem","date_from_description":"1892"},"2a5051fd-c8ce-5190-9301-2ebfde469594":{"description":"Philip the Fair, surrounded by his ‘jurists’, consolidates the authority of the King of France. Levying taxes on Jews and ‘Lombards’ and confiscating the riches of the Knights Templar, he enters into a conflict with the papacy which is only resolved in 1305 with the election of a French pope.","date_from_description":"1285"},"2a878e02-8441-5986-ba7c-d99f0404125b":{"description":"William of Normandy lands at Pevensey, defeats and kills Harold II at the Battle of Hastings and becomes William I, the Conqueror; the first Norman King of England (until 1087).","date_from_description":"1066"},"2a93cf50-6b9a-551f-9371-51b68b37031e":{"description":"On 6 May the Sykes-Picot agreement divides the Arab area into zones of permanent colonial influence between France and Britain; Jordan was allocated to British administration.","date_from_description":"1916"},"2aad596a-7b63-525c-8cce-41debbeaa7a4":{"description":"Al-Afdal Ibn Badr al-Jamali (d.515/1121), the commander-in-chief of the Fatimid armies completes the construction of the huge mosque of ‘Asqalan with its magnificent minbar (pulpit), which is exhibited to this day in the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron.","date_from_description":"1097"},"2ab34570-1028-519d-900b-b19f23b80e8a":{"description":"During the rule of the Merovingian Dynasty (558–629), rulers of the Frankish Dynasty gradually gain power over parts of what will later become Germany.","date_from_description":"558"},"2abc9658-095d-5a98-a9e3-b1c1ecb1ccd6":{"description":"The Battle of Ankara between Tamerlane and Bayezid and the start of the Interregnum (Fetret) Period.","date_from_description":"1402"},"2b15f4e6-26ad-5dcc-b2c8-592e4c9462c3":{"description":"Start of Portuguese expansion in Morocco with the conquest of Ceuta.","date_from_description":"1415"},"2b82bc16-0f83-575e-8c9d-1cb88b973f4d":{"description":"Damascus becomes capital of the Umayyad Empire under Mu‘awiya (Caliph 661–81). Assassination of ‘Ali, nephew of the Prophet, by a Kharijite (secessionist).","date_from_description":"661"},"2b96c252-e950-5517-a8db-89da1a889f25":{"description":"Development of commercial relations with Italian towns.","date_from_description":"1394–1434"},"2bcdd51c-06b0-57fc-b7f9-744fb2055517":{"description":"The plague of ‘Amwasa, a town located between Jerusalem and Jaffa, in which hundreds of soldiers and officers, including the army commander Abu ‘Ubaida ‘Amir bin al-Jarrah, lose their lives","date_from_description":"639"},"2c3e0e21-8805-5b99-af1f-0073a37781e3":{"description":"Muhammad ‘Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, sends his army under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha to conquer Palestine and succeeds in bringing the country under his control.","date_from_description":"1831"},"2cd8dc54-23b9-50ab-b089-94ebbecc93f8":{"description":"Famine due to the low level of the Nile for several consecutive years and an earthquake result in over 240,000 dead.","date_from_description":"1200"},"2ce70c94-398f-5338-904d-87fbc76bbd71":{"description":"Anatolian Seljuq Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad marries the daughter of the Ayyubid Sultan al-Malik Adil.","date_from_description":"1225/6"},"2ce84b2f-4047-5460-90db-e0c4b7e0a8a5":{"description":"The church of Haghia Sophia in Constantinople is opened on 27 December by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I having been rebuilt after its destruction in Nika Riot (532).","date_from_description":"537"},"2d1e62e5-c8e3-5d7b-a8ff-2dfa53b6e735":{"description":"Establishment of the Beylik of Constantine.","date_from_description":"1567"},"2d302fe6-eab4-5362-83f2-162983ff38de":{"description":"Gaza becomes an independent Mamluk governate (niyaba).","date_from_description":"1311"},"2d5e5adf-59ef-5b7b-8714-644157da49f0":{"description":"The fall of ‘Asqalan, the last Fatimid military base in Palestine.","date_from_description":"1153"},"2d648f71-76bf-5cd6-abf4-4e8acbf9fe43":{"description":"Coronation of King (St) László I who reforms Hungary’s legal codes, administrative and ecclesiastical system and life (1083: canonisation of King István and Prince Imre; 1092: synod of Szabolcs).","date_from_description":"1077"},"2d945522-a203-5f90-9c18-0c592affebc6":{"description":"Peace of Westphalia marks the end of the Thirty Years’ War. Habsburg rule in the Czech lands officially acknowledged. Moravia lost almost half of its population. Inflow of foreign aristocracy. Brno became the capital of Moravia.","date_from_description":"1648"},"2d9a0fd0-882b-5e8b-b439-eaac6a9dbd5b":{"description":"Appearance of the first taifa kingdoms in al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1013"},"2db35884-0dcb-51af-8feb-97eb2256b41b":{"description":"Peace with Spain, which recognises Portuguese independence.","date_from_description":"1668"},"2df6d6ea-d613-5474-930a-90e8d74c3754":{"description":"Basilica of Euphrasius built in Piorec, one of the most important monuments in Croatia. It was built on the remains of an earlier three-naved basilica.","date_from_description":"553"},"2dfede66-08ea-5b14-998b-45bb3c2c24ce":{"description":"A moribund Idrisid Morocco vacillates between the Umayyads of al-Andalus and the Fatimids of Ifriqiya for 27 years.","date_from_description":"836"},"2e049eef-f57d-5de3-8ec0-4c10938509ee":{"description":"Daily life in the regency is marked by civil wars and power struggles, first among the deys and then the beys.","date_from_description":"1650–1695"},"2e10d16d-0c4d-585e-b2b4-02defffc0781":{"description":"Foundation of the abbey at Cluny (near to Mâcon), whose monks followed the Benedictine order. The monks at Cluny travelled throughout Europe and played an important role in 11th-century reform.","date_from_description":"910"},"2e3ea087-5afe-5338-957a-9a3889459efb":{"description":"Governor Camilio Gonzaga establishes the city of Split. He proposed to the Venetian Senate to build a bulwark to defend the town.  \nThe Paulist School of philosophy was established.","date_from_description":"1656"},"2e841549-695a-56ea-97fc-8cd7ad6c5b2a":{"description":"The Almoravids take the town of Sijilmassa.","date_from_description":"1055"},"2f124f94-76c2-57a9-86cc-04e893c85b21":{"description":"Expulsion of the Byzantines and unification of the peninsular lands of the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo.","date_from_description":"630"},"2f8c1e29-2c7a-5d73-9603-1ddb08087165":{"description":"Charles VII is crowned in Reims, having been proclaimed the true king of France by Joan of Arc. A gradual reconquest of the kingdom begins, to be completed towards the end of the 15th century.","date_from_description":"1429"},"2fc2c359-cb5d-59f7-b25c-981347b36b4b":{"description":"Conquest of Nasrid Granada and expulsion of the last Muslim power in the Peninsula.  \nExpulsion of the Jews.  \nDiscovery of America.","date_from_description":"1492"},"3016577c-60dd-55c3-8277-61f4d6fcb408":{"description":"The Mamluk Amir Sarghatmish builds a madrasa in Amman; it became the headquarters of Balqa, to teach Hanafi rites (one of the four Sunni rites in Islam).","date_from_description":"1356"},"303e7baf-ffd4-5875-b983-5d32c0c22c32":{"description":"Friedrich I Barbarossa (1152–90) of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty is crowned emperor. He drowned during the Third Crusade near Konya in Turkey in 1190.","date_from_description":"1155"},"30714b85-a474-5cb0-984e-75bf4c136235":{"description":"Trpimir I issues a charter in Latin in which he names himself the ‘Duke of Croats’ (*Dux Chroatorum iuvatus munere divino*) and his realm as the ‘Realm of the Croats’ (*Regnum Chroatorum*).","date_from_description":"852"},"31030fb9-1bf2-5270-9f5b-94dad865481d":{"description":"Death of Luís de Camões. Loss of independence: Phillip II of Spain becomes king of Portugal as Phillip I.","date_from_description":"1580"},"31096e25-e7bd-5452-bf47-b7d0b5662072":{"description":"Sisnando takes Coimbra.","date_from_description":"1064"},"31878f86-f9ab-5fff-b351-24d754c1eba7":{"description":"Reconquest of the coast by the Almohads and reunification of Ifriqiya.","date_from_description":"1160"},"31898899-b4ad-5a03-99d9-ef2ffcabf419":{"description":"The Fatimids enter Fustat with little resistance. Jawhar Al-Siqili founds al-Qahira (Cairo) to the north of al-Fustat in anticipation of the arrival of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu’izz from North Africa to make Cairo his seat of rule.","date_from_description":"969"},"31bb7f1e-29db-5a59-b2b2-95c8964ab870":{"description":"The Norse (Viking) raids on England and Scotland begin with a raid on the Lindisfarne monastery on the north-east coast of England.","date_from_description":"793"},"3203faf7-f674-56b8-9ff5-abe8897e67c3":{"description":"King Otto II (r. 973–83) marries the Byzantine princess Theophanu and Byzantine influence enters German art and culture.","date_from_description":"972"},"328f265b-a477-590d-ae49-14d4e83ef499":{"description":"The Berlin Conference sets out the manner in which colonies are to be acquired, and preludes the division of Africa. France and Jules Ferry establish a protectorate in Tunisia (1881) and Madagascar (1885). ‘French’ territories in West Africa are united in a federation in 1890.","date_from_description":"1884-85"},"32a440a3-8f52-5588-82d1-6b7f499325f1":{"description":"Unsuccesful peasant revolt led by György Dózsa. The presentation to the Hungarian Parliament of the *Tripartitum*, a collection of Hungarian unwritten laws compiled by jurist István Werbőczy (published Vienna, 1518).","date_from_description":"1514"},"32bb5381-b440-58d3-b4c0-e94e9f40869d":{"description":"After the Plombières meeting between Napoleon III and Cavour, an alliance is signed between France and Piemont. War with Austria results in the Armistice of Villafranca, the first step towards Italian unity (Rome remains under papal control for the time being). Savoy and Nice become part of France following a referendum.","date_from_description":"1859"},"32c40eda-8fa3-56c0-be35-bfebe4210d85":{"description":"The world's first permanent passenger railway service, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opens in northern England.","date_from_description":"1825"},"33154f08-3836-548b-bcda-a749c70d2d84":{"description":"The assassination of Henry III ends the reign of the Valois, which was marked by Wars of Religion between Catholics and Protestants. The Catholic League’s recognition of Henry IV, now converted to Catholicism, allows the kingdom to be reunited.","date_from_description":"1589"},"333b762f-21b9-587d-b2b7-a54ceeab8f8a":{"description":"Hammadid kingdom conquered by the Almohads.","date_from_description":"1152"},"334291dc-172a-596a-a24a-379f1e1d9428":{"description":"The Siege of Vienna by the Ottomans ends in the defeat of the Ottomans by a united army. A gradual retreat of the Ottomans begins.","date_from_description":"1683"},"3393c160-73b5-5f90-8d3c-916dd33b279a":{"description":"Glorious Revolution and end of the Bourbon dynasty.","date_from_description":"1868"},"33fcc702-ac35-5fa5-b9d0-4731722d1a6b":{"description":"Al-Zahir Baybars captures the city of Antioch, the second Crusader state in the Levant after al-Raha.","date_from_description":"1268"},"3513b9af-0c20-5db1-af3a-945c0057099c":{"description":"Přemysl Otakar II killed at Battle of the Moravian Field. Under his rule, the Czech lands reached to the shores of the Adriatic. Bohemia governed by Otto of Brandenburg, Moravia by Rudolph of Habsburg.","date_from_description":"1278"},"35f32299-83bc-56af-8759-78e7c473b0fa":{"description":"The Umayyad Dynasty starts its caliphate in Syria and Jordan under Mu’awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, who makes Damascus his capital.","date_from_description":"661"},"36c600ee-238c-5104-b1d5-181e80447600":{"description":"Ibn Marzuq, celebrated historian of the Marinid Sultan Abu al-Hassan, dies in Fez.","date_from_description":"1380"},"36e1af7c-3bb9-5f93-9462-befff7918c1f":{"description":"Insurrections and popular resistance against the occupation.","date_from_description":"1881–1885"},"37059d81-d5cf-57a4-941c-f419f32cb6e8":{"description":"Yusuf ibn Tashufin annexes Andalusia to the Almoravid empire.","date_from_description":"1094"},"372f2dcd-a881-5181-ae34-488d9d454235":{"description":"John of Luxemburg marries Elizabeth Przemyslid. First Czech-langauge publication *Dalimil Chronicle* (1314); the first guild code in the Czech lands published (1318).","date_from_description":"1310"},"3791815a-9bf9-5eca-a777-ee474a6db196":{"description":"On 25–28 January Emperor Henry IV (1056–1106) of the Salian Dynasty is forced on a walk of penitence to Canossa to beg forgiveness of Pope Gregor VII and to accept him as arbitrator. The Way (or Walk) to Canossa refers to the walk itself and the events surrounding his journey.","date_from_description":"1077"},"379adc29-287b-5b4e-9d83-375ab79250cb":{"description":"The Battle of Nikápoly: Sultan Bayazid I defeats the crusaders of King Sigismund of Luxemburg, sole ruler of Hungary after the death of his first wife, Queen Mary, daughter of Lajos (Louis) I in 1395.","date_from_description":"1396"},"37bc9459-586b-5e66-b94c-492828a4e324":{"description":"Moroccan resistance fighters win the Battle of Annual in the Rif, defeating the Spanish army.","date_from_description":"1921"},"37daa534-8ff0-5ad7-8825-af2533e9cbbd":{"description":"Election of King Mátyás (Matthias) I Hunyadi (Corvinus) son of János Hunyadi. He made Hungary one of the greatest economical and military powers of Europe and defended Europe from the Turks.","date_from_description":"1458"},"37f173f0-8fb1-58f1-9fcc-5a66edc976d2":{"description":"Amir Ya‘qub al-Mansur win the Battle of Alarcos against the Spanish.","date_from_description":"1193"},"37fa2522-6029-5df2-b76a-817b3740c7e1":{"description":"The Lombards enter Italy. The lands occupied in the Centre and the South become the Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento respectively.","date_from_description":"568"},"3818d5fd-c5b6-507f-af3e-cc1015160262":{"description":"A time of financial difficulties and European manoeuvring. Tunisia’s state debt results in the establishment of an international financial commission, and a French–English initiative intended to control Tunisian finances.","date_from_description":"1868"},"381bc6c0-47ec-5252-b2e8-8016ecad32e1":{"description":"Battle of Siffin between Mu’awiya, governor of Damascus, and ‘Ali, the fourth caliph and cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, resulting in a schism in the Muslim community with Kharijites (secessionists) accepting neither.","date_from_description":"657"},"38957083-5395-5510-a2cc-c5c82063cde9":{"description":"End of the Thirty Years’ War. The Peace of Westphalia is signed in Münster and Osnabrück and results in a territorial agreement for Germany.","date_from_description":"1648"},"38b37486-4ca5-5ea5-a8ad-ff3929a1df98":{"description":"Peace in Srijemski Karlovci. The end of Turkish rule in north Croatia It remained under the rule of Habsburgs while south Croatia, with the exception of Dubrovnik Republic, was dominated by Venice.","date_from_description":"1699"},"392bdf81-90a4-59c4-be66-5325b35de674":{"description":"The Anjala league is created. This is a group of Finnish officers voicing their opinion about a free Finland.","date_from_description":"1790"},"39331e52-56f9-57b3-aa21-c246025ffb0f":{"description":"Death of Louis XIV. A long regency period ensues, marked by the financial experience of Law and the colonisation of Louisiana.","date_from_description":"1715"},"39792b25-cc09-5cf4-b24a-343aa7e4091e":{"description":"The Bloodbath of Stockholm. Danish King Christian II has a large number of the Swedish nobility beheaded.","date_from_description":"1520"},"3987d218-e552-5510-8c0e-a99c8c8a201f":{"description":"Mu’awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan (r. 661–80) declares himself Caliph in Jerusalem, announcing the beginning of the Umayyad dynasty. The caliphs  ‘Abd al-Malik, Sulayman, ‘Umar II and other Umayyad caliphs did the same.","date_from_description":"661"},"398a51cb-b12c-5007-9180-fe06cc51a912":{"description":"Abu Inan builds the Buinaniya madrasa in Fez, where Marinid decorative arts find their full aesthetic expression.","date_from_description":"1350"},"39e4a69a-c75f-5119-b55e-4bd1464fb8a9":{"description":"The mother of Caliph al-Muqtadir orders several construction works in Palestine including renewal of the gates of the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"914"},"3a5c7b0e-5525-51cb-9a92-f7c14cf42418":{"description":"Croats establish the principalities of Primorska Hrvatska on the Adriatic Coast and Posavska Hrvatska in north Croatia.","date_from_description":"791"},"3ae5c9c0-9320-5c9d-b667-aa81029ad761":{"description":"Hernán Cortés completes the conquest of the Aztec Empire (Mexico).","date_from_description":"1521"},"3af083b2-afbd-5dc1-9307-ac2a302e4b79":{"description":"Bonnie Prince Charlie’s Jacobite army is routed by government troops at the Battle of Culloden; the rebellion collapses and Charles Edward Stewart escapes, dying in Italian exile in 1788.","date_from_description":"1746"},"3b69be10-d58a-52a7-9805-ece6996337cb":{"description":"Roger II, governor of Sicily since 1112, is crowned King of Sicily and reigns until 1154.","date_from_description":"1130"},"3b76793b-525f-54c6-b609-754d6eb29a43":{"description":"Brazilian independence.","date_from_description":"1822"},"3ba4b872-d15e-5f19-9276-3532d502974b":{"description":"The Lancastrian Henry Tudor defeats the Yorkist monarch Richard III at Bosworth Field and claims the throne as Henry VII, marking the end of the Plantagenet dynasty and the ascendancy of the Tudors.","date_from_description":"1485"},"3ba4be7c-9b81-5799-a724-7b204d6a497c":{"description":"The Sassanian (Persian) army conquers Palestine during a campaign of occupation of Great Syria and Egypt. The conquest is very destructive, tens of churches are destroyed, and monasteries are sacked and burned.","date_from_description":"614"},"3c25f5fb-a621-52df-b837-a0e26676f92a":{"description":"Birth of the Tunisian nationalist movement named the Young Tunisians after the Young Turk movement in Istanbul.","date_from_description":"1907–1912"},"3c9d5659-a75b-52ca-945e-3308bac60539":{"description":"Death of the historian Ibn al-Warraq, whose work, dedicated to the towns of Tahert, Oran, Sijilmassa, Nekkour and al-Basra, would later be used by the geographer al-Bakri in his Description of Northern Africa.","date_from_description":"978"},"3d0779fd-2a97-5ac7-bd15-b1fc7e31bd7f":{"description":"The long reign of Bey Hammuda Pasha enhances the legitimacy of the dynasty and helps to stabilise the country.","date_from_description":"1782–1814"},"3d728eba-aff4-5a4f-86da-605c78b0b4c9":{"description":"The Capitulations afford French ships and subjects the freedom of the Ottoman Empire. French consuls gain the right to judge their compatriots in criminal and civil courts. Trade is greatly facilitated.","date_from_description":"1535"},"3d9812e4-b8ef-57b6-9ac5-850fc6a37dfc":{"description":"The Suez Canal, build under the direction of Ferdinand de Lesseps and the watchful eyes of Empress Eugenie, is opened.","date_from_description":"1869"},"3dae562a-52d6-5555-a72f-59c79c393258":{"description":"After devastating Baghdad, the Mongols, led by Hulegu, invade Syria and put an end to the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols lose Syria when they are defeated by the Mamluks in Ain Jalut.","date_from_description":"1259–1260"},"3db76185-8b18-5ca3-add1-fdcce7e70fbf":{"description":"A severe earthquake causes great damage all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"1458"},"3db937f3-6f2c-555f-87d9-3cd4d5ba7ff3":{"description":"The oldest German code of law (Sachsenspiegel), written by Eike von Repgow (ca.1180–d. after 1233) in Latin and translated to German appears in final form. It becomes a standard for all future codes of law.","date_from_description":"1275"},"3dc5ecf9-642b-52bd-937e-54c6b8c26174":{"description":"Expulsion of the Society of Jesus.","date_from_description":"1767"},"3e3954f1-27ae-55d2-9fb6-0379bad29d5e":{"description":"The Representation of the People Act 1918 allows women over the age of 30 with the minimum property qualifications to vote in the United Kingdom’s elections for the first time.","date_from_description":"1918"},"3e46dcf2-c671-5ecd-8570-602dcc6b73b7":{"description":"Mulay Isma‘ïl takes the town of Mamora back from the Spanish and it is renamed al-Mahdiya.","date_from_description":"1682"},"3e6e7aa9-2883-5b04-b168-4538152bf867":{"description":"The first academic thesis in Swedish is presented. Up until now all theses had been written in Latin and even after this date Latin remained the academic language.","date_from_description":"1738"},"3e7a6480-896d-5bfb-ad87-fdd66ac7fb34":{"description":"During the conquest of Jordan, a plague called ‘Emwas’ starts in Palestine and spreads all over Jordan. Among the 25,000 people who die are the companions of the Prophet who ruled the Jordan valley.","date_from_description":"639"},"3ead5f3b-fb93-53a2-9e44-3bc24f19c7b4":{"description":"The Sa‘dids crush the last Wattasids and enter Fez amid much ceremony.","date_from_description":"1549"},"3f178cfd-a839-5dff-b912-dc73471fb7ee":{"description":"The invention of the printing machine with movable metal types by Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398–c. 1468) results in the first printing of the Gutenberg Bible (Biblia Sacra) in 1455.","date_from_description":"1455"},"3f4cb0ce-5c63-5da8-bc07-f731381c9d73":{"description":"Restoration of the Bourbons with Alfonso XII.","date_from_description":"1875"},"3f9af882-80c2-5359-a845-09c7be4e0fd2":{"description":"Circassians, non-Arab Islamic people from the Caucasus region of western Asia, are forced to emigrate from their lands to the south by the Russians. The Ottoman empire helped them to reach Arab countries and settled them there.","date_from_description":"1878"},"3ff42eed-9116-5398-8f28-e68deb78aea6":{"description":"Great Seljuk Empire is founded by Tughril Beg.","date_from_description":"1037"},"4042dc9f-88b1-598c-a239-a83682f1058b":{"description":"Saracen raid on the Lerins Islands (the most significant of a series of raids on the Provençal coast). The monks taken are bought back through the Abbey of Saint-Victor.","date_from_description":"1047"},"405ce77a-8dfe-54f7-8fcf-62e914fe9e08":{"description":"The ‘Fundamental law’ for military territory (the so-called ‘Vojna krajina’ of the Varaždin and Karlovac military district) in Croatia is established.","date_from_description":"1754"},"407082c9-f7f9-5726-8678-89804c243ef5":{"description":"Defeat of the Klis, the last southern fortress. Ottomans constitute the Sanđak of Klis.","date_from_description":"1537"},"4081b08b-c5ec-5ae8-a186-1eb79b2a0d5a":{"description":"Badr Al-Jamali, the Fatimid vizier, consolidates Cairo’s walls while extending its perimeter.","date_from_description":"1087"},"4081d6fa-5d80-56a2-9ef3-1bb154005ea3":{"description":"Compromise with the House of Habsburg (activated by Ferenc Deák on the Hungarian side). Emperor Franz Joseph I crowned King of Hungary in Buda. Birth of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.","date_from_description":"1867"},"41204c10-4ff6-558d-8cab-bc6fcc7e525a":{"description":"Babylon (the Roman settlement south of present-day Cairo) capitulates to the Muslim armies led by Amr ibn al-'As.The first Islamic capital of Egypt, Fustat, is founded.","date_from_description":"641"},"415862c6-3b5a-5779-961a-b814e4cf1d07":{"description":"Moorish rebellion in the Alpujarras.  \nRisings in the Netherlands.","date_from_description":"1568"},"41779435-72d2-5d45-8768-1dceddd75d06":{"description":"The Second Crusades arrive in Anatolia on the way to the Holy Lands.","date_from_description":"1147"},"41c83dd7-921e-5b8b-b4a6-27f412fa3e00":{"description":"Chlothar I, son of Clovis, becomes the sole ruler of the Franks, having previously shared his kingdom with his brothers.","date_from_description":"558"},"4232ff9c-1256-5deb-96fe-5d0ebb21e721":{"description":"Bey Husayn bin ‘Ali founds the dynasty that will run the country until 1881 independently, and then under the French protectorate until 20 March 1956. Eighteen different beys come into power. The word bey refers to a political-military position dating back to the Turkish conquest, like pasha and dey.","date_from_description":"1705–1728"},"426d1d37-8fd0-5398-af00-f51502b04de6":{"description":"During the reign of Abu Hammu Musa I, the Tachfiniya madrasa is built in Tlemcen, the town is fortified and the kingdom is expanded to Constantine and Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1308-1318"},"42bcc0c6-2c2d-56d5-9824-e015cd16a1ca":{"description":"Three years after Scottish victory at Largs, Alexander III of Scotland and Magnus IV of Norway sign the treaty of Perth, handing sovereignty over the Western Isles and the Isle of Man to Scotland.","date_from_description":"1266"},"42cec425-fe67-5db6-9273-f3e6dbac1020":{"description":"Penda establishes his kingdom of Mercia as the pre-eminent Anglo-Saxon realm after defeating and killing Oswald of Northumbria at the Battle of Maserfield.","date_from_description":"642"},"43a6bdfe-913d-53ed-a7e1-d1f54dbc4dee":{"description":"Aqaba Castle is established on the shore of the Red Sea during the reign of the Mamluk Sultan Qansawh al-Ghawri.","date_from_description":"1515"},"43a82bf6-3fd0-5e78-b728-fb49dce467ea":{"description":"Spanish presence in the coastal towns of Mers el-Kébir (1505), Oran (1509), Algiers (1510) and Béjaia (1510).","date_from_description":"1505-1510"},"43dd3e00-777b-59a8-9acc-29c4ba3e6d59":{"description":"French ships bombard the town of Salé.","date_from_description":"1851"},"43ede450-465f-5c99-852d-554217fca08e":{"description":"The colonial powers sign the Act of Algeciras, proclaiming the independence of the Sultan of Morocco, the integrity of the empire and the economic equality of the colonial powers.","date_from_description":"1906"},"440f98e6-7968-5b4d-9f22-4d30cae32afd":{"description":"Ahmad al-Mansur starts work on the al-Badi Palace (the Incomparable) in Marrakesh and reorganises sugar production in Chichaoua, Darâ and Essaouira regions.","date_from_description":"1578–9"},"4420ce42-e991-54b0-8b2d-2aabe2e96f6c":{"description":"The villages of Mount Nablus revolt against the Ottoman governor, refusing to pay taxes after a locust attack destroys their harvest.","date_from_description":"1664"},"44829943-397f-50a4-acae-5a65332f8c8c":{"description":"Jesuits build the Church of St Catherine in Zagreb, from its architecture and inventory one of the most outstanding Jesuit churches in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1620"},"448e2952-7f34-5034-9f9b-bf57836f2d10":{"description":"Expulsion of the Jews and the Muslims.","date_from_description":"1496"},"44b77875-cbba-5a35-a2f4-48014c5867ec":{"description":"On the initiative of the Council of Trent the Bishop of Zagreb, Juraj Drašković, establishes the Zagreb Seminary (Seminarium Clericorum) to promote theology.","date_from_description":"1565"},"44eb6702-267e-5192-a6ab-eb4c560ff6a9":{"description":"Juan Sebastián Elcano completes the first circumnavigation of the globe.","date_from_description":"1522"},"44f2f8e6-56eb-50ea-872a-14c2cdb51258":{"description":"King Charles XII (Karl XII) dies and is succeeded by his sister Ulrika Eleonora the Younger. The royal power is restricted, with more power given to council and parliament.","date_from_description":"1718"},"4527189c-23d1-5794-9384-5b409f2418f1":{"description":"Conquest of Cairo by Selim I the Grim.","date_from_description":"1517"},"458024a5-91ec-5bdd-8a07-af31da303332":{"description":"Venice conquers Karlobag attacking Novi Vinodolski, the city of the Frankopans. This marks the beginning of the Austro-Venetian war, at this stage known as the Uskok war.","date_from_description":"1615"},"46074fd4-311b-50a6-8e84-ea49fd4d20a3":{"description":"The first Czech periodical newspaper (Prague). Moravian aristocracy in service of the empire. Viennese artists in Moravia. Development of pilgrimages; church celebrations.","date_from_description":"1719"},"46751acf-b479-5590-9e2a-9b5a81257c3b":{"description":"King Boabdil, the last Nasrid king, takes refuge in Oran then Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1492"},"46c4cfb1-3593-5170-976b-ba0e420253d1":{"description":"Damascus–Beirut railway (and Damascus–Hijaz railway in 1908) built by German workers reflecting economic and industrial ties between the Ottoman Empire and Germany. The German Emperor William II visits Damascus on November 1898.","date_from_description":"1895"},"46f3181d-ae5c-5da3-9130-643d909e0b19":{"description":"Prague described in narration of Jewish-Arabian merchant Ibn Jákúb. Establishment of first (Benedictine) monasteries and Prague bishopric (974). Foundation of the Czech state under the Przemyslid dynasty.","date_from_description":"965"},"4752ff39-18ff-59d8-96d5-baeeb4555349":{"description":"Second taifas in al-Gharb. Afonso Henriques recognised as king at the Zamora Conference.","date_from_description":"1143"},"47812d73-1765-51c9-a1f7-9106287d7a3c":{"description":"Tunis taken by the Ottoman privateer Barbarossa Khayr al-Din Pasha.","date_from_description":"1534"},"47a1f2b0-9844-5245-b45b-dd2a1c34746e":{"description":"The British and Austrian fleets with the support of the Ottomans attack Palestinian shores, putting an end to Egyptian rule. European influences, including architectural, began to appear in the landscape.","date_from_description":"1840"},"47c305a3-f4e7-5d68-999a-faa2b8aa5b4b":{"description":"Sykes-Picot Agreement between France and Britain divides the eastern Arab countries between both countries; Palestine is allocated to Britain.","date_from_description":"1916"},"47eafb93-3dec-56e8-a95c-532def54b84d":{"description":"The first colonial exhibition opens in Marseille under the auspices of Jules Charles-Roux.","date_from_description":"1906"},"481332a0-4c39-547a-aaf4-d49d9a16b02d":{"description":"The Swedish Missionary Society is founded.","date_from_description":"1835"},"48133435-09eb-53ab-b185-f93d5f3346e1":{"description":"Barbarossa’s fleet comes to the aid of the French in their struggle against Charles V.","date_from_description":"1543"},"49101bbd-fd62-5af9-8332-7152a64fb22f":{"description":"Foundation of the abbey at Alcobaça.","date_from_description":"1153"},"496ad0eb-f1dc-5b9b-8da1-c440a8be3b8c":{"description":"Carthage conquered by the Arabs under the leadership of Hassan ibn Numan.","date_from_description":"698"},"49e447ab-f314-5806-b5f5-033f39e6eb13":{"description":"Death of the Berber resistance fighter Kahina.","date_from_description":"701"},"4a9ebcf4-02f0-5f0e-9d67-1c3497d69ede":{"description":"Almohad dominance in the south.","date_from_description":"1156"},"4b2fe6a5-e85d-5b5d-ad5f-2a2281ac018d":{"description":"Muslim attack on Santarém, resulting in the death of Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf.","date_from_description":"1184"},"4b44c7bc-b668-5732-b7a9-3d74e28a7366":{"description":"Croats settle in the area between the Adriatic Sea and the Sava and Drava rivers.","date_from_description":"614"},"4b8b1ac1-fdef-5ff1-bd9d-bc3fc36c1e27":{"description":"Badis, son of al-Mansur, leaves Qalaa for the last time and goes to Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1104"},"4bb80339-3cc4-5f43-bb32-146ee218ab19":{"description":"According to the double conquest theory of Gyula László the origin of the first archaeological finds in the Carpathian basin indicate the presence of the first wave of the Hungarian tribes.","date_from_description":"670/680"},"4bf552ac-f39d-59d7-b9e6-ec494b60f204":{"description":"Under Duke Henry of Saxony the term ‘Kingdom of the Germans’ (Regnum teutonicum) is used for the first time.","date_from_description":"920"},"4c20974b-4462-568c-b57b-1f721ff80056":{"description":"Birth of the first organised Tunisian nationalist party named the Destour after the constitutions, suspended since 30 April 1864.","date_from_description":"1920"},"4c2c72ca-f944-55e9-a890-4e06fc17bac5":{"description":"Prolific historiographical and encyclopaedic writing in the Mamluk period. Three authors focused on urban topography of Damascus are Ibn ‘Abd al-Hadi (d. 1503), al-Nu’aymi (d.1520) and Ibn Tulun (d.1546).","date_from_description":"1482–1546"},"4c5520e5-28db-5680-8a1c-cad3e9a665c0":{"description":"Battle of Alcácer Quibir (also known as Battle of the Three Kings) during which King Sebastian dies.","date_from_description":"1578"},"4c7d31a5-4c08-5953-ac0a-9058010e9734":{"description":"The Buda printing house of András Hess publishes his *Chronica Hungarorum*, a chronicle of Hungary. Fruitless negotiations with Emperor Friedrich III lead Mátyás I to occupy Vienna in 1485.","date_from_description":"1473"},"4c9f1e73-78be-543a-ada9-45f90963999e":{"description":"Count Ferenc Széchenyi donates his library and collections to the Hungarian nation. This is the nucleus of the National Museum of Hungary and of the National Széchenyi Library.","date_from_description":"1802"},"4cb7338d-726c-597d-b2b5-2bf4487370c3":{"description":"Dynastic union between Castile and Aragon through Isabel I and Ferdinand II.","date_from_description":"1479"},"4d364b05-cc1a-5137-92cc-adf2648c528e":{"description":"Construction of the Sidi Abdarrahman mausoleum to house his tomb and the necropolis that formed around it.","date_from_description":"1627"},"4d8480d4-69c3-54c8-8ab2-240c5f2784bc":{"description":"Independent emirate with ‘Abd al-Rahman I (Umayyad dynasty).","date_from_description":"756"},"4d87d64c-3e45-5ad9-b697-61f6ff3f1759":{"description":"Genoa sells Corsica to France one year before the birth of Napoleon Bonaparte.","date_from_description":"1768"},"4d885000-7c9e-55fe-b2ab-87459f40e258":{"description":"Establishment of the Portucuese Counties.","date_from_description":"1095"},"4d8c1c25-24e2-533a-84ea-3895341682a8":{"description":"Fall of Jerusalem to the Franks.","date_from_description":"1099"},"4daf1c53-294e-5b97-8c94-86a42bc8918a":{"description":"Karak Castle is built by Payen le Boutellier. It is named Crac de Moab or simply le Crac by the Franks. It was a very important castle to Crusaders due to its position as a watch centre of the Islamic army movements.","date_from_description":"1142"},"4dd40d00-a8e3-5a70-9a14-9452ce7a029a":{"description":"During the lifetime of Saint Boniface, an English missionary who lived from c. 675 to 754, the tribes in Germany become Christians.","date_from_description":"700"},"4e2bb256-d175-543c-9a34-3932839a8a99":{"description":"King of Portugal attacks the Algarve region.","date_from_description":"1189"},"4e65e772-0a02-5bc0-b0f5-337190cf98d8":{"description":"The Battle of Hattin. The rise of the Ayyubid dynasty as a successful force against the Crusaders, combined with cultural and demographic changes, transforms the face of Palestine after many years of Crusader control.","date_from_description":"1187"},"4ec80c98-e99f-5e84-a520-9924c20c2b97":{"description":"Al-Salih Ayyub builds up an army of Turkish slaves and houses them in his fortress on Roda island in the Nile. They come to be known as the Bahri Mamluks.","date_from_description":"1240"},"4f5c68b0-eb71-5363-9d15-78b719a872dc":{"description":"Byzantine Emperor Justinian orders the construction of St. Catherine’s Monastery at the foot of Mount Moses in Central Sinai. It became the third pilgrimage site after Jerusalem and Rome.","date_from_description":"527"},"4fd74db0-e844-5e21-9d9e-dfa3dda881be":{"description":"Dubrovnik recognises the authority of Venice, which will last until 1358. In that period Dubrovnik was obliged to pay Venice annual tribute and to accept Venetians as its dukes and archbishops.","date_from_description":"1205"},"4feb54ce-0f2f-5592-8f51-c16b2b766eea":{"description":"In Ireland, half the potato crop fails followed by almost the entire crop of 1846; around one million people subsequently die in the Irish Famine between 1845 and 1851.","date_from_description":"1845"},"5001b852-cd6c-5311-8e47-c6bc520dca86":{"description":"Almoravid invasion following the Christian conquest of Toledo. Almoravid victory at the Battle of Sagrajas or Zallaqa (Badajoz).","date_from_description":"1086"},"50ac747b-311e-5615-8daf-488a530d5ee7":{"description":"Turks occupy a large part of north Croatia.","date_from_description":"1433"},"511016af-9b07-5c9f-8d6c-a30b2ea930ec":{"description":"The Portuguese take the town of Qsar al-Saghir.","date_from_description":"1458"},"51191f52-ddd5-54ef-bffe-e6a8289b64ae":{"description":"Revolts in Kabylie.","date_from_description":"1796"},"52217393-d8ee-5402-bd51-bded5e32a4d9":{"description":"Petar Zrinski and Fran Krsto Frankopan executed in Wiener Neustadt (Bečko Novo Mjesto).  \nBuilding of Dubrovnik Cathedral after the plan of A. Buffalini from Urbino which displays features of developed Roman Baroque.","date_from_description":"1671"},"523f9595-4283-5b18-9a26-9225bab37429":{"description":"On 4 October a torrential stream destroys the buildings, markets and mosque of Ajlun.","date_from_description":"1328"},"524c3bcc-fc78-5fc9-8cf8-bd35b6f1c912":{"description":"The Ottomans, led by Sinan Pasha, oust the Spanish from Tunis and annex the town to the Ottoman empire.","date_from_description":"1574"},"52b45bf8-f440-5884-9c8b-7b9eedbddc86":{"description":"Charles IV appointed Margrave of Moravia.","date_from_description":"1334"},"52dd8832-74f2-57f4-bd89-3e527329eb34":{"description":"The Italian Communist Party is formed.","date_from_description":"1920"},"52f62145-5642-55a4-937b-73eed89a215b":{"description":"Olomouc bishopric promoted to archbishopric. Foundation of a bishopric in Brno. Abolition of serfdom. Riots of the Evangelicals in Wallachia.","date_from_description":"1777"},"53111dfb-b9b9-5f55-9240-9b6e026d8d53":{"description":"Galileo is tried by the Inquisition for his scientific theories.","date_from_description":"1633"},"5327b6d4-3a65-5293-a606-ea64db46f1fb":{"description":"The Byzantine Emperor Justinianus (later Justinian) grants the ally of the Byzantines, al-Haritha ibn Jibla, the Arab-Christian ruler of the Ghassan tribe who settled in Syria and Jordan, the title ‘Baselues’ (king).","date_from_description":"528"},"535178d2-75c5-5c3e-a065-3ec6deee5020":{"description":"Pope Alexander III’s papal bull Manifestis Probatum recognises the king of Portugal.","date_from_description":"1179"},"536db52d-e1ff-5510-aa13-42211a295930":{"description":"Establishment of the Czech Engineering School in Prague. New patent against non-Catholics. Heresy declared a crime against the state, non-Catholics punishable by death.","date_from_description":"1717"},"53b21358-7f48-567e-9c5d-c206eeb896ca":{"description":"Major fire in Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, addressed by a major renovation endeavour by the Ottoman Empire. Thus the current hall is a late-Ottoman renovation with strong Western stylistic influences.","date_from_description":"1893"},"53e04a9b-0217-5a73-929c-4af490d49239":{"description":"Heracles (r. 610–41) reconquers Palestine and the Emperor brings back the Holy Cross to Jerusalem. Restoration projects begin all over Palestine and in Jerusalem in particular.","date_from_description":"628"},"53e2a473-6218-53e4-ae36-e9634dbb30b1":{"description":"Abolition of slavery.","date_from_description":"1846"},"54547a63-b6e6-52c9-be7a-11522e48f89e":{"description":"Start of the reign of Louis VI. Establishment and growth of the commune movement in France.","date_from_description":"1108"},"546c0371-e65e-5d2e-9627-942bfe0f2dea":{"description":"The Battle of Mohács: the 75–80 000 Turkish soldiers defeat the Hungarian army of 25,000 men. King Lajos II dies. Both János I (Szapolyai) and Ferdinand I became Hungarian kings.","date_from_description":"1526"},"546f4c69-4e94-55e6-bba7-ca5df34c3ff0":{"description":"Siege of Constantinople by the Muslim Arabs.","date_from_description":"674–678"},"547fd8d0-cdb7-50cf-813e-0a6d738ad687":{"description":"A Royal Navy fleet led by Admiral Lord Nelson in HMS Victory destroys the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar; Nelson is killed in the battle.","date_from_description":"1805"},"551ebb0f-8760-5cad-a847-7b8053f88589":{"description":"Ottoman Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent orders the establishment of Ma’an pilgrimage station.","date_from_description":"1531"},"555365e0-aaa3-513b-bd8c-ebedd6fe2db2":{"description":"War with England returns. Establishment of the Continental System and collapse of French trade in the Mediterranean.","date_from_description":"1803"},"55695aa1-b0a9-5f4e-97b5-dea801f7d659":{"description":"Muhammad al-Ikhshid (r. 935–46) conquers Palestine and annexes it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"940"},"559f59cb-5ac1-5e93-9214-b9f88cac905d":{"description":"The Treaty of the Pyrenees ends the Franco-Spanish war and confirms French possession of Roussillon. The union between Louis XIV and Marie-Thérèse lays the foundation for a solid alliance, despite the King of France renouncing his and his successors’ right to the Spanish throne.","date_from_description":"1659"},"55a62e78-aeb7-50e8-85b5-4686d142ee47":{"description":"Victory of Charles Martel (688–741) of the Carolingian Dynasty at the battle of Tours and Poitiers (southern France) over Arab insurgents leads to their retreat to the southern valley of the Rhone.","date_from_description":"732"},"55b5ac77-fa3e-5cfe-b9a7-1ebaf09d93bb":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun (r. 813–33) orders the restoration of the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"831"},"5613686d-95e8-539a-9ddd-370f90efee48":{"description":"On 28 May the Transjordan Emirate is established, headed by Prince Abdullah I, son of Sharif Husayn, who later became King Abdullah the founder of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.","date_from_description":"1921"},"565254cf-3e05-59ae-a148-c24a6942fa18":{"description":"Código de las Siete Partidas, a return to Roman law with the unification of Castilian laws.","date_from_description":"1263"},"5678f5be-3e06-5d07-abad-a8670a5be0f1":{"description":"The German Templars establish their first settlement in Haifa, followed in 1873 in Sarona (near Jaffa) and Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1869"},"56ad7d25-7c26-56a7-a9a4-c9f725bec018":{"description":"Vandal occupation and the Berber kingdom of the Djeddars.","date_from_description":"500"},"574c48c1-ec52-5fc7-9120-045bf9d0c20c":{"description":"Proclamation of the ‘Destour’ during the reign of Sadok Bey, the first modern constitution in the Muslim world.","date_from_description":"1861"},"57582bc6-4423-583c-942f-d77effb8e2f4":{"description":"Meeting at Mellalah (Béjaia) between the mahdi Ibn Tumart and ‘Abd al-Mu’min, founders of the Almohad dynasty.","date_from_description":"1117"},"578433d4-58b0-5d8e-a4fd-1cb6e7b3c05c":{"description":"Start of the First Crusade, preached by Pope Urban II at Clermont. The People’s Crusade is mostly annihilated, but the Princes’ Crusade reaches Palestine and takes Jerusalem in 1099, establishing the Frankish Kingdom in the east.","date_from_description":"1096"},"57abb70e-9dc2-5504-be1e-d548144147d9":{"description":"A new national law codex is published. It replaces the earlier medieval laws.","date_from_description":"1734"},"57e52823-8101-54ba-b97f-059ab665773c":{"description":"Foundation of the first German university in Prague by Emperor Charles IV.","date_from_description":"1348"},"58905020-ab87-5e94-a3d4-66d653a6cbc1":{"description":"The first mosque in Egypt is built in Bilbis, east of the Delta, to honour the martyrs and 120 companions of the Prophet who died in battle there during the Arab invasion of Egypt. It followed the ground plan of the Prophet's mosque in Medina.","date_from_description":"639"},"58937cc9-8073-5f41-a01b-586172119fd1":{"description":"Four knights who believe they are working on the implicit orders of King Henry II murder Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, in Canterbury Cathedral.","date_from_description":"1170"},"58e49658-5d56-5cee-a255-546c446b7c9c":{"description":"The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope has an adverse effect on trade in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1492"},"58f04dcc-14c3-570e-91a1-26058adc783d":{"description":"The reign of Henry II (1002–24) sees the establishment of a feudal system, particularly in Northern Italy, which will leave a lasting mark on Italy’s social and economic make-up.","date_from_description":"1002"},"58fd9645-d24f-5ff7-9e13-9e18a9a195d5":{"description":"Reforms under Emperor Joseph II: tolerance patent permitting non-Catholicism (Catholicism remains the official religion). Abolition of serfdom. Closure of monasteries not dedicated to publicly beneficial work.","date_from_description":"1781"},"5902e9f0-1f5e-58a0-a416-f603b26bff55":{"description":"Revolt of the Sicilian Vespers against Sicily’s French Angevin rulers. Aragon emerges victorious in Sicily, which is separated politically from Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1282"},"592cecff-2d36-5a77-98f1-8da2b13b45fb":{"description":"Birth of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.","date_from_description":"1238"},"592e7efc-8d9e-5819-bb5f-31a387a052cb":{"description":"Decisive victory of the Almohads over the nomads at Sétif. Widespread use of Almohad coinage as the industry and commerce of war flourishes. Political unity and religious dogmatism. The apogee of Almohad rule.","date_from_description":"1153"},"5a1ea0bc-5eaa-51e5-ba81-3c6a7d87d08a":{"description":"Autocracy is introduced under King Charles XI (Karl XI).","date_from_description":"1680"},"5a220c3a-13cf-51aa-aa83-4ae726f3e068":{"description":"The Russian Nestor Chronicle tells of an agreement in this year, stating, among other things, that: If a Rus (Swede) kills a Christian or a Christian a Rus he has to die where he commits this manslaughter. This law is typical for regional Scandinavian jurisdiction. 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In December the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes is formed.","date_from_description":"1918"},"6ac1e7a4-0763-567a-9aab-392a58ec9f2a":{"description":"Promulgation of a charter during the reign of Muhammad Pasha Bey guaranteeing the rights of his Tunisian subjects and people living in Tunisia.","date_from_description":"1857"},"6c13c8ef-71f1-599b-a5c8-987c27675585":{"description":"Construction of the Great Mosque of Kairouan.","date_from_description":"836"},"6c2f1fa9-6204-570a-8919-6497aa052e19":{"description":"First maritime conquests of the Muslims, occupying Cyprus.","date_from_description":"649"},"6c42f919-7aa0-50cf-bc11-abfe289fbdff":{"description":"The town of Sedrata destroyed. 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The Fatimids reconquer it 25 years later.","date_from_description":"1072"},"73ce346b-a7ba-59c9-9d97-77f864f326b8":{"description":"Charles II lands in Scotland and is proclaimed King of Scotland, but two years later Scotland is occupied by Cromwellian forces, and incorporated into the Commonwealth.","date_from_description":"1650"},"7438e0cd-4c36-53ea-b973-6082a1b99195":{"description":"Muslim counter-revolution is thwarted. The sultan is deposed and constitutional monarchy is declared.","date_from_description":"1909"},"7461a583-5319-5d96-bc8b-835aeefb8505":{"description":"Emperor Wilhelm II (1888–1918) sacks Chancellor Otto von Bismark. 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War continues with both sides growing weak and weary, inadvertently easing the path for the upcoming Muslim conquerers.","date_from_description":"602"},"75265dcf-e309-5623-bb92-119872b38890":{"description":"Two peace treaties: Vienna ends Hungary’s fight against the Habsburgs led by István Bocskai, Transylvanian prince; Zsitvatorok (part of Dunaradvány, today: Žitava, Slovakia) ends the fight with the Turks. Bocskai dies.","date_from_description":"1606"},"7542ab53-207e-5790-ad12-9d6767a20507":{"description":"Saint Francis of Assisi writes his Rule, inspired by the principles of poverty, errant preaching and Christian charity. Frederick II (1211–50), already King of Sicily, is crowned emperor.","date_from_description":"1210"},"75ab6cf4-67be-510f-9810-3d8d239173a7":{"description":"Amir Ziri ibn Atiya of the Maghrawa takes Fez.","date_from_description":"991"},"75e243bd-3a5f-50f8-924c-eca0449cbd00":{"description":"Tanzimat Firman  (Reform) declared.","date_from_description":"1839"},"76106077-4fbe-5ac5-831b-fc32a3eed850":{"description":"Napoleon Bonaparte fails to force ‘Akka, under the command of Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, to surrender, and retreats to Egypt and France.","date_from_description":"1799"},"767bf16a-6913-5b7b-8d3b-4f238e72b2eb":{"description":"Marco Polo, son of a Venetian merchant, departs for China with his father Nicolò and uncle Matteo. He is one of the first Westerners to reach China.","date_from_description":"1271"},"7688cb66-98d6-589d-bdbd-6120c7e6b1b6":{"description":"The first seigniories are formed, in Milan under Filippo della Torre, in Ferrara with Obizzo d’Este and in Mantova with the Gonzaga family.","date_from_description":"1236"},"76ca0397-5ce3-5704-8d79-9e92e944d2ee":{"description":"Methuen Treaty between Portugal and the United Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1703"},"776b31da-3663-540a-af66-449903290122":{"description":"Al-Zahir Baybars defeats the Tartars in Asia Minor.","date_from_description":"1276"},"77d1d8d4-47c4-5ddd-bc58-1a459d986cb7":{"description":"Khaïreddine, the prime minister of the bey, instigates a programme of reforms. Foundation of the Collège Sadiki, the first modern secondary school in Tunisia. Foundation of the Sadiki hospital.","date_from_description":"1870–1877"},"77e3d358-67fc-5942-839e-ff23d23e5cfa":{"description":"On 9 July Nikola Tesla is born in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1850"},"784d1ad4-879a-5143-a5ef-97e2854c39cb":{"description":"A Yellow Fever epidemic rages through Egypt.","date_from_description":"1348"},"788dca06-e404-5193-be41-f794901f648b":{"description":"The land of Thuringia is conquered by rulers of the Merovingian Dynasty with the help of the Saxons.","date_from_description":"531"},"78b04146-1861-5327-afe3-d91348a8ad18":{"description":"Visigoths defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Vouillé; collapse of the Visigoth Kingdom of Tolosa and withdrawal to the Iberian Peninsula (Kingdom of Toledo).","date_from_description":"507"},"78dd4d35-d6b9-5942-ab3e-7fd0b98349b5":{"description":"The Ottoman Empire's military strength and imperial patronage of religious and commercial buildings, especially in Damascus, by Lala Mustafa Pasha (1570), Darwish Pasha (1574) and Sinan Pasha (1589).","date_from_description":"1570–1590"},"791d1021-9e23-57b9-a880-2a791e359eed":{"description":"Founding of Olomouc bishopric. Vratislav II made first Czech King (1085). The first Czech chronicle known as the *Chronicle of Cosmas*. Premonstratensian and Cistercian monasteries founded (1140).","date_from_description":"1063"},"792cc7e2-44f5-5a27-9343-72d72bcd1f52":{"description":"The *Law of Vinodol* is composed, one of the first juridical regulations in this part of Europe.","date_from_description":"1288"},"798257f6-1021-535f-9840-0aae074a5828":{"description":"Assembly of non-Catholic Estates. ’Prague Defenestration’ incident sparked a rising of the Czech Estates against the Habsburgs and the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War. Czech Estates joined by Moravian and Austrian aristocracy and Frederick, Elector Palatine (Czech king 1619–20).","date_from_description":"1618"},"79a18bd9-ece7-55a7-bf23-5fa46e37f311":{"description":"Creation of the United Kingdom of Portugal and Brazil.","date_from_description":"1815"},"79af730b-ca67-5371-a316-30f78c8396eb":{"description":"Catholicism becomes the official religion of the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo.","date_from_description":"589"},"79c792fd-77c1-59f8-a733-cb0125a9752e":{"description":"Northern Morocco is shaken by the Kharijite revolt lead by Maysara al-Matghari.","date_from_description":"740"},"7a52fcdf-c442-5230-a24b-c51e8d8f749c":{"description":"On 23 August the Ottomans defeat the Mamluks in a decisive battle at Marj Dabiq, marking the end of the Mamluks’ rule in Egypt and Syria.","date_from_description":"1516"},"7a6c3010-26aa-5cf1-a20e-8c9f84d04c4d":{"description":"The Croatian People’s Peasants’ Party – from 7 December Republican Peasants’ Party – led by Stjepan Radić refuses to acknowledge the monarchy and leads Croats to ethnic and political emancipation.","date_from_description":"1920"},"7a79996f-5777-5cb7-ac04-407bc2249a9e":{"description":"Austria-Hungary reincorporates the military border into Croatia, increasing the number of ethnic Serbs in Croatia to about 25 per cent.","date_from_description":"1881"},"7aeb2f08-5d28-5ee1-a897-67339824e4f1":{"description":"The Porta Pia Breach: on 20 September, the Sardinian army liberates Rome, annexing the city and the Papal States to the Kingdom of Italy. The unification of Italy is complete","date_from_description":"1870"},"7afa4b50-1a4e-5434-8131-18e2304e897c":{"description":"Beginning of a power crisis for the central emirate sparking local rebellions for independence.","date_from_description":"879"},"7b791ac7-d8d3-5d68-ac13-3a180cea05ea":{"description":"Disputes between Rudolph II and his brother Matthias. Moravian Estates led by Karel of Žerotín join the associations of Austrian and Hungarian Estates. Imperial charter issued by Rudolph II confirms religious freedom (1609); however, discord continues.","date_from_description":"1608-9"},"7b81e809-5ef4-5166-84f8-16d85815854a":{"description":"The Portuguese take the town of Sebta.","date_from_description":"1415"},"7c0b3274-7bcb-5ba7-b3fd-f7e5edd13bab":{"description":"The Ikhshidid dynasty, based in Egypt, extends its rule to Damascus. The Abbasid empire begins to fragment.","date_from_description":"935–969"},"7c1ad6bd-1974-576b-9bd8-7735354ba9b3":{"description":"English barons force King John to agree to a statement of their rights and sign the Magna Carta, which limits his power and paves the way towards a constitutional monarchy in England.","date_from_description":"1215"},"7c2ee146-ba53-5964-b2d9-cb23eb7cfdd7":{"description":"Foundation of Cairo (Egypt). The Fatimids leave for Cairo.","date_from_description":"971–973"},"7cbfe03b-c7db-5dae-9833-cb09f7a8e4dc":{"description":"Expounding his economic and social programme (including regulation of the lower Danube) Count István Széchenyi publishes *Hitel* (Credit) the first Hungarian socio-economic reform programme.","date_from_description":"1830"},"7cead247-b0ae-5763-9ebf-59ae5749df87":{"description":"The priest Anders Chydenius from Ostrobothnia (today part of Finland) is elected to parliament, where he actively works for freedom of trade and freedom of print.","date_from_description":"1756"},"7d0cc929-eae7-54e7-8ada-1acf67489c9a":{"description":"Women are given the right to vote in Swedish elections.","date_from_description":"1921"},"7d87484c-d3be-5735-a7da-c7915d51a401":{"description":"The arrival of the Aghlabids triggers the Arab conquest of Sicily.","date_from_description":"827"},"7d949f6e-348a-5172-87f4-bec6a0a0dea5":{"description":"Capture of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusaders; Nicea becomes the new capital of the Byzantine Empire.","date_from_description":"1204"},"7daf34bc-4ae8-548a-8de3-f30fea7cf443":{"description":"At the Battle of Helge å the Danish King Canute, who has already conquered England, wins a victory and gains control also of Sweden. It does not last, but it is one of the first major battles in what will become seven centuries of war and peace between Denmark and Sweden.","date_from_description":"1026"},"7dc58a1d-8843-5df5-a976-5067e5b3251f":{"description":"The Peace of Augsburg results in recognition of Lutherism and Roman Catholicism. Each ruler now has the right to decide on the religion to be practised in his state.","date_from_description":"1555"},"7dede71a-1484-59fc-923d-a8d3dfd5b786":{"description":"Norman incursions on the coast of Ifriqiya. The Djerba and Kerkennah islands, along with the towns of Gabès, Sfax, Mahdia and Sousse, are occupied by the Normans.","date_from_description":"1118–1156"},"7e0715c0-0290-5b4e-9499-96a9b018b319":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min starts the construction of the Great Mosque of the Koutoubiya in Marrakesh.","date_from_description":"1158"},"7e173ce2-2de4-553a-a41d-5b61fcf1b23f":{"description":"The establishment of Great Moravia (Moravia, western Slovakia, parts of Hungary, Austria, Bohemia and Poland).","date_from_description":"Around 833"},"7e4629f7-3d09-583b-a56a-de70f453b63a":{"description":"In October a peace treaty is made between Prophet Muhammad and the Bishop of Ayla, John bin Ru’ba in exchange for the payment of 300 dinars a year as poll tax for protection.","date_from_description":"630"},"7eb8ac05-861b-5f54-869d-e7795df9ca02":{"description":"The rule of the Azem family, lasting nearly a century, indicates the rise of local urban notables into the leadership of Syria as Ottoman strength in the Arab provinces begins to weaken.","date_from_description":"1725–1820"},"7f0247de-f0bf-5359-855d-9d7d6cfdb6e5":{"description":"Birth of the illustrious scholar Ibn Arfa.","date_from_description":"1316"},"7f434184-ddcb-5c28-8d42-ab2dbdfab6d0":{"description":"Issa ibn Yazid al-Assouad founds the town of Sijilmassa at Tafilalet, the great desert port on the gold route.","date_from_description":"757"},"7fb75a2a-174f-5889-a93a-01a999249076":{"description":"A ruinous earthquake destroys Jerusalem and most of the cities of Jordan at the end of Umayyad rule.","date_from_description":"747"},"7fc0134c-7298-5017-9f07-a34afb66a915":{"description":"At the Peace Treaty of Fredrikshamn Sweden loses its eastern half (today’s Finland) to Russia.","date_from_description":"1809"},"80f48147-44c1-557b-95d4-cf83058e2aea":{"description":"Publication of the Fuero Juzgo, a summary of Visigothic law.","date_from_description":"654"},"80f8fda0-8020-5c16-a9df-253be322a36f":{"description":"The Tours Congress sees the rise of revolutionary ideas in France. Nonetheless, France and England seem stronger than ever, and ready to share out the remains of the Ottoman Empire. But they have been severely affected by the war, and nationalist movements are beginning to make themselves heard in Mashriq and Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1920"},"8128be6c-e252-53df-a192-523926903235":{"description":"Establishment of the first public museums (Opava). The first long-distance railway in Europe (České Budějovice–Linz, 1825). J. E. Purkyně introduces cell theory. Disturbances among workers and peasants.","date_from_description":"1814"},"816a8455-d337-5d96-9ffb-6bf4ab2ef50c":{"description":"Construction of the Great Mosques of Constantine and Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1136"},"81caa2dd-140e-52b3-adec-c7b1a4e46a34":{"description":"End of the Christian conquest of the west of the peninsula.","date_from_description":"1249"},"81f0fc36-c1ce-58fa-bce0-101ffd4fe578":{"description":"Bramante begins construction of the new Basilica of Saint Peter.","date_from_description":"1506"},"81f5a073-c56f-5a6e-b163-19b52ff3ef24":{"description":"The Vandals take refuge in Mauritania Tingitana (Northern Morocco in Antiquity).","date_from_description":"533"},"826f6c8c-327a-5a4d-805b-58a8f47a35e6":{"description":"The policy of Wilhelm II toward the Near East results in his travels to the Ottoman empire (Istanbul, Jerusalem and Damascus).","date_from_description":"1898"},"827243e0-8b70-5c0f-881d-47e68fe1a3ee":{"description":"Atabeg ‘Imad Zangi rules Aleppo, uniting it with Mosul and strengthening the northern frontier against the Crusaders.","date_from_description":"1128–1146"},"82811ab9-6500-5319-8797-83df1e87d7f9":{"description":"The first reform-diet in Pozsony (Pressburg, today: Bratislava, Slovakia) where Count István Széchenyi donates one year’s income from his estates to establish the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.","date_from_description":"1825"},"82db517a-d0cf-575c-a7fc-b9d9df7924c6":{"description":"Charlemagne dies in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) on 28 January 814 and is buried in the palatine chapel of Aachen.","date_from_description":"814"},"83240809-1a96-5e43-8888-b1f6994c8383":{"description":"Start of the Muladi revolts against their Umayyad rulers in the west of the peninsular.","date_from_description":"868"},"835c65e2-a28f-5ff2-8926-18707e76dd0d":{"description":"Treaty of Tordesillas between the Catholic Kings and John II, dividing the world into two spheres of influence: the Portuguese part and the Spanish part.","date_from_description":"1494"},"83fe8d06-b6f3-5524-b5c3-50a778e3389f":{"description":"Black death.","date_from_description":"1348"},"843e7b93-9382-5fb6-aa15-d508ca13de58":{"description":"Birth of Leonardo da Vinci, artist, scientist and inventor who will enrich Italian culture with works of great renown, such as the Mona Lisa and Lady with an Ermine.","date_from_description":"1452"},"844ea8e6-3c36-57a2-a6e7-503cea5c081d":{"description":"Prussia, Austria and Russia gain a decisive battle against Napoleon I (1769–1821) near Leipzig. This is seen as the peak of the German freedom movement.","date_from_description":"1813"},"84a32f77-9f95-5c58-8100-9528d44554ec":{"description":"The Ayyubid king al-Nasir Dawud establishes an emirate at Karak; he erects a hospital (bimaristan) to treat the sick and to teach medicine.","date_from_description":"1229–49"},"84f53825-ab39-583f-b00b-4fbdcb2972f8":{"description":"Charles I of Spain made Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V).  \nRevolt in the Germanias.","date_from_description":"1519"},"8512addf-1289-5cb2-8d0f-a4cfab760007":{"description":"Around this time a new and shorter Nordic runic alphabet with 16 runes instead of 24 is introduced. It turns out to be a great success which rapidly spreads literacy in Sweden.","date_from_description":"700"},"851486b5-b95c-5b54-ad89-2f7a1ad4914c":{"description":"A general strike is called after a period of recession, reduced wages and lockouts.","date_from_description":"1909"},"852b9ffa-33fc-5fd8-b385-8027966f7fda":{"description":"*Pacta conventa* between Hungarian King Koloman and Croatia. Koloman Arpadović crowned as Croatian king in Biograd and the personal union established.","date_from_description":"1102"},"85909fbb-7bcf-5aa6-953e-747d6abe0b07":{"description":"Basil II, also known as Bulgar-Slayer, ascends the throne of the Byzantine Empire.","date_from_description":"976"},"85d90573-8eac-5412-b1c7-11162616f0a0":{"description":"Foundation of Budapest with the unification of Buda, Pest and Óbuda. Plans by architect Miklós Ybl for the opera house in Budapest. Celebration of the 50th annniversary of Liszt’s musical career.","date_from_description":"1873"},"85fab7c6-cee6-502d-9260-f863a373d82e":{"description":"Second Arab expedition. Victory at Hadrumetum (Sousse).","date_from_description":"665"},"86240532-f224-5c3b-b019-d55fbe08f618":{"description":"Birth of Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634), Duke of Friedland, who became the foremost general of emperor Ferdinand II (1619–37) of the Habsburg Dynasty in the Thirty Years’ War.","date_from_description":"1583"},"86e30989-9055-5bf2-8f35-bdbe3e9d818a":{"description":"In Bardo, on 12 May, Sadok Bey is forced to sign the treaty establishing the French protectorate in Tunisia. French colonial occupation begins.","date_from_description":"1881"},"87a43f83-013e-52ab-97a5-e7971a3d8fa8":{"description":"The Peace Treaty of Drinápoly (Adrianapolis). Bálint Bakfark (Valentin Greff Bakfark) whose lute pieces were published in Lyon (1552) lives at the Transylvanian princely court (in 1572 moves to Padua).","date_from_description":"1568"},"87c22453-97fc-510d-8609-c93ccb1d12bb":{"description":"The first Normans arrive in Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1009"},"884b6c52-4854-57c3-9a84-362a8b9c7571":{"description":"Salah al-Din Ayyub (Saladin) takes control of Egypt.","date_from_description":"1169"},"8912b1e8-696f-5773-90f9-c9937abd4248":{"description":"The Hungarian King Ladislas establishes the Zagreb Diocese.","date_from_description":"1094"},"891e3bca-a1af-59b5-8bad-f06a6570abb5":{"description":"Sultan Barquq seizes power, establishing the Circassian Mamluk dynasty.Ibn Khaldun arrives in Egypt, where he lectures at al-Azhar and is appointed head of the Hanafite court of justice.","date_from_description":"1383"},"896804f5-0b98-5218-8da0-0a8feeff05d8":{"description":"In the peace treaty of Roskilde Denmark loses most of its territory to Sweden.","date_from_description":"1658"},"8975e916-f26f-5445-af2e-f433857c7b3a":{"description":"Third Arab expedition led by ‘Uqba (Okba) ibn Nafi, who founds the town of Kairouan.","date_from_description":"670"},"8989e4df-ee57-5979-ade0-7a8544768efb":{"description":"Spanish occupation of the Kingdom of Tunis and fall of the Hafsid princes.","date_from_description":"1535–1574"},"89a5bc65-0567-5c38-865f-1a8185e9a31e":{"description":"After writing the Summa de paenintentia Paulus Hungarus, a canon lawyer, returns from Bologna and organises the Dominican order in Hungary. French architect Villard de Honnecourt visits Hungary.","date_from_description":"1221"},"8a0da1ea-cb8c-588f-af93-21ad12e921dd":{"description":"The city of Jerash is discovered by the German explorer Seetzen; Jerash is one of the best preserved Roman cities in the East and was also an Umayyad city minting its own coins.","date_from_description":"1806"},"8a0dbd3b-c7ab-5cb0-9f80-bfd50d6c4a40":{"description":"Birth of the painter, wood carver and engraver Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528). During this period Renaissance art flourished in Germany and Dürer travelled to Italy twice.","date_from_description":"1471"},"8ae3414f-1a18-5e0e-9e99-e6b89b13d3d9":{"description":"The death of Sinan, the master architect of the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1588"},"8b047a14-4113-55b1-aa73-6fc91cfdba22":{"description":"The first golden coin is minted by Mehmet II.","date_from_description":"1478"},"8b2181da-e6d7-56c0-8fd9-a5101b4879eb":{"description":"Issue of the Charter of Felicianus mentioning the founder of the Diocese, King Ladislas, the first bishop of Zagreb, Bishop Duh, and other clergy.","date_from_description":"1134"},"8b2697d2-dfa5-56b4-bf1b-b92a400f86da":{"description":"The beginning of a long period of cultural revival under Sultan Qaytbay.","date_from_description":"1468"},"8b321ee6-41d9-5afe-ac80-5a5d90a4c313":{"description":"Sack of Rome: the imperial forces of Charles V (1520–56) made up of mercenaries (lanzichenecchi) sack Rome. This event is considered to mark the end of the Renaissance.","date_from_description":"1527"},"8b4c0768-7ef5-5e1c-bc82-4a770beaeecf":{"description":"The Swedish King Olaf establishes a mint in his town Sigtuna, which he probably calls Sigtune Dei (God’s Sigtuna), and strikes his first coins.","date_from_description":"995"},"8b58cb7e-f6dc-5dda-b4a1-5d3a58fe7482":{"description":"J. Janský publishes his discovery of four blood groups. Introduction of the right to vote. Workers’ strikes. The first permanent cinema.","date_from_description":"1907"},"8c0ca8b9-fbea-5d31-a1a5-403cace11fd7":{"description":"Enlightenment leads to the creation, under the Grand Duke of Tuscany Pietro Leopoldo (1765–90), of a new penal code. The death penalty and torture are abolished for the first time in Europe.","date_from_description":"1787"},"8c321b63-6e09-5e87-90a9-24d28ee25683":{"description":"The Aghlabids begin the conquest of Sicily.","date_from_description":"827"},"8c33a51c-477e-542d-ba24-ba0c468b29fe":{"description":"Peter Forsskål, in his dissertation De libertate civili (On Civil Freedom), advocates for complete freedom of print.","date_from_description":"1759"},"8c86ef04-ea21-5362-a81f-96e5cdc55dca":{"description":"Birth of the ‘Abd al-Wadid Dynasty in Tlemcen and the long reign of Abu Yahya I ibn Zayyan, making Tlemcen an important commercial, cultural and spiritual centre in Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1236"},"8de2de38-0008-5470-854c-c8741ae77ba8":{"description":"Johannes Bureus’ Rvna-ABC is published. It was a reading book with parallel texts in runic and contemporary Swedish writing.","date_from_description":"1611"},"8e713a24-daae-5f44-8cda-86a8f557f7a3":{"description":"On the initiative of Charles VI the Karolina road from Karlovac to Bosilje, Vrbovsko, Mrkopalj, Bakar and Rijeka is built.","date_from_description":"1726"},"8f17df9c-3af3-55db-ba92-cc38b1e7b7c8":{"description":"Mua’yyad Shaykh retakes Syria and rules until his death in 824 / 1421.","date_from_description":"1412"},"8f4f638d-7dc8-5b7a-ab9d-c40c130ab513":{"description":"Charles V stops at Algiers, bringing the town great international prestige.","date_from_description":"1541"},"8f8ae31e-110e-547d-b690-cacfe10effcf":{"description":"One of the greatest Sufis of Islam, Ibn al-Arabi (b. 1156), travels all around the Muslim lands and finally settles in Damascus where, under Ayyubid patronage, he composes many works.","date_from_description":"1230–1240"},"8fcec683-d1c6-572d-b49b-de8829a1ce4a":{"description":"The Synod of Whitby establishes the date of Easter in Britain and consequently the supremacy of Roman Christianity over Celtic Christianity.","date_from_description":"664"},"900be75a-9ad3-5cbe-a28d-b01531cf470d":{"description":"After the defeat of France at the hands of Prussia, the Commune proclaimed in Paris is crushed by the Thiers government sitting in Versailles. The repression is brutal, with thousands deported to join some of the victims of the Kabyle insurrection of the same year.","date_from_description":"1871"},"900cd715-30bd-5aa2-a41c-89b6ad4b1a55":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min restores Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1131"},"908a57c7-e383-5113-b9a9-1597ded072c1":{"description":"The declaration of Firman of Islahat (Reform).","date_from_description":"1856"},"90bfa0dd-40ce-568a-9055-6506205b8c6f":{"description":"Ifriqiya is invaded by Hilalian tribes from Egypt. Split into several different kingdoms, Ifriqiya falls to the invaders.","date_from_description":"1050–1052"},"9174a4b4-0d7f-50c2-b352-98b3ff8d8dd5":{"description":"Battle of Sarmada, between the Crusader Principality of Antioch and the Artuqid Atabeg ruler of Aleppo, witnessing the success of the local Muslim forces even without assistance from the Seljuq sultanate.","date_from_description":"1119"},"9196c837-d2b4-55fd-9eef-0cb25ebf46e9":{"description":"Vitterhetsakademien (The Royal Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities) is founded by Lovisa Ulrika, inspired by the Académie Francaise.","date_from_description":"1753"},"91ccf893-db26-5e21-8dd8-2baffc8ff692":{"description":"The War of Independence culminates in the creation of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923.","date_from_description":"1919–1922"},"9230f9be-daa6-5e9e-a9d7-86214e177c16":{"description":"Mu’awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Greater Syria begins to build the seaport of ‘Akka and to establish the first Islamic shipyard, where the first Muslim fleet is built.","date_from_description":"643"},"926714b9-3c86-5caf-94f9-53fc3832be91":{"description":"Bede, a priest, monk and the first English historian, publishes the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.","date_from_description":"731"},"92857bdd-10d7-55e6-b625-792029009380":{"description":"Around 30,000 Croatian soldiers, mainly cavalry, participate in the Thirty Years’ War. Croatian troops fight against Miklós Bethlen (1642–1716) in Bohemia and Hungary.","date_from_description":"1618–48"},"92bb47f6-e25d-5b2c-8c90-6cce1133f7fd":{"description":"The first Western musical instrument in the Ottoman Palace: .an organ sent by Elizabeth I of England to Mehmet III.","date_from_description":"1595"},"92f84a88-32ed-5c5a-b607-90c4a056aca6":{"description":"Mustafa Kemal Ataturk is born in Salonika.","date_from_description":"1881"},"92f9c3ca-d9e4-5e70-8dcc-3e2214584a58":{"description":"Start of the Catastro de Ensenada, an attempt to organise state taxation.","date_from_description":"1749"},"939fe8a0-ff23-51bf-afdb-adca5baef228":{"description":"Khedive Ismail orders the construction of European-style districts of Cairo in anticipation of the opening of the Suez Canal and builds Abdin Palace to become the new seat of rule.","date_from_description":"1863"},"93eeb569-6e0c-523e-a5aa-5b5d8226c6c2":{"description":"Beginning of Entente Cordiale between France and England, resulting in the division of the Mediterranean and recognition of England’s influence in Egypt and France’s influence in Morocco. The 1912 Franco-Moroccan Agreement establishes a French protectorate in Morocco.","date_from_description":"1904"},"940a5973-8f4e-5448-b47e-26a4a83bd6c9":{"description":"Battle of Maysalun, on the outskirts of Damascus, between the Syrians and the French. Yusuf Al-Azmeh, leader of the Syrian army, is killed in battle and considered a nationalist hero. 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His mausoleum and mosque are erected near Biskra at Sidi Okba.","date_from_description":"682"},"973c6b8b-7a18-5ba3-8988-dd148f9de463":{"description":"King James IV of Scotland is killed, along with much of the Scottish aristocracy and thousands of Highlanders and Lowlanders, by the English forces of Henry VIII at Flodden Field in Northumberland.","date_from_description":"1513"},"97ced9b9-f2a0-5c4d-aa0d-9fa4accd95ef":{"description":"The Portuguese found the fortress of Santa Cruz de Aguer near to the village of Founti.","date_from_description":"1505"},"97f3fb7e-3209-5e2c-a5bb-df21a46512a1":{"description":"At the synod (church assembly) at Uppsala this year it is decided to keep Sweden in the Lutheran faith, banning foreign religions in the country.","date_from_description":"1593"},"984730ec-78ba-562d-aaa2-0a7e7716b621":{"description":"Manfred, son of Frederick II, becomes King of Sicily (1258–66).","date_from_description":"1258"},"9859ec0a-bd29-51ca-98b9-98dad01d443d":{"description":"The Ninth Symphony of the composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) is seen as the peak of Viennese classical music.","date_from_description":"1823"},"98c09fd6-7c7b-560e-aa74-dda1e43a65d6":{"description":"The poet, historian and philosopher Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) finishes his drama Die Räuber, a great success in the Sturm und Drang Period.","date_from_description":"1782"},"9906c450-0cbb-5e4d-bc59-287aac1ff9d7":{"description":"Beginning of the reign of Francis I. 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The King of France effects a reconciliation with the Turks, creating a scandal in the Christian world.","date_from_description":"1515"},"990fa704-5564-53e4-9cd8-586641a9d33a":{"description":"Death of John II and ascension of Manuel I.","date_from_description":"1495"},"9954217a-4406-5abd-b1f8-a0d807e80755":{"description":"Ahmad Ibn Tulun (r. 868–84) conquers Palestine and annexes it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"877"},"999699a8-1c62-57f7-adcb-0797447fb6b5":{"description":"Crac des Chevaliers, a critical Crusader stronghold in the Syrian coastal mountains, falls to the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (r. 1260–77).","date_from_description":"1271"},"99becd50-e409-5a29-94d2-6492740e8dfc":{"description":"An organised National Archive is established, with a Director of Antiquities.","date_from_description":"1618"},"9a3916ce-d256-5c92-a102-e3cc2179fc41":{"description":"Carl von Linné’s Systema naturae, a pioneering work on plant classification, is published.","date_from_description":"1735"},"9aaaeb56-9081-5d5f-b3f9-350631115f35":{"description":"Christopher Polhem is asked to construct a new kind of steam engine, which is later used successfully in the copper mines at Stora Kopparberg in Sweden.","date_from_description":"1690"},"9b0e0347-84a3-5ad6-90de-36ebb5db81fe":{"description":"The battle of Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo, between the Ottoman and Mamluk armies, leads to the collapse of the Mamluk empire and the beginning of the Ottomans’ rule in Greater Syria including Palestine.","date_from_description":"1516"},"9bb23d04-4eb9-5a0b-99fb-b6e49c6ba414":{"description":"Almohad victory over the Christians at the Battle of Alarcos (Ciudad Real).","date_from_description":"1195"},"9c525427-19e0-5584-b3b5-a004e74c6cf3":{"description":"Fatima al-Fihriya, daughter of a Kairouanese man living in Morocco, founds the Qarawiyin Mosque in Fez.","date_from_description":"857"},"9c72d77d-ee4c-53b9-8f71-7f9d509dbc4f":{"description":"Spread of Christianity, arrival of missionaries Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius; establishment of Old Slavonic language, Glagolitic script. Archbishopric established. Conflicts with Frankish empire, invasions of Hungarian tribes. The foundation of Prague Castle.","date_from_description":"863"},"9c76674a-4fbb-556b-b357-81a0dc29adaf":{"description":"Albigensian Crusade against Cathars established in southern France triggers the conquest of the Languedoc by barons from the north of France. The Kingdom of France experiences an unprecedented period of economic and cultural expansion.","date_from_description":"1208"},"9ce42dd2-e07d-5c4d-b205-ea3001c4d47d":{"description":"Al-Zahir Baybars defeats the Mongols at Ain Jalut and reinstates the Abbasid caliph in Cairo.","date_from_description":"1260"},"9d0ebea9-7fda-5072-bc7f-ab89cdcadf2c":{"description":"The Battle of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade): János Hunyadi defeats the attacking Turks led by Sultan Mehmed II. After his victory Hunyadi dies from plague in the military camp.","date_from_description":"1456"},"9d14244d-f574-5f1a-b777-9363a577d9c6":{"description":"The Hammadids and the Zirids reach an agreement to share Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1042"},"9d2cc5fc-65e4-5c8d-af9d-46ffb111b571":{"description":"Prussian–Austrian War. Establishment of workers’ associations. J. G. Mendel pioneers genetics. The foundation stone of the National Theatre, Prague laid (1868).","date_from_description":"1866"},"9d566a6f-e45e-5d52-9f49-fc632c7d95bc":{"description":"Italy joins the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria: Italian colonial policy begins.","date_from_description":"1882"},"9d57cf87-4c8a-51e0-897c-26c2ca365e63":{"description":"Inauguration of the Suez Canal for international shipping in a great celebration hosted by Khedive Ismail.Founding of Dar al-Kuttub, the first public library in Egypt.Opening of the first opera house in the Middle East.","date_from_description":"1869"},"9d779759-50b4-5c34-ab66-dc66330efe01":{"description":"Croatia forms a state union with Austria. By a decision of the Croatian Assembly, the dynasty of Habsburg comes to the Croatian throne.","date_from_description":"1527"},"9dbe88be-fa1c-5e79-b79f-e51460222b58":{"description":"The Tulunid dynasty collapses and Egypt reverts to direct Abbasid control.","date_from_description":"905"},"9df246be-7e24-59fd-98ca-5d56643eb083":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min conquers Ifriqiya and unifies the three countries of the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia).","date_from_description":"1159"},"9e4585bb-151b-5ced-a846-8ee7434d9791":{"description":"Salah al-Din recaptures Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1193"},"9eae650a-ec2f-593b-8811-0ba66ad6f62a":{"description":"Edward I defeats William Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk and reconquers Scotland. Wallace goes into hiding but is captured in 1305 and executed in London for treason.","date_from_description":"1298"},"9ed781be-d34c-590a-9e80-16be57da95ea":{"description":"Croatian king Stjepan I (1030–58) focused on rebuilding Croatia’s military strength and in 1032 he sent his naval fleet to assist Byzantium in its war against the Arabs.","date_from_description":"1032"},"9f214dfe-dd30-5976-9274-7ea677e01a05":{"description":"Muhammad ibn Tughj, governor of Amman under the Tulunids, defeats the Bedouins and bandits who attack pilgrim caravans; this gives him celebrity in Baghdad.","date_from_description":"918"},"9f26fc26-dd73-5f23-a28d-5e2b9b09238f":{"description":"Renovation of al Azhar riwaq (portico) screens, restoration of the mosque's ceilings and rationing of a daily meal of lentils for the poor by the wali al-Sharif Muhammad Pasha.","date_from_description":"1595"},"9f2a2dc7-8cb0-5ca4-bfd1-8386e901add6":{"description":"Sultan Abu Inan founds the library of the Qarawiyin Mosque in Fez.","date_from_description":"1349"},"9f56d2ae-5739-575f-afdc-e4ba165c8fc6":{"description":"King Gustav Vasa made Sweden a Protestant country. To complete the change from a Catholic to a Protestant country he had the Bible translated into Swedish, and the first Swedish bible is printed in this year. It is based on Martin Luther’s translation and is the foundation for all Swedish Bible translations up until 1917.","date_from_description":"1541"},"9f93ae4f-7f45-508b-a9d1-aefe15619aba":{"description":"The famous Swedish author August Strindberg is born.","date_from_description":"1849"},"9faf7da9-9539-561b-97cd-a5207bb6724f":{"description":"The Council of the Lateran reorganises the Church. The Pope makes Robert Guiscard (1059–85) Duke of Puglia and Calabria. It is the first acknowledgement of Norman domination of Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1059"},"9fcefd8c-cca1-5f03-adc7-dd277fbc1360":{"description":"In Dubrovnik the Jesuit church of St Ignatius is built according to the plans of Andrea Pozzo.","date_from_description":"1700"},"9fe03546-402e-5ee1-88c0-63096d5187dc":{"description":"Conquest and settlement: the Hungarian tribes spread through the Carpathian basin led by Árpád, the father of the first Hungarian royal dynasty, the Árpáds, whose first king was (St) István (1000–38).","date_from_description":"895"},"a02a060e-13d0-5d16-b9b8-4878c75505a8":{"description":"Hammadid coinage minted in Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1148"},"a0c5565d-bcb7-5aa2-b36c-ce7301eb22c3":{"description":"Sanctification of Bishop Theodorus as a bishop of Jordan and Palestine by the Empress Theodora according to the request of al-Haritha al-Ghassani.","date_from_description":"542"},"a142599a-d9ce-5b76-a491-1a81036d9d90":{"description":"Caliph al-Mansur builds a garrison city on the Euphrates next to al-Raqqa, called al-Rafiqa, comissioning his son, al-Mahdi, with its construction. The shape of the city is inspired by the circular plan of Baghdad.","date_from_description":"772"},"a165c9bb-32b7-5499-9d94-b7888b6bd79d":{"description":"Dagobert I, King of Austrasia, creates a united Frankish kingdom with its capital in Paris. With the help of the future Saint Eligius, his precarious reign lasts for about ten years.","date_from_description":"629"},"a18cd4ad-e024-5bb4-95c7-1e07a956d5f2":{"description":"Henry IV is forced to abdicate and is followed by King Henry V (1106–25) of the Salian Dynasty.","date_from_description":"1106"},"a1a9d06b-86f3-5944-bedc-2ce44282d5f5":{"description":"The Danelaw – the Viking area in the east and north-east of England with its own legal system – is established after the English king Alfred affirms his authority over the Viking leaders.","date_from_description":"886"},"a1dd6d65-c01b-57b0-9fbe-2c9333ea9bc0":{"description":"France takes part in a military expedition in support of the Greek insurrection against their Ottoman rulers. The 1829 Treaty of Andrianople recognises Greece’s independence.","date_from_description":"1827"},"a1f37412-001d-5ec1-a3f4-4c56a7a20c56":{"description":"Msila founded by the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"925"},"a2226042-3ebf-5828-b710-7252e6703035":{"description":"The forestry department is introduced in Ajlun (Orman) to protect the woods from being collected by the inhabitants.","date_from_description":"1888"},"a24b8786-9796-564e-97e8-9482d8ade191":{"description":"The Sassanian Persian ruler Chosroe I raids Syria as far as Apamea and Antioch.","date_from_description":"573"},"a2519dc1-25b3-5848-94dc-d4e58e5183cd":{"description":"Death of the scholar Ibn Arfa.","date_from_description":"1401"},"a2ab2f86-d4d6-5d09-9e9f-dc2197107ed1":{"description":"Muhammad ibn Tughj rules Egypt autonomously under the title of al-Ikhshid given to him by the Abbasid Caliph.","date_from_description":"935"},"a2c295c4-2f6c-5867-b9b1-9c30ec63bac8":{"description":"Creation of a modern military school and establishment of a programme to translate European manuals into Arabic. Institution of a regular army kitted out like its European counterparts.","date_from_description":"1846"},"a2d5c3bb-ba69-5544-a238-47e55a8cf383":{"description":"Sulayman the Magnificent takes the throne.","date_from_description":"1520"},"a2d7fd9a-de9f-53a2-8ead-7daca1751e64":{"description":"The Almoravid Sanhaja set out the conquer the Maghreb under the leadership of ‘Abdallah ibn Yassine.","date_from_description":"1054"},"a2e6c462-06ac-5f27-823f-2545854c8bd3":{"description":"Germany is proclaimed a Republic and on 11 August the Weimar Constitution comes into effect with Friedrich Ebert as its first president.","date_from_description":"1919"},"a2e963ba-eae3-5033-a6c3-46c4d3cd62d9":{"description":"Foundation of princely town of Sabra-al Mansuriya.","date_from_description":"947"},"a30b5d58-c0a4-577e-b94e-de7261f9f627":{"description":"Byzantine reconquest of Africa led by the Byzantine general Belisarius. End of the Vandal kingdom.","date_from_description":"533"},"a31468e6-3353-559a-b94d-cb213463cd1b":{"description":"Approximate date of Cantar de Mio Cid, the principal work of the epic Castilian poem.","date_from_description":"1207"},"a34bd331-c80a-5b2d-aa88-167430ae6461":{"description":"Millenium celebrations. Opening of the continent’s first underground railway in Budapest. Alfréd Hajós is the first Olympic swimming champion. István Bugarszky invents the endothermic galvanic cell.","date_from_description":"1896"},"a3b52d76-925e-5ce9-a515-99bc63ff43d2":{"description":"The University at Dorpat is founded by Gustavus Adolphus. The town of Dorpat (Tartu) is today in Estonia.","date_from_description":"1632"},"a3ee0d33-6ca0-5b47-a931-404128f779be":{"description":"Following the death of Elizabeth I of England, James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England and Ireland, bringing about the ‘Union of the Crowns’.","date_from_description":"1603"},"a40a2962-a846-54e9-a366-75e11eaece36":{"description":"Almohad defeat at Navas de Tolosa, marking the beginning of their decline.","date_from_description":"1212"},"a492532c-ed86-52ec-9670-8a65064e1a3c":{"description":"Conquest of Lisbon and Santarém.","date_from_description":"1147"},"a4d54dd8-b667-5fa3-aca7-bc57f43322ab":{"description":"After several attempts to conquer Constantinople, the Umayyads and Byzantines agree to a truce. Frontier warfare continues under the Abbasids but Constaninople is left unconquered until the Ottomans.","date_from_description":"679"},"a4e05eba-2359-59d5-9a95-f94cff178e1e":{"description":"Jesuits build their church in Rijeka. Dedicated to St Vitus it is the first and the biggest circular Baroque building in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1638"},"a4f0fe71-bf7d-501b-9ad9-2626e2665b64":{"description":"Arrival of the Jesuit order; suppression of non-Catholics. The first independent map of Moravia (1569); the establishment of a university in Olomouc (1573). Fraternal Union published the Kralice Bible (1579); its language became the official norm.","date_from_description":"1556"},"a5261b45-60e8-5316-9b66-51637ead4c1e":{"description":"‘Abd al-Rahman III establishes the Caliphate of Córdoba.","date_from_description":"929"},"a52dcdb9-fca4-5934-aa06-beb9ba79bc0a":{"description":"An earthquake destroys half of Ramla, most of Jericho and Nablus, and causes some damage in Jerusalem. A year later, the Fatimid Caliph al-Zahir (r. 1021–36) orders reconstruction of the Aqsa Mosque and repair of the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"1034"},"a54850a0-2512-5381-82c2-2021586cfa21":{"description":"The first Swedish Court of appeal (Svea Hovrätt) is founded by King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf).","date_from_description":"1614"},"a57c5044-ff50-5ae3-a544-ddf51a5d82c3":{"description":"The first industrial exhibition in Klementinum, Prague. Beginnings of the Czech linguistics. Origins of the nationalist movement. Establishment of the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague (1799).","date_from_description":"1791"},"a5b40142-4553-5368-8f86-cf0fed358889":{"description":"Peace of Westphalia: Holland achieves independence and replaces Spanish hegemony with French.","date_from_description":"1648"},"a5b46708-9432-5415-8f45-474e2c94e280":{"description":"Battle of Lipany, defeat of the Hussites. Sigismund of Luxemburg crowned Czech king (1436). The Basle “Compacts” acknowledging the communion of bread and wine.","date_from_description":"1434"},"a5c04e3e-fa4c-5cad-98a0-dc22ae80fe84":{"description":"Charles IV’s major projects: revival of Slavonic liturgy (1347); foundation of New Town (1348), making Prague the largest European city; establishment of Prague University, the first in Central Europe; provincial statutes in Brno and Olomouc.","date_from_description":"1348"},"a5f9a990-c7d1-5889-a8ba-99b39c362f02":{"description":"Garibaldi leads the Expedition of the Thousand, and the second war of independence spreads to the South. Thanks to Garibaldi, the Kingdom of Sardinia annexes the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.","date_from_description":"1860"},"a62f49ef-6034-5dd7-a622-7a71e84aa249":{"description":"In the Treaty of Mersen the Frankish Empire is divided into three separate parts. The empire of King Ludwig II (843–76) of the Carolingian Dynasty is enlargened.","date_from_description":"870"},"a6530bb8-72a3-535e-b0e0-fddcbbca90ca":{"description":"King Charles XII is defeated at the Battle of Poltava in Ukraine. It is the beginning of the end of Sweden as a Baltic super power.","date_from_description":"1709"},"a6720a51-7bb3-57c6-b899-738da985096f":{"description":"King Otto III (983–1002) is crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Gregory V (996–9).","date_from_description":"996"},"a6d6c4c5-ee24-52c6-be22-686d1d5b7a88":{"description":"Macbeth, king of Moray, kills Duncan I near Elgin and becomes king of the Scots; his rule ends when he is killed by Duncan’s son Malcolm Canmore in 1057.","date_from_description":"1040"},"a7c94de7-b5cb-5cd4-af7b-9f2d9b779252":{"description":"Baldwin I, the Crusader king of Jerusalem, erects a huge castle at Shawbak on a high mountain in Jordan in order to dominate the area, naming it Le Crac de Montreal.","date_from_description":"1115"},"a7cdba2f-d59d-5f84-a190-fd4ee334011f":{"description":"Sheikh Zahir al-Omar al-Zaidani, ruler of north Jordan abstains from paying taxes to the Ottoman state; he forms an army of mercenaries to protect his land and collect taxes from the inhabitants.","date_from_description":"1769"},"a7d7da5f-d9ca-552b-8ee8-2a0514822156":{"description":"Victory of the Great Seljuqs over the Byzantine army at Manzikert.","date_from_description":"1071"},"a85a1a69-0a7d-59be-bfd4-2023ac297f39":{"description":"The Jews thrown out of Spain are under the Ottoman protection.","date_from_description":"1492"},"a88260ac-0d11-50b8-9b3a-2d7220cc6a02":{"description":"On 4 September Prophet Muhammad emigrates with the Muslims to the town of Medina. This event known as Hijra and marks the beginning of the Hijri calendar.","date_from_description":"622"},"a91baf1b-b592-53e3-9cd6-8a1ef4b64d6c":{"description":"During the 1870s a series of crop failures lead to starvation and the beginning of large-scale emigration from Sweden to America.","date_from_description":"1870"},"a99c00f7-02dc-529a-9a6a-40115a72fc5d":{"description":"Gold discovered in Brazil.","date_from_description":"1696"},"a9f8cc0a-2c36-5734-b15f-a19d6ddf08b1":{"description":"On 11 October the governor of Sham, Junbalat, goes to southern Jordan to stop Bani Sakher tribes attacking pilgrim caravans and kills 20 of them.","date_from_description":"1499"},"aa02a42e-9565-58f3-ab44-c827737298ab":{"description":"Gregory the Great (590–604) becomes pope. During his pontificate, the Church becomes more independent from the Byzantine Empire and great efforts are made to evangelise the Anglo-Saxons and Lombards.","date_from_description":"590"},"aa33b06c-4e59-5f3d-ac59-c14a054e3995":{"description":"In November the Fatimids of Egypt take control of Jordan during the region of al-Mu’izz Li-Deenillah.","date_from_description":"969"},"aa3c2868-4847-59d7-87f3-bd8e285faa75":{"description":"The Council of Trent begins, to end in 1563. The Council marks the beginning of the Counter-Reformation.","date_from_description":"1545"},"aa61a318-80ba-5c6e-bd8a-438a2bc6039e":{"description":"Christian victory over the Turkish navy at Lepanto.","date_from_description":"1571"},"aa8ab80f-57d0-524a-9616-51d06dc89d4f":{"description":"First French invasion. The Portuguese court takes refuge in Brazil.","date_from_description":"1807"},"aaf64bc4-1ee7-5fb0-a695-a01a3b346ed6":{"description":"Friedrich III, Elector of Brandenburg, is crowned as Friedrich I, King of Prussia. Prussia is on its way to becoming a European power.","date_from_description":"1701"},"ab2086dd-5008-5695-870e-cee4f7734ffb":{"description":"The Hafsid ruler of Tunis takes refuge in Egypt. The Sultan helped him to take back his throne and he became the deputy of the Egyptian Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun. The death of Ibn Mandhur, the author of Lisan al-Arab (‘The Arab Tongue’).","date_from_description":"1311"},"ab871503-57a1-540b-b6b2-c7a124254271":{"description":"The town of Blida founded by emigrants from Andalusia.","date_from_description":"1535"},"ab9f145d-ab63-598c-827f-553071bb33c2":{"description":"War between France and the European monarchies. Proclamation of the French Republic.","date_from_description":"1793"},"abd3adc0-d0c1-5f80-aad5-0dfcf99d3c38":{"description":"Discovery of the Azores archipelago","date_from_description":"1427"},"ac405094-1617-53c9-b850-3eecd1e25865":{"description":"St Columba and a small group of monks sail from Ireland to the west coast of Scotland. They establish a monastery that becomes the head of the Celtic church in Britain and a major political centre.","date_from_description":"563"},"acb5324e-6ee9-50df-953c-ef7ed145490a":{"description":"The reign of the Lombards comes to an end. Charles King of the Franks takes Pavia and establishes Frankish rule in Northern Italy. The Duchy of Benevento and Venice remain independent.","date_from_description":"774"},"accc96bc-6ab2-539a-b0df-e6cc0b3ec739":{"description":"Erik Bloodaxe, the Scandinavian king of York, is defeated and killed; this allows Edred, King of England, to rule over a united kingdom for the first time.","date_from_description":"954"},"accee007-730c-5f1a-af2a-50916530d925":{"description":"Kenneth MacAlpin, regarded as the first king of Scotland, unites the Scots of Argyll and the Picts north of the Firth of Forth under his rule.","date_from_description":"843"},"ad63b2ed-50f4-5781-a0b3-f43a0534252e":{"description":"The border between Tunisia and Algeria is drawn.","date_from_description":"1614–1628"},"ad7d3d4b-5c07-5f75-989a-9bda20539d44":{"description":"Villagers (Fallahin) in Palestine revolt against the Abbasids’ taxation system. More than 10,000 people participate in this uprising.","date_from_description":"841"},"addd7ffb-1d9e-5390-9ecf-d4bae80076f7":{"description":"French expedition to Egypt, led by Napoleon, which continues for three years during which the first Arabic printing house was established in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1798"},"aebb39f0-0301-5f01-95fc-a5ba5020de14":{"description":"Frederick of Aragon (1302–37) is proclaimed King of Sicily.","date_from_description":"1302"},"aed23dd2-da70-5f34-aef6-f6a964358c01":{"description":"Emperor Franz Joseph I declares the February Patent and dismisses the Hungarian Diet. Ányos Jedlik invents the dynamo. Compulsory preventive injection against pox introduced in Szabolcs County by Dr Frigyes Korányi.","date_from_description":"1861"},"aee55dcb-e64d-56d6-8d37-339110aa7cff":{"description":"The Venetians install Krešimir III (1000–30) as king of Croatia; he ruled with his brother Gojislav. They attempted to restore rule over the Dalmatian cities that were under Venetian control.","date_from_description":"1000"},"af36b9c9-6f1e-5a17-981f-ad357810e44d":{"description":"Great Mosque of Algiers built. Yusuf ibn Tashufin, having conquered Spain and Central Maghreb, promotes the emergence of Afro-Andalusian Moorish art: stalactite domes, poly-lobed arches and mosque orientation.","date_from_description":"1097"},"afaa331a-14ae-5af1-ba8c-2ab3f441e759":{"description":"Discovery of the Madeira archipelago.","date_from_description":"1419"},"afdb6c38-1876-5448-a684-99a1e014502c":{"description":"Nikola Zrinski defeats the Pasha of Budim near Bobocsa. The fall of Kostajnica and the arrival of Ottomans in Turopolje.","date_from_description":"1556"},"afdf4a34-61cf-57cb-8a1a-f0c93d8cf7fb":{"description":"Census: 3 million people in the Czech lands. Introduction of astandardised system of measures and weights. P. Diviš constructed the first lightning conductor. V. A. Kounic-Rietberg became court and state chancellor.","date_from_description":"1754"},"b00bece1-e9ef-51c4-a46d-2ca684955112":{"description":"East India Company forces win the Battle of Plassey, placing control of Bengal in the hands of Great Britain; the victory achieves a significant presence in India for the British.","date_from_description":"1757"},"b0728687-0bba-5e7c-b532-bca6333bd220":{"description":"The philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) publishes his book Kritik der praktischen Vernunft. He is considered a major philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment.","date_from_description":"1788"},"b0f65cad-ac36-5a16-9132-edb438476d9a":{"description":"Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, replaces the rule of the family of Zahir ‘Umar, taking ‘Akka as the capital of his semi-independent state, fortifying the city and constructing its beautiful mosque, which still stands today.","date_from_description":"1775"},"b10de746-5b07-5d02-acce-b16eb208bec2":{"description":"Muhammad Ali Pasha expels Ottoman governor and, achieving virtual independence from the Ottoman court, begins comprehensive efforts to modernise Egypt.","date_from_description":"1805"},"b16040fb-7fff-5e4d-9880-f8a9cd6aca41":{"description":"Pico della Mirandola (1463–94) writes Oration on the Dignity of Man, an expression of the new Renaissance humanist culture that exalted man’s dignity and right to self-determination.","date_from_description":"1485"},"b186ce0e-da1f-5d1c-8fee-685d2d3a6538":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min, who succeeds Al-Mahdi ibn Tumart, makes a ceremonious entrance in Marrakesh, announcing the triumph of the Almohad movement.","date_from_description":"1147"},"b1ce405d-02ce-57e6-b472-f5efa37d7128":{"description":"The First Crusaders on their way to the Holy Lands arrive in Constantinople in December.","date_from_description":"1096"},"b21a88ed-1bff-51d2-9572-59343ff27c02":{"description":"Proclamation of the First Republic in Spain.","date_from_description":"1873"},"b22c9412-b81d-541c-ac67-550c7b3423fa":{"description":"Treaty of Tordesillas: division of the lands discovered and to be discovered in the Eastern, Portuguese, hemisphere and the Western, Spanish, hemisphere.","date_from_description":"1494"},"b335ab24-b315-5c09-960d-0f66de12da34":{"description":"On 2 February King Otto I (r. 936–73) of the Ottonian Dynasty, later called Otto the Great, is crowned emperor in Rome.","date_from_description":"962"},"b34d4400-42b8-5812-9665-4d46c62162cf":{"description":"The ‘Josephina’ road between Karlovac and Rijeka is constructed.  \nThe first stockmarket in Rijeka is established.","date_from_description":"1780"},"b3e9340f-746f-5f40-8598-469c96c12b25":{"description":"The Golden Bull becomes the first constitution of the empire by which the German emperor is chosen by seven electors.","date_from_description":"1356"},"b4067dff-b620-5208-9c64-2fed65b17b3e":{"description":"Philip V is proclaimed King of Spain. Start of the Spanish War of Succession, which lasts until 1714. Opening of the southern sea routes.","date_from_description":"1701"},"b408faee-eb68-5b03-92bc-1b638c1c30b8":{"description":"Al-Ghazali, la principal figura religiosa del siglo XI, reside en Damasco. Sus obras representan un renacimiento de las ciencias religiosas.","date_from_description":"1095"},"b416af05-98cc-5124-a312-cb7cbfcdb093":{"description":"A notary of King Béla III (Anonymus ‘Magister P.’) writes a chronicle of the Hungarian conquest and settlement (Gesta Hungarorum). The beginning of the rebuilding of the Kalocsa abbey (built in the 11th century).","date_from_description":"c. 1210"},"b44afa8a-6fdd-5283-8e91-916b78e1be34":{"description":"Reform of traditional teaching at the Zaytuna Mosque, which becomes official state-controlled teaching.","date_from_description":"1842"},"b48bd62b-fa7e-59b2-a51f-ae05444cce7d":{"description":"Construction of the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis.","date_from_description":"863"},"b4d0e6d3-2101-5e35-aa03-dbfc992a7426":{"description":"Displeased with the king’s rule noblemen force King András II to sign the Golden Bull that limits his power. In another order the king strengthens the privileges of the ecclesiastical order.","date_from_description":"1222"},"b4e565db-820f-5c5a-9daa-d2b536ddcd1d":{"description":"Start of the Castilian War of the Communities.","date_from_description":"1520"},"b5117dae-7ecc-5e8d-8fba-fcfbda3221e9":{"description":"Second siege of Constantinople by the Muslim Arabs.","date_from_description":"717–720"},"b5185e44-a403-59df-aac5-72e0072cab29":{"description":"The Portuguese Inquisition starts its work. Jesuits arrive in Portugal.","date_from_description":"1540"},"b529bd07-47c3-539d-9de7-789064fb5dfb":{"description":"Sultan Sulayman I besieges Szigetvár defended by Count Miklós Zrínyi who getting no help and with heavy odds against him dies with his soldiers in a sortie. The Sultan had died two days earlier.","date_from_description":"1566"},"b5a7407b-9961-5d8b-a7e0-332975b142d3":{"description":"Revolution ends the July Monarchy and the Second Republic is proclaimed. Slavery is abolished. Social movements lead to the June Insurrection, which is brutally put down. Algeria becomes a destination for deportees.","date_from_description":"1848"},"b625b9c3-b446-5b15-a72b-d1fcde8c6b1c":{"description":"Bourgeois revolution demanding end of absolutism, equality of Czech with German, freedom of the press and religion. Abolition of serfdom and the corvée obligation. Slavic Assembly tries to found a Slavic association within the monarchy and turn it into a federal state.","date_from_description":"1848"},"b63c3d95-074d-5fb5-a748-3ee3b8172e4f":{"description":"King Matyas II approves the new Statute of the Zagreb Gradec.","date_from_description":"1609"},"b64dbe3a-8e3c-5a90-99b8-b1317c0f5e05":{"description":"Orhan Gazi captures Bursa, which becomes the second Ottoman capital after Söğüt.","date_from_description":"1326"},"b6765682-4a1a-5ec4-9bd7-aeaabcaaf66b":{"description":"On 10 June a great Arab revolt is launched by Husayn ibn ‘Ali, Sharif of Mecca and king of the Arabs, against the Ottomans to liberate Arab lands from Turkish occupation.","date_from_description":"1916"},"b742f38f-fcd3-5ba8-9605-1a54dd34a156":{"description":"The Almoravids enter Fez and take control of the Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1069"},"b7a35988-6bae-5f8a-83fe-4a762ab7b7fd":{"description":"Reorganisation of the Byzantine Empire and institution of the Exarchate of Carthage, consolidating the pre-eminence of the military.","date_from_description":"582–602"},"b7cafd04-cfbc-5d2f-869c-b1244dba10e3":{"description":"Restored administration. The highest Czech administrative institutions transferred to Vienna. German made equal with Czech, Catholicism became the only religion. Extensive confiscations and emigrations.","date_from_description":"1627"},"b890b9a0-58fe-5006-9f93-59534db03cef":{"description":"Idris II (son of Idris I) founds the town of al-Aliya in the Kairouan Quarter (Adwat al-Qayrawaniyyin) on the left bank of the Wadi Fez.","date_from_description":"808"},"b8915690-0a5e-5709-a657-6a93c2f4cd39":{"description":"Death of the scholar Ibn Khaldun in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1406"},"b8a0cdd3-362b-5853-8129-fb536221d40a":{"description":"The English bombard Algiers.","date_from_description":"1824"},"b8d722c9-0e0e-535a-9a57-a4dca583c9d5":{"description":"Austria takes Milan and the Kingdom of Naples.","date_from_description":"1707"},"b8fe4d88-fe86-55cc-8116-70dc21138999":{"description":"Restoration of independence under John IV and the start of the Bragança Dynasty.","date_from_description":"1640"},"b9453ddd-b1fa-5026-b5b4-80c48b1d90da":{"description":"The caliphal court moves away from Syria and Baghdad, ‘City of Peace', is founded by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur, designed as a perfect circle.","date_from_description":"762"},"b9cc4451-123b-507a-bae4-e230f5e04b15":{"description":"Charlemagne, King of the Franks and the Lombards, is crowned emperor by Pope Leo III. He extends his power over part of the Germanic world and southwards beyond the Pyrenees in the ‘Hispanic March’. He establishes a relationship with the Caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid.","date_from_description":"800"},"ba088189-fc32-514c-92f5-dbb368c7cfb4":{"description":"Fakhr al-Din al-Ma’ni II, a tribal ruler of Mount Lebanon and Western Syria, gains autonomy and attempts to by-pass Ottoman authority by signing a treaty with the Italian Tuscans.","date_from_description":"1603–1610"},"bb06b73c-f591-5a2b-991b-6707ab102939":{"description":"The authority of the Hungarian-Croatian parliament over Croatian internal legal questions is acknowledged at the joint council at Požun.","date_from_description":"1714–15"},"bb3fda76-0312-5e9a-a89e-1b9a45f32688":{"description":"Foundation of the Kharijite cities of Mzab and start of the Hilalian invasions.","date_from_description":"1050"},"bb458b74-6213-5c57-bc33-ed788f6bcd7c":{"description":"Hassan Pasha builds the Ketchaoua mosque.","date_from_description":"1794"},"bb4b1b57-1470-5bc6-a9fe-3412b633ab6b":{"description":"Salah al-Din becomes sultan, extends Cairo’s fortifications and constructs the Citadel.","date_from_description":"1171"},"bb592ce6-edae-5d1a-a243-b1684f29fae9":{"description":"Said Pasha grants concession to the French F. de Lesseps to construct the Suez Canal.","date_from_description":"1854"},"bbd980f9-cebf-5faa-aa60-598d4144ac5b":{"description":"Victory of the Kharijites at Tobna.","date_from_description":"771"},"bbf9e8be-a84b-57dd-9985-b859352a0bbd":{"description":"Cardinal Jules Mazarin becomes prime minister to the regent, Anne of Austria. He clashes with the ruling classes in the Frondes and emerges victorious.","date_from_description":"1643"},"bc9ad394-a1da-54aa-8d59-da7b490761ae":{"description":"Sulayman I the Great occupies Buda. Hungary torn into three parts: Turkish *vilajet* (province); Upper Hungary under Ferdinand I; the rest under Queen Isabella and János II (János Zsigmond), son of the Queen and János I.","date_from_description":"1541"},"bcbb11ff-390a-518b-99f5-f2b734224056":{"description":"The Great Nordic War breaks out, with Russia, Poland and Denmark against Sweden led by King Charles XII (Karl XII).","date_from_description":"1700"},"bcc4f78d-382c-5228-b921-04b37590d1f6":{"description":"Foundation of the Anatolian Seljuqs (1077–1308).","date_from_description":"1075"},"bdc520c0-d465-57f8-94ca-4cb5e75dd289":{"description":"The Muslims begin the conquest of Spain under the leadership of Tarik ibn Ziyad.","date_from_description":"711"},"bdd92207-0f4c-5503-baf6-bb04dce976f4":{"description":"Arrival of Jesuits in Zagreb. In 1607 they established the Classical Gymnasium, the first gymnasium (high school) that still exists today.  \nArrival of the first pharmacist J. Gasparini in Zagreb.","date_from_description":"1606"},"be037dae-57a2-56b8-82d6-1085352b1f7c":{"description":"Muslims and Jews expelled from Castile, La Mancha and Extemadura, Andalusia, Catalonia and Murcia begin to settle in Morocco and other countries in the Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1609"},"be05c3dc-95d8-5943-a914-04c1689110f3":{"description":"King Mátyás I dies and the all’ antica Renaissance presence in Hungary (see the Renaissance Buda castle, Mátyás I’s famous Corvina library) wanes. Struggle for the Hungarian throne.","date_from_description":"1490"},"be990659-2366-541e-8272-7d59e40d54da":{"description":"Peace of Utrecht: Spain loses its European territories.","date_from_description":"1713"},"bea24b3e-94e5-5465-8187-72544a565216":{"description":"Pope Urban V affirms the Paulite order, founded by Hungarians c. 1250. King Lajos (Louis) I founds Pécs University and enriches Aachen Cathedral’s Hungarian Chapel with great artworks.","date_from_description":"1367"},"bf236d04-4009-51bb-ad6b-4483bda35b4a":{"description":"Under the influence of Saint-Simonian Ismail Urban, Napoleon III applies his ‘Arab kingdom’ policy in Algeria.","date_from_description":"1860"},"bf2a3eee-32a7-59e6-a08f-d1f67a936713":{"description":"Algiers founded by Buluggin ibn Ziri.","date_from_description":"960"},"bfae2d2e-6b0a-5b1c-acf0-f9c9f030a8f7":{"description":"In Varaždin the first Jewish commune is established.  \nJoseph II announces his ‘Patent on the abolishment of slavery’ for the territories of Hungary and Croatia.  \nThe first Real Gymnasium is opened in Senj.","date_from_description":"1785"},"bfd763d5-09d1-5db0-8408-5e1f7fba178e":{"description":"On 3 September the Battle of ‘Ain Jalut takes place in Palestine between the Muslim Mamluks and the nomadic tribes of Mongols who defeated the Islamic world in the 13th century, destroying cities and killing citizens. The Mamluk victory in this battle stops the march of the Mongol army in Jordan and Palestine.","date_from_description":"1260"},"bff4327f-780e-50a1-b88c-190b4d016eaf":{"description":"In this year the German missionary Ansgarius visits Birka, preaching Christianity to the Swedes, according to Vita Ansgarii by the monk Rimbert.","date_from_description":"830"},"c00fe438-1fca-56ab-a07f-59e48b5ac90e":{"description":"After the town is forcibly taken by the King of France in 1660, Colbert grants the Marseilles Chamber of Commerce a special statute, giving it the power to authorise French subjects to establish themselves in the Ports of the Levant, and he pays his ‘consuls’ by levying a 20% tax on goods carried by foreign ships.","date_from_description":"1669"},"c06fd0fe-9f1f-56a4-a4fe-eaa140c0ae59":{"description":"Charles I fails to arrest five members of Parliament for treason and leaves London to raise an army; the First English Civil War begins between Cavaliers (royalists) and Roundheads (parliamentarians).","date_from_description":"1642"},"c0aba31a-80c6-5273-a220-b84597e0f473":{"description":"On the 4th of July, the American Congress passes the Declaration of Independence, which formalises the 13 colonies’ independence from British rule.","date_from_description":"1776"},"c0d92fc5-643e-5316-bbd3-ecb8e503fb82":{"description":"Ibrahim Pasha administers Syria on behalf of his father Muhammad Ali Pasha (in Cairo) following the process of Westernisation.","date_from_description":"1832–1840"},"c107a8ac-aa8d-5c26-b7e9-2acbaccec4fe":{"description":"Amuri, King of Jerusalem and leader of the Crusader army, captures the city of Bilbis and slaughters every man, woman and child. The burning of Fustat is ordered by Shawar, minister of the Fatimid caliph, to prevent the Crusaders from reaching Cairo. Twenty thousand barrels of oil were used for this purpose and the fire continued for 54 days.","date_from_description":"1168"},"c1191510-fdd8-540b-b777-5815e1913a56":{"description":"Wenceslas IV inherits Czech crown. Completion of the oldest Czech translation of the Bible. Klaret’s (Claretus) attempt to create Czech scholarly terminology. Discord among the king, his brothers and the aristocracy.","date_from_description":"1376"},"c11a8a08-9416-5eb8-b06a-3bb77699d825":{"description":"Swedish missionaries are involved in Tamil Nadu (India) for the first time.","date_from_description":"1850"},"c1a052a1-d3df-5007-9fa2-ef15c7daad0f":{"description":"The Muslim fleet is defeated by the Pisans at Palermo.","date_from_description":"1062"},"c23b6072-da45-5b41-93d3-84c3264c7d22":{"description":"As a result of the revolution in November 1918 Germany becomes a republic. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicates.","date_from_description":"1918"},"c2cfc86e-3d78-557f-b498-ae8f293a68ac":{"description":"Beginning of the Muslim invasion of the peninsula following victory over the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete.","date_from_description":"711"},"c300e0d4-21f2-5804-b91a-5e00d38022a5":{"description":"According to Annales Cambriae, the Battle of Camlann is fought between the forces of King Arthur and Mordred; both leaders are killed in the battle.","date_from_description":"537"},"c325c56a-f379-5525-a0bb-71fa220749a5":{"description":"The Fourth Crusade, which will last until 1204, leaves from Venice.","date_from_description":"1202"},"c3385d5c-571e-559d-8bd4-9c5b2553d3d5":{"description":"The marriage of the daughter of Khumarawayh, Qatr al-Nada, to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tadid. The legendary wedding, including the trousseau, costs the Egyptian treasury over 1.2 million gold dinars.","date_from_description":"895"},"c34053e8-373d-51c1-9459-84324ae6402b":{"description":"On the death of Henry I of England, his nephew Stephen of Blois stages a coup and seizes the English throne in place of Henry’s daughter and designated successor, the Empress Matilda.","date_from_description":"1135"},"c34fbefc-cd49-5776-8bd7-bc1e1e4ccb08":{"description":"The century is marked by trials and crises that shake the Hafsid kingdom: civil wars, foreign incursions and cholera epidemics.","date_from_description":"1277–1370"},"c40011c6-a118-5cd6-852d-ecb3cffbf6bc":{"description":"Palestine in general and Jerusalem in particular celebrate the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople.","date_from_description":"1453"},"c450cd75-fa24-561e-a4cd-2ac9f99cdd45":{"description":"The powerful As‘ad Pasha al-‘Azm governs Damascus and comes down heavily on the local janissaries who were rising in power. He builds the ‘Azm palaces in Hama and in Damascus, as well as his famous caravanserai.","date_from_description":"1742–1757"},"c471d86e-177b-59c8-bbc1-f86d92947636":{"description":"Sidi Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah founds the port town of Essaouira and begin the economic reorganisation of the kingdom.","date_from_description":"1765"},"c495b5a1-d33e-5830-8f73-2b4173b274eb":{"description":"Ya‘qub al-Mansur founds the town of Rabat (Ribat al-Fath – the field of victory).","date_from_description":"1196–7"},"c49acc6e-15c5-51b5-a7c9-07fac2322ced":{"description":"First edition of The Lusiads by Luís de Camões.","date_from_description":"1572"},"c6035d9a-14a2-5e29-8236-99c2ed96bd1a":{"description":"Charles IV elected Roman king. The period of his rule embraced the greatest flourishing of the Czech lands. Origination of the Czech crown jewels. Cult of St Wenceslas disseminated.","date_from_description":"1346"},"c66f6fba-6819-5196-9c17-35fb4891c439":{"description":"The socio-cultural movement in Ifriqiya flourishes with individuals such as Sidi Bou Saïd and Sidi Mehrez venerated as patron saints.","date_from_description":"1253"},"c7156df8-c0a2-5be7-b62f-c2ea87445ef9":{"description":"Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun defeats Ghazan, King of Tartars, in the Levant.","date_from_description":"1303"},"c71bc23e-42c8-5156-858d-a7641dd585a9":{"description":"Master Simon Kézai, a cleric of King László (Kun) IV, starts to compile the Gesta Hungarorum, a chronicle of Hungary (completed in 1285) that contains the theory of the Hun-Hungarian identity.","date_from_description":"1282"},"c75815d0-8188-52cd-83f8-d9af69f1a938":{"description":"The Fatimid restore the city walls of Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1033"},"c79a75fb-768d-524b-b8d4-01aa62350453":{"description":"Elizabeth I accedes to the throne of England and Ireland and rules for 45 years; she is the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn and the final monarch of the Tudor dynasty.","date_from_description":"1558"},"c7ae992c-e206-51a0-b860-847bb3d2ab40":{"description":"Army conscription is introduced in the Ottoman empire; there is evidence of the contribution of Ajlun inhabitants to army life.","date_from_description":"1886"},"c7e39669-756d-5628-a85e-5f6e63e52e37":{"description":"A treaty is made between the Roman Empire and the Ghassanids, a Christian Arab tribe settled in southern Syria and Damascus, in order to defend the eastern frontiers against the Persians.","date_from_description":"502"},"c7f4290b-1cb7-515d-a3bb-a56997bc66da":{"description":"Gustav Vasa is elected King at Strängnäs, freeing Sweden from Danish sovereignty.","date_from_description":"1523"},"c81b6084-c7e0-5ee6-9d42-2ebe66c13390":{"description":"Battle of Salado. Decisive victory over the Marinids of North Africa, who had led the final Muslim offensive in the Peninsula.","date_from_description":"1340"},"c824d709-d2ba-5633-ad39-4ee07e7b96ca":{"description":"Isabel II ascends to the throne and start of a period of regency. Process of building a liberal Spanish state begins. Start of the first Carlist War (1833–40) against Isabel’s coronation, claiming the dynastic right of her uncle, Carlos María Isidro.","date_from_description":"1833"},"c82b56d8-1f36-56eb-9d96-985565899101":{"description":"Lund University is founded in Scania, the southernmost part of the country, which had then recently become part of Sweden.  \nIn the same year a series of witch trials and executions begins in Dalarna. It spreads over large parts of Sweden in the following nine years. Many innocent women are accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake.","date_from_description":"1668"},"c8403923-cc76-54ee-ad2b-f2c59506b3b4":{"description":"Tarik ibn Ziyad crosses the Straits of Gibraltar, defeats King Roderick of Spain and takes Córdoba and Toledo.","date_from_description":"711"},"c8535c0d-6a38-5567-8f06-e61e10b00a66":{"description":"Jesuit Stjepa Glavač, a professor of the Zagreb Academy, publishes the first domestic geographic map of Croatia, which meets the high standards of cartography of that time in Europe.","date_from_description":"1673"},"c87a811f-3fcb-5dcb-a5f5-0343b00e651b":{"description":"The start of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) between Protestants and Catholics; the war has disastruous results, including death, poverty and serious economic stagnation.","date_from_description":"1618"},"c87ad466-47cd-5bbc-8931-fde4642d0bd1":{"description":"Hammad ibn Buluggin ibn Ziri founds the Qal’at Bani Hammad. His mosque and palaces were to inspire the architects of the Giralda in Seville and the Cuba in Palermo.","date_from_description":"1007"},"c97e8963-bfc2-5a43-b2bf-c81b0ecc5b58":{"description":"The Hafsids take several town in Central Maghreb: Constantine (1233) and Béjaia (1235).","date_from_description":"1233–1235"},"c9bba37d-a0bf-5fc3-a408-e9a5dab9da60":{"description":"Sultan al-Ghawri is killed in battle against the Ottomans. His successor Tuman Bay, the last Mamluk sultan, was captured a few months later and hung on Bab Zuweila by Selim I, the Ottoman sultan. Khayrbek, governor of Aleppo, who betrayed the Mamluks was appointed first Ottoman governor of Egypt.","date_from_description":"1516"},"ca13f3c3-9178-595b-a98d-ba165ecdfeae":{"description":"Liberal victory in the civil war. Establishment of a constitutional monarchy.","date_from_description":"1834"},"ca23cae6-e740-535b-ba20-c9ca85b8f263":{"description":"Charles IV is the first Czech sovereign to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In 1356 he issued the Golden Bull confirming the autonomous Czech state and making the Czech king foremost among the electors.","date_from_description":"1355"},"ca28c751-c4e6-57ae-9c23-329e3402cafe":{"description":"‘Alawid Sharif Mulay Ali al-Sharif is proclaimed Sultan of Morocco.","date_from_description":"1631"},"ca350f1e-6708-5ae1-93ac-c94410b0097a":{"description":"The great geographer Ibn Battuta, born in Tangiers, begins a 25-year journey that would take him to China in Asia and Timbuktu in Africa.","date_from_description":"1304"},"ca4dab82-c037-5e7d-9cc9-f142bc8064f3":{"description":"Galileo Galilei finishes his telescope and publishes Starry Messenger, prompting scientific reflection that plunges the Church’s thinking on the universe into crisis for the first time.","date_from_description":"1610"},"ca9db0f2-bfab-57f5-9bb0-418ad0d229da":{"description":"Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, is elected King of Spain by the Spanish Parliament; he rules with the name of Amadeo I.","date_from_description":"1871"},"cada2b2a-5077-51db-b8bd-293193a7a1c8":{"description":"Joseph II abolishes all male and female religious orders except those which take care of the sick and helpless or are engaged in education.","date_from_description":"1781"},"cae30c3c-1b20-553e-8959-9c14f0cec485":{"description":"Death of Paracelsus (1493–1541), physician, philosopher and writer of medical treatments, who was a defender of empirical medicine and rejected Gnostic traditions.","date_from_description":"1541"},"caf5e20d-1898-53d0-ac57-1bb917b199ec":{"description":"Death of al-Maqrizi, the great Egyptian historian.","date_from_description":"1442"},"cb033485-0266-5359-af4e-d3c570e6095b":{"description":"Aragon incorporates the Kingdom of Naples.","date_from_description":"1443"},"cb1217ce-60de-563d-a0ab-97790f36d7a0":{"description":"Christopher Columbus discovers America. Lorenzo de’Medici dies.","date_from_description":"1492"},"cb81d3bf-ba06-5fd6-bead-e6de159d3027":{"description":"First expedition of Muslim Arabs in Ifriqiya. Victory at Sufetula (Sbeitla).","date_from_description":"647"},"cb9b4b59-170b-5014-b533-c938a5423c1a":{"description":"Completion of Karlštejn Castle: Emperor’s residence housing the Czech and imperial crown jewels, the archive and relics of saints. The construction of the Stone (now Charles) Bridge, Prague.","date_from_description":"1357"},"cbd2db7e-72ef-5012-a5f3-845860281f0e":{"description":"To suppress the Ahmad Orabi rising the British Fleet bombards Alexandria. The beginning of the British occupation of Egypt, which will continue for 72 years.","date_from_description":"1882"},"cc06deec-2f3e-5bd9-a760-ea299e41ce57":{"description":"The Marinids enter Marrakesh, ousting the Almohads.","date_from_description":"1269"},"cca6a898-27a6-5c20-abde-316a4c04542f":{"description":"Renewal of the Capitulations by Louis XIV. The galleys run by each power ‘must not cause any damage’ to the other.","date_from_description":"1673"},"cd30deaf-8bf6-5320-b0ae-ecdc9ca88c01":{"description":"The beatification of St. John of Nepomuk, drowned in the Vltava (Prague) in 1393. The most popular saint in the Czech lands, Lower Austria and southern Germany.","date_from_description":"1729"},"cd59198c-6c78-50bf-a618-10e0a1bd1dc1":{"description":"Treaty of Alcanises, which fixes the Portuguese border.","date_from_description":"1297"},"cd6e3fcb-a2b9-556f-9ecf-aa89e48b9b94":{"description":"A madrasa for teaching Shafi’i rites (one of four Sunni rites in Islam) is established at Karak; King Muhammad ibn Qalawun sent his sons to study at this madrasa.","date_from_description":"1311"},"cd81a354-8325-5bdf-a706-90372cee8350":{"description":"Reign of Barsbay marks the beginning of a period of peace, cultural vitality and increased trade.","date_from_description":"1422"},"cdb44628-286e-58a4-a172-35be0c6e4cef":{"description":"The fez is introduced, along with judicial, military and administrative reforms on more Western models in the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1828"},"cde4a42a-7836-5f60-bcf4-af77253199ed":{"description":"Beginning of the Rif War. Tragic Week in Barcelona, with protests against the sending of Catalan reservists to the war in Africa.","date_from_description":"1909"},"ce1bd9f9-0d3d-5f64-bbc1-ec2be2dc878e":{"description":"War breaks out in Europe following Germany’s invasion of Belgium; World War I kills more than 16 million people between 1914 and the Armistice in November 1918.","date_from_description":"1914"},"ce5a2b73-bf3c-5d8e-8ead-a7760392a485":{"description":"Work starts on the palace-convent of Mafra, commissioned by John V (r. 1705–50).","date_from_description":"1717"},"ce5ab688-36af-5c17-bf70-1f1c3171bc86":{"description":"Adherents of Martin Luther, the German religious reformer, appear in Prague. Outbreak of conflicts among Catholics, Utraquists and Lutherans. Anabaptists in Moravia.","date_from_description":"1519"},"ce5ef438-a99b-58e9-91d3-868e95d90512":{"description":"Abbasid campaigns in the south. Conquest of Lisbon and Mértola.","date_from_description":"1044"},"cea62768-a82e-516b-8739-68da41e5739c":{"description":"A Portuguese column infiltrates Moroccan lands and begin work on the Graciosa fortress on the Loukkos River.","date_from_description":"1489"},"ceb082e2-41c6-5247-9b6d-5f2c151c9212":{"description":"The personal union between Sweden and Norway is dissolved.","date_from_description":"1905"},"cece3c05-9623-5ee2-bb38-05d397db175e":{"description":"The beginning of the compilation of the Pray codex (contains the first continuous Hungarian texts) and the oldest Hungarian chronicle, the Annals of Pozsony (Pressburg, today: Bratislava, Slovakia).","date_from_description":"1192"},"cf41c193-d7d7-55eb-ba75-fef5a91fe51c":{"description":"End of the monarchy (revolution of 5 October).","date_from_description":"1910"},"cfff96d7-be4e-591d-83a2-bf64ce44e84a":{"description":"‘Abd al- Mu’min rebuilds the mosque of Tinmel, birthplace of the Almohad dynasty and the prototype of its mosques.","date_from_description":"1148–9"},"d0055e62-03e6-5062-b550-94e01bccb816":{"description":"Conversion of Oghuz Turks to Islam.","date_from_description":"920–950"},"d0682c4b-7e25-541d-9c53-2d7c70c06280":{"description":"Plague attacks cities and villages, taking many lives.","date_from_description":"1603"},"d084e8e7-42cc-5ea4-a428-d0fdca31f841":{"description":"Division of the Carolingian Empire. Charles the Bald’s West Francia is attacked from the north by the Normans and the south by the Saracens (after 838). Royal authority is limited by the growth of large regional principalities.","date_from_description":"843"},"d0a1821f-6553-5881-8654-dca4b4851c0b":{"description":"Adrian IV grants a papal bull, Laudabiliter, which recognises Henry II of England as lord of Ireland and licenses English colonisation of Ireland; the process begins with Henry’s arrival in 1171.","date_from_description":"1155"},"d0ebefd8-0ffb-57eb-bf50-f6d8700012eb":{"description":"Badi' al-Zaman al-Jazari (from al-Jazira) is commissioned by the Atabeg Artuqid court to write his brilliant illustrated manuscript on mechanical engineering, a milestone in technology history.","date_from_description":"1206"},"d11003b4-e777-5ecb-b0eb-805d3ec485fe":{"description":"Battle of Mohacs. Ludwig Jagellon defeated by the Turks, the dynasty died out. According to a contract from 1515, the Czech throne passes to the Habsburg dynasty. Anti-Habsburg movement of the Czech Estates.","date_from_description":"1526"},"d192615b-1534-5d7d-adf1-b637a02711eb":{"description":"Execution of the leaders of the Wesselényi revolt against the Habsburgs. All needs of the Austrian armies based in Hungary paid for by Hungary causing paupery. Continuing oppression of Protestants.","date_from_description":"1671"},"d1cbecff-0106-5906-b954-c1f48fa72143":{"description":"Fakhr al-Din al-Ma’ni (1590–1635) expands his control of Lebanon to major parts of Palestine.","date_from_description":"1624"},"d1d1554b-3362-5368-9218-36949157048f":{"description":"The start of the new army Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order) by Selim III.","date_from_description":"1792"},"d1d28ea9-863c-574b-8177-58ec73feafc1":{"description":"Vasco da Gama leaves for India.","date_from_description":"1497"},"d26cc83d-0def-5c56-817e-635316052e2c":{"description":"Tankaz, the Mamluk governor of Syria begins a comprehensive construction project in Jerusalem including Madrasa Tankaziyya, Suq al-Qattanin, Khan Tankaz, two bathhouses and a minaret.","date_from_description":"1328"},"d27c91d8-b51a-5f96-9b4f-43602e02ce25":{"description":"The birth at Mecca on 2 July of Prophet Muhammad, the messenger of God who introduced Islam to the whole world.","date_from_description":"570"},"d2d232be-77e5-5589-b163-5011502463c4":{"description":"The Hafsid Kingdom of Tunis exerts a remarkable influence in politics, economics and culture.","date_from_description":"1228–1236"},"d30aeb41-22eb-5171-b465-98b2ac76c327":{"description":"Death of the historian Ibn Khaldun.","date_from_description":"1406"},"d327227e-c522-5553-af40-86f52c894373":{"description":"On 20 August a local government is formalised in Salt city after the decline of the Arab Kingdom at Damascus; its council of state was headed by Mazhar Rislan and its membership was made up of deputies from Amman, Madaba and ‘Udawn tribe.","date_from_description":"1920"},"d36604ba-45ea-57e0-adbc-56e7b6d707aa":{"description":"In this, or the following, year, King Magnus grants freedom of taxes for those who serve him in his wars as equestrians. This was important step in the development of privileged nobility.","date_from_description":"1279"},"d42b5254-a078-5f1d-8da7-98560fa6908c":{"description":"Establishment of the independent Czechoslovak state after the end of the First World War. President T. G. Masaryk elected (1920) (d. 1937). Origins of the theory of art and art history institutions.","date_from_description":"1918"},"d42e6053-1207-5eac-9c32-ba07f5996c9c":{"description":"Foundation of the town of Raqqada a few kilometres outside Kairouan.","date_from_description":"876"},"d441d9d9-9d79-5a5d-b9e5-0730eba6dce7":{"description":"Charles of Anjou, brother of the King of France, marries Beatrice, heir to the Count of Provence. Sailors from Marseilles become special allies of the Angevins in southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1246"},"d448e324-dea8-57ed-b5a0-3c7e59d063ad":{"description":"Pope Boniface VIII (1295–1303), in conflict with the French for political reasons, is arrested by the French, but immediately released following a popular uprising.","date_from_description":"1303"},"d4bbbe9d-548a-5705-8eb8-4cfc5b9910c1":{"description":"Work starts on the Hieronymites Monastery.","date_from_description":"1502"},"d50438da-0cee-5e33-978d-cb233a2697f2":{"description":"At the Battle of Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo, the Ottoman Empire defeats the Mamluks and takes over Syria.","date_from_description":"1516"},"d5152fda-76e7-5dae-a0d9-1d2f36e55fc6":{"description":"The King of France, Charles VI, is afflicted by madness. France falls into civil war, and the Treaty of Troyes recognises Henry V of England as the heir to the French throne.","date_from_description":"1392"},"d57ef1fd-9b93-512c-adf0-5ac932aba9b0":{"description":"Return of Ferdinand VII and restoration of autocracy.","date_from_description":"1814"},"d5aa0473-92b6-535a-9451-3e271c580839":{"description":"Construction of the Sidi Bel Hassan Mosque in Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1296"},"d5d144a2-c99b-5cc9-b3c1-1544828028b4":{"description":"First Christian resistance at Covadonga (Asturias).","date_from_description":"722"},"d62eb47e-c4d2-58b2-87b6-1d7f30fce072":{"description":"Austro-Hungarian monarchy ends. Charles IV agrees to the form of state chosen by the Hungarian nation but does not abdicate. Count Mihály Károlyi is Prime Minister of the People’s Republic of Hungary, which lays down arms and starts armistice talks.","date_from_description":"1918"},"d680b239-defd-5fb4-824d-123331d240d3":{"description":"‘Uqba (Okba) ibn Nafi reaches Sebta, Tangiers then Walili (Ancient Volubilis) before going on to the town of Nfis in the Haouz and Igli in the Souss.","date_from_description":"681"},"d6a1262e-96c2-576c-aaf1-286b2b02a307":{"description":"Further Capitulations allow subjects of Western Christian nations (particularly Spanish, Portuguese and Neapolitan) to trade within the Ottoman Empire ‘with the consent and protection of the banner of France’. The alliance with the ‘Grand Seigneur’ is renewed in 1597.","date_from_description":"1604"},"d7184f37-632b-550e-8191-79287a888a15":{"description":"Death of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), last universal genius in Germany and founder of the Prussian Academy of Science, who made major contributions in philosophy and mathemathics.","date_from_description":"1716"},"d7a5e47d-dffb-5324-99c0-ea5f93794b2f":{"description":"Achir founded by Ziri ibn Manad.","date_from_description":"936"},"d7bbafec-4995-54c2-9b69-d9f7a93f9e10":{"description":"The ‘Triumph of Orthodoxy’ that marks the end of the second Iconoclastic Period (814–42) in the Byzantine Empire. Theodora, the regent for her son Michael III, orders the restoration of the icons.","date_from_description":"842"},"d7c0ba86-2670-50a8-a0e9-229880d1cff3":{"description":"Around this time the portcullis gate in the Eketorp ring-fort on Öland falls for the last time. As far as we know, this gate, built around AD 400, was the first of its kind outside the Roman Empire.","date_from_description":"500"},"d8898867-5089-58c8-b7a6-cc7af47bbef9":{"description":"Vienna was surrounded by Turkish armies and Moravia was plundered before the Turks were forced back to the Balkans. The last Turkish war in Europe.","date_from_description":"1683"},"d8b249fa-2675-5541-bf12-43109d7fb3ff":{"description":"Tulip Period starts (1718–30).","date_from_description":"1718"},"d8d883ca-0ba9-51f7-b401-a8661b03fa77":{"description":"Normans attack the Portuguese coast.","date_from_description":"844"},"d8d9d642-a711-5136-bdad-fe9e9688f1da":{"description":"Deposition and exile of the last sultan, Mehmed Vahiduddin.","date_from_description":"1922"},"d8eb5131-93d9-5553-a4e8-12d1f3bb75b5":{"description":"Battle of Muhi: Mongolian troops led by Khan Batu defeat the army of King Béla IV. At the end of the Mongol invasion in 1242 Austrian and Styrian forces also attacked Hungary, which was rebuilt by King Béla IV.","date_from_description":"1241"},"d8ecdf6b-5b33-5360-b5d3-32068d0ed13e":{"description":"Abolition of the Caliphate of Cordova.","date_from_description":"1031"},"d8faf424-dbf7-5084-8268-7865f0071002":{"description":"Brief reign of Shajar al-Durr, widow of al-Salih Ayyub, as Sultana for 80 days.","date_from_description":"1250"},"d92743d5-0fb0-5c9a-8f0f-d125f43c5a5f":{"description":"Amir Ziri ibn Atiya of the Maghrawa founds the town of Oujda in Eastern Morocco.","date_from_description":"994"},"d9284d5a-fbf9-5b26-9f54-b06fcf1fb2fc":{"description":"Coronation of (St) István who affirms his authority over the Hungarian leaders (e.g. in 1003 over Gyula in Transylvania) and establishes Hungary’s legal, administrative and ecclesiastical system.","date_from_description":"1000"},"d9938d03-6f40-5f32-9ebe-47a56c3e1c1b":{"description":"F. Křižík invents the self-acting regulator of the arc lamp, the first electrical lighting. His invention was received to great worldwide acclaim. The first telephone network introduced (1882).","date_from_description":"1879"},"da43fca1-5998-517d-be0a-aa3e6869443a":{"description":"Musa ibn Nossayr becomes the first governor of Ifriqiya.","date_from_description":"705"},"daa73a72-f069-50c3-abbc-df5a38d392b0":{"description":"Mazagán (al-Jadida), the last Portuguese town in Morocco, is abandoned.","date_from_description":"1769"},"db3cf6a9-5343-5856-9f86-57ba82b813a3":{"description":"The siege of Siget. Nikola Šubić Zrinski holds out against the army of the Sultan Sulayman I and falls during the last attack.","date_from_description":"1566"},"dbdc55cf-cbdc-57f4-92f4-24bcbfdb2f84":{"description":"Anders Celsius presents his thermometer, which shows the temperature on a scale of 100 degrees.","date_from_description":"1742"},"dbe59a55-2cd7-53ec-b4b2-afb589fe96bd":{"description":"Jesuit mathematician Ruđer Bošković publishes his work *De natura et usu infinitorum et infinite parvorum* in Rome.","date_from_description":"1741"},"dbfb208e-9ef7-5de2-80cf-cbb2915bc41d":{"description":"The Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah (r. 996–1021) orders the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre Church. Ten years later he would order its rebuilding.","date_from_description":"1009"},"dc118738-02b5-525d-888b-545b10c9c60f":{"description":"Political stability under the reign of the Hafsid princes.","date_from_description":"1370–1394"},"dc5090aa-a461-51b6-a23d-7087c1e20e77":{"description":"Battle of Austerlitz (Battle of Three Emperors). Austria, Prussia and Russia defeated by Napoleon.","date_from_description":"1805"},"dc8a4daa-7306-5da4-b957-b12cbfd3a082":{"description":"In pursuit of a South Slav cultural union bishop Josip Strossmayer founds the Yugoslav Academy of Arts and Sciences.","date_from_description":"1867"},"dc9368d3-fea8-55cb-9f02-8e9c8be66205":{"description":"Decree of Kutná Hora adjusts the university voting rights between the Czechs and other nationalities. Jan Hus appointed university chancellor. Origins of the Hussite reformation movement, critical of church rule.","date_from_description":"1409"},"dce2677e-94dc-5b49-bd57-0a7cea6fe4b2":{"description":"End of the civil war in Castile and start of the Trastámara dynasty.","date_from_description":"1369"},"dd13de0c-ab78-5a7d-b509-d34b51f10b4d":{"description":"Battle of Hattin in which Salah al-Din defeats the Crusader army and liberates Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1187"},"dd25461e-de8f-5476-85c3-6c77ed048053":{"description":"The Almohads lose the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in Andalusia.","date_from_description":"1212"},"dd26d7b2-753d-5c64-a874-8775f4efc0cb":{"description":"At the Battle of Yarmuk on 15 August the Muslim army defeats the Byzantine forces. Damascus is definitively occupied and the Islamic conquest of Syria begins.","date_from_description":"636"},"dd5c065d-477f-5ea9-8e11-662a99b5b09c":{"description":"According to some, the Croatian kingdom was established and Duke Tomislav became its first king.  \nThe first Church Synod is held in Split.","date_from_description":"925"},"de28ed00-1d01-5505-a1e9-e174ff172b66":{"description":"Decisive encounter between the armies of ‘Abd al-Mu’min and Tashufin ibn Ali near Oran. Death throes of the Almoravid dynasty.","date_from_description":"1145"},"de69d57f-9181-57df-a130-8edc2aaa1536":{"description":"The building of the Aswan Dam to control the Nile water and the entire irrigation system.","date_from_description":"1902"},"de762d60-c903-57cf-bc84-0eeb2eadec27":{"description":"Civil war, known as the Wars of the Roses, breaks out between the rival royal houses of Lancaster and York, marked by the First Battle of St Albans.","date_from_description":"1455"},"de958d36-f511-5186-ad55-a694e77e7543":{"description":"English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle at the Plantation of Ulster in the north of Ireland on land confiscated from Irish Catholic landowners.","date_from_description":"1611"},"debccaa7-c112-539c-9761-c664285d1e7e":{"description":"Anti-Habsburg revolution and freedom fight (from March 15) led by Lajos Kossuth. Independent Hungarian government (Prime Minister: Count Lajos Batthyány). Hungarian victory in the battle of Pákozd.","date_from_description":"1848"},"dec2255f-859a-5ea4-b21c-046b469c315e":{"description":"Umberto I (1878–1900) is assassinated by the anarchist Gaetano Bresci. He is succeeded by his son Victor Emanuel III (1900–46).","date_from_description":"1900"},"df10ab15-72a2-575f-aaea-0e1c635a99fd":{"description":"Peace of Augsburg: failure of the imperial policies of Charles V.","date_from_description":"1555"},"df480296-e505-5591-b42e-51a9b97477e7":{"description":"The completion of the Great Mosque of Ahmad ibn Tulun, which features many innovative elements in Islamic architecture. Annexed to it was a bimaristan (hospital) to treat the poor and it also served as a shelter for the disabled.","date_from_description":"877"},"df91e41a-78ac-53b4-93f5-9d311ce78485":{"description":"The Battle of Varna: Sultan Murad II defeats the Hungarian army. King Ulaslo I dies but commander-in-chief János Hunyadi survives. Stripes and a double cross first appear together in Hungary’s coat of arms.","date_from_description":"1444"},"df995303-878c-5e40-99d7-ef78b6593a65":{"description":"Around this time the emporium Birka is founded. This community or small town was situated on a small island in the Lake Mälaren, not far from today’s Stockholm.","date_from_description":"750"},"dfe631ee-5cdf-519b-9900-189432eb9818":{"description":"The victory of the Byzantine army over the Persian army in the Battle of Nineveh on 12 December, which breaks the power of the Sassanid dynasty.","date_from_description":"627"},"dff5d537-8122-5251-9a1f-7c0a00f69ebb":{"description":"Founding of the Ottoman governing unit in Middle Slavonia with the centre in Požega. For more than 40 years the governor was Hadži Mehmed-aga who supported Sulayman during the siege of Siget.","date_from_description":"1538"},"e0420d62-68b7-59e0-aa3f-306dd2f7c607":{"description":"First of series of retaliatory raids lead by al-Mansur against the Christian kingdoms of the north, lasting until 1002.","date_from_description":"985"},"e046f0a4-6fdf-5c32-aff1-fb445b485ba3":{"description":"A trade treaty is signed between Anatolian Seljuqs and the Venetians.","date_from_description":"1229"},"e05c0958-d738-51d3-acad-0a0cf634dd7b":{"description":"Jacques Cœur, based in the south of France, begins profitable trading with countries in the Near East, particularly Egypt.","date_from_description":"1446"},"e1b83e18-7a70-583e-9f1a-ab5c213c38da":{"description":"Frederick Barbarossa (1123–90) arrives in Italy to side with the Pope against the Commune of Rome and the Normans. In the same year, Barbarossa is crowned King of Italy in Pavia.","date_from_description":"1154"},"e205bea0-1c2b-5928-8567-a7336452f9c5":{"description":"Birth of Saint Fructuosus of Braga.","date_from_description":"c. 610"},"e21b4827-ea94-5fb0-8cf5-de9a45f8e87b":{"description":"Merchants from Amalfi (Italy) construct a huge social institution including a hospital in Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1048"},"e26c8990-cb4c-5264-a88c-9d3bcba1d94c":{"description":"Olof Rudbeck the Elder publishes his Nova exercitatio anatomica, a pioneering work on the lymphatic vascular systems.","date_from_description":"1653"},"e2787654-cd49-577d-8bc9-13e2b3bd8ef4":{"description":"Sultan Sulyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-66) orders the construction of Jerusalem’s city wall, the citadel and the restoration of the Haram al-Sharif and the water system. 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They go on to win a decisive battle against the Byzantines on the banks of the Yarmouk River, which opens the way to the conquest of Syria.","date_from_description":"636"},"e38eb7bb-c5e8-5f3d-99ac-8bd7b8098123":{"description":"Süleyman Bey, conquering Iznik, declares it the capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs.","date_from_description":"1080"},"e3a06506-4e7a-5b7d-b91d-26b97ef9dd36":{"description":"Charlemagne (r. 768–814) inherits the Frankish crown and becomes king of a large part of Europe and the founder of a Roman, Christian and Germanic empire.","date_from_description":"768"},"e3a13cad-baca-54cf-8177-5f05cdb89109":{"description":"Several Umayyad palaces are built in Jordan, notably Mushatta Palace with its fantastic façade.","date_from_description":"743/744"},"e41722a0-a639-58a4-abf5-46e09f85eb27":{"description":"Ottoman Empire enters World War I on the German side.","date_from_description":"1914"},"e41e5dce-6445-59c9-bb41-416730136680":{"description":"In February mediation between ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib and Mu’awiya is held at Udhruh in southern Jordan after the battle of Siffin to decide who will be the caliph of Muslims. Mu’awiya wins by trickery.","date_from_description":"658"},"e450d568-2f2e-5dca-b923-c611fabdfc18":{"description":"In January the inhabitants of Pella sign a covenant with the new Muslim rulers after the battle of Fihl (Pella) agreeing to pay poll and land taxes; the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule at Pella was peaceful and uninterrupted.","date_from_description":"635"},"e46b969c-0f8a-501d-a790-8a27a09b62ee":{"description":"The end of Ahmad al-Jazzar, who is succeeded by Sulayman Pasha (1804–19) and then with ‘Abdallah Pasha (1819–31).","date_from_description":"1804"},"e47cdabf-08c6-59c7-ba21-0ad6dba27cc6":{"description":"Szatmár Peace Treaty ends the unsuccessful freedom fight of Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II. 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Scottish victory at Stirling Bridge is led by William Wallace.","date_from_description":"1297"},"e52dc1da-d1a9-58d1-bbb9-c3306a1ddfe4":{"description":"Abbasid Caliph al-Mu’tazz appoints Bakbak as governor to Egypt, but Bakbak sends Ahmad Ibn Tulun instead.","date_from_description":"867"},"e59d2a50-6c31-57a5-9d6d-2c1277d26e98":{"description":"Treaty of Almizra by means of which Castile and Aragon divided al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1244"},"e5e3cc5c-5c18-54c0-8aa7-b65207704ff5":{"description":"Queen Christina abdicates at Uppsala castle.","date_from_description":"1654"},"e5ec69f1-3f2a-58a8-9d89-34296fd7ca61":{"description":"Rumour has it that in this year King Hugleikr, possibly from what is Sweden today, was slain with all his men in Friesland by the Frankish, i.e. Merovingian, Prince Theodebert.","date_from_description":"521"},"e61f57cc-61e7-58bc-afa0-1987b218d783":{"description":"Jordan and Syria submit to the Ikhshidids under Muhammad bin Tughj, the founder of this dynasty in Egypt.","date_from_description":"935"},"e628c68b-7d57-5eae-8bd7-d5c088e26ac0":{"description":"Foundation of the kingdom of al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis, which splits from the Fatimid Caliphate of Cairo.","date_from_description":"1016–1062"},"e69b3932-a14b-593e-a264-9dfa6ce7d609":{"description":"The monk Stefan becomes the first Swedish Archbishop. The ceremony was in Lund, which was then Danish but is now a town in southern Sweden. Stefan was ordained by the Danish archbishop Eskil on 5 August and Pope Alexander III was among the participants. Stefan’s see was in Uppsala. He went to work immediately and one of his letters from 1165 still exists. This is the oldest preserved letter in Sweden. It is written in Latin.","date_from_description":"1164"},"e6a20dd3-2812-51b6-b796-4a720035fc27":{"description":"The Highland Clearances, where tenants are evicted to make way for sheep farming, result in thousands of Scots emigrating to America, Australia, New Zealand and Canada between 1763 and 1775.","date_from_description":"1763"},"e6ec5d5c-d3cc-5cec-ac30-bbc47b0c3908":{"description":"The French government supports the Pasha of Egypt Mohamed Ali and helps him to succeed to the pashalik.","date_from_description":"1834"},"e6feeb0d-01bf-59bb-8069-390c3a62f0d3":{"description":"Ajlun becomes the centre of an administrative district (Niabah) extending from the Zarqa river in the south to the Yarmouk river in the north and from the Jordan valley in the west to Badiya in the east.","date_from_description":"1411"},"e72f3a22-2b6d-5269-8bd4-6f8656211e9c":{"description":"The Fatimids restore the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"1027"},"e744318c-cf49-5f17-9561-66e10cc83c25":{"description":"The Abbasids conquer Palestine, which loses its former centrality of rule and investment.","date_from_description":"750"},"e75d379a-83bf-5514-b8ff-b882a8a1cfce":{"description":"Foundation of the town of Taghrart on the site of modern-day Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1082"},"e7a0564c-2fde-525e-beda-c6a62ccba83a":{"description":"The Goths attempt to occupy the town of Sebta.","date_from_description":"544 or 548"},"e7db9b2c-691b-5da5-b210-f7ebed29dc84":{"description":"Tanzimat (reformation) period: local Syrian governors are removed from their positions as the Ottoman Empire enforces tighter administration in its efforts towards Westernization.","date_from_description":"1839–1908"},"e8286945-4b4e-5742-8d29-67d38200b404":{"description":"Prince Géza is succeeded by his son István who continues the Hungarian conversion to Christianity. 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Attack on Coimbra.","date_from_description":"1111"},"e9e2d41f-f69c-5f10-ba54-2a75e470fc69":{"description":"Çelebi Mehmed goes to France as ambassador.","date_from_description":"1721"},"e9fee3ff-63a7-56e1-9c33-0c0d566f8ccc":{"description":"Baldwin I (r. 1100–18) expands the Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1116"},"ea03b14b-4d46-52b3-9829-7c5d67ea667d":{"description":"Draught and famine in Egypt because of the low Nile flood and more than 17,500 persons die that year.","date_from_description":"1296"},"ea659014-2186-58a5-8ced-5cd030253cdc":{"description":"Mulay Hafid signs the treaty for the French protectorate in Morocco","date_from_description":"11912"},"eb07f5c5-6af4-58d0-a002-9ad3ca83a992":{"description":"First general strike.","date_from_description":"1917"},"eb4c1b6e-c0de-56e2-9986-9d964c16dba5":{"description":"Fakhr al-Din II Ma‘n, the powerful Amir of Lebanon, sends his deputy to Constantinople asking the Ottoman Sultan to give him the governorate of Irbid and Ajlun to strengthen his emirate.","date_from_description":"1610"},"eb8e4233-bf9c-543b-a7ae-0bf1fd6ca558":{"description":"Sayf al-Dawla al-Hamdani rules Aleppo as an independent Hamdanid emirate. 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Balkan uprisings.","date_from_description":"1875"},"ed170053-eb91-5c65-ac00-3c8cea2efc9c":{"description":"Birth of Nikolaus von Kues (1401–64). His De docta ignorantia is notable for his mystical beliefs. He suggested the earth was a nearly spherical shape that revolved around the Sun.","date_from_description":"1401"},"ed3443e2-ad25-5fe5-9e41-af9913c072da":{"description":"Timur-i-Lang (Tamerlane) sacks Damascus and the economy deteriorates; plague and famine are rife.","date_from_description":"1400"},"ed37556c-6a5f-54a0-a270-11ea7b5a1e44":{"description":"The first permanent army, consisting of Swedish peasants, is created.","date_from_description":"1544"},"ed3b30cd-5cda-50bc-887f-5bf8435c4119":{"description":"Preaching of the Third Crusade, which is joined by the King of France Philip Augustus and Richard the Lionheart. Having returned to France Philip Augustus defeats the troops of Emperor Otto at Bouvines and greatly extends his kingdom.","date_from_description":"1187"},"ed6800c0-3445-5557-a755-7876a32b6c4b":{"description":"The decline of the Almohads is deepened by the victory of the Sanhadja tribe from Bani Ghania at Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1184"},"ed825c92-debf-58b2-8d13-a0228b632940":{"description":"Preaching of the Second Crusade, in particular by Saint Bernard. King Louis VII returns defeated to France, and Jerusalem is taken back by the Muslims in 1187.","date_from_description":"1146"},"ed94200b-ec0d-532a-bae6-046ab22f6779":{"description":"Dante Alighieri begins his masterpiece of universal literature, the Divine Comedy, completed in 1313.","date_from_description":"1307"},"eda3d98c-b6d5-5d0b-8725-8080aa800a97":{"description":"Liturgical unification of Hispania.","date_from_description":"633"},"edb31114-c3db-5d7c-a717-ca3d34a50f9f":{"description":"Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa.","date_from_description":"1510"},"ee1529ff-b7df-5539-a5a7-a7ac6bfcf20c":{"description":"‘Abd al-Rahman III lays siege to Beja and Faro. Establishment of the Caliphate of Córdoba.","date_from_description":"929"},"ee2176b7-39b8-5042-8b19-2e3784ec3be2":{"description":"Edict of the Byzantine Emperor Leon III by which he excluded western Balkan lands, the entire Illyrics, from the authority of the Roman Pope and submitted them to the Byzantine patriarch.","date_from_description":"732"},"eede12ef-3df3-5d4e-83ac-3847e6efc9f0":{"description":"Ottoman Sultan Murad III ibn Salim Khan orders the renovation of Aqaba Castle; his name is inscribed on a medallion above the inscription which bears the name of the Mamluk Sultan Qansawh al-Ghawri.","date_from_description":"1587"},"efddb048-fe19-5c4d-92af-28eb7b156ac6":{"description":"Fire causes great damage to the Holy Sepulchre Church.","date_from_description":"938"},"f015da88-e24f-5276-a062-4dd49d86cc3e":{"description":"The Almohads take Algiers and Constantine, overcoming the last heir of the Bani Hammad, Yahia ibn ‘Abd al-Aziz (515–47/1121–52) and unifying Morocco and the Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1152"},"f15b3998-59b7-5b52-a7ce-1a2847f2d9d3":{"description":"Parliament passes the Act of Supremacy declaring the monarch (Henry VIII) the supreme head of the Church of England, and outlawing any act of allegiance to the Pope.","date_from_description":"1534"},"f165063a-aa20-5646-b298-4a2c2325198e":{"description":"The entire Umayyad court is massacred by the ‘Abbasids, except for ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Mu‘awiya who escapes from Syria to al-Andalus (Spain) and founds there a line continuing the Umayyad dynasty.","date_from_description":"750"},"f195491d-369a-5107-b22f-925f5752f876":{"description":"Construction of the Djama’a al-Djedid mosque in Algiers, the first Hanafite mosque, inspired by Byzantine architecture.","date_from_description":"1660"},"f1bf9f5a-062f-5064-8b4b-e29fcdbc77ad":{"description":"Turks occupy several Hungarian fortresses in the new Turkish wars. At the siege of Eger fewer than 2,000 Hungarians led by István Dobó triumph over the attacking 60–70,000 Turks.","date_from_description":"1552"},"f1eef633-b025-530e-9f24-58caef33da93":{"description":"Establishment of the Czech Academy of Science. K. V. Klíč invents photogravure. The first automobile with a combustion engine in the monarchy (1897); first Czech motorbike and cinema (1898). Widespread emigration to the USA due to the economic depression.","date_from_description":"1891"},"f209ded8-b80a-51ad-ba20-d1c2ab088ec1":{"description":"The Damascene theologian ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, from Sufi order called al-Naqshabandiyya, influenced by Ibn al-Arabi, writes many works on religion and mystical philosophy.","date_from_description":"1670"},"f2bb5e9a-aa69-5950-869b-6a56797e20ae":{"description":"Last Mongol invasion of Damascus, by Timur i-Lang (Tamerlane).  \nIbn Khaldun, Tunisian historian in Damascus at the time, pleads with Tamerlane on behalf of the city, but the Citadel is breached and the city sacked.","date_from_description":"1400-1"},"f2daefe4-d4c9-500f-ad40-e0a5f07b9b17":{"description":"Abolition of slavery.","date_from_description":"1869"},"f2eece35-36f2-5ec7-953c-7b250d1a46de":{"description":"Following the Oran earthquake, the Spanish restore the ruined town, which becomes the capital of the beylik of Western Algeria.","date_from_description":"1790"},"f308d5db-d4d9-5f21-bcf6-ac477b078299":{"description":"The architectural features of a new capital founded in Samarra have a strong impact on the decorative repertoire all across the Islamic empire and particularly in Egypt and Syria, as seen in Kharab al-Sayyar and al-Raqqa.","date_from_description":"836"},"f3489c6a-6edf-534e-9008-63e90c67aa09":{"description":"The old castle Tre Kronor (Three Crowns) in Stockholm burns down.","date_from_description":"1697"},"f36b3e3b-8c78-5b05-b1df-4601084030aa":{"description":"The Treaties of Westfalia end the wars between the King of France and the Emperor of Germany waged since 1636.","date_from_description":"1648"},"f3a4f4dc-7de1-542e-9814-56c1610cb575":{"description":"The English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins defeats the Spanish Armada; war between Spain and England continues until 1603.","date_from_description":"1588"},"f436f770-aaad-5d98-b58f-8a0d4fe080ae":{"description":"On the death of King András III the Árpád house dies out in the male line. Fights for the Hungarian throne ensue. The coronation of Károly I Róbert of Anjou (Caroberto), descended from the Árpád female line.","date_from_description":"1301"},"f4651af3-bcb4-5c95-994b-774c069af48e":{"description":"Roger I of Hautville (1072–1101) begins the conquest of Sicily against the Arabs, which is completed in 1091.","date_from_description":"1061"},"f578c08f-29f1-55c0-8c87-480553f9ab97":{"description":"Scotland’s National Covenant is signed; a protestant manifesto, it rejects King Charles I’s attempts to impose an Anglican prayer book as well as other constitutional changes on Scotland.","date_from_description":"1638"},"f596be10-32f7-5725-a5c7-7516ddd7c5c0":{"description":"Arab nationalists are executed in May by Ottoman governor Jamal Pasha in Marjeh Square, Damascus.  \nSykes-Picot Treaty signed by the French and British imperial forces, dividing the Arab lands.","date_from_description":"1916"},"f5f1cfee-6e24-5a3f-b06b-da4f762dacb5":{"description":"The Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay goes on an inspection tour of the Syrian provinces and strengthens  urban development as Syria is contested by the rising power of the Ottomans in Turkey.","date_from_description":"1477"},"f5f5b17f-a9eb-550d-9e35-66616bc304b7":{"description":"First Spanish constitution (Cadiz).","date_from_description":"1812"},"f621f014-fec0-513d-8397-7210af9eceac":{"description":"The first Islamic gold coin devoid of iconographic representation is struck in Damascus by Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik, with Arabic declaration of faith. Arabisation of the administration.","date_from_description":"697"},"f66036f1-4e15-58e2-b837-641dd3ec6f7e":{"description":"Salah al-Din dies and the Ayyubid empire is fragmented.","date_from_description":"1193"},"f704610f-7c5d-53b9-8bce-736a2aac4d85":{"description":"The short-lived First Constitutional Period.","date_from_description":"1876–1877"},"f716d2e1-962f-5ff8-ba44-fea6ab9ca023":{"description":"Ibn Askar, author of the hagiographic dictionary *Dawhat al-Nachir*. is born in Chefchaouen.","date_from_description":"1529"},"f71ab877-43a7-52d5-b530-155d15d061fa":{"description":"Battle at Krbavsko Polje after which Ottoman armies overran most of Croatia and Islamisation followed, particularly in the so-called ‘Turkish Croatia’ between the Una and Vrbas rivers.","date_from_description":"1493"},"f726c72d-feb1-51eb-a3f1-4b2046178dc7":{"description":"Emperor Franz Joseph enters the Dual Monarchy with Hungary. Conflicting interests prevent Austria-Hungary from uniting the South Slavs: Croatia and Slavonia fall under Hungarian control, while Austria retains Dalmatia.","date_from_description":"1867"},"f765b2af-f1fc-560b-b967-c8a80d2cefb9":{"description":"The first wave of Eastern European Jewish immigrants settles in Palestine; this is the beginning of several waves of European Jewish immigration to Palestine.","date_from_description":"1882"},"f7817e08-dae7-5dce-a040-441d69b15f83":{"description":"Justinian, the Byzantine Emperor, begins constructing many castles along the main caravan routes, and several churches in Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Gaza and Nabatian Negev.","date_from_description":"527"},"f79e6586-b41d-5804-8d78-c3f4b0b49da0":{"description":"French expedition and start of the colonisation of Algeria.","date_from_description":"1830"},"f7ed8b5c-10ba-56ca-b0eb-710e579bebb2":{"description":"The Spanish built the fortress at Gibraltar after a failed attempt to take Algiers.","date_from_description":"1516"},"f812d16c-326f-503a-8a09-b382b5cc0904":{"description":"The Dome of the Rock is built as the framework of a large construction programme on the plazas of the Haram al-Sharif, including the Dome of the Chain, the gates of the Plaza and the Aqsa Mosque.","date_from_description":"691"},"f82dac15-a8ae-54bf-b092-872543fb1559":{"description":"Damascene Ibn al-Shatir, a great Muslim astronomer, craftsman and instrument designer, composes important new planetary theories that predate Copernicus by two centuries.","date_from_description":"1305–1375"},"f8ab46ce-bcc2-511a-850d-f38946c479f9":{"description":"On 5 July Salah al-Din (Saladin) wins a great victory at Hittin over the Christian Frankish troops; he went on to destroy the power of the Crusaders in Palestine and Jordan.","date_from_description":"1187"},"f8e67d66-41cf-5e60-a8c6-7bd5eaf44324":{"description":"John Wyclif, an Oxford scholar, translates the Bible into English from Latin, allowing ordinary people to read it for the first time and inspiring the Lollard political movement.","date_from_description":"1375"},"f94e413e-27b6-5b84-837f-d12f8e7d849a":{"description":"In March several post offices between Cairo and Karak and between Karak and Damascus are erected during the Mamluk sultanate of Barquq.","date_from_description":"1395"},"f95ef00d-5881-5f23-a0a7-97d8a4b0ea0d":{"description":"The Fatimids of Cairo take control of Damascus, causing great turbulence. The Byzantines control northwestern Syria (999–1001). Thus Syria is pressured by expansionists on both sides.","date_from_description":"969–1076"},"f966e949-77bb-5cdd-8109-8790777c61f7":{"description":"Beginning of the Reformation. Luther nails his 95 theses against the abuse of indulgences to a church door in Wittenberg. His translation of the Bible established the basis of the modern German language.","date_from_description":"1517"},"f9b7ced4-fc8e-58c0-8c65-3d4abb460248":{"description":"Zagreb and a major part of Croatia are stricken by plague of epidemic proportions.","date_from_description":"1599"},"f9c9412a-9326-54c1-ac37-5ba1dcfdded8":{"description":"The National Constituent Assembly gives France the unity it needs. The 1791 Constitution establishes a constitutional monarchy, which ends the following year after the events of 10 August and the deposition of Louis XVI.","date_from_description":"1789"},"fa146fb6-5a64-5ce2-a03a-bcd8beeda8a5":{"description":"The failure of the second siege of Vienna of the Ottoman Army.","date_from_description":"1683"},"fa3f1f07-d3b6-5a96-9e8f-4bcbc686594f":{"description":"A cast of Turkish soldiers (deys) from Istanbul govern the Regency of Tunis.","date_from_description":"1574–1612"},"fa9e3a30-f855-5391-954a-d0a6594bc53e":{"description":"Election of Gábor Bethlen (Protestant Transylvanian prince) as King of Hungary. He leads a freedom fight against the Habsburgs and brings cultural and economic prosperity to Transylvania.","date_from_description":"1620"},"fa9f4dbb-b807-5fc1-a3c9-429ad618eac1":{"description":"Privateering starts.","date_from_description":"1434–1488"},"fadb650a-3f77-5e92-8fbf-11335af1ebec":{"description":"First siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Army.","date_from_description":"1529"},"fadf814c-a30e-52d2-8a58-e68572477477":{"description":"Mongol troops return to Central Asia after sending the scholars and artisans of Damascus to Samarqand and massacring the rest of the population. Mamluk leadership is weakly restored. Internal dissent and militias are rife.","date_from_description":"1404"},"fb446172-097e-5137-9d15-1e91ba397877":{"description":"The Fatimid caliphate defeats the alliance army of Bilad al-Sham, whose ambition was to establish a state for themselves, and dominates southern Bilad al-Sham again.","date_from_description":"1028"},"fb485c98-2fef-5d95-9979-b4759442a502":{"description":"The Almoravids found the town of Marrakesh, heralding the start of a new era in Maghreb and al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1062"},"fb4893db-de69-5c2c-acb9-9f0032da2e9f":{"description":"Reign of the reformist prince Ahmad Pasha Bey.","date_from_description":"1837–1855"},"fb5706a8-c5d5-59fd-9e3d-856bfba165bb":{"description":"Francisco Pizarro competes the conquest of the Inca Empire (Peru).","date_from_description":"1533"},"fb93aeda-ffde-52d7-a9a2-5207439fd8be":{"description":"March on Rome: the event confirms the rise to power of Benito Mussolini’s National Fascist Party and the beginning of the Fascist regime (1922–43).","date_from_description":"1922"},"fbe2c0cb-c555-56b0-921f-ba012da34ea8":{"description":"Second war of independence: Austria declares war on the Kingdom of Sardinia. The war is initially fought in Northern Italy.","date_from_description":"1859"},"fbea5e27-1a9d-5d68-b467-1d18b4d4ee21":{"description":"Tunisia becomes an Ottoman province administered by a pasha appointed by the sultan in Istanbul and assisted by political-military leaders.","date_from_description":"1587"},"fc0145f9-4901-5066-af76-09df98b21db9":{"description":"Belvoir citadel (Kawkab al-Hawa) is built in a wave of citadel-building all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"1141"},"fc28a94e-ec36-535b-af73-640343430467":{"description":"Bobastro taken and the rebel ‘Umar ibn Hafsun defeated.","date_from_description":"928"},"fc7da7f1-b6bf-500a-8a58-2f899e4344d5":{"description":"The geographer al-Sharif al-Idrissi is born in Sebta. Half a century later he writes a geography book entitled *Kitab nuzhat al-Mouchtaq* at the request of the Norman King Roger II.","date_from_description":"1100"},"fc9476ee-fd24-5794-8618-07c87f363c41":{"description":"The first Anglican school is established in the city of Salt by Metropolitan Samuel Gobat who established 37 schools in the villages and cities of the region.","date_from_description":"1856"},"fcaa4990-56bd-58ef-9e83-96246178abfd":{"description":"Abbasid Caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–85) visits Palestine and Jerusalem, ordering restoration of damage caused by an earthquake in 775.","date_from_description":"779"},"fcc50734-42e9-5c36-b3b6-59ef8a5e7f8e":{"description":"The most devastating plague hits Damascus, handicapping the city and killing 2,000 people a day, as recorded in the chronicles of the Moroccan voyager Ibn Battuta.","date_from_description":"1348"},"fcf06ed2-f35a-5b2a-b4d6-b03e8c7621d3":{"description":"The Saracens establish a base in Fraxinetum, Provence, in the mountains now known as the Maures, staying for more than two generations.","date_from_description":"890"},"fde54950-5fd5-5b9b-9601-8073f41c898c":{"description":"The Treaty of Northampton officially acknowledges Scottish independence, which in 1320 had been recognised by the papacy following the Declaration of Arbroath.","date_from_description":"1328"},"fe0b838a-25c3-56a6-a34f-c4473f54b366":{"description":"Conquest of Alcácer do Sal.","date_from_description":"1217"},"fe206d6b-72a1-563f-a90c-6f64acd94d31":{"description":"The first printed work issued in the Czech lands: Statutes for the Prague Diocese (Pilsen printing works).","date_from_description":"1476"},"fe3499d5-b4ca-50ce-a116-199c95627bef":{"description":"Death of Emperor Justinian I soon after his construction of the Ibn Wardan fortress in the Syrian desert. The long and intermittent Byzantine–Persian war is refuelled.","date_from_description":"565"},"fe5f683c-10ed-5a91-b8f4-3f9d2a88fafb":{"description":"Varangians attack Constantinople, the Byzantine capital.","date_from_description":"867"},"fe803dfc-b069-516e-a06c-06714e3116d8":{"description":"Reorganisation of the Suebian Church by Saint Martin of Dumes.","date_from_description":"555"},"fed1cb3f-f671-5994-be2b-f4a920bd0e4a":{"description":"During the rule of the Merovingian Dynasty (c. 500–751) Germanic tribes become subjects of the Merovingian Dynasty.","date_from_description":"500"},"ff240b80-84a8-553d-b0d4-03478e5bfb99":{"description":"Benito Mussolini Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Groups) in Milan.","date_from_description":"1919"},"ff2f7b63-df5b-5738-8a4e-4afa91239df1":{"description":"Maria Theresa ascends throne (d. 1780). Invasion of the Prussian army leads to inheritance wars over the Czech crown. Unifying style known as ’Pragmatic Sanction in art’.","date_from_description":"1740"},"ff3cdecc-faf7-5ed5-a218-9028d5dd2390":{"description":"Death of Frederick II.","date_from_description":"1250"},"ff92a3bf-559f-5450-bdfa-81e8eef6fd87":{"description":"Abolition of the death penalty.","date_from_description":"1867"},"ffe284d1-ac86-5274-8902-0f9ec6a435f3":{"description":"After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Emperor Franz Joseph I leads the Austro-Hungarian monarchy into World War I on the sides of the Central Powers. Beginning of Hungarian aircraft industry.","date_from_description":"1914"}}