@museumwnf/islamicart-crusader-data 1.0.1 → 1.0.2

package/translations/items.en.json

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-{"060dee0a-fee6-55fb-aada-947a4da800d1":{"name":"Column capital.","description":"A limestone capital with boldly cut foliage and volutes resting on twin columns. Pine cones, resembling bunches of grapes, are dispersed amongst symmetrically arranged stylised acanthus leaves. The leaves are punctuated with drilled holes. This design recalls some of the Abbasid capitals which were in turn inspired by Late Antique styles. However, instead of one pine cone and naturalistic leaf forms this capital has a proliferation of pine cones with more abstract leaves. Therefore it is probably later in date, perhaps made during Saladin's renovations of Jerusalem following his victory over the Crusaders, in the late 12th century.","short_description":"High-relief carvings of leaves alternating with pinecones decorate this limestone capital. The design dates to the Abbasid period but ultimately derives from Late Antique models. This capital was found in the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem.","type":"Stonework, limestone","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 32 cm, width 40 cm.","method_for_datation":"Saladin, the greatest Islamic hero of the Crusades, led the battle against the Crusaders and won back Jerusalem from them in 1187; this capital may have been made during Saladin's renovations of the city following his victory.","method_for_provenance":"The capital was found in the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"Donated to the British Museum by the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1903.","bibliography":"Wilkinson, J., Column Capitals in al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem, 1987.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Limestone."],"keywords":["Architectural decoration; stonework; columns"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"09735692-5b84-55c8-9f6f-7ae132533658":{"name":"Candlestick of al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun.","description":"A candlestick consisting of a cylindrical base and body, as well as a cylindrical neck whose diameter is small when compared to the base and body. Three decorative braid-like bands wrap around the base of the candlestick, one on top of the other. They are separated from the one adjacent to it by strokes, which also wind around the base. The body of the candlestick is completely covered with decoration, including a large inscription in Mamluk *naskhi* script that extends from the lowest section of the body to the top. It reads: “The possession of the sublime, the sovereign, the all-knowing, the just, the victorious.” The background of the inscription is filled in with dense vegetal decoration that is worked throughout the body. Two medallions appear on the body of the candlestick, each of which consists of three circles: the interior one is extremely small and in it is a fan-shaped decorative form. The middle circle contains vegetal decoration within twisted lines, which might be lotus blossom. The outer circle is large and also contains vegetal decoration of flowers and intertwining leaves. Two decorative bands are wrapped around the surface (plate) of the candlestick. There is an encircling inscription on the surface written in Mamluk *naskhi* script that reads: “The Possession of the Sublime, The lord, The sovereign, the warrior, the Mujahid, the knower, the helper, the victorious.” Two medallions intercept the inscription, each of which contains a depiction of a bird most likely a pigeon or a partridge. The two birds face each other. The background of the inscription is filled in with a collection of leaves and flowers. The neck of the candlestick is clearly not original and the replacement certainly indicates the decline in craftsmanship during the late Mamluk period.  \nIt is noteworthy that travellers who visited al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, as well as al-Haram al-Ibrahimi, (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil), mentioned in their descriptions of these places that they contained a large number of lamps and candlesticks, only a few of which have survived to the present. Some of them are displayed in the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","short_description":"A cylindrical candlestick with two epigraphic inscriptions. There are no spaces as thick vegetal decoration has been worked over the entire body. From its decoration, script and titles it appears to be associated with al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun. It is typical of Mamluk candlesticks made in Cairo and Damascus. It was formerly at al-Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron.","type":"Candlestick, copper","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40).","dates":"Hegira 693–741 / AD 1294–1340.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 43.4 cm, diameter 29 cm, height (of neck) 18.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The candlestick is dated by the inscriptions on it which mention the titles of the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun. Further, an accurate date was achieved by study of its style and decoration and through analysis of the calligraphic script used, and also by comparing it to other pieces of the same period.","method_for_provenance":"Cairo was narrowed down as the place of production by studying the method of manufacture and decoration. The Islamic Museum in Cairo holds a number of dated candlesticks similar to this one. It is probable that Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun donated this candlestick and another one to the Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron (al-Khalil).","provenance":"Probably Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"The piece was transferred some time after 1967 from the Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron (al-Khalil) to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., *Islamic Art Through the Ages: Masterpieces of the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem,* 1998.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “Three Candlesticks from the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif”, *Levant*, No. 20, 1988.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Copper with decorative carving inlaid with silver."],"keywords":["Naskhi script; naskhi; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; candlestick; Mamluk; engraving; copper"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"0d0046d9-7674-55cd-8c61-86fb8bdda733":{"name":"Frankish Letter.","description":"A letter written on Arabic paper (more acidic than European paper) and which is small in size. Although yellowing, its condition is excellent. The letter consists of six lines written in Latin, and was sent from the city of Sur by the Knights Templar *(Templar/ Fursan al-Haykal*) Brotherhood to the Templar Brotherhood in Jerusalem. The subject of the letter revolves around the Temple personnel in Jerusalem who received the pilgrim, Robier du Sur du Fal. The decision was taken in the city of Fula in Palestine to strip him of his apparel in Sur and to imprison him in Acre until he could be taken to Europe on the first available ship sailing from the port. The letter does not explain the reason for this decision, or the nature of the crime that Robir du Sur du Fal allegedly committed, but it seems that the matter must have been of some importance to require the attendance of more than 100 knights from the Templar at a meeting.  \nThe letter translates as follows:  \n“To Brother, 'Udun De Wandum, the representative for the Jerusalem Brotherhood, Brother Jarar De Ridfor, commander of the soldiers of the Templar Brotherhood to Brother U'dun Di Wandum, the representative of the Brotherhood in Jerusalem:  \nGreetings! You should know that Du Sur du Fal has landed on the shores of the city of Sur. And our agent received him in that region. After that, we held a gathering in al-Fula and a hundred Knights or more assembled at the site. We requested their opinions about what to do on this matter. They agreed on the general advice and were completely unanimous on sending five of their brother knights to the city of Sur in order to divest him of his clothing and take him to Acre. There, they would sojourn with him in a designated room until the first ship of the season.”  \nThe document reveals the traditions and customs of the Latin brotherhoods as they appear in the Knights Templar in the Crusader state of Jerusalem. The strong bonds that held together the various branches of the brotherhood in Palestine and Lebanon are also apparent.","short_description":"This letter was written on small-sized paper and contains six lines of Latin script. Its subject deals with the imprisoning of one of the members of the Templar Brotherhood and his forcible divestment of official apparel. He was then to be taken on the first available ship to Europe. The letter reveals the traditions and ways of this brotherhood.","type":"Letter, paper","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","dates":"Hegira 575–79 / AD 1180–8.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 4 cm, width 17 cm.","method_for_datation":"The letter is dated.","method_for_provenance":"Sur is likely to be the place where this letter was composed; this is supported by the text.","provenance":"Sur, Lebanon.","obtention":"The letter was found amongst a collection of papers and documents in a room close to the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Ink on paper."],"keywords":["Knight’s Templar Brotherhood; letter; Crusader; Frankish"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"1557e889-e4c0-511e-92f2-cf332ab357cf":{"name":"Incense burner.","description":"A circular incense burner with a hinged domed cover, standing on three curved feet in the form of stylised horse hooves. The cover is pierced to emit smoke. Christian figures with haloes, some carrying Christian liturgical items that include a cross and censer, inhabit the lobed arches around the body and cover; all but one is facing in a clockwise direction. Both the male and the female figures wear a long-sleeved gown which reaches almost to the ankles, with a shawl draped over the right shoulder. All the figures are bare-headed except for the one holding a cross who wears a turban. The medallion that does not contain a figure and which stands between two inhabited arches, was probably once the place of a handle. There is a benedictory inscription in kufic script around the apex of the lid to an anonymous owner. This burner belongs to a group of metal objects with Christian figures made during the Ayyubid period that may have been intended for either Muslim or Christian patrons. Given the fine quality of this burner it was evidently not a mass-produced household object but was more likely to have been created for a wealthy patron. The shape of the burner stems from the Byzantine tradition which continued to be popular in both Egypt and Syria during the 13th and 14th centuries.","short_description":"This incense burner is one of a group of inlaid metal objects with Christian figures made in Syrian or Mesopotamian workshops. It could have been commissioned for either a Muslim or a Christian patron.","type":"Metalwork, decoration object, silver and gold","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 596–647/ AD 1200–1250.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 20 cm, width 12.5 cm, depth 12.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Both the technique and decoration resemble several metal objects produced in Mosul and Syria in the 13th century, including objects such as the Blacas Ewer made in Mosul in 1232 (now in the British Museum), or a candlestick made in Syria in 1248–9, (now in the Musée des Arts décoratifs in Paris).","method_for_provenance":"The technique and decoration on this burner can be compared to that of other metal objects produced in Mosul and cities in Syria in the 13th century. The similarity of technique and style between the metalwork of northern Mesopotamia and Syria is due to the movement of metalworkers from Mosul to Syria in search of work under the Ayyubid sultans. For example, a ewer in the Louvre in Paris (dated AH 657 / AD 1258) was made by Husain Ibn Muhammad of Mosul for the Ayyubid Sultan Salah al-Din Yusuf, who ruled from Damascus.","provenance":"Syria or northern Mesopotamia.","obtention":"Bequeathed by John Henderson in 1878.","bibliography":"Baer, E., Ayyubid Metalwork with Christian Images, Leiden, 1989, fig.1, p.15–20.  \n  \nL'Orient de Saladin au temps des Ayyoubides, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 2001, cat. no. 96, p.113.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Engraved, moulded brass inlaid with silver and gold."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; christian themes; cross; Byzantine; kufic script"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"16512ef6-b198-5c9c-9905-fe8825a14887":{"name":"Qal‘at Salah al-Din (Saladin).","alternate_name":"Sahyun or Saone","description":"Saladin castle may be considered one of the most elaborate castles of the Bilad al-Sham, featuring the main characteristics of Byzantine, Frankish, Ayyubid and Mamluk architectural styles, including a variety of military, civil, religious and palatial types. The castle is located on the northern buttresses of the Jabal Ansariyya (also known as Jabal Bahra) Mountain, overlooking the minor road that intersected the mountain between the town of Latakia and the northern Ghab plain. For the most part, the castle played the role of a manorial residence for the Crusaders, the Ayyubids and the Mamluks.  \nDuring the 11th century, the site was occupied by the Byzantines who launched an ambitious fortification campaign during their expansionist efforts. They were briefly curtailed by the Seljuqs after-which the castle was conquered by the Crusaders between AH 507–8 / AD 1114 and AH 513 / AD1119. Granted as a fief to one of the Knights Hospitallers, Robert son of Foulques d'Anjou and to his successors, the castle was improved significantly, possibly with the help of the Military Orders. This Crusader stronghold was finally conquered by the Ayyubid, Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin) in AH 584 / AD 1188 after a three-day siege and granted as an *iqta'* (property donation) to an Ayyubid prince Nasir al-Din Mengüverish. After being threatened by the Mongols in the middle of the AH 7th / AD 13th century, it was peacefully recovered by the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars in AH 671 / AD 1272 and granted to a governor. With the advent of Sultan al-Mansur Sayf al-Din Qalawun in AH 679 / AD 1280, the anti-Sultan Sunqur al-Ashqar transformed the castle into his headquarters. Qalawun conquered it in AH 686 / AD1287. Saladin Castle was then transformed into a provincial administrative centre within the Mamluk Empire.  \nThe triangular shaped castle is established on a rocky spur isolated from the mountain by a wide artificial ditch whose depth is about 30 m. Measuring east to west almost 700-m long and 120 m of maximal width along the eastern ditch, the spur is divided into two topographical areas that dictated the layout of the defences. The eastern high courtyard, the heart of the Byzantine castle, was transformed into a manorial area by the Crusaders with the building of a huge square keep, of two large cisterns, numerous semi-circular and oblong flanking towers and the partial digging of the eastern ditch. Later, taking advantage of the pre-existing fortifications built by the Byzantines and by the Crusaders, the Ayyubids improved the defences and built a large palatial complex combining baths and reception rooms on two levels following the same model of the Ayyubid palace at Aleppo Citadel. Two *hammam*s and a mosque were also built around this complex during the Mamluk period with a reception tower astride the west wall of the high courtyard. The low courtyard, west, was also defensively fortified during the Crusader and Islamic occupations through the construction of two gate-towers and a surrounding wall.","short_description":"After the Battle of Hattin in which Salah al-Din reconquered Jerusalem, he went on a quick and efficient military campaign over the summer of AH 584 / AD 1188 in which he defeated over a dozen Crusader strong-points all along the eastern Mediterranean coasts and Jebel (Mount) Ansariyya. This castle, formerly known as Chateau de Saone and located northeast of Latakia, fell to Salah al-Din after a three-day siege and was subsequently named after him. It is elaborately constructed and strangely triangular in shape, taking advantage of the rocky terrain over which it towers.","dates":"Hegira 4th–7th century / AD 10th–16th century.","location":"Latakia region.","method_for_datation":"Many historical and architectural studies on the castle have helped in the definition of the monumental history of the site. The Syrian-French archaeological excavation of 2001 and 2002 confirmed the construction date as the first half of the 13th century. Mamluk inscriptions are located on the lintel of the mosque, the wall and rampart of the northeastern front, and the vaults of the *hammam* north of the Ayyubid palace.","bibliography":"Beddek, K., “Le complexe ayyoubide de la citadelle de Salah al-Din: bain ou palais?”, *Archéologie Islamique*, 11, 2001, pp.75–90.  \nDeschamps, P., “Le château de Saône et ses premiers seigneurs”, *Syria*, XVI, 1935, pp.71–88.  \nDeschamps, P., *Les châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte. Tome III – La défense du comté de Tripoli et de la principauté d'Antioche*, 2 Vols, Bibliothèque Archéologique et Historique, IFAPO, 105, Paris, 1973, pp.217–47.  \nKennedy, H., *Crusader Castles*, Cambridge, 1994, pp.84–97.  \nMesqui, J., *Sahyun/Saone/Qal'at Salah al-Din, Rapport préliminaire de la mission, 2002* \\[www.castellorient.com\\].  \nMichaudel, B., *Saone/Sahyun/Qal'at Salah al-Din. Etude historique de la forteresse de Saone*, 2005 \\[www. castellorient.com\\].  \nMüller-Wiener, W., *Castles of the Crusaders*, London, 1966, pp.44–5.  \nRey, E-G., *Etude sur les monuments de l'architecture militaire des Croisés en Syrie et dans l'île de Chypre*, Paris, 1871, pp.105–13.  \nSaadé, G., “Histoire du château de Saladin”, *Studii Medievali*, Vol IX, Part 2, 1968, pp.980–1016.  \nVan Berchem, M., and Fatio, E., “Voyage en Syrie”, Vol. I, *Mémoires de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale du Caire*, Cairo, 1914–15, pp.267–83.","patrons":"Crusader Lords of Saone (AH 508–4 / AD 1114–88); Ayyubid Mengüverish amirs (AH 584–671 / AD 1188–1272), rebel amir Sunqur al-Ashqar (AH 678–86 / AD 1279–87), Mamluk sultans: Qalawun (AH 678–89 / AD 1279–90); al-Ashraf Khalil (AH 689–93 / AD 1290–3) and al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4 / AD 1293–4; AH 698–708 / AD 1299–1309; AH 709–41 / AD 1310–41).","dynasty":"Hamdanid; Byzantine; Seljuq; Crusader; Ayyubid; Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":["Military architecture; palatial architecture; Salah al-Din; Baybars; Qalawun"],"author":"Benjamin Michaudel","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"18c15448-b023-55e4-944b-b20b8f98eb2e":{"name":"Damascus Citadel","description":"The Citadel functioned as a city within a city. It was founded by the Seljuqs in AH 469 / AD 1076, on the site of a former Roman *castrum* or military camp. Remains from both the Roman and the Seljuq fortresses still exist today, as do some of Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi (d. AH 569 / AD 1174) fortifications. The citadel was entirely rebuilt by al-Malik al-‘Adil Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr during the years AH 599–610 / AD 1202–14. Despite many subsequent changes and continued usage during the Mamluk, Ottoman and modern periods, the bulk of al-‘Adil's citadel is still intact.  \nThe Citadel complex is near-rectangular, about 220 m x 150 m, and the northwestern corner of the Citadel walls curves inwards to accommodate the Barada River. Its vastness is indiscernible from the outside due to its location amidst Suq al-Hamidiyya. The Citadel's north and west walls originally would have looked out on to open countryside, while the south and east walls overlook the city.  \nThe different phases of the Citadel's fortification may be recognised by the quality of the masonry. Most easily discernable are al-Malik al-‘Adil's refortifications. He completely redressed the original Seljuq walls with larger Roman stones, probably spolia from the ancient Temple of Jupiter nearby. New Ayyubid towers (*burg*s) were built outside the perimeters of the old Seljuq ones, and a gallery between the two was maintained for communication purposes. This process of Ayyubid expansion upon Seljuq-period fortifications can be seen at numerous other Syrian citadels, such as those at Bosra and Aleppo.  \nThe Damascus Citadel is renowned for its numerous *burg*s, a total of 16 or 17, of which 12 survive. There are four gates, one on each side, and each with a smaller postern gate nearby. The most strategically located point was the northern gate. Its three surrounding *burgs*, steel-bar gate, non-direct entry passageway and draw-bridge across the moat emphasise its defensive character. Meanwhile, the eastern gate is the most artistically magnificent, as it was the formal entry into the Citadel. It displays the first stone *muqarnas* portal in Damascus, copiously inscribed and beautifully painted. Restorers have been able to reveal a repertoire of decorative motifs on the *muqarnas* cells, including painting from the Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman eras.  \nThe stone *muqarnas* portal leads to a nine-vaulted hall often thought to be a throne room. It is a square area with a central cupola mounted on thick pillars with Roman-period capitals. Whether it is related to the Ayyubid palatial residence is yet to be established, as important excavations of the site are still underway.  \nLike other citadels of the period, the Citadel of Damascus was both a residence of the ruling elite and a site of Crusader warfare, as witnessed during the siege of Damascus in AH 542 / AD 1148. In general, the architectural style and fine masonry techniques reflect important Aleppine influences.","short_description":"The Citadel marks the northwestern corner of the old city. Its dimensions are vast, approximately 220 m x 150 m, and its major refortifications were undertaken by the Ayyubid ruler Al-Malik al-‘Adil during the years AH 599–610 / AD 1202–14. The most militarily strategic point is the northern gate, known as the 'Gate of Steel' and protected by a draw-bridge, three towers, and a non-direct entry passage. The most ornamental gate is the eastern gate, which features fine masonry, inscriptions and even paintings. Recent excavations have revealed a medieval metalsmithy for forging weapons in the Citadel's southwest quarter.","dates":"Hegira 599–610 / AD 1202–14.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The monument is dated by an inscription found on the northern tower, dated 610 (1213–14).","bibliography":"Allen, T., “Ayyubid Architecture”, *Occidental* (electronic publication 7th edition), 2003.  \nGardiol, J.-Bl., \"Le Palais ayyoubide de la citadelle de Damas: Premières données archéologiques et nouvelles observations\", *Bulletin d'études orientales*, Supplément *Citadelle de Damas*, vol. 53-54, Damas, 2002, pp. 47-58.  \nHanisch, H., *Die ayyubidischen Toranlagen der Zitadelle von Damascus,* Wiesbaden, 1996.  \nSauvaget, J., \"La citadelle de Damas\", *Syria,* 1930, pp.59–90, pp.215–41.","patrons":"Al-Malik al-‘Adil Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr, ruler of Damascus and Cairo AH 592–615 / AD 1196–1218.","architects":"Scholars have indicated the participation of Aleppine architects. There is also a signature of an unknown craftsman, Abu al-Wajd, found in a stucco decoration.","dynasty":"Ayyubid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Citadel; military architecture; gates; towers; muqarnas"],"author":"Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, Zena Takieddine","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"19003bf4-70f4-5b4f-9cbc-901f2ae697ef":{"name":"Haram al-Ibrahimi.","alternate_name":"Sanctuary of Abraham (the Ibrahimi Mosque).","description":"The Haram al-Ibrahimi is associated with the father of the prophets Ibrahim (Abraham), and is considered to be the fourth most important religious site in Islam (after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem), and the second holiest place after the Aqsa Mosque in Palestine. The Haram al-Ibrahimi consists of a large building with a rectangular floor plan of approximately 60 m x 34 m. The building is surrounded by a great wall built from large blocks of fine cut stone. The Haram has two minarets dating to the Mamluk period. The height of each of them is around 15 m from the surface of the building.  \nThe interior of the building includes a congregational mosque and an open courtyard, as well as arcades, rooms, corridors, domes, and a grotto (known as “al-Ghar”), in addition to a series of graves which were designated for the Prophets Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their wives.  \nThe principle prayer hall is rectangular, about 28 m x 21 m. It consists of three aisles, the middle one being the largest and the highest of them. The prayer hall was originally designed as a church, since it was erected by the Franks on a Romanesque model after they destroyed the mosque that was originally on the site in AH 492 / AD 1099. When Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) reclaimed the city of Hebron in AH 583 / AD 1187, the church was transformed into a mosque and the present *mihrab* was added to it.  \nThe wooden *minbar* which stands today to the right of the *mihrab*, dates to the Fatimid period and was commissioned by Badr al-Din Jamali in AH 484 / AD 1092. It was brought to the Haram by Salah al-Din from Ashqelon (which lies roughly 50 km south of Jaffa). This *minbar* is considered the oldest Islamic wooden *minbar* still in use. It is in good condition and considered a masterpiece in both workmanship and design.  \nThe walls of the prayer area are panelled with polychrome marble, one of the works commissioned by Amir Tankaz in AH 733 / AD 1332. On the northern wall of the prayer hall, where the opening of the holy underground grotto “al-Ghar” is, there is a platform (*dikkat al-muballigh*) from which the prayer leader recites. This was built in AH 732 / AD 1331, and is composed of marble pillars and capitals.  \nTo the north of the mosque lies an open courtyard surrounded by porticoes and rooms. In the northwest corner of the courtyard is the Malikiyya Prayer Hall consisting of an *iwan* with a rectangular ground plan. In the southern wall of the courtyard, there is a beautiful *mihrab* commissioned by Sultan Barquq. There is a portico located at the extension of the western wall of the mosque that is known today as the Jami' al-Nisa (The Women's Mosque). This was an addition sponsored by Amir Shihab al-Din al-Yaghmuri in AH 796 / AD 1393–4.  \nThe Masjid al-Jawali is integral to the Haram al-Ibrahimi although it is not possible to see it from the outside. The west wall of the Masjid al-Jawali is in fact the east wall of the enclosure of the Haram, while the east, north and south walls of the Masjid are hewn from the rock. This mosque was built in AH 720 / AD 1320 by order of Amir 'Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Jawali. It is composed of three arched arcades with intersecting vaults that bear great stone piers. In the middle of the mosque there is a fine, stone dome whose corners are characterised by *muqarnas* decoration. In the *qibla* wall there is a *mihrab* which has been hewn from the rock and panelled with polychrome marble. It is provided with a beautiful semi-dome structure which is also decorated in coloured marble.","short_description":"At over 2000 years old, this may be one of the world’s oldest sacred monuments still standing. It was built in the area believed to contain the graves of the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), his sons Isaac and Jacob and their wives. The large rectangular outer building dates to the early Roman period and is enclosed by a wall of stone blocks. The interior is the product of several Islamic periods. The principle prayer hall was built by the Franks in the Romanesque style. The building is crowned by two Mamluk minarets. It contains the decorated rooms of the tombs. The mosque holds the oldest Islamic wooden *minbar* still in use and dates to the Fatimid period.","dates":"First century BC; AH 492 / AD 1099.","location":"Hebron (al-Khalil)","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by inscriptions, which are further supported by historical information.","bibliography":"'Amru, Y., *Khalil al-Rahman al-Arabiya \\[al-Khalil, the Arab City\\],* Hebron, 1985.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil* \\[*The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nVincent, L. H., and Mackay E. J. H., *Hebron – Le Haram El Khalil,* Paris, 1923.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.202–4.","patrons":"A number of rulers, princes and sultans oversaw the construction, renovations and restorations of Haram al-Ibrahimi. Among them were: Herod (r. 37–4 BC) whom it is likely built the enclosure; Badr al-Din Jamali, the amir of the Fatimid armies; the Crusader Kings of Jerusalem, Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93), who restored the Islamic identity to the site and completely renovated it; Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri, deputy to the sultanate in Bilad al-Sham during the period AH 712–40 / AD 1312–40; Sultan Zahir Barquq (ruled twice AH 784–91 / AD 1382–9 and AH 792–801 / AD 1390–9) and Amir ‘Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Jawali, overseer of the two *harams* (al-Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem and this one in Hebron).","dynasty":"From the Roman period to the end of the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ibrahim; haram; religious architecture; tombs of the prophets"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"23643565-2f67-5fbb-a44a-abd9cfd3771f":{"name":"Karak Castle.","description":"Karak lies east of the Dead Sea in the biblical land of Moab, some 120 km south of Amman. The Frankish Castle, perched on an elevated escarpment, was laid out on a roughly trapezoidal plan which followed the contours of the ridge on the western and eastern sides (240 m and 220 m respectively), while on the northern and southern fronts (130 m and 85 m respectively) the castle was protected by deep dry moats. Placed beneath the southeastern battlement, a massive glacis (paved steep slope) was placed to secure that direction. Originally access to the castle was via a bridge that crossed a dry moat. This led to an elbow-shaped entrance in the western flank of the eastern salient in the north wall.  \nThe castle was commissioned by Payen Le Boutellier (the Butler) in AH 534 / AD 1139; it was completed in AH 537 / AD 1142. The castle was named Crac de Moab or simply le Crac by the Franks. The plan was based on that of an upper and a lower enceinte (court). The upper enceinte comprises the bulk of the castle's surface area and contains the church, olive and grape presses, bakeries and a palace (Mamluk). The lower enceinte occupies the western side of the ridge and is provided with a subterranean level containing two large halls running north to south and joined by a large central chamber; it also contains two additional halls at the northern end of the compound. Today these two parallel halls accommodate the archaeological museum.  \nTwo types of stone were employed in the construction of the castle, and these types correspond to two distinctive architectural phases: a hard blackish-red chert; the other a fine yellowish limestone. The former type of stone represents the Frankish stage of construction, whereas the latter belongs to the Ayyubid–Mamluk period of around the AH 7th –8th / AD 13th and 14th centuries.  \nBoth Karak and Shawbak castles were taken by the soldiers of the famous Ayyubid leader Salah al-Din (Saladin) soon after the decisive victory at Hattin (AH 583 / AD 1187) and were refortified several times in the following centuries by both the Ayyubids (AH 570–648 / AD 1174–1250) and the Mamluks (AH 648–923 / AD 1250–1517).","short_description":"The Frankish castle of Karak was commissioned by Payen le Boutellier in AH 534 / AD 1139 and completed in 537 / 1142. It was built on an elevated escarpment following its contours. Protected by deep dry moats, a massive glacis (paved steep slope) secured the southeastern approach.. Two types of stone were employed in the construction: a hard blackish-red chert representing the Crusader stage, and a fine yellowish limestone belonging to the Ayyubid–Mamluk period. The castle was taken by the forces of Salah al-Din (Saladin) soon after 583 / 1187 and was refortified several times in the following centuries.","dates":"Hegira 6th–8th century / AD 12th–14th century.","location":"Karak","method_for_datation":"The monument has been dated through archaeological excavations, Arabic inscriptions, and by various historical sources. Karak has received relatively little archaeological or architectural study. Its complex history can be culled from Crusader and Arabic historical sources, e.g. William of Tyre, Fulcher of Chartres, Ibn al-Athir, Ibn Shaddad, Ibn Wasil, Abu-Shama, al-Maqrizi and others. More recently the castle has been discussed by P. Deschamp (1939), R. C. Samil (1956: pp.218–22), W. M. Müller-Wiener (1966: pp.47–8). An overview of the history of Karak and the castle is provided by S. M. Momani (see bibliography).","bibliography":"المومني،سعد محمد، \" القلاع الإسلامية في الأردن : الفترة الأيوبية و المملوكية\"، عمان، 1988، ص. 156–242.  \nBrown, R. M., “Excavations in the 14th Century Mamluk Palace at Kerak”, *Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan*, XXXIII, 1989, pp.287–304.  \nDeschamp, P., (ed) “Kerak et les Châteaux de la Terre Outre le Jourdain”, in: *Les Châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte: Le Crac des Chevaliers*, Vol. 2, Paris, 1939, pp.35–98.  \nKennedy, H., *Crusader Castles*, Cambridge, 1994, pp.45–52.","patrons":"Payen Le Boutellier (the Butler), begun in Hegira 534 / AD 1139 and completed in hegira 537 / AD 1142.","dynasty":"Crusader, Ayyubid–Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":["Castle; Crac de Moab; Crusaders; dry moat; enceinte; glacis"],"author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"23e8db58-0148-5dc3-98b4-98cb5313ba16":{"name":"Pilgrimage proxy scroll.","description":"This pilgrimage proxy scroll includes handwriting, painting, and drawing on an expensive yellow glazed paper known as *abadi*. It is in fragmentary condition and its title, as well as the section containing the *basmala* (the formula 'In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful'), are missing. The first of the two fragments includes a pair of standards bearing the name of the contemporary Abbasid caliph, al-Nasir (r. AH 575–622 / AD 1180–1225); the standard on the right is partially preserved. Below this emblem is a colour depiction of Mount Arafat flanked by candlesticks. Below this are depictions of the Maqam-i Ibrahim, a stone associated with the Prophet Abraham, and the water wells. Further below this is a depiction of al-Muzdalifa, where pilgrims spend the night as part of their pilgrimage duties, and al-Mina, which is the third most important site for pilgrims. The empty spaces in between the drawings are filled with inscriptions describing the requirements for the pilgrimage.  \n  \nThe depiction of the Ka'ba unfortunately has not survived in this scroll. The second fragment features depictions of al-Safa and al-Marwa (two locations that pilgrims visit in Mecca), the city of Medina (where pilgrims visit the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad), the city of Jerusalem, which pilgrims customarily visit after the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. This proxy certificate was prepared for a person identified as Umm Abbas, wife of Ghalib. The person performing the pilgrimage on her behalf is Ahmad ibn Fadl al-Andalusi. The document was prepared in AH 602 / AD 1206.  \n  \nIn the Middle Ages it was difficult for people, especially women, to go on pilgrimage. Therefore, people who went on pilgrimage themselves, and those who sent a proxy on their own behalves, wanted to own a certificate proving that they had visited the holy sites and fulfilled all the requirements for the pilgrimage (perhaps in order to leave them to the future generations). Such pilgrimage and proxy certificates are invaluable documents for they describe the pilgrimage ritual, depict the holy sites, and provide information regarding the social life of the period.","short_description":"Pilgrimage certificates document pilgrimages to the Holy Lands, culminating in circumambulation of the Ka'ba. The certificates or proxy certificates (for those unable to make the hazardous journey themselves) give the names of the pilgrim and the proxy, the places visited and worship performed, accompanied by pictures.","type":"Scroll, paper","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Umm Abbas, wife of Ghalib.","dates":"Hegira 602 / AD 1206.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"4737: Height 55 cm, width 26.5 cm.; 4746: Height 51 cm, width 26.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The document's inscription specifies the date 602 / 1206. Both the style of writing and the name of the contemporary caliph support this dating.","obtention":"Ismet Bey, the mayor of Istanbul and a member of the board of directors of the Museum of Islamic Foundations (the old name for the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts), visited the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus while travelling. He had a number of items in the Qubbat al-Hazine (Treasury) of the mosque, including Qur'ans and this pilgrimage document, transferred to the Museum where they were registered in the inventory in around 1332 / 1914.","bibliography":"Aksoy, Ş., and Milstein, R., “A Collection of Thirteenth-Century Illustrated Hajj Certificates”, *M. Uğur Derman 65th Birthday Festschrift*, Istanbul, 2000, pp.73–134.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.80–81.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Handwritten and hand-painted on glazed (abadi) paper using ink and watercolour."],"keywords":["Pilgrimage; hajj; Ka'ba"],"author":"Şule Aksoy","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"34df1c16-bb7b-5506-b850-656c4bb0f8aa":{"name":"Complex of Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun (Mausoleum, Madrasa and Hospital).","description":"The complex of Sultan Qalawun is considered to mark the beginning of a phase that pointed to a new architectural design known as a 'complex' that typically included more than one architectural component, and which served a number of functions. This complex is composed of a mausoleum, a *madrasa* and a hospital (*maristan*).  \nThe principle façade of this complex overlooks the street and extends 67 m in length, towering to 20 m in height. It is made of stone and comprises vertical arched recesses borne by marble pillars within which are windows decorated with interlaced geometric shapes. The façade also carries an inscription band carved into the stone, in *thuluth* script, which includes the name of the builder, his titles and the date of construction.  \nThe floor plan of the mausoleum is a square, the sides of which measure 35 m, approximately, in the midst of which are four great granite pillars with gilded capitals, and four brick piers panelled in fine marble and inlaid with mother-of-pearl. The piers and pillars bear arches whose soffits are ornamented with stucco decoration. The piers, pillars and their arches demarcate an octagonal surface in the middle of which is the tomb of al-Mansur Qalawun and his son, al-Nasir Muhammad (who ruled three times: AH 693–4 / AD 1294–5; AH 698–708 / AD 1299–1309; AH 709–41 / AD 1309–40). The octagonal area is roofed by a great dome with an octagonal drum. This area and its dome, is to an extent reminiscent of the Dome of the Rock at the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem (built AH 72 / AD 692). The walls of the mausoleum are characterised by marble revetment inlaid with delicate mother-of-pearl considered to be some of the finest decorative marble seen in Islamic architecture in Egypt. The mausoleum has a *mihrab*, which is decorated with marble and mother-of-pearl and considered to be one of the largest, as well as most splendid, *mihrab*s amongst Islamic monuments in Egypt.  \nThe *madrasa* consisted of a central open courtyard surrounded by four *iwan*s: the two large *iwan*s are the *qibla iwan* (southeastern) and the *iwan* facing it. The two small *iwan*s are on each of the sides. Nothing remains of the *madrasa* except the *qibla iwan*, distinguished by its unique façade. The *qibla iwan* overlooks the courtyard by means of three arches, the biggest of which is in the middle. In the *madrasa* the four Sunni schools of Islamic religious jurisprudence (*fiqh*), as well as medicine were taught; practical medicine was taught at the *maristan*.  \nThe *maristan* was one of the reasons that the complex was built, since it is mentioned that while Qalawun was in the *Sham* region (Bilad al-Sham was the traditional Arab name for the region that today contains Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine), he became ill with what could have been fatal sickness. The doctors treated him with medicines brought from the Nur al-Din Mahmud Maristan in Damascus, which cured him. When he was recovered Qalawun visited the hospital and was greatly impressed with it. He made a vow to God that he would build a similar hospital in Cairo. Qalawun chose to build the *maristan* on the site of the hall that belonged orginally to Sitt al-Mulk, a daughter of the Fatimid Caliph, al-Aziz bi Allah, but which later became a possession of Mu'anisa Khatun, a daughter of al-Malik al-‘Adil al-Ayyubi. The hall was situated at the end of the complex and consisted of four *iwan*s.  \nWhen it was operational the *maristan* provided doctors of all specialisations, nurses and the necessary furnishings, instruments and medicines. Little remains of the hospital today but for a few ruined parts, such as a section of the eastern *iwan* consisting of a marble fountain and a *shadirwan* (wall fountain), which once had fine marble decoration that resembled that in al-Aziz Palace (Zisa) in Palermo, Sicily, the construction of which was completed between AH 561 and 570 / AD 1166 and 1175.  \nThe complex contains a minaret that was restored in AH 703 / AD 1303 by Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun, following an earthquake in AH 702 / AD 1302. The minaret bears an inscription giving the date of renovation. The minaret is composed of three stories: the first and second stories are square in form, while the third storey is circular, consisting of decoration composed of interwoven arches. Some contemporary historical sources mention a great resemblance between the decorations seen here and the ornamentation of the architecture of al-Andalus, such as that seen in the Giralda, 'the Tower' (originally a minaret but greatly altered; built in AH 578 / AD 1184) in Seville, Spain.","short_description":"This is considered to be the first example of a Mamluk architectural complex including a number of different buildings. The complex comprises a mausoleum, a *madrasa*, a mosque and a *maristan* (hospital). It was erected on the site of part of the Fatimid Eastern Palace. The *madrasa* taught the four Sunni schools of *fiqh* (jurisprudence) and medicine; practical medicine was taught in the *maristan*. The *maristan* was established on the model of Bimaristan Nur al-Din in Damascus, where Qalawun was treated and cured before his rise to power.","dates":"Hegira 684 / AD 1285.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"This building was dated based on an inscription band along the length of the façade, which includes the name of the sponsor and the date of construction. It is also based on a foundational text that is carved on the lintel of the principle entrance to the building, which bears the name of the builder and the date when building commenced (AH 683 / AD 1284) and the date of its completion (AH 684 / AD 1285).","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *The Origins of the Cruciform Plan of the Cairene Madrasas,* Cairo, 1922.  \nHerzfeld, E., “Studies in Architecture”, *Ars Islamica*, 1942.  \nAl-Pasha, H., *Mawsu'at al-'Emara wa al-Athar wa al-Funun al-Islamiya \\[Encyclopaedia of the Architecture, Archaeology and the Arts of Islam\\],* Cairo, 1999.  \nSalem, al-Sayyed Mahmoud Abd al-Aziz, Al-*Ma'adin al-Masriya – Nazrah a'mma 'an aslaha wa tatawuriha mundu al-Fath al-'Arabi hatta al-Fath al-Othmani \\[Egyptian Minarets: A General View of their Origins and Development from the Arab Conquest to the Ottoman Conquest\\],* Cairo, 1991.  \nShafi, F., *Al-'Emara al-Arabiya fi Masr al-Islamiya \\[Arabic Architecture in Islamic Egypt\\],* Cairo, 1853.","patrons":"Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun (r. AH 678–89 / AD 1280–90).","architects":"Amir Alam al-Din al-Shuja'i, who was an expert in architecture and engineering, supervised construction. He mobilised the workforce and forbade them to work in any other place in order to accelerate completion of the building.","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Maristan (hospital);gilding; marble; marble inlaid with mother-of-pearl; shadirwan (wall fountain); mausoleum; medicine; funerary architecture; religious architecture; civil architecture; madrasa"],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"3a8f4926-8bbd-5e0d-af9c-239cc5185d26":{"name":"Marble inscription panel.","description":"A large, marble inscription panel produced to mark the foundation of the trench around the fortification wall of the old city of Jerusalem during the Ayyubid period. Produced four years after the Battle of Hattin, the panel was made with the aim that it would protect the city from new incursions launched by the Crusaders. Al-Asfahsalar Ali bin Ahmad al-Hikkari (d. AH 588 / AD 1192) supervised the digging of the trench.  \nIt is probable that the inscription panel was taken to the Haram al-Sharif while repairs to the city walls were being carried out during the reign of the Ottoman Sultan, Sulayman al-Qanuni (known in the West as Sulayman the Magnificent; r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66). The inscription is laid out in six lines of cursive Ayyubid *naskhi* script carved in high relief. The text offers an insight into the period of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin), founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty, and the defensive techniques employed in order to protect the city from the Crusaders, such as the ditch that was excavated around the citadel following the successful liberation of the city. The inscription reads as follows:  \n“In the Name of God the most Beneficent, the most Merciful  \nAnd Blessings be upon Muhammad, the Prophet and his household.  \nThe order to build this and to dig the trench was given by our master, the Victorious Sovereign, the Salvation of this world and religion, Sultan of Islam and the Muslims,  \nServant of the two holy sanctuaries and this holy abode, Abu al-Muzaffar Yusuf bin Ayyub,  \nReviver of the State, Commander of the Faithful, May God lengthen his days and support his star in the days of the great Amir, al-Asfahasalar Sayf al-Din Ali bin Ahmad, may God strengthen him in AH 587 \\[c. 1191\\]”.","short_description":"After Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) reconquered Jerusalem from the Crusaders, he renovated its citadel and dug a trench to improve the city’s defences against fresh attack from the Crusaders. This inscription affirms these works and mentions the sultan and a commander of his troops. The panel is now in the plaza of the Dome of the Rock.","type":"Panel, marble","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / Al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","dates":"Hegira 587 / AD 1191.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 190 cm, width 100 cm, depth 6 cm.","method_for_datation":"The panel bears a reliable date.","method_for_provenance":"Jerusalem was narrowed down as the place of production supported by the inscription on the panel.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was found at the Dome of Yusuf Agha on southern side of the plaza of the Dome of the Rock, and then transferred to the Islamic Museum.","bibliography":"Abu Shama, Abd al-Rahman bin Ismail (d. 665 / 1267), *Ar-Rowdatain fi Akhbar al-Dawlatain \\[Two Gardens in the History of Two States\\],* Cairo, 1870.  \nBerchem, M., van, *Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum*, Vol. III, 40,Cairo, 1925.  \nAl-Isfahani, 'Imad al-Din Muhammad bin Muhammad (d. 597 / 1201), *Al-Fath al-Qasi fi al-Fath al-Qudsi \\[the Conquest of Jerusalem\\],* Cairo, 1903.  \nAl-Zarkali, Khayr al-Din, *Al-A'lam* \\[*Famous Personalities*\\], Vol. 4, Beirut, 1980.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["White marble with inscription."],"keywords":["Marble; panel; inscription"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"3d83888a-750e-5a9e-9d4f-9db7b89ce318":{"name":"Crac des Chevaliers.","alternate_name":"Qal‘at al-Hisn / Hisn al-Akrâd.","description":"The castle is located between the Port of Tartous and the City of Homs, sprawling on the southern buttresses of the Jabal Ansariyya, at an altitude of 650 m, where it kept watch on the Pass of Homs, the main passageway between the hinterland of the Bilad al-Sham held by the Muslims, and the coastline possessed by the Crusaders.  \nThe site was occupied by the Kilabites in AH 422 / AD 1031 for the settlement of a Kurdish colony, and since then, acquired the name Hisn al-Akrâd (“Castle of the Kurds”). The site's main fortification plan, however, took place after its conquest by the Crusaders in AH 504 / AD 1110 and especially after its donation to the military Order of the Knights Hospitallers in AH 537 / AD 1142. It was kept by the Crusaders for more than 120 years. Crac des Chevaliers finally fell to Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars' hands in AH 669 / AD 1271 and became integrated into the Mamluk Empire. The castle was restored and refortified to become the symbol of Mamluk power in the region and the residence of the Mamluk governors. It remained militarily occupied until the end of the Ottoman period and was then inhabited by villagers until the period of the French Mandate. It was restored and emptied of its inhabitants during the 20th century and renamed Qal'at al-Hisn during the 1950s.  \nLaid on a basaltic trapezoidal-shaped spur separated from the mountain on the southern side by an artificial ditch, the castle is divided into two complementary defensive areas. The high castle, built on a rocky outcrop in the middle of the site, is organised around a central courtyard and a double trapezoidal-shaped surrounding wall. It includes the most impressive buildings of the Frankish occupation. These include the religious architectural complex, made up of a chapel, a capitular room and a cloister gallery, as well as the donjon, built on the southern front and made up of three huge towers to be used as headquarters and the main residence of the Hospitallers elite. Around the high castle, the low courtyard also contains architectural remains of this Crusader settlement, like the western and northern ramparts, the stable, the pool on the southern front and the “barbacane” of the northeastern front.  \nThe Mamluk architectural contribution to Crac des Chevaliers is substantial. The most significant works were achieved during the last third of the AH 7th / AD 13th century and led to a major improvement of the fortifications built by the Hospitallers. New ramparts and several flanking towers were erected on the southern and eastern fronts of the low courtyard, overhung by continuous galleries of machicolations and by box machicolations. The Mamluk use of Crac des Chevaliers as a regional administrative centre led to the development of residential and palatial buildings, such as the governor's house on top of the donjon, the decorated rooms overhanging the high castle, and the *hammam* in the low courtyard.","short_description":"Also known as Hisn al-Akrâd after the Kurdish settlement of the castle during the AH 5th / AD 11th century, the major militarisation and defensive architectural reconstruction of the site took place under Crusader occupation, and especially by the military Order of the Knights Hospitallers. The Crusaders kept hold of this important strategic location for over 120 years, and it is a remarkable work of elite military architecture. It also includes a 6th- / 12th-century chapel, which bears Romanesque features, and a late 7th- / 13th-century arcade with stylistic links to French Gothic architecture.","dates":"Hegira 5th - 10th century / AD 11th - 16th century.","location":"Homs region.","method_for_datation":"Numerous Arabic inscriptions on the south front of the low courtyard give a chronology for the Mamluk works on the castle at the end of the 7th / 13th century. Several historical and architectural studies have helped in the definition of the monumental history of the castle.","bibliography":"Cathcart-King, D. J., “The Taking of Le Krak des Chevaliers in 1271”, *Antiquity*, XXIII, 1949, pp.83–92.  \nDeschamps, P., “Les châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte”,Vol. 1, *Le Crac des Chevaliers*, Paris, 1934.  \nKennedy, H., *Crusader Castles*, Cambridge, 1994, pp.145–63.  \nMesqui, J., “Le Crac des Chevaliers”, *Quatre châteaux des Hospitaliers*, 2003 \\[www.castellorient.com\\].  \nMüller-Wiener, W., *Castles of the Crusaders*, London, 1966, pp.59–62.  \nRey, E-G., *Etude sur les monuments de l'architecture militaire des Croisés en Syrie et dans l'île de Chypre*, Paris, 1871, pp.39–67.  \nSobernheim, M., “Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum”,Vol. 2, *Syrie du Nord*, Mémoires de l'Ecole du Caire XXV, Cairo, 1909, pp.19–36.  \nVan Berchem, M., and Fatio, E., “Voyage en Syrie”, Vol. I, *Mémoires de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale du Caire*, Cairo, 1914–15, pp.135–63.","patrons":"Knights Hospitallers and Mamluk Sultans Baybars (AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77), Barakat Khan (AH 676–8 / AD 1277–9), Al-Mansur Qalawun (AH 678–89 / AD 1279–90) and al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4 / AD 1293–4; AH 698–708 / AD 1299–1309; AH 709–41 / AD 1310–41).","dynasty":"Kilabite-Seljuq (AH 422–504 / AD 1031–1110); Counts of Tripoli (AH 504–37 / AD 1110–42); Knights Hospitallers (AH 537–669 / AD 1142–1271); Mamluk (AH 669 / AD1271–16th century).","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Military architecture; Jabal Ansariyya; castle; Kilabites; Kurds; Crusaders; Knights Hospitallers; Sultan Baybars; inscriptions; machicolations"],"author":"Benjamin Michaudel","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"4150a4e5-e339-5229-a33a-a26b868c4c5e":{"name":"Ajlun Castle.","description":"Ajlun is about 76 km northwest of Amman. Contrary to the other castles in Jordan such as Shawbak and Karak, this castle was entirely built by the Muslim forces in AH 579 / AD 1184 to counter the Crusader castle of Belvoir (Kawkab al-Hawa) to the west, and to secure trade and communications between Syria and Egypt. It was probably intended also to protect the important iron mines in the Ajlun area. The castle with its constant remodelling and enlargement is a good example of the development of military architecture in the AH 6th and 7th AD 12th and 13th centuries.  \nOriginally the castle was almost square in plan, articulated with four square corner-towers. The towers and the northeastern and southwestern walls were provided with a band of narrow arrow slits. At this stage the main entrance to the castle was through an opening in the eastern wall. In AH 610 / AD 1214 the castle was enlarged by adding a massive wall to connect the north with the east towers. The entrance was shifted to the newly constructed conjunction of the northeastern wall with the eastern tower.  \nIn AH 658 / AD 1260 further alterations were undertaken: two fortification towers were added and a new wall was constructed to connect the existing north tower with that just built; this new north tower was in turn connected with the additional east tower by a massive wall. During this period the southeastern and south sides of the castle were also remodelled by adding two towers (south and east towers) with a wall running between them. The entrance was shifted again to the corner of the newly built eastern tower. The castle was in use during the early Ottoman period to accommodate soldiers. Early in the AH 11th / AD 17th century the castle became the main base of Fakhr al-Din al-Ma'ni, a powerful *amir* of Lebanon.","short_description":"Ajlun Castle, about 76 km northwest of Amman, was built by Muslim forces in AH 579 / AD 1184 to counter the Crusader castle of Belvoir (Kawkab al-Hawa) to the west, to secure the route between Syria and Egypt, and to protect the important iron mines in the area. The castle with its constant remodelling and enlargement is a good example of the development of military architecture in the 6th–7th / 12th–13th centuries. There are two Arabic inscriptions: one, dated 647–58 / 1250–60, mentions the renovation conducted by order of Salah al-Din (Saladin), while the second mentions a construction in 659 / 1261.","dates":"Hegira 579–658 / AD 1184–1260.","location":"Ajlun","method_for_datation":"The monument was dated by its inscription and through historical sources. Two Arabic inscriptions were found by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan in 1963, the first of these was dated to the reign of Saladin (647–58 / 1250–60) and mentions the renovation works conducted by order of the Sultan. The second inscription mentions the construction of a wall or tower and gives the date AD 20 July 1261 (AH 659).","bibliography":"Burckhardt, J. L., *Travels in Syria and the Holy Land*, London, 1882, pp.266–7.  \nJones, C. N., “Medieval Ajlun I: The Castle”, *Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine*, Vol. 1, 1931, pp.21–33.  \nالكردي، حنان، القلاع الاثرية في الاردن، عمان، 1984، ص 22–27.  \nالمومني، سعد، القلاع الاسلامية في الاردن، عمان، 1988، ص 114–155.","patrons":"Salah al-Din (known as Saladin, AH 532–88 / AD 1138–93); Al-Zahir Baybars (AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77).","dynasty":"Ayyubid–Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":[],"author":"Mohammad Najjar","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"4e4e72ee-c59e-5dac-bbc4-668eefd07742":{"name":"Madrasa al-Zahiriyya.","description":"Sultan al-Sacid Baraka Khan, the son of the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars, built a mausoleum (*qubba*) for his father north of the Umayyad Mosque and nearly face to face with the noteworthy Ayyubid monument, al-Madrasa al-‘Adiliyya. Although Baybars had expressed a wish to be buried in the village of Daraya near Damascus, his son chose the Umayyad Mosque vicinity where several former rulers were already buried, such as the Ayyubid ruler al-Kamil Muhammad (r. AH 635 / AD 1238), and his brother al-Ashraf Musa (r. AH 626 / AD 1229).  \nThe *qubba* is attached to a *madrasa* which was added at a later time. The *qubba* has a square ground plan, each side measuring 13.52 m, surmounted by two octagonal tambours with a pair of pointed-arch windows on every side of the upper drum and similarly styled windows on alternating sides of the lower drum. The domed construction shows a clear reference to the building in front of which it was built: the Madrasa al-‘Adiliyya completed by the Ayyubid Sultan al-‘Adil Sayf al-Din (r. Damascus AH 592–615 / AD 1196–1218).  \nThe upper part of the *qubba*'s outer wall is decorated with a round window, surrounded by a shallow, carved interlace pattern and two four-lobed cartouches. This is a new detail in damascene architectural ornament deduced from late Ayyubid marble decorations in Aleppo (see for example the Madrasa al-Sultaniyya (AH 620 / AD 1223)) and it relates to the décor on the main gate of the Mosque of al-Zahir Baybars in Cairo (built AH 665–7 / AD 1267–9).  \nThe entire outer-wall layer of the building is made of smooth and finely fitted limestone blocks. The 4.0-m wide portal niche includes three lines of inscription and is surmounted by a particularly rich *muqarnas* arch with a fluted mussel-shaped half-dome ceiling. Through the portal one enters the courtyard with the *qubba* entrance to the right. The lower section of the inner *qubba* walls are decorated with 3-m high inlaid marble panels, topped by a floral relief border with a vine (*karma*) frieze. Above the *karma* frieze, a 1.5-m high glass mosaic panel completes the wall decoration, showing a landscape with floral and architectural elements reminiscent of the Umayyad Mosque mosaics. By referring to the décor of the prestigious Umayyad Mosque, Baybars superseded earlier architectural heydays, not only in his political undertakings and monumental building commissions, but clearly also visible in his choice of decorative elements.  \nAlthough the mosaics and the marble panels of the interior are ascribed to AH 680 / AD 1281 according to the portal inscription, it is probable that these ruined adornments of Sultan Baybars were reproduced accurately by his son. Some scholars have also suggested the employment of the same architect for the sake of an accurate redecoration.  \nSimilar glass mosaics and *karma* frieze decorations are found in the *madrasa* and *qubba* of Qalawun in Cairo, possibly indicating that Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun employed the same workshop as that used for the Madrasa Zahiriyya for his architectural projects in Cairo.","short_description":"To honour his father, the highly esteemed warrior and first Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars, Sultan Sa‘id Baraka Khan erected a mausoleum next to the venerated Umayyad Mosque. The mausoleum is built as part of a *madrasa* and follows the common mausoleum layout, a square room with a red-painted dome on top of octagonal tambours. Internal decorations include marble panels, a carved vine frieze and glass mosaics, all of which show immediate inspiration from the Umayyad Mosque and show resemblance to the mausoleum of Qalawun, suggesting that this sultan employed the same workshop.","dates":"Hegira 676 / AD 1277.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The building inscription contains the signature of the architect. A later inscription, added by Sultan Qalawun, refers to the founder Baraka Khan's funeral in 680 (1281), and is certainly related to a later decorative phase and completion of the whole complex.","bibliography":"Almawi, Abd al-Basit al- (d. 981 / 1573) *Tanbih al-talib wa-irshad al-daris \\[The Instruction of the Pupil and the Guidance of the Student\\]*, Damascus, 1947.  \nFlood, F. B., “Umayyad Survivals and Mamluk Revivals: Qalawunid Architecture and the Great Mosque of Damascus”, *Muqarnas,* 14, 1997, pp.57–79.  \nMeinecke, M., *Die mamlukische Architektur in ägypten und Syrien*, 1992, Vol. I, pp.37–40, fig. 11; Vol. II, p.52, cat. nos. 29, 58.  \nMeinecke, M., “Das Mausoleum des Qala'un in Kairo / Untersuchungen zur Genese der mamlukischen Architekturdekoration”, *Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo,* 27, 1971, pp.63–67.  \nAl-Nu'aymi, Abd al-Qadir (d. 978 / 1570), *Al-Daris fi tarikh al-madaris* \\[*The Study of the History of the Madrasas*\\], Damascus, 1947.  \nSack, D., *Damaskus, Entwicklung und Struktur einer orientalisch-islamischen Stadt*, Mainz, 1989.","patrons":"Sultan al-Sa‘id Baraka Khan (r. AH 676–8 / AD 1277–9), son of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars. Later decoration and furnishing added by order of Sultan al-Mansur Sayf al-Din Qalawun (r. AH 678–88 / AD 1279–90) in AH 680 / AD 1281.","architects":"Ibrahim ibn Ghana’im al-Muhandis who, a decade before, had built the Qasr al-Ablaq in Damascus for Sultan al-Zahir Baybars.","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Religious object; funerary architecture; inscription"],"author":"Verena Daiber","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"55a9a6bc-439c-5d96-9801-d84c4d57c26f":{"name":"Ribat of al-Mansur Qalawun.","alternate_name":"Ribat al-Mansuri.","description":"The *ribat* consists of three basic architectural units, the first of which is a deep, wide, rectangular entrance that has on its east and west sides a stone bench known as a *mastaba*. The entrance ceiling has a cross vault and on the southern wall there is an inscription indicating the date of construction. The second element is a large rectangular hall located to the east of the entrance which is 23 m long and 9 m wide. The hall is accessible by means of a passage directly adjacent to the entrance. The third unit is a large open courtyard (28 m long and 25 m wide) located to the west of the entrance. The courtyard is paved with rare and beautiful stones that are still *in situ* today, and which is surrounded by rooms and cells of different sizes. It used to contain two dug-out wells which would have provided those residing in the *ribat* with fresh water. The wells were destroyed, however, when the courtyard was widened in the 20th century.  \nThe *ribat* has a beautiful façade, which overlooks Bab al-Nadhir Street. The façade is approximately 68 m long and about 11 m high. The building is composed of two sections. The history of the highest section dates to the early Ottoman period (AH 10th / AD 16th century), while the origins of the lower section date to the Mamluk period. The two sections are divided from each other by a decorative frame or moulding, which is formed from a series of polygonal-stone shell forms. Despite the additions and distortions that the façade has been exposed to throughout its history, some of the original features are still extant.  \nThe *ribat* was a haven for the poor, providing food to the needy. It was also used to accommodate visitors to Jerusalem. The *ribat* benefited from a *waqf*, which meant that the proceeds from land and property in different parts of Palestine were allocated to cover its running costs.","short_description":"This is one of the biggest Mamluk *ribats* (inns) of Jerusalem. It is located a few metres from the western wall of al-Haram al-Sharif. It was built by Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun to house visitors and students of al-Aqsa mosque. It was richly endowed and distributed food to the needy. The building is composed of two storeys, both of which have large halls and many chambers that flank an open courtyard. Despite the many changes that the principle façade has undergone, its Mamluk design elements are still evident.","dates":"Hegira 681 / AD 1282–3.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by a foundation inscription located on the southern wall of the entrance; this is supported further by mention of the *ribat* in the writing of the historian Mujir al-Din al-Hanbali (d. 928 / 1521).","bibliography":"Abu al-Hawwa, A., *Al-Tatawar al-Mi'mari fi Harat Bab al-Nadhir fi al-Quds fi al-'Asrain al-Mamluki wa al-'Uthmani \\[The Architectural Development in the Neighbourhood of Bab al-Nadhir in Jerusalem during the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods\\],* MA Thesis, University of Jerusalem, 2002.  \nBerchem, M. van, *Materiaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum* (Part II), Cairo, 1922.  \nBurgoyne, M., *Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study*, London, 1987.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[Important Personalities in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nAl-Natsheh, Y., *Ribat al-Mansur Qalawun,* Jerusalem, 2004.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.104–5.","patrons":"Sultan al-Mansur al-Qalawun (r. AH 678–89 / AD 1280–90).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ribat; religious architecture"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5702c937-55b7-5f65-adc4-2d6ddc8a7f83":{"name":"*Dinar* (gold coin).","description":"The *dinar* is one of the types of coins that Muslims circulated. It was, by definition, made from gold and was the type of coin with the highest value in compared to the *dirham*, which was made of silver, and the *fils*, which was made of copper. It weighed about four grams.  \nThis piece is an Ayyubid *dinar* of the Fatimid type, meaning that the inscription is arranged in concentric circles around the middle. This style was first used by the Fatimids in the AH 4th / AD 10th century and is very different from the *kufic* style used previously, in which the text is distributed between one circle around the rim and three or four horizontal lines in the centre. The choice on the part of the Shi'a Fatimid dynasty to make such a radical change can be seen as an attempt to differentiate themselves from the Sunni Umayyad, Abbasid and Central Asian rulers who used the *kufic* style before them. Subsequent rulers, like Salah al-Din, also chose to use this design.  \nThis coin is attributed to the reigns of 'Abbasid Caliph al-Mustadi' (r. AH 566–75 / AD 1170–80) and the Ayyubid ruler Saladin. It was minted in Cairo in AH 574 / AD 1178. An Arabic inscription in *naskhi* script is recorded on both of its faces, and may be translated as follows:  \nObverse  \nBand 1 – “In the name of God, the Merciful and Compassionate, this *dinar* was minted in Cairo in the year five hundred seventy-four”  \nBand 2 – “There is no God except God, who is without partner. Abu Muhammad” (where Abu Muhammad indicates the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustadi).  \nBand 3 – “al-Mustadi' bi-amr Allah, Commander of the Faithful”  \nBand 4 – “al-Imam al-Hasan”  \nReverse  \nBand 1 – “Muhammad the Messenger of God has been sent with guidance and the religion of truth, to proclaim to all religion”  \nBand 2 – “even if the polytheists despise it. May God bless him \\[the Prophet Muhammad\\] and his family”  \nBand 3 – “al-Malik 'al al-Nasir 'Alim”  \nBand 4 – “Yusuf bin Ayyub”.","short_description":"This gold coin, known as a *dinar*, was minted by the Ayyubids in Cairo following a Fatimid style with inscriptions arranged in three concentric circles around the centre.","type":"Dinar, gold","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Din Yusuf bin Ayyub (Saladin, r. AH 569–89 / AD 1174–93).","dates":"Hegira 574 / AD 1178.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Diameter 2 cm, weight 3.85 g.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the coin specifies the date of minting as 574 (1178).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the coin states that it was minted in Cairo, Egypt.","provenance":"Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"The coin was confiscated by the security forces and registered at the Museum in 1992.","bibliography":"Delpont, E. (ed), *L'Orient de Saladin: l'art des Ayyoubides*, Paris, 2001, p.36.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Minted gold."],"keywords":["Coin; gold; Cairo; Damascus; coinage; dinar; Saladin; Caliph al-Mustadi'; numismatics; Salah al-Din"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5afe91bf-fea8-55d3-82ee-a8b6233aab07":{"name":"Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary).","description":"The Haram al-Sharif is of great importance in the Islamic faith. It is where the Prophet Muhammad set out on his midnight journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (*Isra'*) and from where he ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj)*. Furthermore, God blessed the Haram in the Holy Qur'an, and made it the first *qibla* (or direction of prayer) for Muslims.  \nThe Haram takes an elevated position up in the hills of Jerusalem. It is composed of a rectangular platform of approximately 1450,000 sq m forming one-sixth of the old city of Jerusalem.  \nScholars agree that as it exists today the Haram al-Sharif is devoid of any visible remains that precede the arrival of the Muslims in Jerusalem in AH 15 / AD 638, due to the fact that the buildings which were standing were destroyed by Titus and his legions in AD 70.  \nWhen the Arab-Muslims arrived, Jerusalem surrendered peacefully as part of a contractual agreement set up by Caliph ‘Umar bin al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) with the Patriarch, Sophronius. The Arabs did not destroy any buildings in the area of the Haram and the agreement made with Sophronius guaranteed the protection of the inhabitants, their households and their possessions. Most of the city was inhabited, with the exception of the Haram area, which at the time was neglected.  \nThe Haram site slopes from the north to the south. The highest point of it is in the centre where the Dome of the Rock is located. This tendency to slope is addressed by a platform that traverses it. One section of the platform is known by the name of al-Aqsa al-Qadim, while the other is known as al-Musalla al-Marwani.  \nDevelopment of the Haram is focused on its northern and western borders, although this was following construction at the centre, along with some important buildings such as the Dome of the Rock and the Qubbat al-Silsila (Dome of the Chain). The eastern edge of the Haram inclines towards a slope running down to the Wadi Jahannam (Qidron Valley), used as an Islamic cemetery from the very beginning of the Islamic conquests. On the southern side there is an even steeper inclination that offers better structural support to the architecture, and because of this, Umayyad edifices on the southern limit, best represented by the Dar al-Imara in the south of the Haram, have been continuously inhabited throughout history.  \nThe Haram al-Sharif is composed of three levels. The ground level includes Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy), Bab al-Tawba / Bab al-Dhahabi (Gate of Repentance / Golden Gate), al-Musalla al-Marwani, al-Aqsa al-Qadim (Old Aqsa) and the Masjid of Buraq. The middle level includes the Aqsa Mosque, the Islamic Museum and the side arcades in the western and northern walls, along with a multiplicity of gates and buildings such as *sabil*s, *madrasa*s, *mastaba*s, minarets and domes. The highest level is that of the Dome of the Rock, reached by a series of stairwells, and where there are a series of magnificent domes and some *khanqa*s (Sufi retreats), also the Minbar Burhan al-Din and the Mastabat al-Kark, and a number of cisterns and fountains.","short_description":"This is the third oldest Islamic site after Mecca and Medina and the oldest and most important sacred Muslim site in Palestine. It is a large complex with an area of some 145,000 sq. m. It includes the Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome al-Silsila (Chain) and the Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy) as well as more than 90 other commemorative buildings. The complex thus represents diverse Eastern Islamic architectural arts in different styles over the course of various periods, transforming it into an outdoor architectural museum. The site is linked with Islamic stories, specifically that of the *Isra'* and *Mi'raj* (Night of the Prophet's Ascension).","dates":"Hegira 15–493 / AD 637–1099; AH 583–1336 / AD 1187–1917.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The Haram al-Sharif is dated by the inscriptions it bears, by historical sources and finds from archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Burgoyne, M., *Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study,* London, 1987.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Oxford, 1932.  \nHamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of al-Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938–42*, London, 1949.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. AH 927 / AD 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nNatsheh, Y., “The Architecture of Ottoman Jerusalem”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part II),London, 2000.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza* (pp.69–71).","patrons":"A number of caliphs, sultans and princes of the Islamic lands oversaw the construction of the buildings of the Haram al-Sharif. The most prominent was the Umayyad caliph, Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705). Subsequent renovations were undertaken by several Muslim sultans and caliphs, the most prominent being: the Fatimid caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36) and sultan Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) and the Ottoman sultan, Sulayman al-Qanuni (Sulayman the Magnificent; r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","dynasty":"A series of consecutive Islamic periods ranging from the Umayyad to the Ottoman dynasties.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Al-Isra’; sanctuary; religious building; miraj; sacred objects"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5e68b14d-8eb3-5454-8d3b-cd5efa2239df":{"name":"Pilgrim bottle.","description":"A free-blown, globular-shaped glass vessel with enamel decoration. One of the wider sides and the lower half of both narrower sides are flattened. The colours of the enamel are wide-ranging: red, white, blue, pale-green, yellow, pink, mauve, and greyish black. Two applied handles sit on either side of the cylindrical neck. An eleven-pointed rosette within an eight-lobed flower containing vegetal scrolls decorates the flattened side. Decorating the curved side is a four-sided lobed motif, with a geometric shape filled-in with arabesques and surrounded by scrolls, terminating in human, animal, or bird heads. On the left of the curved side is a horseman in the act of killing an animal with a spear, he has a beard and a halo around his head and wears a conical hat with ribbons. Below this figure is a medallion with a female harp player, wearing a veil and a long tunic. On the other narrow side is a horseman under a tree killing a lion with a javelin; birds are flying overhead. He has a halo and wears a long coat and boots. In the circular medallion below him is a man sitting cross-legged, with a beaker in one hand, drinking. His tunic has decorative tiraz bands on the sleeves.  \nThe two horsemen recall those found in Christian iconography, whereas the figures in the medallions are typical of figures depicted in Islamic art. The mixture of motifs suggests the patron was either a Muslim who was familiar with Christian imagery or a Christian who appreciated the work of Muslim craftsmen. The shape of this vessel recalls leather flasks or unglazed ceramic pilgrim bottles, rather than other glass and metal objects. Although made of glass, this flask may have been carried on journeys or pilgrimages in a leather container. It was certainly a luxury object, perhaps made specifically as a gift.","short_description":"This enamelled glass pilgrim bottle is an interesting example of the crossover of Christian and Islamic cultures. Two of the figures decorating the vessel derive from Christian iconography of St George and the dragon, whereas the musician and drinker are found in Islamic art.","type":"Glasswork, gilded glass","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira third quarter 7th century / AD third quarter 13th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 23 cm, length 23 cm, width 16.2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The decoration resembles late Ayyubid and early Mamluk compositions.","method_for_provenance":"The technique and decoration are close to other glass objects produced in the Mamluk domains of Egypt and Syria.","provenance":"Egypt or Syria.","obtention":"Bequeathed to the British Museum by Felix Slade in 1869.","bibliography":"Carboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., Glass of the Sultans, New York, 2001, p.247–9, cat. no. 123.  \nHarden, D., Painter, K., Pinder-Wilson, R., and Tait, H., Masterpieces of Glass, London, 1968, p.114–5, cat. no. 153.  \nPinder-Wilson, R., \"The Islamic Lands and China\", in Five Thousand Years of Glass (ed. H. Tait), 1991, p.134, cat. no. 170.  \nRogers, J. M., \"European Inventories as a Source for the Distribution of Mamluk Enamelled Glass\", in Gilded and Enamelled Glass from the Middle East, (ed. R. Ward), 1998, pp.69–73.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Enamelled and gilded glass."],"keywords":["Vegetal decoration; arabesque; figurative decoration; horsemanship; musician; drinker; pilgrim flasks; pilgrimage"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"66dee6a2-095c-5e95-9ab7-3051179223bf":{"name":"*Zubdat al-Tawarikh* (‘Cream of Histories’).","description":"The work is written in Turkish with large *naskhi* script in black ink on 90 leaves of delicate finished (*aharlı*) paper. Within are 55 miniatures depicting subjects in the text, some of them one to a page and some two. On pages 1b–2a two round medallions carry an inscription stating the work's subject and saying that it was prepared for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95). The text is written 37 lines to a page; the titles and chapter headings are gilded. Their illumination features floral compositions with arabesques (*rumi*) and Chinese-inspired motifs (*hatayi-*style), while that of the first two pages' medallions includes large floral motifs (*halkar*\\-style).  \n  \nThe work's dark-green cover is lacquered using a technique known as *Edirnekari*. The outer covers are richly decorated with gold and silver in floral compositions, while the inner covers feature medallions, pendants and corner-pieces. The binding is not original.  \n  \nThe work, which was written by the court panegyrist (*Şehnameci*) Sayyid Loqman Aşuri, consists of two main sections. The first begins with the universe and the signs of the zodiac and continues with stories taken from the Torah, the New Testament, and the Qur'an which tell of the lives of prophets and those who rendered service to the faith. These are illustrated with paintings. The first part ends with genealogical trees of the Prophet Muhammad, the Four Orthodox Caliphs, and the sultans and high officials of Muslim dynasties such as the Umayyads, the 'Abbasids, the early Islamic period, the Ghaznawids, the Ilkhanids, the Seljuqs and the Timurids. The second part opens with Sultan Osman, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, and goes up to Sultan Murad III, with 12 portraits of Ottoman sultans. It ends with descriptions of the political events of these sultans' reigns.  \n  \nThis work was made for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III, and the quality of its paintings, its binding and its calligraphy make it one of the greatest works of Ottoman art created for a sultan.","short_description":"This manuscript includes stories of the prophets, the birth of Islam and histories of Muslim states. It was written on the order of Sultan Murad III by the historian Sayyid Lokman and illuminated by famous *naqqash* (painters) Molla Kasım and Ustad Osman. It is a unique work of Ottoman art.","type":"Manuscript, miniature, paper, ink, leather binding, lacquered","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95).","dates":"Hegira 993 / AD 1583.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"Height 64.7 cm, width 41.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"It is stated on the work that it was prepared for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III (r. 982–1003 / 1574–95) in 993 (1583).","method_for_provenance":"The work was almost certainly written in Istanbul by order of the Sultan.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"Transferred to the Museum in 1915 from the Library of the complex in Aksaray (Istanbul) founded by the wife of Sultan Mahmud II and mother of Sultan Abdülaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) I, Pertevniyal Valide Sultan (d. 1300 / 1883; queen mother from 1277–92 / AD 1861–76).","bibliography":"Aksoy, Ş., “Zübdetü't Tevarih, Sultan III. Murad için Hazırlanan bir Şehname”, P. *Art, Culture, Antique*, 3, 1996, pp.17–37.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Istanbul, 1993, p.42, pl. 19A–E; pp.52–6.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.272–5.  \n  \nRenda, G., “New Light on the Painters of the Zubdat at Tawarikh in the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul”, *Fourth International Congress of Turkish Art,* University of Provence, 1976, pp.183–207.","artist":"Calligrapher: Sayyid Loqman Aşuri; painters: al-Sayyid Lutfi, Molla Kasım (Mulla Qasim) and Ustad Osman and their workshop.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Delicate finished (aharlı) paper, ink, watercolour, gilding, the binding lacquered (Edirnekari technique)."],"keywords":["Lacquer; Edirnekari technique; gilding; ink; paper; painting; watercolour; zodiac"],"author":"Sevgi Kutluay","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"72cd6b04-4359-5c17-b1d0-29c1ddfe315f":{"name":"Marble balustrade.","description":"A marble balustrade consisting of nine adjoining pointed arches identical in form and dimensions, and supported by coupled columns of which there are close to 20. The details on the columns as well as on the capitals differ from each other but each pair of columns and their corresponding capitals are identical. The spandrel, the area between the arches, is ornamented with a series of carved marble circles. The column capitals assume one of two forms: the first resembles a finely detailed and knotted Corinthian capital and the second inclines more toward simplicity, approximating a whirling pomegranate blossom. The arches are decorated with carved ornamentation in the form of a knight's blazon. The decorative details on the pillars are varied but are distinguished generally by a chain of number “7s” wrapped around the body of the column in a vertical or horizontal format. The arches rest on marble panels, each supported by a pair of capitals on top of the coupled columns.  \nThis balustrade was originally in the Aqsa Mosque, where it is likely that its function was decorative. It was then transferred to the Islamic Museum following the renovation of the mosque. It is possible that this piece is tied to, with regard to the material, craftsmanship and technique of carving, a Crusader frieze (also at the Museum), which was transferred from the Dome of the Rock. Perhaps this piece was crafted in the same workshop as an atelier renowned for its high-quality carved marble was active in the Haram al-Sharif during the same period.","short_description":"This is a marble balustrade composed of nine adjoining tapered arches, identical in form and dimensions. They are supported by pairs of close to 20 pillars. The balustrade is a product of the Crusader period (Romanesque style).  It is relatively simple in appearance and detail. It was placed in al-Aqsa Mosque for decoration.","type":"Balustrade, marble","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 84 cm, length 348 cm, depth 12 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by comparison of both its technique and artistic style with pieces produced in the same period in Palestine, which were acquired by the Islamic Museum.","method_for_provenance":"The registers of the Islamic Museum indicate that the piece was transferred from al-Aqsa Mosque to the Islamic Museum in 1938. The balustrade appears in photographs published by R. W. Hamilton in 1949 showing the interior of the mosque before the balustrade was moved to the Museum. It is plausible that it was made in Jerusalem since large architectural pieces were usually made on site and a workshop was active in the Haram al-Sharif during the same period.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from al-Aqsa Mosque in 1938.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the so-called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in Al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution, and Impact”, *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*,No. 45, 1982.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provencial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidence on the Temple Area Atelier”, in *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Hewn and carved marble."],"keywords":["Balustrade; marble."],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"74efc106-e576-5569-bfb1-3b51d81c8622":{"name":"Church of the Holy Sepulchre.","alternate_name":"Qaniset al-Qiameh.","description":"The Church of the Holy Sepulchre enjoys a rich history and has extraordinarily distinguished artistic and architectural traits. The church is sacred to all the Christian faiths as, as is evident from the name, it is revered as the site of the Resurrection of Jesus following his Crucifixion, his suffering and death. According to Christian belief Jesus was buried (the sepulchre) in this church. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a large architectural complex that includes a number of smaller chapels; in total the area exceeds 5000 sq m.  \nWhen the first church was founded on this site during the Byzantine period it included four elements: atrium, basilica, open courtyard and the sepulchre or holy tomb. In AD 614 the Persians set fire to the church, badly damaging it; the church was repeatedly thereinafter partially destroyed and repaired over the next 400 years. The Patriarch, Modestus undertook restoration of the church following the attack, and made alterations to it, decreasing the scale of the original plan. The Caliph 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–4), who was notoriously protective of Christian sites, refused to pray in the church when the Patriarch Sophronius suggested he did so; apparently he was eager to protect the city's Christian rights.  \nThe Crusaders made alterations and additions to the church, the initial implementation of which had been the ambitious project of Constantine IX Monomachos and which transformed the design of the church once again. A new church was erected in AH 543 / AD 1149, which was known as the Church of Nisf al-Dunya (Church at the Centre of the Universe, a catholicon used by monks), in the Romanesque style. The church was built around the rocky hill of the Crucifixion, the Rock of Calvary (Golgotha) overlooking the Rotunda. Similarly, the alterations included those made to the entrance leading to the place of Crucifixion within the church building, while the level underneath it was made the burial place of some of the Frankish kings. A bell tower, the doors of which opened to the south instead of the east, was added in AH 566 / AD 1170. Despite these important changes, the most prominent features of the Church remained until AH 583 / AD 1187. Saladin followed the example of 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab and was tolerant of Christians and respected their rights to worship.  \nEntrance to the church is by way of a great portal, above which there is a huge stone lintel. The lintel is carved with decoration in low relief portraying scenes from the Bible. On entering the portal, there is a modern staircase that leads up to the site of the Crucifixion, which today is divided into two sections: east and west. What remains of the Rock of Calvary is found in the west-facing Greek area surrounded by a glass frame. The Rock is cracked and according to the Christian faith the crack occurred when Christ was stabbed by a Roman soldier and was stripped of his cloak.  \nA descending staircase confronts the ascending stairwell and leads to the Stone of Anointing where, to the west of the Stone, a wall has been erected that divides the entrance from the Church of Nisf al-Dunya. A little to the south is the holy dome covered by a large semi-circular stone dome with a cylindrical drum supported by a series of pillars. A central window opens onto the pivot of the dome, which is decorated with 12 petals in gold leaf, symbolising the 12 apostles of Christ. In addition to those areas discussed here, there are a number of other cells, rooms, halls and chapels in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.","short_description":"This holiest of holy Christian sites is revered as the site of the tomb and Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It is set almost in the centre of the old city of Jerusalem. The church is a great complex that includes a number of chapels, oratories, cloisters and subterranean chambers and holds many icons, mosaics and important religious statues. Renovations since its original construction has given it stylistic variety and it is now predominantly in the Romanesque and Gothic. The church has number of divisions which are imperceptible except by the religious raiment of each Christian sect that controls that section.","dates":"The first construction AD 326-335. The present construction inaugurated in AH 543 / AD 1149.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by means of historical sources.","bibliography":"Al-Natsheh, Y., *Kanisat al-Qiyama \\[Church of the Holy Sepulchre\\],* Jerusalem, 2002.","patrons":"Emperor Constantine (r. AD 308–37) and his mother, Helena.","architects":"The construction was supervised by Qasis of Constantinople, also known as Eustathius. The engineer/designer was known as Zanobious from Palmyra (today Tadmur in Syria).","dynasty":"The church dates back to the Byzantine period but several renovations were implemented in subsequent periods.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Resurrection; Crucifixion; church; Jesus"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"7c3a4cbc-d305-5a96-aabc-cbcebe9d6397":{"name":"Column capital.","description":"After Jerusalem was restored to the Muslims under the leadership of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) in AH 583 / AD 1187, he quickly tried to restore the Islamic character of Jerusalem generally, and that of the Haram al-Sharif specifically. The Muslims undertook the destruction and removal of Crusader additions to buildings, icons and decorations within the holy areas, until what remained was likely to be found only in the secular buildings. This operation provided a large quantity of building materials, especially invaluable marble and decorative stone fragments, most of which were re-used in the Ayyubid architectural projects in Jerusalem and outside. Some of these edifices are still standing and may still be seen today.  \nThis column capital is a good example of the process of the effacement of Christian representational iconography. Despite the preservation of most of the constituents of the capital, which clearly manifest its origins and epoch, the animated features on it have largely been obliterated. The process of effacement may have taken place hurriedly, or it may have been a symbolic act, since clear traces of the birds' features remain in addition to vegetal decoration.","short_description":"With the fall of Jerusalem under Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin), many Crusader additions were removed from al-Haram al-Sharif. This left behind many building materials including this carved marble capital. It was adorned with many vegetal, animal and human motifs and demonstrates the iconoclastic process in sacred Islamic sites.","type":"Capital, marble","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 32 cm, horizontal cross-section 20 cm x 20 cm.","method_for_datation":"The capital was dated by comparison of its carving and decorative themes with other Crusader pieces in Palestine.","method_for_provenance":"Similar capitals remain in different areas of the Haram al-Sharif and Jerusalem. Some of these capitals remain *in situ*, while others were re-used in other buildings. Only some capitals were defaced, while others were largely untouched. It is probable that this capital was produced in Jerusalem.","provenance":"Probably Jerusalem.","obtention":"This column capital was probably transferred from the Haram al-Sharif to the Islamic Museum during restorations, a process that is still underway. The Museum owns other Crusader column capitals that were exposed to iconoclastic acts.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the so-called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution, and Impact”, *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*,No. 45, 1982.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provencial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidences on the Temple Area Atelier”, in *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Hewn marble."],"keywords":["Carved decoration; column capital; Crusader; carved marble, iconoclasm; figurative representation"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"81acb278-b50c-55e2-a7e9-2609f1bc2386":{"name":"Marble frieze.","description":"A section from an ash-grey marble frieze, the provenance of which is uncertain but which might have been one of a number of marble pieces crafted in a workshop within the Haram al-Sharif in around AH 555 / AD 1160, during the Crusader period (AH 492–583 / AD 1099–1187), when the workshop became renowned for its marble carving. The frieze is classified as an example of Romanesque art. It was probably used as a lintel for an entrance to one of the buildings at the Haram al-Sharif or the area around it. It continued to be used as a lintel for the southern portals of the Dome of the Rock for an unspecified period, which led to it being disfigured with cement. The frieze was damaged further by obliteration of the facial features of some of the carved figures, and it is possible that the partial removal of the figurative motifs was done in order to use the work within the Dome of the Rock. The remaining animal forms survived intact, thereby enabling easy identification.  \nThe decorative themes include human forms likely to be of religious personalities, but the defacement has made identification difficult. There are also animal forms such as hunting dogs, dragons and birds such as ducks, and a mythical bird-like character that resembles a turkey. The Vegetal decoration assumes the form of a laurel wreath which wraps itself around the other motifs, entering into their spheres.  \nThis piece consists of a number of decorative units, each of which contains a complete decorative theme. For example one theme appears to show men and boys hunting animals and birds, each theme is connected to the next by means of the laurel wreath. The piece ingeniously appears, therefore, as one work; a collection within a single decorative panel, while a spiral-patterned frame in high relief marks the borders. The high level of skill in the Haram al-Sharif workshop is manifest in the skilful carving of this work, affirming that the frieze was produced to decorate the entrance of an important building, perhaps a religious one.  \nA break may be observed which divides it into two unequal parts.","short_description":"This is a grey marble frieze with carved decoration in the Romansque style. It was probably made during the Crusader period in al-Haram al-Sharif. Its decorative themes represent human and animal forms such as hunting dogs, dragons and birds. It also contains vegetal motifs forming a laurel wreath that wraps around the other forms.","type":"Frieze, marble","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 258 cm, width 37 cm, depth 20 cm.","method_for_datation":"Dating of this marble piece was possible by comparison of decorative themes and carving techniques with other pieces, particularly those present at the Holy Sepulchre Church (*Kanisat al-Qiyama*) and the Church of the Tomb of the Virgin Mary in Jerusalem.","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that the piece was produced in the workshop at the Haram al-Sharif, known to have been operational at the period.","provenance":"Possibly Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from the Dome of the Rock to the Islamic Museum in around 1959.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the So-Called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, *Palestine Exploration Quarterly,* No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provincial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidence on the Temple Area Atelier”, *Zeitschirft für Kunstgeschichte,* No. 48, 1985.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution and Impact”, *Zeitschirft für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 45, 1982.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Hewn and carved marble."],"keywords":["Frieze; carved marble; Romanesque; figurative decoration; Crusader"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"869b86b6-4148-5cb5-9768-3fc1fa05ffdb":{"name":"Warrior relief.","description":"A grey marble slab that is rectangular and nearly square, on which two figures of warriors are carved in high relief. The figures have been depicted within a frame delineated by a deep contour line. Their heads are shown in profile, their bodies from the front; they wear helmets with pointed tops, armour, and short boots. They are shown with one foot forward, as if attacking. The figure on the left has a sword in one hand and a shield in the other. The figure on the right is holding his sword in one hand while grasping the sword's scabbard in the other. Both figures are shown in military dress, and their garments, as well as the details of their bodies, are defined with carved outlines.  \n  \nThe tree with split-palmette leaves on the right-hand side of the slab, as well as the vegetal forms used as fillers in the upper corners, shows the influence of Sassanid on Islamic decorative arts. The warriors' clothes and pointed helmets show similarities with those seen in medieval Crusader painting, offering valuable documentary evidence about military dress and equipment of the period.","short_description":"Konya was the capital of the Anatolian Seljuq Sultanate during the AH 6th–7th / AD 12th–13th centuries and its citadel was decorated with rich figurative reliefs. This warrior relief not only depicts the military costume and arms of the period but also is an important document for the period.","type":"Relief carving","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul","dimensions":"Height 89 cm, width 91 cm, depth 10 cm.","method_for_datation":"Konya citadel, where it is thought this object originated, dates to the 6th / 12th century. For this reason the object is dated to the same century.","method_for_provenance":"It is known from several sources (e.g. the journals of the 19th-century French traveller Charles Texier) that the citadel at Konya, capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs, was adorned with figurative decoration in stone. This object is thought to have belonged to the citadel, which does not survive. It is thus probable that it was made in the vicinity of Konya.","provenance":"Konya, Turkey.","obtention":"The relief was transferred to the Tiled Pavilion (çinili Köşk), Istanbul, in 1870 as part of the 19th-century initiative to collect artworks from across the country. The object was transferred to the Museum in 1941.","bibliography":"*Anadolu Medeniyetleri III, Selçuklu-Osmanlı*, Istanbul, 1983, p.81.  \n  \nOgan, M. A., Kühnel, E., *İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzelerindeki Şaheserler, Vol. III, çinili Köşk'te Türk ve İslam Eserleri Koleksiyonu*, Berlin-Leipzig, 1938, p.36.  \n  \nÖlçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, p.114.  \n  \nRice, T. T., *The Seljuqs*, London, 1961, fig. 61.","dynasty":"Anatolian Seljuq","materials":["Relief-carved marble."],"keywords":["Crusader; relief decoration; warrior; Konya citadel; arms; armours; military wear; war; warfare"],"author":"Gönül Tekeli","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"8724a3b4-5bc3-563e-8060-000c6b3e01bf":{"name":"Maqam of Nabi Musa.","description":"The Maqam of the Prophet Musa (Moses) is one of the largest religious architectural complexes in Palestine comprising three levels: the basement, ground and first floors. Enclosed on all four sides, the complex covers an area of 5000 sq m. Its plan is almost square: the length of the north wall is about 74 m, the west wall about 70 m and the east wall 68 m. The south wall is the shortest at about 55 m.  \nThere are five entrances that all open out into the complex. The principle entrance is the west portal, located on the south side of the west wall. The complex is built of sandstone of which only the upper courses are square-cut and well dressed.  \nThe basement includes stables for horses and storage areas. The first and ground floors include more than 100 rooms and a series of halls, a minaret and a multiplicity of accoutrements. The mosque and the *maqam*, the most important sections of the complex,are at ground level. The mosque has a rectangular ground plan of 15 m x 10 m. It is composed of two aisles, with three cross vaults over each aisle. The *maqam* itself is located near the northwest cross vault. It has a square plan measuring 5.5 m. The middle of the *maqam* is smaller than its sides, measuring 4.7 m long, 1.6 m wide and 1.7 m high. It is built from well-dressed stone, and faces a west–east direction. It is encompassed within a wooden enclosure and covered by a *kiswa* of green cloth. The *maqam* is topped by a semi-circular dome supported by four pointed arches.  \nThe *maqam* has been endowed by many *awqaf*. Historically the *waqf* of the Prophet Moses is considered one of the richest and most famous, providing free food and accommodation to visitors as well as salaries for a large number of employees – approximately 50. The employees included the *waqf* supervisor, sheikh of sheikhs, scribe, servant, custodian, gatekeeper, muezzin, torchbearer, sweeper, keeper of the Qur'an sections, and distributor of the Qur'an sections as well as other employees. The Maqam of the Prophet Moses occupies an important position in the history of the Palestinian people from a religious, architectural, social, folkloric and political point of view.","short_description":"This is the largest and most famous of the *maqamat* (tomb sanctuaries) of Palestine. Its plan is almost square and it covers an area of 5000 sq m, with three levels. The complex includes stables, storage areas, a large mosque with a minaret and the room of the *maqam* as well as a number of porticoes and different facilities. These include 100 rooms crowned by domes for the residence of guests during the season. The complex is located in a unique desert environment on the Jerusalem–Jericho road. The *maqam* has an important place in Palestinian folklore and is associated with many social and political events.","dates":"The dome was erected on the tomb and the mosque was built in AH 668 / AD 1269. The building was extended in AH 885 / AD 1480, and the minaret was built some time after AH 880 / AD 1475–6. The complex was restored several times subsequently, in AH 1013 / AD 1604; AH 1150/ AD 1737; AH 1175 / AD 1761; AH 1235 / AD 1819; AH 1303 / AD 1885.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by five inscriptions found in the building, the most famous of which is the foundation inscription of Sultan Baybars, on which his titles and the date the dome was constructed appear (AH 668 (AD 1269)).","bibliography":"Al-'Asli, K., *Mawsam al-Nabi Musa fi Filistin, Tarikh al-Mawsam wa al-Maqam \\[The Festival of the Prophet Moses in Palestine: The History of the Festival and the Maqam\\],* Amman, 1990.  \nMurrar, K. M., *Maqam al-Nabi Musa, Dirasat Tarikhiya wa Athariya wa Mi'mariya \\[The Maqam of the Prophet Moses: Historical, Archaeological and Architectural Study\\],* Nablus, 1997.  \nMukhlis, Abd A., “Kaifa wa Matta Bad'a Mausam al-Nabi Musa \\[How and When Does the Festival of the Prophet Moses Start?”, in *Majallat huna al-Quds \\[Journal of Jerusalem\\],* No. 6, 1942.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.142–4.","patrons":"The first sponsor of the *maqam* and complex was Sultan Zahir Baybars (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77). The complex was restored during the Ottoman period by each of the following: ‘Ali Katkhuda ‘Azban; ‘Abd al-Latif al-Husayni; ‘Abdallah Pasha, governor of Sidon and Tripoli, and Muhammad Tahir al-Husayni, Mufti of Jerusalem.","architects":"Restoration of the *maqam* took place during the Ottoman period at the hands of architects from the family of Husayn bin ‘Ali bin al-Namri, among whom was ‘Abd al-Muhsin bin Mahmud bin Husayn, the chief architect of Jerusalem and his brother, al-Hajj Karim.","dynasty":"The *maqam* dates to the Mamluk period but the building was extended and restored during the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Maqam; Prophet Moses; Mawsim, Season"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"8850561d-4d5d-5a91-862d-fe88824fcdc8":{"name":"Shawbak Castle.","description":"Shawbak is a Crusader, Ayyubid–Mamluk castle of the AH 6th–7th / AD 12th and 13th centuries. Located in southern Jordan, it is 120 km south of Kerak, and 35 km north of the fabulous Nabataean city of Petra. In AH 509 / AD 1115 Baldwin I, founder of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, led a major expedition into the region southeast of the Dead Sea. He crossed wadi Araba and marched to the fertile, wooded district of al-Shawbak. There atop a steep mountain, overlooking a well-watered valley, Baldwin erected a huge castle, which he named, 'le Crac de Montreal' and appointed Roman le Puy as lord of Montreal and the land of Oultre Jourdain.  \nShawbak (Montreal) is linked with two smaller fortresses built in and around Petra: al-Habis and al-Wu'ayra. The construction of these castles gave the Franks a loose control over the territory between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, and had the further advantage of hindering both the commercial and military connection between Syria, Egypt and the Hijaz. Shawbak fell to the soldiers of Salah al-Din (Saladin) in AH 584 / AD 1188 and was refortified several times by both the Ayyubids (AH 570–648 / AD 1174–1250) and the Mamluks (AH 648–923 / AD 1250–1517). The Castle was occupied by a village throughout the later Ottoman period (the 18th and 19th centuries AD) and was emptied of its inhabitants only in the 20th century. Considerable remains of all these periods fill the interior.  \nShawbak Castle, which has an irregular shape with maximum dimensions of 175 m x 90 m, possesses a Crusader church and a chapel as well as substantial secular buildings constructed out of stone taken from a nearby antique site and from quarries located one kilometre to the west of the castle. Numerous Arabic inscriptions in *naskhi* script record the various reconstructions of the castle. The impressive rusticated towers; curtain walls and a glacis (a paved slope) wrapped around the castle are fine examples of early Mamluk fortification showing the evolution of siege defences.","short_description":"Shawbak Castle was built in AH 509 / AD 1115 by Baldwin I, founder of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, who named it Le Crac de Montreal. It is linked with two smaller fortresses at Petra, which gave the Franks loose control over the area between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, and hindered the commercial and military connection between Syria, Egypt and the Hijaz. Shawbak fell to the forces of Salah al-Din in 584 / 1188. Numerous Arabic inscriptions record various reconstructions of the castle, including fine examples of early Mamluk fortification that show the evolution of siege defences.","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Shawbak","method_for_datation":"The monument was date by both inscriptions *in situ* and historical sources.","bibliography":"المومني، سعد محمد، \" القلاع الإسلامية في الأردن : الفترة الأيوبية و المملوكية\"، عمان، 1988، ص. 24– 93.  \nBrown, R. M., “Shaubak”, in: D. Homes-Fredericq and JB Hennessey, (eds), *Archaeology of Jordan*, II: 2, Leuven, 1989, pp.559–66.  \nKennedy, H., *Crusader Castles*, Cambridge, 1994, pp.23–5.","patrons":"Baldwin I (r. AH 509–12 / AD 1115–18).","dynasty":"Crusader, Ayyubid–Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":["Castle; Crac de Montreal; Crusaders; glacis"],"author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"8bb1aef3-8779-5dfe-8bd0-4fef627826bc":{"name":"Incense burner.","description":"A brass globular incense burner composed of identical hemispheres joined by a bayonet fitting, and with pierced holes through which the fumes from burning incense could escape. Gimbals inside the burner, cradle a small bowl which would remain in an upright position even when the sphere is rolled, a mechanism also known as ‘Cardan Suspension’. Spherical in shape this object resembles a hand warmer, but due to its large size and the loop at the apex, it was probably designed to be suspended from the ceiling or to hang from a chain and be swung to disseminate the incense.  \nSilver inlaid decoration, divided into four concentric circles, covers the surface. The rim of each hemisphere has an inscription band of silver inlay against arabesques. Above this row are five pierced medallions each containing a double-headed eagle, alternating with roundels filled with geometric motifs in a background of arabesque scrolls. At both ends of the sphere is another inscription band with a pierced medallion at the apex, containing a design composed of double-headed eagles and lion-headed masks.  \nThe symbol of the double-headed eagle was a popular motif used on blazons by several Mamluk sultans. However, here it seems to be a decorative motif rather than a heraldic emblem. Towards the end of the AH 7th / AD 13th century the figurative motifs of Ayyubid metalwork were gradually replaced by titulature and heraldry according to the taste of Mamluk patrons. This object is a fine example of the growing popularity of inscribed titles on Mamluk decorative objects.  \nThis object was made for Badr al-Din Baysari who is mentioned in the inscription at the apex. Baysari was one of the most prominent of the amirs in the early Mamluk period, as confirmed by the phrase ‘al-maqarr al-ali’ (‘the High Excellency’).","short_description":"A large spherical brass incense burner with silver inlaid decoration. Medallions at either end show one of the Mamluk heraldic emblems, a double-headed eagle. This burner is inscribed with the name Badr al-Din Baysari who was a prominent amir in the early Mamluk period.","type":"Metalwork, decoration object, silver","holder":"The British Museum.","initial_owner":"Badr al-Din Baysari.","dates":"Hegira 675–7 / AD 1277–9.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Diameter 18.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object was made for Badr al-Din Baysari who is mentioned in the inscription at the apex of this lamp, also mentioned are the regnal titles of two of his Mamluk masters: al-Zahiri (officer of Sultan Baybars from 658–75 / 1260–77) and al-Sa’idi (officer of Sultan Baraka Khan from 675–7 / 1277–9). Al-Sa’idi – is a sign of allegiance to Sultan al-Malik al-Sa’id Baraka Khan (r. 675–7 / 1277-9), which indicates that the incense burner was probably produced during his reign.","method_for_provenance":"This incense burner was made for Badr al-Din Baysari, a confidante of Sultan Baybars and one of the most important Syrian amirs. Originally in the service of the last Ayyubid Sultan, Baysari was then employed by the Mamluks after the Ayyubids were overthrown. This object was, therefore, probably made in Syria where Baysari was based. Moreover, there was an active patronage of inlaid metalwork in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods in Syria.","provenance":"Syria.","obtention":"Bequeathed to the British Museum by John Henderson in 1878.","bibliography":"The Arts of Islam, exhibition catalogue, London, 1976, cat. no. 210.  \nAtil, E., Renaissance of Islam: Art of the Mamluks, Washington D.C., 1981, p.58–9.  \nBarrett, D., Islamic Metalwork in the British Museum, London, 1949, plate no. 22.  \nWard, R., Islamic Metalwork, London, 1993, pp.110–1, fig. 87.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Brass pierced and engraved and inlaid with silver."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; eagle; arabesque; calligraphy; patronage"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"8d173c69-e270-52ea-8792-452101a75d8b":{"name":"Hospital (*Bimaristan*) Nur al-Din.","alternate_name":"Maristan al-Nuri.","description":"The Bimaristan Nur al-Din, a hospital dating from the AH 6th / AD 12th century, is one of the most famous buildings in Damascus. At the time of its construction, it was considered remarkably new and refined, a sentiment recorded by the memoirs of the Valencian voyager from al-Andalus, Ibn Jubayr. It functioned as a therapeutic refuge for the sick as well as a medical school for aspiring physicians. The Mamluk Sultan Qalawun is said to have been saved from a lethal illness at this *bimaristan* – an experience which inspired him to build his famous institution in Cairo, The Complex of Sultan Qalawun. The Bimaristan Nur al-Din currently functions as a Museum of Arabic Medicine and Science. Located in a side road off the Suq al-Hamidiyyeh, it is easily discernable by its Mesopotamian-style red brick *muqarnas* dome rhythmically dotted with bulbs of dark glass. It is also famous for the eclecticism of its entrance façade, the woodcarving of its door, and the perfect balance of its axial symmetric four-*iwan* plan.  \nThe entrance block to the Bimaristan Nur al-Din protrudes at a right-angle to the building and it is accentuated by a portal featuring an unusually tall and shallow *muqarnas* façade, including a row of lobed arches at its base, and resting on top of a classically styled lintel. The door is an important example of fine wood carving and inlaid wood of the period. The identity of the door's designer is recorded in history as Abu al-Fadl Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Karim al-Harithi, known as al-Muhandis, or “the Geometer”. As both a medical doctor at the *bimaristan* and a creative craftsman of its gate, Abu al-Fadl demonstrates the multiplicity of expertise that scholars of this period usually enjoyed.  \nThe entrance leads into a square vestibule capped with a brick *muqarnas* dome; the adaptation of the *muqarnas* to the medium of stone was yet to take place in history. Once inside, the overhead *muqarnas* is a mesmerising vision of gradually receding cells pierced by beams of light.  \nPassage through the vestibule leads to the grand rectangular courtyard and its central square basin with bracketed inner corners. Surrounding the courtyard are four arch-vaulted *iwan*s: the west *iwan* which leads to the entrance, the south and north *iwan*s on either side of the courtyard, and the main, east *iwan* which is larger than the others and faces the entrance. This main *iwan* represents the grand hall of the *bimaristan*, a place where students attended lectures by renowned physicians and had access to medical manuscripts for study. A marble dado rail with a *naskhi* inscription quotes passages from the Qur'an pertaining to medicine and healing. This serves as an allegory to the building's function as well as a holy blessing.  \nOverlooking the southwest corner of the courtyard is an original arched window of perforated stucco, comprising a grid of octagonal stars with interlacing floral scrolls.","short_description":"A charming survival of a medieval Syrian hospital, the *bimaristan* was built by Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi in AH 549 / AD 1154. It had a strong architectural and institutional impact, inspiring the construction of Bimaristan al-Qaymari, also in Damascus, and the Sultan Qalawun complex in Cairo. The undulating *muqarnas* and classical-style lintel that accentuate its facade, the red-brick *muqarnas* dome and the perfect axial symmetry of the interior *iwans* around the courtyard, are examples of local adaptations to Eastern influences brought in by Nur al-Din. This *bimaristan* was a renowned medical centre in its timel.","dates":"Hegira 549 / AD 1154.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The monument is dated by the foundation text which is inscribed in four lineson a horseshoe-shaped marble sacramental table that is embedded in the eastern *iwan.*","bibliography":"Allen, T., “Ayyubid Architecture”, *Occidental* (electronic publication 7th edition), 2003.  \nBogard, F., *Composition et decors dans l'Architecture Damascaine aux XII et XIII siecles: La Formation d'une Esthetique dans la Damas Medievale*, PhD thesis, University de Provence, Aix-Marseille I, 2004.  \nHerzfeld, E., “Damascus: Studies in Architecture”, Part I, *Ars Islamica,* Vol. IX, 1942, pp.2–11  \nTabbaa, Y., \"The Muqarnas Dome: its origin and meaning\" *Muqarnas,* 3,Leiden, 1985, pp.61–76.  \nSakhnini, Z., *Mathaf al-Tib wa al-'Ulum 'ind al-Arab: Bimaristan Nur al-Din \\[The Museum of Medicine and Science of the Arabs: Bimaristan Nur al-Din\\],* Damascus, 1997, pp.31–53.  \nIbn Jubayr (d. 614 / 1217), *Rihlat Ibn Jubayr \\[The Voyage of Ibn Jubayr\\],* Beirut, 1999, p.241.","patrons":"Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi (r. AH 541–69 / AD 1146–74).","architects":"Abu al-Fadl al-Harithi (known as al-Muhandis, “the Geometer”).","dynasty":"Atabeg.","materials":[],"keywords":["Infirmary (bimaristan); stucco; windows; muqarnas; naskhi script; medicine; science; library; education; inlaid woodwork; Abu'l Fadl al-Muhandis; Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi; Mesopotamia"],"author":"Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, Zena Takieddine","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"912b204e-c92a-58e3-8cab-b04e1caa9f7e":{"name":"Dome of the Rock.","description":"Dome of the Rock is one of the oldest Islamic monuments still standing today. It has a grandiose monumental form representing one of a small number of buildings in the Islamic world that may be chronicled as part of the creation and formation of an Islamic art in general.  \nDome of the Rock is built on an octagonal plan topped by a semi-circular great dome and supported by a circular drum. Four doors, each facing one of the cardinal directions, are built into the walls of the building. The façades are covered with marble panels at the bottom and ceramic (glazed) tiles at the top. These tiles date back to the time of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent who ordered the replacement of the original glass mosaic with ceramic tiles in the period AH 952–9 / AD 1545–52. The marble panels were also renewed several times. The interior or inner drum, the cylinder which carries the dome, is also adorned with glass mosaic tiles. At present the outer dome is covered with gold-plated copper panels, although it was formerly of lead covered with a thin layer of gold-plate.  \nBoth the interior and exterior of the Dome of the Rock is built on an octagonal plan, surrounding the exalted Rock. According to Islamic belief the Rock is where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj*) on the night of his nocturnal journey from Mecca to Jerusalem *(Isra')*. The interior octagonal (which follows the outer octagon walls) is supported by eight piers and 16 columns. The rotunda is supported by four piers and 12 columns. Between the piers and columns span semi-circular arches, the façades and surfaces of which are decorated with mosaic tiles and colourful epigraphic texts. The rotunda is covered by a double dome. The inner dome has a diameter of 20.44 m, and is considered to be the oldest wooden structure still extant. It is composed of wooden panels that are decorated with written inscriptions and geometric decorations against a stucco background. Sixteen windows open on to the inside of the dome's drum. The drum is adorned with mosaic decorations and inscriptions from the Qur'an; it is enriched by a large number of inscriptions belonging to different restoration projects carried out by Muslim caliphs and sultans, the most famous being those that date to the Umayyad, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods. The dome is devoid of figurative decoration and exemplifies a response to changing religious orientation.","short_description":"This is the jewel of Islamic architecture and the oldest Islamic monument that has not undergone fundamental changes. It thus provides very important testimony to the creation and formation of Islamic architecture and early Islamic decorative arts. It is also considered to be one of the most beautiful monuments in the world. The building is octagonal in form and is covered on the outside with marble and glazed tilework. The interior is decorated with marble, mosaics, plaster and wood. The great gold dome that towers over the building symbolises Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 72 / AD 691.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by a foundation inscription, written in the *kufic* script. Furthermore, there are a group of early Muslim historians such as al-Maqdisi al-Bishari, the famous geographer (who died at the end of the 4th / 10th century) and who dated the construction of the building to 72 / 691.","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Vol. 1,Oxford, 1932.  \nGrabar, O., and Nuseibah, S., *Dome of the Rock,* New York, 1996.  \nAl-Natseh, Y., *Qubbat al-Sakhra al-Mushrrafa: Jauhara al-Quds wa al-Masjid al-Aqsa al-Mubarak \\[Dome of the Rock: The Jewel of Jerusalem and the Early al-Aqsa Mosque\\],* Jerusalem, 2002.  \nRichmond, E. T., *Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem: A Description of its Structure and Decoration*, Oxford, 1924.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, pp.76–8; 54.","patrons":"The Umayyad caliph, 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705). The building was renovated by a large number of Muslim caliphs and sultans. The most prominent among them being: the Fatimid caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) and the Ottoman sultan, Sulayman the Magnificent (r. 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","architects":"Raja’ bin Haywa and Yazid bin Sal'am participated in the construction of the building. The name of the craftsman, Muhammad bin Balawar is associated with renovations that took place during the Fatimid era. Mustafa Raqam is linked with the late Ottoman restorations (AH 13th / AD 19th century).","dynasty":"Umayyad.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Isra’; Mi’raj; ceramic tile; rock; rock of bayt al-muqaddas; mosaic; kashani (ceramic tiles); dome; wooden dome; double dome; octagonal; copper; gold-plate"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9ac5a090-8009-512f-bf82-741324800a8f":{"name":"Manuscript *Al-Nawadar al-Sultaniya wa al-Mahasin al-Yusufiya*\\[Sovereign Rarities and Yusufi Merits\\].","alternate_name":"The Biography of Salah al-Din","description":"A manuscript written in *naskhi* (cursive)script which, due to the physical condition of the paper, is not entirely legible. It consists of 412 pages, each of which contains 15 lines. The pages are yellowing due to their extremely old age, and the effects of airborne moisture in the paper.  \nThe author of the manuscript (Ibn Shaddad) joined the service of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) who appointed him as an officer of his troops in Jerusalem. He remained a lieutenant to Saladin until his death, after which Ibn Shaddad headed to Aleppo where he built a *madrasa*. Next door to it he constructed a dar al-hadith (Hadith School). He settled in Aleppo until his death.  \nIbn Shaddad divided his manuscript into three parts: the first section covers the birth of Saladin, his creativity, characteristics, attributes, morals and nature; the second focuses on the changes in his circumstances, his wars and conquests to the end of his life; and the third revolves around the names of the cities and citadels that Saladin conquered between AH 583–86 / AD 1187–90.  \nThe author mentions that his contact with Saladin began in AH 584 / AD 1189 and he accompanied him until his death in AH 589 / AD 1193. Ibn Shaddad mentions that with regard to the history of events, some of which he was not eyewitness to, he depended on trusted sources. As for those events he did witness, he could describe what he saw himself. This biography is considered to be one of the most reliable references about him, thus historians rely on it for an accurate account of Saladin's life, especially in the final period of his life (AH 584–89 / AD 1189–93).  \nThe author gives detailed descriptions of historical events and battles as well as details of the weapons that were used by the Islamic and Crusader armies. Furthermore, the author gives many descriptions of the social and administrative situations in Islamic and Crusader societies, showing that there was communication between the Ayyubid and Crusader states.","short_description":"This is a biography of Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) written by his contemporary, Ibn Shaddad and examines his life, attributes, personality, wars and communication. This manuscript at al-Aqsa Mosque library is one of the best preserved and is accepted as the original copy scripted by the author himself.","type":"Manuscript","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif","initial_owner":"Baha’ Yusuf bin Rafi’, al-Shahir bi (known as Ibn Shaddad; d. AH 632 / AD 1234).","dates":"Hegira 626 / AD 1228.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 23.5 cm, width 16 cm, depth 4.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The manuscript has a date recorded on it.","method_for_provenance":"Jerusalem was narrowed down as the place of production based on what the manuscript says: that it was copied in Jerusalem and accepted as an authentic copy by the author.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","bibliography":"Conder, C. R., *The Life of Saladin* by *Beha ad-Din, compared with the Original Arabic and Annotated,* London, 1773.  \nIbn Shaddad, Biha' al-Din, Y., (d. 632 / 1234), *Nawadar al-Sultaniya wa al-Mahasin al-Yusufiya \\[Sovereign Rarities and Yusufi Merits\\],* Cairo, 1964.  \nMaalouf, A., *Crusades Through Arab Eyes,* New York, 1985.  \nSalameh, K., *Fahras Makhtutat Maktabat al-Masjid al-Aqsa \\[Catalogue of Manuscripts at the Library of al-Aqsa Mosque\\],* Jerusalem, 1983.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Black ink on paper."],"keywords":["Ibn Shaddad; naskhi script; biography; manuscript"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a0123f90-172b-59e1-9291-e46637556232":{"name":"Metal grille/enclosure.","description":"An iron grille or enclosure, of which the Museum displays 19 segments held together by the use of fine iron rods. The grille has been worked in the Gothic style, a style that predominated in the AH 6th / AD 12th century in Crusader art and architecture. This enclosure surrounded the rock which is located within the Dome of the Rock and from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens on the night of the *Mi'raj*.The enclosure was intended to protect the rock from European Christian pilgrims during the Crusader period who would take pieces of the rock back to their homeland either in the hope that they would be blessed by it or, due to the sacred nature of the rock, to imbed within church buildings. The rock was thus in danger of losing its natural shape and required protection. The enclosure, already in a delicate state of repair during the restoration works which took place around 1960, was replaced by a wooden balustrade worked in the Islamic carved-wood style. The iron grille was then put into storage at the Islamic Museum, but many pieces were lost in the interim.  \nThe grille is composed of segments that are identical in both width and height, except for the central four segments which are 257 cm high. Between each pair of rods are 21 repetitive decorative units, each one of which grows out of a small semi-circle of iron wire to become a flower. The flowers wrap around three times in a circular fashion extending from the centre, and face an identical blossom whose circles have been formed by wire coils spiralling in the opposite direction. The two flowers are connected together by a wire stay. This arrangement repeats itself to form the entire decorative format of the enclosure. It should be noted that a similar, small piece of a grille is still in the Dome of the Rock.","short_description":"This is an iron enclosure or grille formed from pieces of approximately equal size and similar repetitive decoration, joined by small intricate iron bands. It is in Gothic style, which predominated in the art and architecture of the Crusaders in Palestine. This enclosure surrounded the rock placed within the Dome of the Rock for its protection.","type":"Grille, metalwork","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 230 cm, length 570, width: 30 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by comparison in both technique and decoration with those used in other pieces that go back to the Crusader period, such as the pair of candlesticks housed in the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","method_for_provenance":"It is probable that this piece was produced in Jerusalem where, as is generally the case with architectural furniture, it was made *in situ*.","provenance":"Probably Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from the Dome of the Rock to the Islamic Museum in about 1960.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the so-called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in Al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution, and Impact”, *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*,No. 45, 1982.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provencial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidence on the Temple Area Atelier”, in *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Forged iron fastened with rods."],"keywords":["Grille; Gothic; Crusader; metalwork; ironwork; vegetal decoration"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a422b89c-541c-5d0c-b8ef-5292227a2201":{"name":"Pilgrim’s Flask.","description":"This canteen, often described as a pilgrim's flask, is a container used to carry water while travelling, on pilgrimage, or hunting trips. It is manufactured using a mould and its body is in the form of a disc with a mouth and a pair of loops attached to the side. To keep water from spilling out, the mouth is elongated by a tube of earthenware resembling a set of gradually narrowing rings stacked one on top of the other. The two loops flanking the flask's mouth can be strung by a rope to hang on the hip while travelling on foot, horse or camel-back.  \nThe surface of the body is decorated with a moulded imprint boldly portraying a Mamluk blazon, known in Arabic as 'rank'. The open-winged eagle on top of a chalice that is flanked by flowers is known to be the blazon of Prince Toquztimur. It is believed that he started out as an official cup-bearer and his blazontherefore displays the cup. When he rose to the rank of governor for Sultan Nasir al-Din Muhammad (r. AH 709–41 / AD 1309–40), he added the symbol of the eagle as a tribute to the Sultan. The six-petal roses that appear underneath the eagle may signify a tribute to Nasir al-Din's family, the Qalawun.","short_description":"This flask decorated with an emblem, a fashion that became popular during the Mamluk period, carries a symbol of an eagle and identifies the owner as Prince Toquztimur, the Mamluk Governor of Hama and later Aleppo.","type":"Flask, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Prince Toquztimur (r. AH 742–6 / AD 1341–5), Mamluk Governor of Hama and then Aleppo.","dates":"Hegira 742–6 / AD 1341–5.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 27.3 cm, diameter (of body) 18.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The canteen is datable by the blazon that identifies it with Prince Toquztimur (r. 742–6 / 1341–5). Similar objects have also been dated to this period.","method_for_provenance":"This object was found in Aleppo, but since Prince Toquztimur was the Governor of Hama and then of Aleppo, it is also possible that the flask was produced in Hama. Similar objects, in respect of both style of decoration and function have been given Syrian provenance.","provenance":"Aleppo or Hama, Syria.","obtention":"Purchased in 1933.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.225.  \nAtil, E., *Art of the Mamluks: Renaissance of Islam*, Washington DC, 1981, p.190.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994, p.454.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.132.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004, pp.120–7.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Moulded earthenware."],"keywords":["Pilgrim flasks; canteen; earthenware; pottery; moulded; Aleppo; Toquztimur; blazon (or rank); eagle; cup; al-Nasir Muhammad; pilgrimage"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b233b9f9-606a-5020-b525-f2dfcb494a75":{"name":"Pilgrim bottle.","description":"The heavy, pinkish-grey earthenware flask belongs to the group of the so-called pilgrim bottles. The body of this type of pilgrim bottle is commonly composed of two flat circular sides, each with a broad, flanged edge and an unornamented strip of earthenware in the middle connecting the two side parts. This connecting strip is slightly concave so that the flask stands in a safe upright position on the edges of the side parts. Above, the bottle has a flared neck consisting of two sections separated by a ring in relief. The rim of the neck is damaged. For carrying and suspension, there are two handles fixed to the neck and to the shoulders. The bottle shows identical moulded decoration on both sides. At the centre there is an eight-petalled rosette surrounded by an arabesque scroll. The four double-framed leaf forms of the outer zone are set against a dense background pattern of tiny rhombs.  \nOn similar bottles the centre of the sides often bears an emblem easily recognised as belonging to one of the Ayyubid or Mamluk sultans and amirs. These emblems were attributes of their dignity. A rosette might not appear to be a specific emblem but it does actually belong to them. It is actually one of the oldest devices used under the Ayyubids and early Mamluks. They usually chose six-petalled rosettes. Only one amir, Musa bin Yaghmur (AH 599–663 / AD 1203–65), seems to be known whose emblem was a white eight-petalled rosette as seen on this bottle. He was governor of Cairo under the Ayyubid al-Malik al-Salih and in AH 648 / AD 1250 under al-Malik al-Mu'azzam governor of Damascus.  \nJudging by the unglazed body, this bottle could have been used for storing liquids such as water. The porous material allowed evaporation to keep the liquid stored in it cool.","short_description":"Earthenware flask. Characteristic are two flat circular sides and handles for carrying and suspension. Both sides are decorated with an eight-petalled rosette at the centre. This is the place where Ayyubid and Mamluk sultans and amirs usually marked their bottles with their own emblem.","type":"Bottle, earthenware","holder":"Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet).","owner":"National Museum of Fine Arts, Stockholm. In order to reorganise the expanding collections, the main part of the Islamic collection has been on permanent loan to the Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities since 1982.","dates":"Hegira 7th century / AD 13th century.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Height 26.5 cm, diameter of body 13.6 cm, diameter of rim 7.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"An Ayyubid amir, Musa bin Yaghmur (599–663 / 1203–65), is known to have as an emblem the eight-petalled rosette without shield.","method_for_provenance":"There are different clues. Musa bin Yaghmur to whom the bottle may be ascribed was governor of Damascus. Other pilgrim bottles of this type come from Syria and Jordan. This bottle is supposed to have been excavated, probably in Syria, since it was bought by the Swedish Crown Prince in Aleppo.","provenance":"Possibly Syria.","obtention":"Gift of the Swedish Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf in 1935.","bibliography":"Florence, E. D., “Some Islamic Pilgrim Bottles“, *Berytus, Archaeological Studies* 2, 1935, pp.5–10.  \nMayer, L. A., *Saracenic Heraldry*, Oxford, 1933.","dynasty":"Ayyubid / early Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Unglazed earthenware; moulded."],"keywords":["Earthenware; pottery; pilgrimage"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"b6518af0-5029-5a94-8521-524613b875bb":{"name":"Citadel of Aleppo.","description":"The Citadel of Aleppo is a masterpiece of medieval Islamic fortress architecture. Its massive ovoid shape and extensive defences enclose an area of approximately seven hectares. The natural hill upon which the Citadel was built has long been used as a stronghold (including evidence of a Hittite temple from the first millennium BC). During the Hamdanid reign of Aleppo under Sayf al-Dawla in the AH 4th / AD 10th century, early constructions of a citadel took place. The Citadel's strategic importance was reactivated by the time the Crusades began.  \nWhen Nur al-Din ruled Aleppo in the early AH 6th / AD 12th century, he rebuilt its fragmented interior and fortified the remnants of the earlier fortress. His expansion included the construction of Maqam Ibrahim, an important shrine with legendary associations to the Prophet Abraham. However, the majority of the citadel's surviving features date to the period of Saladin's son, al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi, who ruled between AH 582–613 / AD 1186–1216. He ordered the deeper, 22-m moat, the magnificent bridge, the glacis of smooth impregnable stone, the enlarged towers (or *burgs*), and the outstanding gateway designed to ambush any enemy who managed to approach. Unlike Damascus, Aleppo was more exposed to Frankish attacks from nearby Edessa and the western coastlands. There was also the threat of the powerful and stealthy \"Assassins\", followers of the esoteric Isma'ili sect of Shi'i Islam.  \nAl-Zahir rebuilt many of the civil and religious constructs initiated by Nur al-Din, including the Citadel's beautifully proportioned Great Mosque and the administrative Dar al-'Adl (House of Justice) facing the Citadel. Some scholars speculate the existence of a tunnel between the two.  \nMost importantly, al-Zahir Ghazi constructed the royal palace complex and baths within the Citadel walls. This represents a new development in the history of Islamic architecture. Palatial residences were not usually constructed behind military fortresses but due to high- level security during this period, a new model emerged. The palace was renovated by al-Aziz Muhammad in AH 627 / AD 1230, but most of it was destroyed by the Mongols.  \nAltogether, Al-Malik al-Zahir's project radically changed both the scale and scope of the Citadel and its surrounding area, making it the impressive sight it is today. Decorative elements appear particularly around the gates. Two well-known examples are the Lion Gate and the Serpent Gate, each decorated in high-relief figurative stone carving. Lions had long been used as signs of power and royalty; here symbolising throne guardians. The serpents and dragons on the other hand curl backwards to bite themselves; they mark the limits of a protected and controlled area.  \nParts of the Citadel, especially the entrance block and bridge, underwent renovation during the Mamluk period, some time in the AH 7th / AD 14th century. Stylistically this is evidenced by the more flamboyant decorative features.","short_description":"This masterpiece of medieval fortification is the hallmark of Aleppo since the AH 6th / AD 12th century. Its entrance block alone is an impressive work. Linking the citadel to the city by a stately ramp, it also includes two massively constructed towers which conceal a U-shaped corridor that would force an attacking army to change direction six times, while exposing them to projectiles and burning liquid from gaps in the vaults above. Most of the citadel's construction, both military as well as the palatial and religious buildings within, date to the Ayyubid al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi (d. 613 / 1216).","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Aleppo","method_for_datation":"Various inscriptions and historical records have preserved an accurate account of the various stages of the Citadel's construction and evolution.","bibliography":"Allen, T., “Ayyubid Architecture”, *Occidental* (electronic publication 7th edition), 2003.  \nEttinghausen, R., Grabar, O., and Jenkins-Madina, M., *Islamic Art and Architecture 650–1250*, New Haven, 2001, p.230.  \nHerzfeld, E., “Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum: Syrie du Nord”, Part 2: *Inscriptions et monuments d'Alep*, 3 Vols, Cairo, 1954–6, p.12.  \nBurns, R., *Monuments of Syria: An Historical Guide,* London-New York, 1999, p.33; fig. 3.  \nTabbaa, Y., Constructions of Piety and Power in Medieval Aleppo, Pennsylvania, 1997, pp.17–26, pp.53–6, pp.59–69, pp.71–96; figs 9–37.  \nQujjeh, M., \"Al-'amara fi 'ahd Sayf al-Daula al-Hamadani \\[Architecture in the Era of Sayf al-Din al-Hamadani\\]\", *al-Ma'rifa* 2006, no. 508; pp.280–4.  \nIbn Shaddad, Izz al-Din (d. 1285), *Al-A'laq al-Khateera fi dhikr Umara al-Sham w al-Jazira \\[The Crucial Core in the Mention of the Rulers of Greater Syria and the Jazira\\]*, Damascus, 1953.","patrons":"Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi (d. AH 569 / AD 1174); al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi (d. AH 613 / AD 1216); al-Malik al-‘Aziz Muhammad (d. AH 634 / AD 1236).","architects":"Many architects, builders and craftsmen took part in the construction, the involvement of master architect Thabit b. Shaqwayq during the reign of Nur al-Din is recorded in the historical literature. He was the supervising engineer who died when the upper entry block collapsed in AH 600 / AD 1203–4.","dynasty":"Zangid, Ayyubid and Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":["Citadel; palace; moat; fortress; defences; military architecture; Sayf al-Dawla al-Hamadani; Nur al-Din Mahmud bin al-Zangi; al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi bin Salah al-Din; Aleppo; figurative stone carving; zoomorphic stone carving; lions; serpents; dragons"],"author":"Zena Takieddine, Samer Abd al-Ghafour, Abd al-Razzaq Moaz","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b6eaa68e-89bb-5d41-9802-1508be85c8ac":{"name":"Mausoleum of Saladin (Salah al-Din).","alternate_name":"Madrasa al-'Aziziyya.","description":"Salah al-Din's (Saladin's) tomb is located next to the northwestern corner of the Great Umayyad Mosque. Although Saladin died in AH 589 / AD 1193, he was initially interred at the Damascus Citadel until his son al-Malik al-Afdal Nur al-Din 'Ali, ruler of Damascus, completed the construction of the mausoleum. Saladin's body was transferred to its final resting place on the holy day of 'Ashura in AH 592 (AD 1195). Soon afterwards, Salah al-Din's other son, al-Malik al-Aziz ‘Uthman (‘Uthman II), ruler of Egypt, decided to construct a *madrasa* attached to his father's tomb. Thus it is also known as al-Madrasa al-'Aziziyya. The events surrounding the death and burial of Saladin are clearly recorded in the historical sources, based on the eyewitness account of Imad al-Din al-Isfahani (d. AH 597 / AD 1201), who was Saladin's confidant and administrative genius.  \nThe construction of the tomb is typically Damascene: a square chamber with *ablaq* walls and four arches capped by a cupola. The movement from square room to circular dome is achieved by a transitional drum in two zones: octagonal and 16-sided polygonal. The interior of the tomb chamber is mounted with blue and green Ottoman tiles of the AH 11th / AD 17th century known as *qashani.* More subtle decoration can be seen in the stone-paste floral and geometric designs above the arches.  \nIn the middle of this domed chamber lie two coffins. The white marble coffin was a gift from the German Emperor William II on the occasion of his visit to Damascus in 1903. Next to it is the original wooden cenotaph, a masterpiece of the linear interplay typical of Ayyubid woodworking. It is decorated with geometric and astral patterns as well as floral and vegetal motifs.  \nThe tomb chamber occupies the southwest corner of the building. A chamber used for Qur'anic recitation is accessible from its east side and a series of five smaller rooms are found along the north side. As for the building's exterior and its connection to the Madrasa Aziziyya, little of this original architecture has survived to modern times.","short_description":"Saladin's tomb is located in close proximity to the Great Umayyad Mosque and is considered a holy site. His mausoleum was built by his sons after his death in AH 589/ AD 1193 and his body was transferred there in 592 / 1195. The architecture is typically Damascene Ayyubid: a square chamber decorated with alternating muti-coloured stones and capped by a dome. The coffin itself is a very important example of the art of Ayyubid woodcarving. A second coffin, made of white marble, was presented as a gift to Damascus by the German Emperor in 1903.","dates":"Hegira 589–92 / AD 1193–6.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The original inscriptions have been modernised, but contemporary Ayyubid histories contain accounts of Salah al-Din's burial. Stylistic comparisons of Damascene Ayyubid architecture also support the 6th- / 12th-century dating.","bibliography":"Allen, T., “Ayyubid Architecture”, *Solipsist Press* (electronic publication 7th edition), 2003.  \nBurns, R., *Monuments of Syria: An Historical Guide,* London-New York, 1999.  \nMoaz, A. R., “Note sur le mausolée de Saladin à Damas: son fondateur et les circonstances de sa fondation”, *Bulletin d'etudes Orientales,* V, 1989, pp.39–40, 184–9.  \nSauvaget, J., \"Le cenotaphe de Saladin\", *Revue des Arts Asiatique,* 1930, p.168–75.  \nMoaz, K., \"Madafin al-Muluk wa al-Salateen fi Dimashq \\[The Tombs of Kings and Sultans in Damascus\\]\" *Al-Howliyyat al-Athariyya al-Suriyya \\[The Syrian Archaeological Annals\\],* Vol. I, Part II, 1951, pp.235–53.","patrons":"Al-Malik al-Afdal Nur al-Din ‘Ali (r. AH 582–92 / AD 1186–96).","dynasty":"Ayyubid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Mausoleum; cenotaph; qashani tiles; woodwork; al-Malik al-'Aziz 'Uthman ('Uthman II; in Turkey Osman II); Wilhelm II"],"author":"Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, Zena Takieddine","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"bfab383a-8a92-580d-828e-595be606bc38":{"name":"Painting.","description":"A fragment of a battle scene painted in gouache on paper. To the left of the painting is part of a wall with a balustrade from which two archers are drawing their bows ready to fire arrows at the enemy. A bearded figure on horseback, his lower half obscured slightly by the wall, wields a sword in his right hand and shield in the left. He is either about to attack or has just killed his opponent, whose body is bent backwards as if he is wounded or ready to throw the lance. In the centre of the painting another figure aims his lance at a soldier with a round shield and wide sword.  \nThe majority of works on paper discovered at Fustat are Fatimid and when this painting was acquired by the British Museum it was assumed that the painting was a Fatimid work. However, certain details suggest a later date, such as the kite-shaped shields, a type introduced by the Normans that was not in use in Egypt until the end of the AH 7th/ AD 13th century.","short_description":"A fragment of a gouache painting of a battle scene, from Fustat, Cairo. One of a small number of surviving paintings from the medieval period. The date of this painting is not certain; it is either Fatimid, like many other works on paper excavated at Fustat, or Ayyubid from the AH 7th / AD 13th century.","type":"Gouache on paper","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 7th century / AD 13th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 21 cm, width 31.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"This painting was previously thought by scholars to date to the Fatimid period, but recent research dates it later to the Ayyubid period, due to the headgear worn by the figures on the left that resembles 7th- / 13th-century illustrated manuscripts produced in Syria, and the figure on the upper right who has a kite-shaped shield, a Norman design not used in Egypt until the end of the 7th / 13th century.","method_for_provenance":"The painting was found in an excavation at Fustat, Cairo.","provenance":"Fustat, Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased in 1938.","bibliography":"Contadini, A., Fatimid Art at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 1998, p.13.  \nGray, B., \"A Fatimid Drawing\", British Museum Quarterly, XII, 1938, p.91–6.  \nL'Orient de Saladin au temps des Ayyoubides, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 2001, p.94, cat. no. 62.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Gouache on paper."],"keywords":["Figurative painting"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"ca942ff7-606f-5ad2-bbe5-0716cf554458":{"name":"Prick spur.","description":"Originally one of a pair of prick spurs, this spur would have been fixed to footwear, to the sides of the ankle, with the prick pointing out at the back of the heel. A horse-rider (cavalryman, horse-archer, or knight) would use it to prick his horse when commanding it to move or run. The spur has straight sides with two holes at the end of each for the straps that tie around the ankles. These two straight sides meet in the middle to form an elliptical arch. Attached to the point where the two sides meet is a section that has a conical shaped tip (the prick). The spur's straight sides indicate that it could not have been made after the AH 6th century / AD 12th century, while the two strap-holes on the end of the sides of the spur show that this item was not likely to have been made before 1100.","short_description":"Every Crusader knight, cavalryman and horse-archer would have had a pair of prick spurs like these fixed onto the heel of their footwear. The European Crusader would use the prick to coax his horse into moving or picking up speed.","type":"Metalwork, iron, arms, armours","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"About hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 15.2 cm, width 8 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis, and from extensive research carried out into the manufacture of European arms and armour. The spur's straight sides indicate that it could not have been made after the 12th century, while the strap-holes on the end of the sides of the spur show that this item was not likely to have been made before 1100 AD.","provenance":"Northern Europe (Germany or Austria).","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Nicolle, D., *The Crusades*, Oxford, 1988.","dynasty":"Crusader","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Iron."],"keywords":["Military object; crusader; pilgrimage"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"ce38f20b-4ae7-5ca9-bfa6-3a9eefa8c478":{"name":"Memorial Panel.","description":"The Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars undertook the task of repelling the Mongols in the AH mid-7th / AD mid-13th century as they advanced towards Egypt. In AH 664 / AD 1265, he occupied the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, including the city of Sis (Kozan), since its rulers had allied themselves with the Mongols in their war against the Muslims. On his way back to Egypt after the campaign, he stopped in the city of Homs and visited the Mosque of the Companion (of the Prophet Muhammad) Khalid bin al-Walid (d. AH 21/ AD 642), the Arab commander who led the Muslims against Byzantine forces during the time of the Prophet, and who was known as the \"Sword of God\". Baybars ordered the completion of a panel above the tomb of Khalid that commemorated his victory in Cilicia.  \nThis panel is one of a series that were placed in the mosque. Its overall form is rectangular, but its upper side is in the shape of an arc. There are five lines in Arabic *thuluth* script carved on the panel. The text translates as follows:  \n(1) In the name of God, the Merciful and Compassionate, this construction in the sanctuary of the Sword of God and the Companion of the Prophet of God, Khalid bin al-Walid, may God be pleased with him, was ordered  \n(2) by the Lord Sultan al-Malik al-Zahir, the pillar of religion, the ruler of Islam and Muslims, the killer of unbelievers and polytheists, the killer of rebels  \n(3) and insurgents, the one who revives justice in the two worlds, king of the two seas, ruler of the two *qiblas*, servant of the two holy sanctuaries, the grace of sovereignty, the sultan of Arabs, Persians, and Turks,  \n(4) ruler of time and companion of the Qur'an, Baybars al-Salihi, partner of the Commander of the Faithful, may God support his rule against his enemies, in  \n(5) \\[Homs\\], for the victory is in the year six hundred sixty-forty after the *hegira*  \n*Note: The word \"forty\" in line five should be \"four.\"*  \nThis text is decorated with finely executed vegetal motifs, and has traces of green and black on it.","short_description":"The text carved on this sandalwood panel commemorates the victory of the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars against the allies of the Mongols in Cilicia and serves to associate the Mamluk ruler with the memory of other great Muslim warriors.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77).","dates":"Hegira 664 / AD 1265.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 77 cm, width 1.33 m.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the panel specifies the year in which it was made: hegira 664 (1265).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription mentions that the panel was intended for the Mosque of Khalid bin al-Walid in Homs. It was probably made *in situ*.","provenance":"Mosque of Khalid bin al-Walid, Homs, Syria.","obtention":"In 1952, the Directorate General of Museums and Antiquities was informed that there were old wooden slabs of historical value in a compartment in the Khalid bin al-Walid Mosque that needed repair. Technicians from the Directorate restored the panels before they entered the Museum's collection in 1953.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.206.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Carved Indian sandalwood."],"keywords":["Indian sandalwood; carved wood; painted wood; Hims (Homs); Mosque; Khalid bin al-Walid; Sultan al-Zahir Baybars; Mongols; Cilicia; Armenian Kingdom"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"d3cd72eb-4da3-52ee-8fe8-e450b2d00a90":{"name":"*Dinar* (gold coin).","description":"A Crusader coin, with the value of a *dinar* as it is made of gold. Although the Crusaders came as counter-Islamic warriors, they also settled in the region and engaged in commerce quite extensively. In order for their coins to have value and be recognisable within the market economy, they minted coins similar to the ones found in the region and inscribed their minting in Arabic. This coin follows a Fatimid prototype. Its inscription is arranged in three concentric circles. It was minted in Acre in AD 1251 (AH 649), during the rule of King Louis IX (d. AD 1270), the King of France who led the 7th and 8th crusades. The minting of these coins was instigated by the arrival of a new papal legislator to the Latin states in the spring of 1250 who considered it blasphemous to use coins containing the names of the Muslim prophets and the ruling caliphs. He immediately forbade their minting, replacing them with coins portraying Christian symbolism written in deliberate but faulty Arabic language.  \nThe following Arabic inscriptions are recorded on the coin in *naskhi* script:  \nObverse  \nMiddle – the phrase “God is one” is written, although the Arabic word for God (Ilah) is misspelled.  \nInner Ring – “The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit”  \nOuter Ring – “Minted in Acre in the year one thousand two hundred and fifty one, our Lord became incarnate.” This phrase is followed by a cross flanked by two dots.  \nReverse  \nMiddle – In the middle of a circle is a cross with dots in opposite quadrants; the upper left and lower right.  \nInner Circle – There is a small cross flanked by a pair of dots on each side, located in proximity to the cross in the middle circle. The inscription reads, “Our resurrection, our salvation is in Him, protect us”.  \nOuter Circle – On the perimeter is an unclear form of a cross with one dot on each side, then the phrase “We are proud of the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, in Him is our peace”.  \nNote that a number of the words are misspelled and the text has numerous linguistic errors, which makes it difficult to read.","short_description":"This gold coin, known as a *dinar*, was minted by the Crusader settlers in Acre. To maintain economic viability the Crusaders minted coins in the Islamic numismatic style, following the Fatimid prototype of Arabic inscriptions arranged in three concentric circles, with the addition of a central cross.","type":"Dinar, gold","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Hegira 649 / AD 1251.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Diameter 2.3 cm, weight 3.17 g.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the face of the coin specifies the date (1251).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the face of the coin specifies that it was minted in Acre.","provenance":"Acre, Palestine.","obtention":"Purchased in 1948.","bibliography":"Delpont, E. (ed), *L'Orient de Saladin: l'art des Ayyoubides*, Paris, 2001, p.105; fig. 84.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Minted gold."],"keywords":["coin; coinage; dinar; gold; minted; Crusader; Acre; Fatimids; Louis IX; Christ; numismatics"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"dd44c4b3-03fc-5979-8e45-d6162ea57c5a":{"name":"Sword.","description":"Although this sword was not found in Crusader lands, it is a typical example of a Crusader sword brought to the Holy Land and used by European warriors and knights. The sword has a double-edged slashing blade, which tapers off to a sharp point. It has a central, single channel (fuller) running along the blade on each side, the presence of which lightens the sword without affecting its strength thus making it more effective for cutting and hacking. The handle has a pommel (the knob at the top of the grip) in the shape of a chamfered wheel that is inlaid with brass in the form of a cross design on one side, and a design consisting of three half circles linked in the middle with three lines, on the other. This type of pommel came into use in about the AH 5th / AD 11th century, when sword blades increased in length too. Despite the disappointing number of artefacts that have survived from the Crusades, contemporary European manuscripts and their miniature paintings, together with monuments and their carvings, have depicted with impressive accuracy the types of arms and armour used during the Crusader period.","short_description":"Although this sword was not found in Crusader lands in the Middle East, it is a typical example of a Crusader sword brought to the Holy Land and used by European warriors and knights. Contemporary Medieval European manuscripts depict, with remarkable accuracy, Crusader arms and armour.","type":"Metalwork, iron, arms, armours","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"About hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 119.4 cm: comprising (pommel) 4.8 cm, (grip) 10 cm, (blade) 104 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis: several reasonably accurate examples of these swords appear in contemporary European miniatures in manuscripts, and on stone carvings, confirming that northern European Crusader knights in the Holy Land used this type of sword.","provenance":"Continental / Northern Europe.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Coe, M. D., et al, *Swords and Hilt Weapons*, New York, 1989.  \n  \nNicolle, D., *The Crusades*, Oxford, 1988.","dynasty":"Crusader","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Iron, with brass inlay on pommel."],"keywords":["Military object; Crusader; pilgrimage; weapon; weaponry; arms; armours"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"df881eea-95c8-5db6-825d-d04360d53ffd":{"name":"Mamluk *mashaf*","alternate_name":"Qur’anic manuscript, No. 16.","description":"A *mashaf* (Qur'anic manuscript) bound in deep-brown leather, made up of two covers (front and back) and a library marker. The ornamentation on this binding is reminiscent of Mamluk *mashafs* in that the intertwining geometric lines, by intersecting with each other, create fields of different sizes that are filled with embossed details. The margins of both sides of the binding are delineated with different decorative frames. The inside of the binding is also decorated with an embossed medium-sized circle surrounded by semi-circles.  \nFolio 1b–2a is composed of two pages written in *thuluth* script in black ink; the lettering branching out into illumination. There are 10 lines to each page; each line is surrounded by strokes that encircle the text. Folio 2b–3a forms the frontispiece of the *mashaf.* It comprises two pages that contain two identical panels covering most of the spread, and is composed of decoration made up of intersecting geometric lines. The lines encompass between them fields of varying sizes, and each field holds a golden blossom within it. Each blossom varies in size to fit the geometric zone that contains it. The decorative panels finish at the top and bottom with illuminated bands that include text from the Qur'an “al-Waqi'ah” (“The Event, The Inevitable” 56: 76–82). Vegetal decoration surrounds the bands and panels in gold and blue, framing all four sides of the pages.  \nFolio 3b–4a contains the opening pages of the *mashaf*. Both pages are identically decorated and are written in illuminated *thuluth* script composed of five lines. Ornamentation of climbing vegetal motifs, framing broad rectangular areas, is placed above and below the text as well as on the sides. On the remaining pages the text is written in *thuluth* script in black ink. The pause marks assume the shape of flowers in gold, blue and brown. The name “Majesty” (*al-Jalala)* and the *Basmala* (In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful) are written in gold. The chapter and verse number is white outlined in black; it sits on a wavy gold background on blue, or occasionally red, within a wide gold strip that forms a rectangular frame. The last two pages of the *mashaf*, which contain the last three chapters of the Qur'an, are written in gold.","short_description":"A complete Mamluk Qur’an in two covers of leather with intertwining geometric lines. At the beginning are two identical decorative panels with two blossoms. The text is written in *thuluth* script in black ink. The pause marks assume the shape of flowers in gold, blue and brown. Illumination is used especially in chapter names, a number of verses and where the word ‘Majesty’ appears.","type":"Mashaf, paper, manuscript","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"*Qadi* (Judge) Taj al-Din Abi Ishaq al-Maliki (d. AH 771 / AD 1369).","dates":"Before hegira 771 / AD 1369; during the lifetime of the original owner.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 47 cm, width 32 cm, depth 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"The dating of this *mashaf* is supported by the knowledge of the life-span of the original owner, *Qadi* (Judge) Taj al-Din Abi Ishaq al-Maliki (d. 771 / 1369).","method_for_provenance":"Egypt was narrowed down as the place where the *mashaf* was copied due to the style of the script, the decoration used, as well as the leather binding. The *mashaf* is fairly typical of Egyptian manuscripts of this sort produced in the same period.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"The *mashaf* was transferred from al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil) where it had been endowed by its owner for recitation, to the Islamic Museum in 1927.","bibliography":"Al-'Asqalani, Ahmad bin 'Ali bin Hajar (d. 852 / 1448), *Al-Durar al-Kamina fi al-A'yan al-Mi'a al-Thamina \\[The Valuable Jewellery of the Personalities of the Eighth Century\\],* Vols. 1 and 6, Hyderabad, 1972.  \nSalameh, K., *Al-Makhtutat al-Qur'aniya fi al-Muthaf al-Islamu fi al-Haram al-Sharif \\[Qur'anic Manuscripts in the Islamic Museum in al-Haram al-Sharif\\],* Paris, 2003.  \nAl-Maqrizi, Taqi al-Din, A., (d. 845 / 1442), *Al-Suluk li Marifat Duwal al-Muluk \\[The Right Ways to Know the Lands of the Rulers\\],* Vols. 2 and 3, Cairo, 1970.  \nal-Shaja'i, Shams al-Din, *Al-Malik al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun Salihi wa Awladahu \\[The Ruler, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun Salihi and his Sons\\],* Fisbadan, 1978.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Coloured inks on paper with gilding; the binding, embossed leather."],"keywords":["Illumination; leather binding; thuluth; embossed decoration; vegetal decoration; geometric decoration; Qur’an; mashaf; paper; religious manuscript"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e1e587a5-e3ec-54cd-a541-b98bd284ead1":{"name":"Tower of al-Zahir Baybars.","description":"The floor-plan of the tower is approximately the shape of a three-quarter circle. The higher sections of the eastern and northern facades are decorated with a large group of lions chiselled from stone, for this reason the tower was once known as the Lion Tower. The lion was in fact the blazon of Sultan Baybars who, in addition to building this tower, also renovated some of the citadels in the *Sham* region (Bilad al-Sham was the traditional Arab name for the region that today contains Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine), including the Citadel of 'Ajlun in Jordan. The Tower of al-Zahir Baybars was obscured underground until recently (1983) when it was discovered during construction of the Police Museum. The museum was constructed on top of a section of the newly discovered tower, while the lower section remains underground.","short_description":"When Sultan Baybars al-Bunduqdari entered the Citadel in AH 659 / AD 1260, a new era began in Egyptian history. He is termed the real founder of the Mamluk state, which he ruled for 17 years. He repelled the attacks of the Moguls and the Crusaders and re-instated the Abbasid caliphate in Egypt after the fall of Baghdad. He installed the new caliph, al-Mustansir Billah, to rule the Islamic countries. The tower bears the blazon of its sponsor in the form of a lion.","dates":"Hegira 658–76 / AD 1260–77.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"Dating of the building was supported by historical sources such as the *Khitat* of al-Maqrizi and the research of Creswell (1924) on the citadel of Cairo, which mentions that the tower was the work of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars.","bibliography":"Casanova, P., “Histoire et Description de la Citadelle du Caire”, *Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique Française du Caire,* No. 6, Paris, 1897.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., “Archaeological Researches at the Citadel of Cairo”, *Bulletin l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale,* No. 23, Cairo, 1924, pp.89–167.  \nRabbat, N., *The Citadel of Cairo,* Geneva, 1989.  \nZaki, Abd al-Rahman, *Qal'a Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi wa ma hawlaha min al-Athar \\[Citadel of Salah al-Din Ayyubi and the Surrounding Monuments\\],* Cairo, 1971.","patrons":"Sultan al-Zahir Baybars al-Bunduqdari (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Tower; figurative decoration; war-time architecture; military architecture"],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e67f38ec-fa2d-5d97-b5a7-c6d7c6f6bd23":{"name":"Aqsa Mosque.","description":"The Aqsa Mosque is a rectangular building within the Haram al-Sharif. The Haram site slopes from the north to the south and this tendency is addressed by a platform that traverses it, and upon which the mosque was erected. The layout of the present mosque is the result of reconstructions and modifications that have characterised a number of building stages in different periods, and which are the subject of some debate among historians and researchers.  \nThe first stages of construction of the Aqsa Mosque are associated with the Caliph 'Umar bin al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) who erected a *mihrab* and a simple mosque on the same site as the present mosque. Mujir al-Din (d. AH 928 / AD 1521), an historian and authority on the architecture of Jerusalem, mentions that Caliph 'Umar while clearing the Haram area of debris, uncovered the sacred rock. He consulted those with him about the ideal position of the mosque and was advised to situate it to the north of the rock, but he refused, saying: “But we must make its *qibla*, its front \\[any part of the wall on the south\\], as has the Prophet of God made the *qibla* of our mosques, their front”. In about AH 49–50 / AD 670, the famous traveller Arculf stated that the mosque was located in the southern area of the Haram; it was erected on great wooden piers constructed from re-used material found in the region and that the mosque was widened to accommodate 3000 worshippers.  \nNothing tangible remains of the original mosque, known as the Masjid al-'Umari, since it was renovated at the beginning of AH 65 / AD 685.  \nThe Aqsa Mosque was built during the reign of Abd al-Malik. It had 15 arcades, none of which have survived intact except those on the southern wall, due to the fact that the mosque was badly damaged by a number of earthquakes and was restored a number of times.  \nDuring the Crusader period the Aqsa Mosque was converted into a church. A large recess was added in the eastern side, corresponding to the layout of churches facing the east. The recess remains to this day.  \nThe present al-Aqsa mosque has nine entrances: seven of them are located in the northern wall, one in the west wall and another in the east. The northern wall is preceded by a colonnade composed of seven slabs of stone, each covered by an intersecting vault. The colonnade opens out on to the plaza of the Haram al-Sharif through a large tapered arch.  \nThe ground plan of the mosque is a rectangle measuring 50 m x 80 m. It is composed of seven aisles extending from north to south; the middle one being the widest and highest of them. The three western colonnades are supported by large piers, while the eastern colonnades are supported by a series of marble columns imported from Italy during the restoration of this section by the High Islamic Council in the first half of the 20th century. At the southern end of the middle aisle there is a wooden semi-circular dome supported by corner squinches. Below the dome is the beautiful *mihrab* built by order of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) when he liberated the mosque from the Franks in AH 583 / AD 1187.","short_description":"The present building is a product of many architectural developments, since all the dynasties that ruled the Islamic state left their mark on this building, which also fell victim to successive earthquakes. The last catastrophe was the result of an arson attack in 1969. Not much remains of the first building stages (Umayyad); its form has changed as a result of continuous renovation and restoration and it has been lengthened and not widened as is the case for Umayyad mosques. It is now composed of seven colonnades, the widest in the middle, and is topped by a gabled roof. It is connected to the miracle of the *Isra’* and *Mi’raj* (Night of the Prophet’s Ascension) for the site was mentioned in the Qur’an.","dates":"Hegira 65–96 / AD 685–715.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by inscriptions, historical sources, as well as evidence of finds from archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Oxford, 1932.  \nHamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of the Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938–42*, London, 1949.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, pp.74–6.","patrons":"Caliph 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705) and al-Walid bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 86–96 / AD 705–15). The building was renovated several times thereafter, in the eras of: the Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja’far al-Mansur (r. AH 136–58 / AD 754–75), Caliph al-Mahdi (r. AH 158–69 / AD 775–85), the Fatimid Caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93), Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40) and a number of the Ottoman sultans.","dynasty":"Built in the Umayyad period; renovated in the Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Congregational mosque; haram; religious building; mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fc08aed9-57d3-59a7-83b4-abccf4770360":{"name":"Candlestick of Qalawun.","description":"A copper candlestick consisting of a cylindrical body, base and neck. The cylindrical neck is smaller in diameter than the base and body. At the top of the neck is a candleholder that is wider than the neck. Three decorative bands wrap themselves around the relatively broad base of the candlestick. The first band consists of shapes that are separated from each other by polygons. The second band is characterised by interwoven half-leaves that wrap around each other like a necklace. The third band is similar in shape to an ear of wheat. The body of this candlestick is reminiscent of another, also in the Museum, that belonged to al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun.  \nThe body of the candlestick exhibited here has an engraved inscription band in large Mamluk *naskhi* script, which fills its surface. The spaces in between the inscription are filled with intertwining vegetal motifs, which continue until there are no spaces remaining on the surface of the candlestick body. The inscription reads: “The possession of our lord, the great *amir*, the all-knowing, the just, the sovereign, the victorious”.The inscription is intersected by two circular medallions, each of which is formed by an outer circle filled with depictions of lotus flowers, and an inner circle that contains one big flower. The body ends with two bands of vegetal decoration that resemble the remaining decorative scheme of the body.  \nThe top-plate of the candlestick is devoid of decoration and it is probably not original; the original was probably decorated and perhaps had an inscription band. It is likely that replacement of the top-plate took place when the neck of the candlestick was replaced, but it is not known when these alterations took place. The replaced neck, also undecorated, indicates the decline in craftsmanship during the late Mamluk period. There is striking similarity between this candlestick and that of al-Nasir Muhammad, which suggests that both candlesticks were made by the same craftsman in the same period.","short_description":"A copper candlestick with thick vegetal decorative motifs. Its epigraphic inscriptions are within medallions and written in large Mamluk *naskhi* script, with backgrounds of vegetal decoration. The inscriptions are linked to the ruler, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun, who endowed it to al-Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron.","type":"Candlestick, copper","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Mamluk Sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40).","dates":"Hegira 693–741 / AD 1294–1340.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 38.5 cm, height (of neck) 19.5 cm, diameter 23.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated based on the inscriptions on it, which also mention the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun.","method_for_provenance":"Cairo was narrowed down as the place of production by studying the craftsmanship and decoration of these candlesticks, and by comparing them with two similar candlesticks in the Islamic Museum in Cairo that were produced in the same period.","provenance":"Probably Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"The piece was transferred after 1967 from al-Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron (al-Khalil), to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., *Islamic Art Through the Ages: Masterpieces of the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem,* 1998.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “Three Candlesticks from the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif”, *Levant*, No. 20, 1988.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Copper, engraved and inlaid with silver."],"keywords":["Naskhi script; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; candlestick; copper; engraving; copper; inlay; silver"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fc210313-c572-52b3-ab9c-6ec080f0812a":{"name":"Oil lamp.","description":"A glass lamp composed of three sections: base, body and the neck, and completely covered with vegetal decoration beautifully and skilfully executed. It is painted with a variety of colours, with enamel and with profuse gilding. In addition it is adorned with written inscriptions and the blazon of the endower. The neck of the lamp is wide and narrows as it moves in closer to the body, thus taking the form of a conic glass. The neck is adorned with both vegetal motifs that fill the surface, and with an inscription band in Mamluk *thuluth* script. The inscription, 8 cm high, rendered in dark-blue, includes part of a verse from the Qur'an, “al-Tauba” (“the Repentance” 9: 18): “The Mosques of Allah shall be visited and maintained by such as believe in Allah and the Last Day”.The verse is intercepted by three circular medallions with a red circle at the centre, within which is a gilded goblet, the blazon of Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri. A decorative band is located between the body of the lamp and its neck formed from eight consecutive lotus flowers. The body is decorated with a relatively large gilded inscription band, against a dark-blue background, it reads: “This has been ordered by the Sublime, our lord, the *amir*, al-Saifi Tankaz supporter of the honourable and protected Mamluks in al-Sham \\[Syria\\]”. The inscription is interrupted by six suspension loops that are used to attach the chains for hanging the lamp. There is decorative band below that containing the inscription this is adorned with vegetal motifs. The lower area of the body, before transferring to the base, contains six medallions, three of which contain blazons and the remaining three of which are filled with vegetal motifs. The base of the lamp is 4 cm high; it is wider at the bottom than the top. The base is adorned with three bands filled with gilded vegetal decoration.","short_description":"The glass lamp is completely covered with intricate and skilful vegetal decoration and is painted in a variety of colours, with enamel and gilding. The body bears a gilded inscription and the blazon of its endower, Amir Tankiz al-Nasiri, against a dark-blue background. The lamp has a number of decorative medallions.","type":"Oil lamp, glass","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri who occupied the position of a representative of the Sultanate in al-Sham (Great Syria) region in AH 712–40 / AD 1312–40. This was during the rule of the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40).","dates":"Hegira 712–40 / AD 1312–40.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 33 cm, diameter (of mouth) 18 cm.","method_for_datation":"The lamp was dated based on the written inscriptions on it, which mention the name of its owner, Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri.","method_for_provenance":"Lamps, similar to that exhibited here, were renowned during the Mamluk period. They were typically produced in either Cairo or Damascus, so it is likely that this piece was made in Damascus in view of the fact that Amir Tankaz was a deputy there.","provenance":"Probably Damascus or Cairo.","obtention":"The lamp was transferred from al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil) to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem in 1967.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., *Islamic Art Through the Ages: Masterpieces of the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif,* Jerusalem, 1998.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Painted, enamelled and gilded glass."],"keywords":["Thuluth; gilded glass; painted glass; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; lamp; mosque interior decoration"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fe0665ae-557f-5721-993c-8b5887d08251":{"name":"Qubbat al-Su’ud (Dome of Ascension).","description":"Qubbat al-Su'ud (Dome of Ascension) is an independent commemorative building the design of which is based on an octagonal plan on the outside, and a circular one on the inside. The building is located at the centre of a walled-in area with unequal sides. It is built from medium-sized white stone blocks which have turned to ash-grey due to the climate.  \nThe Dome of Ascension is Byzantine in origin (AH 17 / AD 638) and circular in form. The Franks replaced it in AH 492–583 / AD 1099–1187 with a roofless octagonal building which was renovated and then abandoned, during the Ayyubid period after the Battle of Hattin (AH 583 / AD 1187). It was then turned into a mosque but only on the condition that Christians could still use it during festivals, special events and even on ordinary days, without any restrictions or conditions.  \nThe present building has a stone octagonal façade and is composed of three sections. The first section is the “body”, composed of eight tapered arches supported on piers with compact marble columns. The columns terminate with capitals adorned with representations of animals and humans, which are associated with the Christian era. The arches, originally open, were blocked off in the Ayyubid era by a series of stone courses. The opening for a door was prepared on the western façade, and the capitals with their multiplicity of decorative motifs were restored.  \nThe second section of the building is the drum of the dome, which is circular in form and forms a zone of transition between the octagonal body and the dome. This section of the building is closed; there are no openings, except a long window on the western façade. The third section of the building is the dome, which is covered on the outside by tesserae, and which is crowned by a small stone crescent.  \nThe entrance to the building is emphasised by means of a tiled passageway leading from the door on the western façade. The interior floor is also tiled with tesserae. The area where “the footprint of Christ” lies is slightly elevated and surrounded by a rectangular stone frame. On the southern side of the octagon lies a *mihrab* that was placed there during the Ayyubid period, and which become an important Islamic landmark alongside the Christian relic, represented by the spot from which Christ ascended to heaven.","short_description":"This is a commemorative building located on the heights of the nearby summit of the holy Mount of Olives that overlooks Jerusalem. From the outside the building assumes an octagonal form, while the interior has a circular plan. The site was the location for a Byzantine church, which was built to commemorate the Ascension of Christ to heaven. The distinguishing features of this Byzantine building were completely changed by the Franks and Salah a-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin). The site is sacred to Muslims and Christians.","dates":"Hegira 595 / AD 1198.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by architectural comparisons with the domes of the Haram al-Sharif, and supported by other historical information such as travelogues. Archaeological excavations uncovered fragments of Byzantine ceramics, confirming that the site was originally Byzantine.","bibliography":"Abu Rayya, R., *Al-Mawqi' al-Islamiya 'ala Jabal al-Zaytun/Tur Zita \\[The Islamic Site on the Mount of Olives\\],* MA Thesis, al-Quds University, 1999.  \nBieberstein, K., and Bloedhorn, H., *Jerusalem Grundzuege der Baugeschichte vom Chalkolithikum bis zur Fruhziet der Osmanischen Herrschaft,* Vol. III. Wiesbaden, 1994.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nPierotti, E., *Jerusalem Explored,* London, 1864.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.138–9.","patrons":"The overseer of the building is not known, but the renovation and addition of the mihrab was likely to have been ordered by Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","dynasty":"Ayyubid / Crusader.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ascension; commemorative architecture; dome; church; mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"}}
+{"060dee0a-fee6-55fb-aada-947a4da800d1":{"name":"Column capital.","description":"A limestone capital with boldly cut foliage and volutes resting on twin columns. Pine cones, resembling bunches of grapes, are dispersed amongst symmetrically arranged stylised acanthus leaves. The leaves are punctuated with drilled holes. This design recalls some of the Abbasid capitals which were in turn inspired by Late Antique styles. However, instead of one pine cone and naturalistic leaf forms this capital has a proliferation of pine cones with more abstract leaves. Therefore it is probably later in date, perhaps made during Saladin's renovations of Jerusalem following his victory over the Crusaders, in the late 12th century.","short_description":"High-relief carvings of leaves alternating with pinecones decorate this limestone capital. The design dates to the Abbasid period but ultimately derives from Late Antique models. This capital was found in the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem.","type":"Stonework, limestone","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 32 cm, width 40 cm.","method_for_datation":"Saladin, the greatest Islamic hero of the Crusades, led the battle against the Crusaders and won back Jerusalem from them in 1187; this capital may have been made during Saladin's renovations of the city following his victory.","method_for_provenance":"The capital was found in the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"Donated to the British Museum by the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1903.","bibliography":"Wilkinson, J., Column Capitals in al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem, 1987.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Limestone."],"keywords":["Architectural decoration; stonework; columns"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"09735692-5b84-55c8-9f6f-7ae132533658":{"name":"Candlestick of al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun.","description":"A candlestick consisting of a cylindrical base and body, as well as a cylindrical neck whose diameter is small when compared to the base and body. Three decorative braid-like bands wrap around the base of the candlestick, one on top of the other. They are separated from the one adjacent to it by strokes, which also wind around the base. The body of the candlestick is completely covered with decoration, including a large inscription in Mamluk *naskhi* script that extends from the lowest section of the body to the top. It reads: “The possession of the sublime, the sovereign, the all-knowing, the just, the victorious.” The background of the inscription is filled in with dense vegetal decoration that is worked throughout the body. Two medallions appear on the body of the candlestick, each of which consists of three circles: the interior one is extremely small and in it is a fan-shaped decorative form. The middle circle contains vegetal decoration within twisted lines, which might be lotus blossom. The outer circle is large and also contains vegetal decoration of flowers and intertwining leaves. Two decorative bands are wrapped around the surface (plate) of the candlestick. There is an encircling inscription on the surface written in Mamluk *naskhi* script that reads: “The Possession of the Sublime, The lord, The sovereign, the warrior, the Mujahid, the knower, the helper, the victorious.” Two medallions intercept the inscription, each of which contains a depiction of a bird most likely a pigeon or a partridge. The two birds face each other. The background of the inscription is filled in with a collection of leaves and flowers. The neck of the candlestick is clearly not original and the replacement certainly indicates the decline in craftsmanship during the late Mamluk period.  \nIt is noteworthy that travellers who visited al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, as well as al-Haram al-Ibrahimi, (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil), mentioned in their descriptions of these places that they contained a large number of lamps and candlesticks, only a few of which have survived to the present. Some of them are displayed in the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","short_description":"A cylindrical candlestick with two epigraphic inscriptions. There are no spaces as thick vegetal decoration has been worked over the entire body. From its decoration, script and titles it appears to be associated with al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun. It is typical of Mamluk candlesticks made in Cairo and Damascus. It was formerly at al-Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron.","type":"Candlestick, copper","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40).","dates":"Hegira 693–741 / AD 1294–1340.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 43.4 cm, diameter 29 cm, height (of neck) 18.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The candlestick is dated by the inscriptions on it which mention the titles of the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun. Further, an accurate date was achieved by study of its style and decoration and through analysis of the calligraphic script used, and also by comparing it to other pieces of the same period.","method_for_provenance":"Cairo was narrowed down as the place of production by studying the method of manufacture and decoration. The Islamic Museum in Cairo holds a number of dated candlesticks similar to this one. It is probable that Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun donated this candlestick and another one to the Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron (al-Khalil).","provenance":"Probably Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"The piece was transferred some time after 1967 from the Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron (al-Khalil) to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., *Islamic Art Through the Ages: Masterpieces of the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem*, 1998.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “Three Candlesticks from the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif”, *Levant*, No. 20, 1988.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Copper with decorative carving inlaid with silver."],"keywords":["Naskhi script; naskhi; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; candlestick; Mamluk; engraving; copper"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"0d0046d9-7674-55cd-8c61-86fb8bdda733":{"name":"Frankish Letter.","description":"A letter written on Arabic paper (more acidic than European paper) and which is small in size. Although yellowing, its condition is excellent. The letter consists of six lines written in Latin, and was sent from the city of Sur by the Knights Templar *(Templar/ Fursan al-Haykal*) Brotherhood to the Templar Brotherhood in Jerusalem. The subject of the letter revolves around the Temple personnel in Jerusalem who received the pilgrim, Robier du Sur du Fal. The decision was taken in the city of Fula in Palestine to strip him of his apparel in Sur and to imprison him in Acre until he could be taken to Europe on the first available ship sailing from the port. The letter does not explain the reason for this decision, or the nature of the crime that Robir du Sur du Fal allegedly committed, but it seems that the matter must have been of some importance to require the attendance of more than 100 knights from the Templar at a meeting.  \nThe letter translates as follows:  \n“To Brother, 'Udun De Wandum, the representative for the Jerusalem Brotherhood, Brother Jarar De Ridfor, commander of the soldiers of the Templar Brotherhood to Brother U'dun Di Wandum, the representative of the Brotherhood in Jerusalem:  \nGreetings! You should know that Du Sur du Fal has landed on the shores of the city of Sur. And our agent received him in that region. After that, we held a gathering in al-Fula and a hundred Knights or more assembled at the site. We requested their opinions about what to do on this matter. They agreed on the general advice and were completely unanimous on sending five of their brother knights to the city of Sur in order to divest him of his clothing and take him to Acre. There, they would sojourn with him in a designated room until the first ship of the season.”  \nThe document reveals the traditions and customs of the Latin brotherhoods as they appear in the Knights Templar in the Crusader state of Jerusalem. The strong bonds that held together the various branches of the brotherhood in Palestine and Lebanon are also apparent.","short_description":"This letter was written on small-sized paper and contains six lines of Latin script. Its subject deals with the imprisoning of one of the members of the Templar Brotherhood and his forcible divestment of official apparel. He was then to be taken on the first available ship to Europe. The letter reveals the traditions and ways of this brotherhood.","type":"Letter, paper","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","dates":"Hegira 575–79 / AD 1180–8.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 4 cm, width 17 cm.","method_for_datation":"The letter is dated.","method_for_provenance":"Sur is likely to be the place where this letter was composed; this is supported by the text.","provenance":"Sur, Lebanon.","obtention":"The letter was found amongst a collection of papers and documents in a room close to the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Ink on paper."],"keywords":["Knight’s Templar Brotherhood; letter; Crusader; Frankish"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"1557e889-e4c0-511e-92f2-cf332ab357cf":{"name":"Incense burner.","description":"A circular incense burner with a hinged domed cover, standing on three curved feet in the form of stylised horse hooves. The cover is pierced to emit smoke. Christian figures with haloes, some carrying Christian liturgical items that include a cross and censer, inhabit the lobed arches around the body and cover; all but one is facing in a clockwise direction. Both the male and the female figures wear a long-sleeved gown which reaches almost to the ankles, with a shawl draped over the right shoulder. All the figures are bare-headed except for the one holding a cross who wears a turban. The medallion that does not contain a figure and which stands between two inhabited arches, was probably once the place of a handle. There is a benedictory inscription in kufic script around the apex of the lid to an anonymous owner. This burner belongs to a group of metal objects with Christian figures made during the Ayyubid period that may have been intended for either Muslim or Christian patrons. Given the fine quality of this burner it was evidently not a mass-produced household object but was more likely to have been created for a wealthy patron. The shape of the burner stems from the Byzantine tradition which continued to be popular in both Egypt and Syria during the 13th and 14th centuries.","short_description":"This incense burner is one of a group of inlaid metal objects with Christian figures made in Syrian or Mesopotamian workshops. It could have been commissioned for either a Muslim or a Christian patron.","type":"Metalwork, decoration object, silver and gold","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 596–647/ AD 1200–1250.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 20 cm, width 12.5 cm, depth 12.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Both the technique and decoration resemble several metal objects produced in Mosul and Syria in the 13th century, including objects such as the Blacas Ewer made in Mosul in 1232 (now in the British Museum), or a candlestick made in Syria in 1248–9, (now in the Musée des Arts décoratifs in Paris).","method_for_provenance":"The technique and decoration on this burner can be compared to that of other metal objects produced in Mosul and cities in Syria in the 13th century. The similarity of technique and style between the metalwork of northern Mesopotamia and Syria is due to the movement of metalworkers from Mosul to Syria in search of work under the Ayyubid sultans. For example, a ewer in the Louvre in Paris (dated AH 657 / AD 1258) was made by Husain Ibn Muhammad of Mosul for the Ayyubid Sultan Salah al-Din Yusuf, who ruled from Damascus.","provenance":"Syria or northern Mesopotamia.","obtention":"Bequeathed by John Henderson in 1878.","bibliography":"Baer, E., Ayyubid Metalwork with Christian Images, Leiden, 1989, fig.1, p.15–20.  \n  \nL'Orient de Saladin au temps des Ayyoubides, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 2001, cat. no. 96, p.113.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Engraved, moulded brass inlaid with silver and gold."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; christian themes; cross; Byzantine; kufic script"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"16512ef6-b198-5c9c-9905-fe8825a14887":{"name":"Qal‘at Salah al-Din (Saladin).","alternate_name":"Sahyun or Saone","description":"Saladin castle may be considered one of the most elaborate castles of the Bilad al-Sham, featuring the main characteristics of Byzantine, Frankish, Ayyubid and Mamluk architectural styles, including a variety of military, civil, religious and palatial types. The castle is located on the northern buttresses of the Jabal Ansariyya (also known as Jabal Bahra) Mountain, overlooking the minor road that intersected the mountain between the town of Latakia and the northern Ghab plain. For the most part, the castle played the role of a manorial residence for the Crusaders, the Ayyubids and the Mamluks.  \nDuring the 11th century, the site was occupied by the Byzantines who launched an ambitious fortification campaign during their expansionist efforts. They were briefly curtailed by the Seljuqs after-which the castle was conquered by the Crusaders between AH 507–8 / AD 1114 and AH 513 / AD1119. Granted as a fief to one of the Knights Hospitallers, Robert son of Foulques d'Anjou and to his successors, the castle was improved significantly, possibly with the help of the Military Orders. This Crusader stronghold was finally conquered by the Ayyubid, Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin) in AH 584 / AD 1188 after a three-day siege and granted as an *iqta'* (property donation) to an Ayyubid prince Nasir al-Din Mengüverish. After being threatened by the Mongols in the middle of the AH 7th / AD 13th century, it was peacefully recovered by the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars in AH 671 / AD 1272 and granted to a governor. With the advent of Sultan al-Mansur Sayf al-Din Qalawun in AH 679 / AD 1280, the anti-Sultan Sunqur al-Ashqar transformed the castle into his headquarters. Qalawun conquered it in AH 686 / AD1287. Saladin Castle was then transformed into a provincial administrative centre within the Mamluk Empire.  \nThe triangular shaped castle is established on a rocky spur isolated from the mountain by a wide artificial ditch whose depth is about 30 m. Measuring east to west almost 700-m long and 120 m of maximal width along the eastern ditch, the spur is divided into two topographical areas that dictated the layout of the defences. The eastern high courtyard, the heart of the Byzantine castle, was transformed into a manorial area by the Crusaders with the building of a huge square keep, of two large cisterns, numerous semi-circular and oblong flanking towers and the partial digging of the eastern ditch. Later, taking advantage of the pre-existing fortifications built by the Byzantines and by the Crusaders, the Ayyubids improved the defences and built a large palatial complex combining baths and reception rooms on two levels following the same model of the Ayyubid palace at Aleppo Citadel. Two *hammam*s and a mosque were also built around this complex during the Mamluk period with a reception tower astride the west wall of the high courtyard. The low courtyard, west, was also defensively fortified during the Crusader and Islamic occupations through the construction of two gate-towers and a surrounding wall.","short_description":"After the Battle of Hattin in which Salah al-Din reconquered Jerusalem, he went on a quick and efficient military campaign over the summer of AH 584 / AD 1188 in which he defeated over a dozen Crusader strong-points all along the eastern Mediterranean coasts and Jebel (Mount) Ansariyya. This castle, formerly known as Chateau de Saone and located northeast of Latakia, fell to Salah al-Din after a three-day siege and was subsequently named after him. It is elaborately constructed and strangely triangular in shape, taking advantage of the rocky terrain over which it towers.","dates":"Hegira 4th–7th century / AD 10th–16th century.","location":"Latakia region.","method_for_datation":"Many historical and architectural studies on the castle have helped in the definition of the monumental history of the site. The Syrian-French archaeological excavation of 2001 and 2002 confirmed the construction date as the first half of the 13th century. Mamluk inscriptions are located on the lintel of the mosque, the wall and rampart of the northeastern front, and the vaults of the *hammam* north of the Ayyubid palace.","bibliography":"Beddek, K., “Le complexe ayyoubide de la citadelle de Salah al-Din: bain ou palais?”, *Archéologie Islamique*, 11, 2001, pp.75–90.  \nDeschamps, P., “Le château de Saône et ses premiers seigneurs”, *Syria*, XVI, 1935, pp.71–88.  \nDeschamps, P., *Les châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte. Tome III – La défense du comté de Tripoli et de la principauté d'Antioche*, 2 Vols, Bibliothèque Archéologique et Historique, IFAPO, 105, Paris, 1973, pp.217–47.  \nKennedy, H., *Crusader Castles*, Cambridge, 1994, pp.84–97.  \nMesqui, J., *Sahyun/Saone/Qal'at Salah al-Din, Rapport préliminaire de la mission, 2002* \\[www.castellorient.com\\].  \nMichaudel, B., *Saone/Sahyun/Qal'at Salah al-Din. Etude historique de la forteresse de Saone*, 2005 \\[www. castellorient.com\\].  \nMüller-Wiener, W., *Castles of the Crusaders*, London, 1966, pp.44–5.  \nRey, E-G., *Etude sur les monuments de l'architecture militaire des Croisés en Syrie et dans l'île de Chypre*, Paris, 1871, pp.105–13.  \nSaadé, G., “Histoire du château de Saladin”, *Studii Medievali*, Vol IX, Part 2, 1968, pp.980–1016.  \nVan Berchem, M., and Fatio, E., “Voyage en Syrie”, Vol. I, *Mémoires de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale du Caire*, Cairo, 1914–15, pp.267–83.","patrons":"Crusader Lords of Saone (AH 508–4 / AD 1114–88); Ayyubid Mengüverish amirs (AH 584–671 / AD 1188–1272), rebel amir Sunqur al-Ashqar (AH 678–86 / AD 1279–87), Mamluk sultans: Qalawun (AH 678–89 / AD 1279–90); al-Ashraf Khalil (AH 689–93 / AD 1290–3) and al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4 / AD 1293–4; AH 698–708 / AD 1299–1309; AH 709–41 / AD 1310–41).","dynasty":"Hamdanid; Byzantine; Seljuq; Crusader; Ayyubid; Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":["Military architecture; palatial architecture; Salah al-Din; Baybars; Qalawun"],"author":"Benjamin Michaudel","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"18c15448-b023-55e4-944b-b20b8f98eb2e":{"name":"Damascus Citadel","description":"The Citadel functioned as a city within a city. It was founded by the Seljuqs in AH 469 / AD 1076, on the site of a former Roman *castrum* or military camp. Remains from both the Roman and the Seljuq fortresses still exist today, as do some of Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi (d. AH 569 / AD 1174) fortifications. The citadel was entirely rebuilt by al-Malik al-‘Adil Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr during the years AH 599–610 / AD 1202–14. Despite many subsequent changes and continued usage during the Mamluk, Ottoman and modern periods, the bulk of al-‘Adil's citadel is still intact.  \nThe Citadel complex is near-rectangular, about 220 m x 150 m, and the northwestern corner of the Citadel walls curves inwards to accommodate the Barada River. Its vastness is indiscernible from the outside due to its location amidst Suq al-Hamidiyya. The Citadel's north and west walls originally would have looked out on to open countryside, while the south and east walls overlook the city.  \nThe different phases of the Citadel's fortification may be recognised by the quality of the masonry. Most easily discernable are al-Malik al-‘Adil's refortifications. He completely redressed the original Seljuq walls with larger Roman stones, probably spolia from the ancient Temple of Jupiter nearby. New Ayyubid towers (*burg*s) were built outside the perimeters of the old Seljuq ones, and a gallery between the two was maintained for communication purposes. This process of Ayyubid expansion upon Seljuq-period fortifications can be seen at numerous other Syrian citadels, such as those at Bosra and Aleppo.  \nThe Damascus Citadel is renowned for its numerous *burg*s, a total of 16 or 17, of which 12 survive. There are four gates, one on each side, and each with a smaller postern gate nearby. The most strategically located point was the northern gate. Its three surrounding *burgs*, steel-bar gate, non-direct entry passageway and draw-bridge across the moat emphasise its defensive character. Meanwhile, the eastern gate is the most artistically magnificent, as it was the formal entry into the Citadel. It displays the first stone *muqarnas* portal in Damascus, copiously inscribed and beautifully painted. Restorers have been able to reveal a repertoire of decorative motifs on the *muqarnas* cells, including painting from the Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman eras.  \nThe stone *muqarnas* portal leads to a nine-vaulted hall often thought to be a throne room. It is a square area with a central cupola mounted on thick pillars with Roman-period capitals. Whether it is related to the Ayyubid palatial residence is yet to be established, as important excavations of the site are still underway.  \nLike other citadels of the period, the Citadel of Damascus was both a residence of the ruling elite and a site of Crusader warfare, as witnessed during the siege of Damascus in AH 542 / AD 1148. In general, the architectural style and fine masonry techniques reflect important Aleppine influences.","short_description":"The Citadel marks the northwestern corner of the old city. Its dimensions are vast, approximately 220 m x 150 m, and its major refortifications were undertaken by the Ayyubid ruler Al-Malik al-‘Adil during the years AH 599–610 / AD 1202–14. The most militarily strategic point is the northern gate, known as the 'Gate of Steel' and protected by a draw-bridge, three towers, and a non-direct entry passage. The most ornamental gate is the eastern gate, which features fine masonry, inscriptions and even paintings. Recent excavations have revealed a medieval metalsmithy for forging weapons in the Citadel's southwest quarter.","dates":"Hegira 599–610 / AD 1202–14.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The monument is dated by an inscription found on the northern tower, dated 610 (1213–14).","bibliography":"Allen, T., “Ayyubid Architecture”, *Occidental* (electronic publication 7th edition), 2003.  \nGardiol, J.-Bl., \"Le Palais ayyoubide de la citadelle de Damas: Premières données archéologiques et nouvelles observations\", *Bulletin d'études orientales*, Supplément *Citadelle de Damas*, vol. 53-54, Damas, 2002, pp. 47-58.  \nHanisch, H., *Die ayyubidischen Toranlagen der Zitadelle von Damascus*, Wiesbaden, 1996.  \nSauvaget, J., \"La citadelle de Damas\", *Syria,* 1930, pp.59–90, pp.215–41.","patrons":"Al-Malik al-‘Adil Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr, ruler of Damascus and Cairo AH 592–615 / AD 1196–1218.","architects":"Scholars have indicated the participation of Aleppine architects. There is also a signature of an unknown craftsman, Abu al-Wajd, found in a stucco decoration.","dynasty":"Ayyubid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Citadel; military architecture; gates; towers; muqarnas"],"author":"Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, Zena Takieddine","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"19003bf4-70f4-5b4f-9cbc-901f2ae697ef":{"name":"Haram al-Ibrahimi.","alternate_name":"Sanctuary of Abraham (the Ibrahimi Mosque).","description":"The Haram al-Ibrahimi is associated with the father of the prophets Ibrahim (Abraham), and is considered to be the fourth most important religious site in Islam (after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem), and the second holiest place after the Aqsa Mosque in Palestine. The Haram al-Ibrahimi consists of a large building with a rectangular floor plan of approximately 60 m x 34 m. The building is surrounded by a great wall built from large blocks of fine cut stone. The Haram has two minarets dating to the Mamluk period. The height of each of them is around 15 m from the surface of the building.  \nThe interior of the building includes a congregational mosque and an open courtyard, as well as arcades, rooms, corridors, domes, and a grotto (known as “al-Ghar”), in addition to a series of graves which were designated for the Prophets Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their wives.  \nThe principle prayer hall is rectangular, about 28 m x 21 m. It consists of three aisles, the middle one being the largest and the highest of them. The prayer hall was originally designed as a church, since it was erected by the Franks on a Romanesque model after they destroyed the mosque that was originally on the site in AH 492 / AD 1099. When Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) reclaimed the city of Hebron in AH 583 / AD 1187, the church was transformed into a mosque and the present *mihrab* was added to it.  \nThe wooden *minbar* which stands today to the right of the *mihrab*, dates to the Fatimid period and was commissioned by Badr al-Din Jamali in AH 484 / AD 1092. It was brought to the Haram by Salah al-Din from Ashqelon (which lies roughly 50 km south of Jaffa). This *minbar* is considered the oldest Islamic wooden *minbar* still in use. It is in good condition and considered a masterpiece in both workmanship and design.  \nThe walls of the prayer area are panelled with polychrome marble, one of the works commissioned by Amir Tankaz in AH 733 / AD 1332. On the northern wall of the prayer hall, where the opening of the holy underground grotto “al-Ghar” is, there is a platform (*dikkat al-muballigh*) from which the prayer leader recites. This was built in AH 732 / AD 1331, and is composed of marble pillars and capitals.  \nTo the north of the mosque lies an open courtyard surrounded by porticoes and rooms. In the northwest corner of the courtyard is the Malikiyya Prayer Hall consisting of an *iwan* with a rectangular ground plan. In the southern wall of the courtyard, there is a beautiful *mihrab* commissioned by Sultan Barquq. There is a portico located at the extension of the western wall of the mosque that is known today as the Jami' al-Nisa (The Women's Mosque). This was an addition sponsored by Amir Shihab al-Din al-Yaghmuri in AH 796 / AD 1393–4.  \nThe Masjid al-Jawali is integral to the Haram al-Ibrahimi although it is not possible to see it from the outside. The west wall of the Masjid al-Jawali is in fact the east wall of the enclosure of the Haram, while the east, north and south walls of the Masjid are hewn from the rock. This mosque was built in AH 720 / AD 1320 by order of Amir 'Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Jawali. It is composed of three arched arcades with intersecting vaults that bear great stone piers. In the middle of the mosque there is a fine, stone dome whose corners are characterised by *muqarnas* decoration. In the *qibla* wall there is a *mihrab* which has been hewn from the rock and panelled with polychrome marble. It is provided with a beautiful semi-dome structure which is also decorated in coloured marble.","short_description":"At over 2000 years old, this may be one of the world’s oldest sacred monuments still standing. It was built in the area believed to contain the graves of the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), his sons Isaac and Jacob and their wives. The large rectangular outer building dates to the early Roman period and is enclosed by a wall of stone blocks. The interior is the product of several Islamic periods. The principle prayer hall was built by the Franks in the Romanesque style. The building is crowned by two Mamluk minarets. It contains the decorated rooms of the tombs. The mosque holds the oldest Islamic wooden *minbar* still in use and dates to the Fatimid period.","dates":"First century BC; AH 492 / AD 1099.","location":"Hebron (al-Khalil)","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by inscriptions, which are further supported by historical information.","bibliography":"'Amru, Y., *Khalil al-Rahman al-Arabiya \\[al-Khalil, the Arab City\\],* Hebron, 1985.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil* \\[*The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nVincent, L. H., and Mackay E. J. H., *Hebron – Le Haram El Khalil,* Paris, 1923.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.202–4.","patrons":"A number of rulers, princes and sultans oversaw the construction, renovations and restorations of Haram al-Ibrahimi. Among them were: Herod (r. 37–4 BC) whom it is likely built the enclosure; Badr al-Din Jamali, the amir of the Fatimid armies; the Crusader Kings of Jerusalem, Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93), who restored the Islamic identity to the site and completely renovated it; Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri, deputy to the sultanate in Bilad al-Sham during the period AH 712–40 / AD 1312–40; Sultan Zahir Barquq (ruled twice AH 784–91 / AD 1382–9 and AH 792–801 / AD 1390–9) and Amir ‘Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Jawali, overseer of the two *harams* (al-Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem and this one in Hebron).","dynasty":"From the Roman period to the end of the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ibrahim; haram; religious architecture; tombs of the prophets"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"23643565-2f67-5fbb-a44a-abd9cfd3771f":{"name":"Karak Castle.","description":"Karak lies east of the Dead Sea in the biblical land of Moab, some 120 km south of Amman. The Frankish Castle, perched on an elevated escarpment, was laid out on a roughly trapezoidal plan which followed the contours of the ridge on the western and eastern sides (240 m and 220 m respectively), while on the northern and southern fronts (130 m and 85 m respectively) the castle was protected by deep dry moats. Placed beneath the southeastern battlement, a massive glacis (paved steep slope) was placed to secure that direction. Originally access to the castle was via a bridge that crossed a dry moat. This led to an elbow-shaped entrance in the western flank of the eastern salient in the north wall.  \nThe castle was commissioned by Payen Le Boutellier (the Butler) in AH 534 / AD 1139; it was completed in AH 537 / AD 1142. The castle was named Crac de Moab or simply le Crac by the Franks. The plan was based on that of an upper and a lower enceinte (court). The upper enceinte comprises the bulk of the castle's surface area and contains the church, olive and grape presses, bakeries and a palace (Mamluk). The lower enceinte occupies the western side of the ridge and is provided with a subterranean level containing two large halls running north to south and joined by a large central chamber; it also contains two additional halls at the northern end of the compound. Today these two parallel halls accommodate the archaeological museum.  \nTwo types of stone were employed in the construction of the castle, and these types correspond to two distinctive architectural phases: a hard blackish-red chert; the other a fine yellowish limestone. The former type of stone represents the Frankish stage of construction, whereas the latter belongs to the Ayyubid–Mamluk period of around the AH 7th –8th / AD 13th and 14th centuries.  \nBoth Karak and Shawbak castles were taken by the soldiers of the famous Ayyubid leader Salah al-Din (Saladin) soon after the decisive victory at Hattin (AH 583 / AD 1187) and were refortified several times in the following centuries by both the Ayyubids (AH 570–648 / AD 1174–1250) and the Mamluks (AH 648–923 / AD 1250–1517).","short_description":"The Frankish castle of Karak was commissioned by Payen le Boutellier in AH 534 / AD 1139 and completed in 537 / 1142. It was built on an elevated escarpment following its contours. Protected by deep dry moats, a massive glacis (paved steep slope) secured the southeastern approach.. Two types of stone were employed in the construction: a hard blackish-red chert representing the Crusader stage, and a fine yellowish limestone belonging to the Ayyubid–Mamluk period. The castle was taken by the forces of Salah al-Din (Saladin) soon after 583 / 1187 and was refortified several times in the following centuries.","dates":"Hegira 6th–8th century / AD 12th–14th century.","location":"Karak","method_for_datation":"The monument has been dated through archaeological excavations, Arabic inscriptions, and by various historical sources. Karak has received relatively little archaeological or architectural study. Its complex history can be culled from Crusader and Arabic historical sources, e.g. William of Tyre, Fulcher of Chartres, Ibn al-Athir, Ibn Shaddad, Ibn Wasil, Abu-Shama, al-Maqrizi and others. More recently the castle has been discussed by P. Deschamp (1939), R. C. Samil (1956: pp.218–22), W. M. Müller-Wiener (1966: pp.47–8). An overview of the history of Karak and the castle is provided by S. M. Momani (see bibliography).","bibliography":"المومني،سعد محمد، \" القلاع الإسلامية في الأردن : الفترة الأيوبية و المملوكية\"، عمان، 1988، ص. 156–242.  \nBrown, R. M., “Excavations in the 14th Century Mamluk Palace at Kerak”, *Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan*, XXXIII, 1989, pp.287–304.  \nDeschamp, P., (ed) “Kerak et les Châteaux de la Terre Outre le Jourdain”, in: *Les Châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte: Le Crac des Chevaliers*, Vol. 2, Paris, 1939, pp.35–98.  \nKennedy, H., *Crusader Castles*, Cambridge, 1994, pp.45–52.","patrons":"Payen Le Boutellier (the Butler), begun in Hegira 534 / AD 1139 and completed in hegira 537 / AD 1142.","dynasty":"Crusader, Ayyubid–Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":["Castle; Crac de Moab; Crusaders; dry moat; enceinte; glacis"],"author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"23e8db58-0148-5dc3-98b4-98cb5313ba16":{"name":"Pilgrimage proxy scroll.","description":"This pilgrimage proxy scroll includes handwriting, painting, and drawing on an expensive yellow glazed paper known as *abadi*. It is in fragmentary condition and its title, as well as the section containing the *basmala* (the formula 'In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful'), are missing. The first of the two fragments includes a pair of standards bearing the name of the contemporary Abbasid caliph, al-Nasir (r. AH 575–622 / AD 1180–1225); the standard on the right is partially preserved. Below this emblem is a colour depiction of Mount Arafat flanked by candlesticks. Below this are depictions of the Maqam-i Ibrahim, a stone associated with the Prophet Abraham, and the water wells. Further below this is a depiction of al-Muzdalifa, where pilgrims spend the night as part of their pilgrimage duties, and al-Mina, which is the third most important site for pilgrims. The empty spaces in between the drawings are filled with inscriptions describing the requirements for the pilgrimage.  \n  \nThe depiction of the Ka'ba unfortunately has not survived in this scroll. The second fragment features depictions of al-Safa and al-Marwa (two locations that pilgrims visit in Mecca), the city of Medina (where pilgrims visit the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad), the city of Jerusalem, which pilgrims customarily visit after the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. This proxy certificate was prepared for a person identified as Umm Abbas, wife of Ghalib. The person performing the pilgrimage on her behalf is Ahmad ibn Fadl al-Andalusi. The document was prepared in AH 602 / AD 1206.  \n  \nIn the Middle Ages it was difficult for people, especially women, to go on pilgrimage. Therefore, people who went on pilgrimage themselves, and those who sent a proxy on their own behalves, wanted to own a certificate proving that they had visited the holy sites and fulfilled all the requirements for the pilgrimage (perhaps in order to leave them to the future generations). Such pilgrimage and proxy certificates are invaluable documents for they describe the pilgrimage ritual, depict the holy sites, and provide information regarding the social life of the period.","short_description":"Pilgrimage certificates document pilgrimages to the Holy Lands, culminating in circumambulation of the Ka'ba. The certificates or proxy certificates (for those unable to make the hazardous journey themselves) give the names of the pilgrim and the proxy, the places visited and worship performed, accompanied by pictures.","type":"Scroll, paper","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Umm Abbas, wife of Ghalib.","dates":"Hegira 602 / AD 1206.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"4737: Height 55 cm, width 26.5 cm.; 4746: Height 51 cm, width 26.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The document's inscription specifies the date 602 / 1206. Both the style of writing and the name of the contemporary caliph support this dating.","obtention":"Ismet Bey, the mayor of Istanbul and a member of the board of directors of the Museum of Islamic Foundations (the old name for the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts), visited the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus while travelling. He had a number of items in the Qubbat al-Hazine (Treasury) of the mosque, including Qur'ans and this pilgrimage document, transferred to the Museum where they were registered in the inventory in around 1332 / 1914.","bibliography":"Aksoy, Ş., and Milstein, R., “A Collection of Thirteenth-Century Illustrated Hajj Certificates”, *M. Uğur Derman 65th Birthday Festschrift*, Istanbul, 2000, pp.73–134.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.80–81.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Handwritten and hand-painted on glazed (abadi) paper using ink and watercolour."],"keywords":["Pilgrimage; hajj; Ka'ba"],"author":"Şule Aksoy","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"34df1c16-bb7b-5506-b850-656c4bb0f8aa":{"name":"Complex of Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun (Mausoleum, Madrasa and Hospital).","description":"The complex of Sultan Qalawun is considered to mark the beginning of a phase that pointed to a new architectural design known as a 'complex' that typically included more than one architectural component, and which served a number of functions. This complex is composed of a mausoleum, a *madrasa* and a hospital (*maristan*).  \nThe principle façade of this complex overlooks the street and extends 67 m in length, towering to 20 m in height. It is made of stone and comprises vertical arched recesses borne by marble pillars within which are windows decorated with interlaced geometric shapes. The façade also carries an inscription band carved into the stone, in *thuluth* script, which includes the name of the builder, his titles and the date of construction.  \nThe floor plan of the mausoleum is a square, the sides of which measure 35 m, approximately, in the midst of which are four great granite pillars with gilded capitals, and four brick piers panelled in fine marble and inlaid with mother-of-pearl. The piers and pillars bear arches whose soffits are ornamented with stucco decoration. The piers, pillars and their arches demarcate an octagonal surface in the middle of which is the tomb of al-Mansur Qalawun and his son, al-Nasir Muhammad (who ruled three times: AH 693–4 / AD 1294–5; AH 698–708 / AD 1299–1309; AH 709–41 / AD 1309–40). The octagonal area is roofed by a great dome with an octagonal drum. This area and its dome, is to an extent reminiscent of the Dome of the Rock at the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem (built AH 72 / AD 692). The walls of the mausoleum are characterised by marble revetment inlaid with delicate mother-of-pearl considered to be some of the finest decorative marble seen in Islamic architecture in Egypt. The mausoleum has a *mihrab*, which is decorated with marble and mother-of-pearl and considered to be one of the largest, as well as most splendid, *mihrab*s amongst Islamic monuments in Egypt.  \nThe *madrasa* consisted of a central open courtyard surrounded by four *iwan*s: the two large *iwan*s are the *qibla iwan* (southeastern) and the *iwan* facing it. The two small *iwan*s are on each of the sides. Nothing remains of the *madrasa* except the *qibla iwan*, distinguished by its unique façade. The *qibla iwan* overlooks the courtyard by means of three arches, the biggest of which is in the middle. In the *madrasa* the four Sunni schools of Islamic religious jurisprudence (*fiqh*), as well as medicine were taught; practical medicine was taught at the *maristan*.  \nThe *maristan* was one of the reasons that the complex was built, since it is mentioned that while Qalawun was in the *Sham* region (Bilad al-Sham was the traditional Arab name for the region that today contains Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine), he became ill with what could have been fatal sickness. The doctors treated him with medicines brought from the Nur al-Din Mahmud Maristan in Damascus, which cured him. When he was recovered Qalawun visited the hospital and was greatly impressed with it. He made a vow to God that he would build a similar hospital in Cairo. Qalawun chose to build the *maristan* on the site of the hall that belonged orginally to Sitt al-Mulk, a daughter of the Fatimid Caliph, al-Aziz bi Allah, but which later became a possession of Mu'anisa Khatun, a daughter of al-Malik al-‘Adil al-Ayyubi. The hall was situated at the end of the complex and consisted of four *iwan*s.  \nWhen it was operational the *maristan* provided doctors of all specialisations, nurses and the necessary furnishings, instruments and medicines. Little remains of the hospital today but for a few ruined parts, such as a section of the eastern *iwan* consisting of a marble fountain and a *shadirwan* (wall fountain), which once had fine marble decoration that resembled that in al-Aziz Palace (Zisa) in Palermo, Sicily, the construction of which was completed between AH 561 and 570 / AD 1166 and 1175.  \nThe complex contains a minaret that was restored in AH 703 / AD 1303 by Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun, following an earthquake in AH 702 / AD 1302. The minaret bears an inscription giving the date of renovation. The minaret is composed of three stories: the first and second stories are square in form, while the third storey is circular, consisting of decoration composed of interwoven arches. Some contemporary historical sources mention a great resemblance between the decorations seen here and the ornamentation of the architecture of al-Andalus, such as that seen in the Giralda, 'the Tower' (originally a minaret but greatly altered; built in AH 578 / AD 1184) in Seville, Spain.","short_description":"This is considered to be the first example of a Mamluk architectural complex including a number of different buildings. The complex comprises a mausoleum, a *madrasa*, a mosque and a *maristan* (hospital). It was erected on the site of part of the Fatimid Eastern Palace. The *madrasa* taught the four Sunni schools of *fiqh* (jurisprudence) and medicine; practical medicine was taught in the *maristan*. The *maristan* was established on the model of Bimaristan Nur al-Din in Damascus, where Qalawun was treated and cured before his rise to power.","dates":"Hegira 684 / AD 1285.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"This building was dated based on an inscription band along the length of the façade, which includes the name of the sponsor and the date of construction. It is also based on a foundational text that is carved on the lintel of the principle entrance to the building, which bears the name of the builder and the date when building commenced (AH 683 / AD 1284) and the date of its completion (AH 684 / AD 1285).","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *The Origins of the Cruciform Plan of the Cairene Madrasas*, Cairo, 1922.  \nHerzfeld, E., “Studies in Architecture”, *Ars Islamica*, 1942.  \nAl-Pasha, H., *Mawsu'at al-'Emara wa al-Athar wa al-Funun al-Islamiya \\[Encyclopaedia of the Architecture, Archaeology and the Arts of Islam*\\], Cairo, 1999.  \nSalem, al-Sayyed Mahmoud Abd al-Aziz, Al-*Ma'adin al-Masriya – Nazrah a'mma 'an aslaha wa tatawuriha mundu al-Fath al-'Arabi hatta al-Fath al-Othmani \\[Egyptian Minarets: A General View of their Origins and Development from the Arab Conquest to the Ottoman Conquest*\\], Cairo, 1991.  \nShafi, F., *Al-'Emara al-Arabiya fi Masr al-Islamiya \\[Arabic Architecture in Islamic Egypt*\\], Cairo, 1853.","patrons":"Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun (r. AH 678–89 / AD 1280–90).","architects":"Amir Alam al-Din al-Shuja'i, who was an expert in architecture and engineering, supervised construction. He mobilised the workforce and forbade them to work in any other place in order to accelerate completion of the building.","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Maristan (hospital);gilding; marble; marble inlaid with mother-of-pearl; shadirwan (wall fountain); mausoleum; medicine; funerary architecture; religious architecture; civil architecture; madrasa"],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"3a8f4926-8bbd-5e0d-af9c-239cc5185d26":{"name":"Marble inscription panel.","description":"A large, marble inscription panel produced to mark the foundation of the trench around the fortification wall of the old city of Jerusalem during the Ayyubid period. Produced four years after the Battle of Hattin, the panel was made with the aim that it would protect the city from new incursions launched by the Crusaders. Al-Asfahsalar Ali bin Ahmad al-Hikkari (d. AH 588 / AD 1192) supervised the digging of the trench.  \nIt is probable that the inscription panel was taken to the Haram al-Sharif while repairs to the city walls were being carried out during the reign of the Ottoman Sultan, Sulayman al-Qanuni (known in the West as Sulayman the Magnificent; r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66). The inscription is laid out in six lines of cursive Ayyubid *naskhi* script carved in high relief. The text offers an insight into the period of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin), founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty, and the defensive techniques employed in order to protect the city from the Crusaders, such as the ditch that was excavated around the citadel following the successful liberation of the city. The inscription reads as follows:  \n“In the Name of God the most Beneficent, the most Merciful  \nAnd Blessings be upon Muhammad, the Prophet and his household.  \nThe order to build this and to dig the trench was given by our master, the Victorious Sovereign, the Salvation of this world and religion, Sultan of Islam and the Muslims,  \nServant of the two holy sanctuaries and this holy abode, Abu al-Muzaffar Yusuf bin Ayyub,  \nReviver of the State, Commander of the Faithful, May God lengthen his days and support his star in the days of the great Amir, al-Asfahasalar Sayf al-Din Ali bin Ahmad, may God strengthen him in AH 587 \\[c. 1191\\]”.","short_description":"After Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) reconquered Jerusalem from the Crusaders, he renovated its citadel and dug a trench to improve the city’s defences against fresh attack from the Crusaders. This inscription affirms these works and mentions the sultan and a commander of his troops. The panel is now in the plaza of the Dome of the Rock.","type":"Panel, marble","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / Al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","dates":"Hegira 587 / AD 1191.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 190 cm, width 100 cm, depth 6 cm.","method_for_datation":"The panel bears a reliable date.","method_for_provenance":"Jerusalem was narrowed down as the place of production supported by the inscription on the panel.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was found at the Dome of Yusuf Agha on southern side of the plaza of the Dome of the Rock, and then transferred to the Islamic Museum.","bibliography":"Abu Shama, Abd al-Rahman bin Ismail (d. 665 / 1267), *Ar-Rowdatain fi Akhbar al-Dawlatain \\[Two Gardens in the History of Two States*\\], Cairo, 1870.  \nBerchem, M., van, *Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum*, Vol. III, 40,Cairo, 1925.  \nAl-Isfahani, 'Imad al-Din Muhammad bin Muhammad (d. 597 / 1201), *Al-Fath al-Qasi fi al-Fath al-Qudsi \\[the Conquest of Jerusalem*\\], Cairo, 1903.  \nAl-Zarkali, Khayr al-Din, *Al-A'lam* \\[*Famous Personalities*\\], Vol. 4, Beirut, 1980.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["White marble with inscription."],"keywords":["Marble; panel; inscription"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"3d83888a-750e-5a9e-9d4f-9db7b89ce318":{"name":"Crac des Chevaliers.","alternate_name":"Qal‘at al-Hisn / Hisn al-Akrâd.","description":"The castle is located between the Port of Tartous and the City of Homs, sprawling on the southern buttresses of the Jabal Ansariyya, at an altitude of 650 m, where it kept watch on the Pass of Homs, the main passageway between the hinterland of the Bilad al-Sham held by the Muslims, and the coastline possessed by the Crusaders.  \nThe site was occupied by the Kilabites in AH 422 / AD 1031 for the settlement of a Kurdish colony, and since then, acquired the name Hisn al-Akrâd (“Castle of the Kurds”). The site's main fortification plan, however, took place after its conquest by the Crusaders in AH 504 / AD 1110 and especially after its donation to the military Order of the Knights Hospitallers in AH 537 / AD 1142. It was kept by the Crusaders for more than 120 years. Crac des Chevaliers finally fell to Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars' hands in AH 669 / AD 1271 and became integrated into the Mamluk Empire. The castle was restored and refortified to become the symbol of Mamluk power in the region and the residence of the Mamluk governors. It remained militarily occupied until the end of the Ottoman period and was then inhabited by villagers until the period of the French Mandate. It was restored and emptied of its inhabitants during the 20th century and renamed Qal'at al-Hisn during the 1950s.  \nLaid on a basaltic trapezoidal-shaped spur separated from the mountain on the southern side by an artificial ditch, the castle is divided into two complementary defensive areas. The high castle, built on a rocky outcrop in the middle of the site, is organised around a central courtyard and a double trapezoidal-shaped surrounding wall. It includes the most impressive buildings of the Frankish occupation. These include the religious architectural complex, made up of a chapel, a capitular room and a cloister gallery, as well as the donjon, built on the southern front and made up of three huge towers to be used as headquarters and the main residence of the Hospitallers elite. Around the high castle, the low courtyard also contains architectural remains of this Crusader settlement, like the western and northern ramparts, the stable, the pool on the southern front and the “barbacane” of the northeastern front.  \nThe Mamluk architectural contribution to Crac des Chevaliers is substantial. The most significant works were achieved during the last third of the AH 7th / AD 13th century and led to a major improvement of the fortifications built by the Hospitallers. New ramparts and several flanking towers were erected on the southern and eastern fronts of the low courtyard, overhung by continuous galleries of machicolations and by box machicolations. The Mamluk use of Crac des Chevaliers as a regional administrative centre led to the development of residential and palatial buildings, such as the governor's house on top of the donjon, the decorated rooms overhanging the high castle, and the *hammam* in the low courtyard.","short_description":"Also known as Hisn al-Akrâd after the Kurdish settlement of the castle during the AH 5th / AD 11th century, the major militarisation and defensive architectural reconstruction of the site took place under Crusader occupation, and especially by the military Order of the Knights Hospitallers. The Crusaders kept hold of this important strategic location for over 120 years, and it is a remarkable work of elite military architecture. It also includes a 6th- / 12th-century chapel, which bears Romanesque features, and a late 7th- / 13th-century arcade with stylistic links to French Gothic architecture.","dates":"Hegira 5th - 10th century / AD 11th - 16th century.","location":"Homs region.","method_for_datation":"Numerous Arabic inscriptions on the south front of the low courtyard give a chronology for the Mamluk works on the castle at the end of the 7th / 13th century. Several historical and architectural studies have helped in the definition of the monumental history of the castle.","bibliography":"Cathcart-King, D. J., “The Taking of Le Krak des Chevaliers in 1271”, *Antiquity*, XXIII, 1949, pp.83–92.  \nDeschamps, P., “Les châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte”,Vol. 1, *Le Crac des Chevaliers*, Paris, 1934.  \nKennedy, H., *Crusader Castles*, Cambridge, 1994, pp.145–63.  \nMesqui, J., “Le Crac des Chevaliers”, *Quatre châteaux des Hospitaliers*, 2003 \\[www.castellorient.com\\].  \nMüller-Wiener, W., *Castles of the Crusaders*, London, 1966, pp.59–62.  \nRey, E-G., *Etude sur les monuments de l'architecture militaire des Croisés en Syrie et dans l'île de Chypre*, Paris, 1871, pp.39–67.  \nSobernheim, M., “Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum”,Vol. 2, *Syrie du Nord*, Mémoires de l'Ecole du Caire XXV, Cairo, 1909, pp.19–36.  \nVan Berchem, M., and Fatio, E., “Voyage en Syrie”, Vol. I, *Mémoires de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale du Caire*, Cairo, 1914–15, pp.135–63.","patrons":"Knights Hospitallers and Mamluk Sultans Baybars (AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77), Barakat Khan (AH 676–8 / AD 1277–9), Al-Mansur Qalawun (AH 678–89 / AD 1279–90) and al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4 / AD 1293–4; AH 698–708 / AD 1299–1309; AH 709–41 / AD 1310–41).","dynasty":"Kilabite-Seljuq (AH 422–504 / AD 1031–1110); Counts of Tripoli (AH 504–37 / AD 1110–42); Knights Hospitallers (AH 537–669 / AD 1142–1271); Mamluk (AH 669 / AD1271–16th century).","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Military architecture; Jabal Ansariyya; castle; Kilabites; Kurds; Crusaders; Knights Hospitallers; Sultan Baybars; inscriptions; machicolations"],"author":"Benjamin Michaudel","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"4150a4e5-e339-5229-a33a-a26b868c4c5e":{"name":"Ajlun Castle.","description":"Ajlun is about 76 km northwest of Amman. Contrary to the other castles in Jordan such as Shawbak and Karak, this castle was entirely built by the Muslim forces in AH 579 / AD 1184 to counter the Crusader castle of Belvoir (Kawkab al-Hawa) to the west, and to secure trade and communications between Syria and Egypt. It was probably intended also to protect the important iron mines in the Ajlun area. The castle with its constant remodelling and enlargement is a good example of the development of military architecture in the AH 6th and 7th AD 12th and 13th centuries.  \nOriginally the castle was almost square in plan, articulated with four square corner-towers. The towers and the northeastern and southwestern walls were provided with a band of narrow arrow slits. At this stage the main entrance to the castle was through an opening in the eastern wall. In AH 610 / AD 1214 the castle was enlarged by adding a massive wall to connect the north with the east towers. The entrance was shifted to the newly constructed conjunction of the northeastern wall with the eastern tower.  \nIn AH 658 / AD 1260 further alterations were undertaken: two fortification towers were added and a new wall was constructed to connect the existing north tower with that just built; this new north tower was in turn connected with the additional east tower by a massive wall. During this period the southeastern and south sides of the castle were also remodelled by adding two towers (south and east towers) with a wall running between them. The entrance was shifted again to the corner of the newly built eastern tower. The castle was in use during the early Ottoman period to accommodate soldiers. Early in the AH 11th / AD 17th century the castle became the main base of Fakhr al-Din al-Ma'ni, a powerful *amir* of Lebanon.","short_description":"Ajlun Castle, about 76 km northwest of Amman, was built by Muslim forces in AH 579 / AD 1184 to counter the Crusader castle of Belvoir (Kawkab al-Hawa) to the west, to secure the route between Syria and Egypt, and to protect the important iron mines in the area. The castle with its constant remodelling and enlargement is a good example of the development of military architecture in the 6th–7th / 12th–13th centuries. There are two Arabic inscriptions: one, dated 647–58 / 1250–60, mentions the renovation conducted by order of Salah al-Din (Saladin), while the second mentions a construction in 659 / 1261.","dates":"Hegira 579–658 / AD 1184–1260.","location":"Ajlun","method_for_datation":"The monument was dated by its inscription and through historical sources. Two Arabic inscriptions were found by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan in 1963, the first of these was dated to the reign of Saladin (647–58 / 1250–60) and mentions the renovation works conducted by order of the Sultan. The second inscription mentions the construction of a wall or tower and gives the date AD 20 July 1261 (AH 659).","bibliography":"Burckhardt, J. L., *Travels in Syria and the Holy Land*, London, 1882, pp.266–7.  \nJones, C. N., “Medieval Ajlun I: The Castle”, *Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine*, Vol. 1, 1931, pp.21–33.  \nالكردي، حنان، القلاع الاثرية في الاردن، عمان، 1984، ص 22–27.  \nالمومني، سعد، القلاع الاسلامية في الاردن، عمان، 1988، ص 114–155.","patrons":"Salah al-Din (known as Saladin, AH 532–88 / AD 1138–93); Al-Zahir Baybars (AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77).","dynasty":"Ayyubid–Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":[],"author":"Mohammad Najjar","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"4e4e72ee-c59e-5dac-bbc4-668eefd07742":{"name":"Madrasa al-Zahiriyya.","description":"Sultan al-Sacid Baraka Khan, the son of the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars, built a mausoleum (*qubba*) for his father north of the Umayyad Mosque and nearly face to face with the noteworthy Ayyubid monument, al-Madrasa al-‘Adiliyya. Although Baybars had expressed a wish to be buried in the village of Daraya near Damascus, his son chose the Umayyad Mosque vicinity where several former rulers were already buried, such as the Ayyubid ruler al-Kamil Muhammad (r. AH 635 / AD 1238), and his brother al-Ashraf Musa (r. AH 626 / AD 1229).  \nThe *qubba* is attached to a *madrasa* which was added at a later time. The *qubba* has a square ground plan, each side measuring 13.52 m, surmounted by two octagonal tambours with a pair of pointed-arch windows on every side of the upper drum and similarly styled windows on alternating sides of the lower drum. The domed construction shows a clear reference to the building in front of which it was built: the Madrasa al-‘Adiliyya completed by the Ayyubid Sultan al-‘Adil Sayf al-Din (r. Damascus AH 592–615 / AD 1196–1218).  \nThe upper part of the *qubba*'s outer wall is decorated with a round window, surrounded by a shallow, carved interlace pattern and two four-lobed cartouches. This is a new detail in damascene architectural ornament deduced from late Ayyubid marble decorations in Aleppo (see for example the Madrasa al-Sultaniyya (AH 620 / AD 1223)) and it relates to the décor on the main gate of the Mosque of al-Zahir Baybars in Cairo (built AH 665–7 / AD 1267–9).  \nThe entire outer-wall layer of the building is made of smooth and finely fitted limestone blocks. The 4.0-m wide portal niche includes three lines of inscription and is surmounted by a particularly rich *muqarnas* arch with a fluted mussel-shaped half-dome ceiling. Through the portal one enters the courtyard with the *qubba* entrance to the right. The lower section of the inner *qubba* walls are decorated with 3-m high inlaid marble panels, topped by a floral relief border with a vine (*karma*) frieze. Above the *karma* frieze, a 1.5-m high glass mosaic panel completes the wall decoration, showing a landscape with floral and architectural elements reminiscent of the Umayyad Mosque mosaics. By referring to the décor of the prestigious Umayyad Mosque, Baybars superseded earlier architectural heydays, not only in his political undertakings and monumental building commissions, but clearly also visible in his choice of decorative elements.  \nAlthough the mosaics and the marble panels of the interior are ascribed to AH 680 / AD 1281 according to the portal inscription, it is probable that these ruined adornments of Sultan Baybars were reproduced accurately by his son. Some scholars have also suggested the employment of the same architect for the sake of an accurate redecoration.  \nSimilar glass mosaics and *karma* frieze decorations are found in the *madrasa* and *qubba* of Qalawun in Cairo, possibly indicating that Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun employed the same workshop as that used for the Madrasa Zahiriyya for his architectural projects in Cairo.","short_description":"To honour his father, the highly esteemed warrior and first Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars, Sultan Sa‘id Baraka Khan erected a mausoleum next to the venerated Umayyad Mosque. The mausoleum is built as part of a *madrasa* and follows the common mausoleum layout, a square room with a red-painted dome on top of octagonal tambours. Internal decorations include marble panels, a carved vine frieze and glass mosaics, all of which show immediate inspiration from the Umayyad Mosque and show resemblance to the mausoleum of Qalawun, suggesting that this sultan employed the same workshop.","dates":"Hegira 676 / AD 1277.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The building inscription contains the signature of the architect. A later inscription, added by Sultan Qalawun, refers to the founder Baraka Khan's funeral in 680 (1281), and is certainly related to a later decorative phase and completion of the whole complex.","bibliography":"Almawi, Abd al-Basit al- (d. 981 / 1573) *Tanbih al-talib wa-irshad al-daris \\[The Instruction of the Pupil and the Guidance of the Student\\]*, Damascus, 1947.  \nFlood, F. B., “Umayyad Survivals and Mamluk Revivals: Qalawunid Architecture and the Great Mosque of Damascus”, *Muqarnas,* 14, 1997, pp.57–79.  \nMeinecke, M., *Die mamlukische Architektur in ägypten und Syrien*, 1992, Vol. I, pp.37–40, fig. 11; Vol. II, p.52, cat. nos. 29, 58.  \nMeinecke, M., “Das Mausoleum des Qala'un in Kairo / Untersuchungen zur Genese der mamlukischen Architekturdekoration”, *Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo*, 27, 1971, pp.63–67.  \nAl-Nu'aymi, Abd al-Qadir (d. 978 / 1570), *Al-Daris fi tarikh al-madaris* \\[*The Study of the History of the Madrasas*\\], Damascus, 1947.  \nSack, D., *Damaskus, Entwicklung und Struktur einer orientalisch-islamischen Stadt*, Mainz, 1989.","patrons":"Sultan al-Sa‘id Baraka Khan (r. AH 676–8 / AD 1277–9), son of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars. Later decoration and furnishing added by order of Sultan al-Mansur Sayf al-Din Qalawun (r. AH 678–88 / AD 1279–90) in AH 680 / AD 1281.","architects":"Ibrahim ibn Ghana’im al-Muhandis who, a decade before, had built the Qasr al-Ablaq in Damascus for Sultan al-Zahir Baybars.","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Religious object; funerary architecture; inscription"],"author":"Verena Daiber","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"55a9a6bc-439c-5d96-9801-d84c4d57c26f":{"name":"Ribat of al-Mansur Qalawun.","alternate_name":"Ribat al-Mansuri.","description":"The *ribat* consists of three basic architectural units, the first of which is a deep, wide, rectangular entrance that has on its east and west sides a stone bench known as a *mastaba*. The entrance ceiling has a cross vault and on the southern wall there is an inscription indicating the date of construction. The second element is a large rectangular hall located to the east of the entrance which is 23 m long and 9 m wide. The hall is accessible by means of a passage directly adjacent to the entrance. The third unit is a large open courtyard (28 m long and 25 m wide) located to the west of the entrance. The courtyard is paved with rare and beautiful stones that are still *in situ* today, and which is surrounded by rooms and cells of different sizes. It used to contain two dug-out wells which would have provided those residing in the *ribat* with fresh water. The wells were destroyed, however, when the courtyard was widened in the 20th century.  \nThe *ribat* has a beautiful façade, which overlooks Bab al-Nadhir Street. The façade is approximately 68 m long and about 11 m high. The building is composed of two sections. The history of the highest section dates to the early Ottoman period (AH 10th / AD 16th century), while the origins of the lower section date to the Mamluk period. The two sections are divided from each other by a decorative frame or moulding, which is formed from a series of polygonal-stone shell forms. Despite the additions and distortions that the façade has been exposed to throughout its history, some of the original features are still extant.  \nThe *ribat* was a haven for the poor, providing food to the needy. It was also used to accommodate visitors to Jerusalem. The *ribat* benefited from a *waqf*, which meant that the proceeds from land and property in different parts of Palestine were allocated to cover its running costs.","short_description":"This is one of the biggest Mamluk *ribats* (inns) of Jerusalem. It is located a few metres from the western wall of al-Haram al-Sharif. It was built by Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun to house visitors and students of al-Aqsa mosque. It was richly endowed and distributed food to the needy. The building is composed of two storeys, both of which have large halls and many chambers that flank an open courtyard. Despite the many changes that the principle façade has undergone, its Mamluk design elements are still evident.","dates":"Hegira 681 / AD 1282–3.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by a foundation inscription located on the southern wall of the entrance; this is supported further by mention of the *ribat* in the writing of the historian Mujir al-Din al-Hanbali (d. 928 / 1521).","bibliography":"Abu al-Hawwa, A., *Al-Tatawar al-Mi'mari fi Harat Bab al-Nadhir fi al-Quds fi al-'Asrain al-Mamluki wa al-'Uthmani \\[The Architectural Development in the Neighbourhood of Bab al-Nadhir in Jerusalem during the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods*\\], MA Thesis, University of Jerusalem, 2002.  \nBerchem, M. van, *Materiaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum* (Part II), Cairo, 1922.  \nBurgoyne, M., *Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study*, London, 1987.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[Important Personalities in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nAl-Natsheh, Y., *Ribat al-Mansur Qalawun,* Jerusalem, 2004.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.104–5.","patrons":"Sultan al-Mansur al-Qalawun (r. AH 678–89 / AD 1280–90).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001; IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ribat; religious architecture"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5702c937-55b7-5f65-adc4-2d6ddc8a7f83":{"name":"*Dinar* (gold coin).","description":"The *dinar* is one of the types of coins that Muslims circulated. It was, by definition, made from gold and was the type of coin with the highest value in compared to the *dirham*, which was made of silver, and the *fils*, which was made of copper. It weighed about four grams.  \nThis piece is an Ayyubid *dinar* of the Fatimid type, meaning that the inscription is arranged in concentric circles around the middle. This style was first used by the Fatimids in the AH 4th / AD 10th century and is very different from the *kufic* style used previously, in which the text is distributed between one circle around the rim and three or four horizontal lines in the centre. The choice on the part of the Shi'a Fatimid dynasty to make such a radical change can be seen as an attempt to differentiate themselves from the Sunni Umayyad, Abbasid and Central Asian rulers who used the *kufic* style before them. Subsequent rulers, like Salah al-Din, also chose to use this design.  \nThis coin is attributed to the reigns of 'Abbasid Caliph al-Mustadi' (r. AH 566–75 / AD 1170–80) and the Ayyubid ruler Saladin. It was minted in Cairo in AH 574 / AD 1178. An Arabic inscription in *naskhi* script is recorded on both of its faces, and may be translated as follows:  \nObverse  \nBand 1 – “In the name of God, the Merciful and Compassionate, this *dinar* was minted in Cairo in the year five hundred seventy-four”  \nBand 2 – “There is no God except God, who is without partner. Abu Muhammad” (where Abu Muhammad indicates the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustadi).  \nBand 3 – “al-Mustadi' bi-amr Allah, Commander of the Faithful”  \nBand 4 – “al-Imam al-Hasan”  \nReverse  \nBand 1 – “Muhammad the Messenger of God has been sent with guidance and the religion of truth, to proclaim to all religion”  \nBand 2 – “even if the polytheists despise it. May God bless him \\[the Prophet Muhammad\\] and his family”  \nBand 3 – “al-Malik 'al al-Nasir 'Alim”  \nBand 4 – “Yusuf bin Ayyub”.","short_description":"This gold coin, known as a *dinar*, was minted by the Ayyubids in Cairo following a Fatimid style with inscriptions arranged in three concentric circles around the centre.","type":"Dinar, gold","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Din Yusuf bin Ayyub (Saladin, r. AH 569–89 / AD 1174–93).","dates":"Hegira 574 / AD 1178.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Diameter 2 cm, weight 3.85 g.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the coin specifies the date of minting as 574 (1178).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the coin states that it was minted in Cairo, Egypt.","provenance":"Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"The coin was confiscated by the security forces and registered at the Museum in 1992.","bibliography":"Delpont, E. (ed), *L'Orient de Saladin: l'art des Ayyoubides*, Paris, 2001, p.36.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Minted gold."],"keywords":["Coin; gold; Cairo; Damascus; coinage; dinar; Saladin; Caliph al-Mustadi'; numismatics; Salah al-Din"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5afe91bf-fea8-55d3-82ee-a8b6233aab07":{"name":"Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary).","description":"The Haram al-Sharif is of great importance in the Islamic faith. It is where the Prophet Muhammad set out on his midnight journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (*Isra'*) and from where he ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj)*. Furthermore, God blessed the Haram in the Holy Qur'an, and made it the first *qibla* (or direction of prayer) for Muslims.  \nThe Haram takes an elevated position up in the hills of Jerusalem. It is composed of a rectangular platform of approximately 1450,000 sq m forming one-sixth of the old city of Jerusalem.  \nScholars agree that as it exists today the Haram al-Sharif is devoid of any visible remains that precede the arrival of the Muslims in Jerusalem in AH 15 / AD 638, due to the fact that the buildings which were standing were destroyed by Titus and his legions in AD 70.  \nWhen the Arab-Muslims arrived, Jerusalem surrendered peacefully as part of a contractual agreement set up by Caliph ‘Umar bin al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) with the Patriarch, Sophronius. The Arabs did not destroy any buildings in the area of the Haram and the agreement made with Sophronius guaranteed the protection of the inhabitants, their households and their possessions. Most of the city was inhabited, with the exception of the Haram area, which at the time was neglected.  \nThe Haram site slopes from the north to the south. The highest point of it is in the centre where the Dome of the Rock is located. This tendency to slope is addressed by a platform that traverses it. One section of the platform is known by the name of al-Aqsa al-Qadim, while the other is known as al-Musalla al-Marwani.  \nDevelopment of the Haram is focused on its northern and western borders, although this was following construction at the centre, along with some important buildings such as the Dome of the Rock and the Qubbat al-Silsila (Dome of the Chain). The eastern edge of the Haram inclines towards a slope running down to the Wadi Jahannam (Qidron Valley), used as an Islamic cemetery from the very beginning of the Islamic conquests. On the southern side there is an even steeper inclination that offers better structural support to the architecture, and because of this, Umayyad edifices on the southern limit, best represented by the Dar al-Imara in the south of the Haram, have been continuously inhabited throughout history.  \nThe Haram al-Sharif is composed of three levels. The ground level includes Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy), Bab al-Tawba / Bab al-Dhahabi (Gate of Repentance / Golden Gate), al-Musalla al-Marwani, al-Aqsa al-Qadim (Old Aqsa) and the Masjid of Buraq. The middle level includes the Aqsa Mosque, the Islamic Museum and the side arcades in the western and northern walls, along with a multiplicity of gates and buildings such as *sabil*s, *madrasa*s, *mastaba*s, minarets and domes. The highest level is that of the Dome of the Rock, reached by a series of stairwells, and where there are a series of magnificent domes and some *khanqa*s (Sufi retreats), also the Minbar Burhan al-Din and the Mastabat al-Kark, and a number of cisterns and fountains.","short_description":"This is the third oldest Islamic site after Mecca and Medina and the oldest and most important sacred Muslim site in Palestine. It is a large complex with an area of some 145,000 sq. m. It includes the Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome al-Silsila (Chain) and the Bab al-Rahma (Gate of Mercy) as well as more than 90 other commemorative buildings. The complex thus represents diverse Eastern Islamic architectural arts in different styles over the course of various periods, transforming it into an outdoor architectural museum. The site is linked with Islamic stories, specifically that of the *Isra'* and *Mi'raj* (Night of the Prophet's Ascension).","dates":"Hegira 15–493 / AD 637–1099; AH 583–1336 / AD 1187–1917.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The Haram al-Sharif is dated by the inscriptions it bears, by historical sources and finds from archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Burgoyne, M., *Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study*, London, 1987.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Oxford, 1932.  \nHamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of al-Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938–42*, London, 1949.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. AH 927 / AD 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nNatsheh, Y., “The Architecture of Ottoman Jerusalem”, in S. Auld and R. Hillenbrand (eds), *Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917* (Part II),London, 2000.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza* (pp.69–71).","patrons":"A number of caliphs, sultans and princes of the Islamic lands oversaw the construction of the buildings of the Haram al-Sharif. The most prominent was the Umayyad caliph, Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705). Subsequent renovations were undertaken by several Muslim sultans and caliphs, the most prominent being: the Fatimid caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36) and sultan Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) and the Ottoman sultan, Sulayman al-Qanuni (Sulayman the Magnificent; r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","dynasty":"A series of consecutive Islamic periods ranging from the Umayyad to the Ottoman dynasties.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Al-Isra’; sanctuary; religious building; miraj; sacred objects"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"5e68b14d-8eb3-5454-8d3b-cd5efa2239df":{"name":"Pilgrim bottle.","description":"A free-blown, globular-shaped glass vessel with enamel decoration. One of the wider sides and the lower half of both narrower sides are flattened. The colours of the enamel are wide-ranging: red, white, blue, pale-green, yellow, pink, mauve, and greyish black. Two applied handles sit on either side of the cylindrical neck. An eleven-pointed rosette within an eight-lobed flower containing vegetal scrolls decorates the flattened side. Decorating the curved side is a four-sided lobed motif, with a geometric shape filled-in with arabesques and surrounded by scrolls, terminating in human, animal, or bird heads. On the left of the curved side is a horseman in the act of killing an animal with a spear, he has a beard and a halo around his head and wears a conical hat with ribbons. Below this figure is a medallion with a female harp player, wearing a veil and a long tunic. On the other narrow side is a horseman under a tree killing a lion with a javelin; birds are flying overhead. He has a halo and wears a long coat and boots. In the circular medallion below him is a man sitting cross-legged, with a beaker in one hand, drinking. His tunic has decorative tiraz bands on the sleeves.  \nThe two horsemen recall those found in Christian iconography, whereas the figures in the medallions are typical of figures depicted in Islamic art. The mixture of motifs suggests the patron was either a Muslim who was familiar with Christian imagery or a Christian who appreciated the work of Muslim craftsmen. The shape of this vessel recalls leather flasks or unglazed ceramic pilgrim bottles, rather than other glass and metal objects. Although made of glass, this flask may have been carried on journeys or pilgrimages in a leather container. It was certainly a luxury object, perhaps made specifically as a gift.","short_description":"This enamelled glass pilgrim bottle is an interesting example of the crossover of Christian and Islamic cultures. Two of the figures decorating the vessel derive from Christian iconography of St George and the dragon, whereas the musician and drinker are found in Islamic art.","type":"Glasswork, gilded glass","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira third quarter 7th century / AD third quarter 13th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 23 cm, length 23 cm, width 16.2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The decoration resembles late Ayyubid and early Mamluk compositions.","method_for_provenance":"The technique and decoration are close to other glass objects produced in the Mamluk domains of Egypt and Syria.","provenance":"Egypt or Syria.","obtention":"Bequeathed to the British Museum by Felix Slade in 1869.","bibliography":"Carboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., Glass of the Sultans, New York, 2001, p.247–9, cat. no. 123.  \nHarden, D., Painter, K., Pinder-Wilson, R., and Tait, H., Masterpieces of Glass, London, 1968, p.114–5, cat. no. 153.  \nPinder-Wilson, R., \"The Islamic Lands and China\", in Five Thousand Years of Glass (ed. H. Tait), 1991, p.134, cat. no. 170.  \nRogers, J. M., \"European Inventories as a Source for the Distribution of Mamluk Enamelled Glass\", in Gilded and Enamelled Glass from the Middle East, (ed. R. Ward), 1998, pp.69–73.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Enamelled and gilded glass."],"keywords":["Vegetal decoration; arabesque; figurative decoration; horsemanship; musician; drinker; pilgrim flasks; pilgrimage"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"66dee6a2-095c-5e95-9ab7-3051179223bf":{"name":"*Zubdat al-Tawarikh* (‘Cream of Histories’).","description":"The work is written in Turkish with large *naskhi* script in black ink on 90 leaves of delicate finished (*aharlı*) paper. Within are 55 miniatures depicting subjects in the text, some of them one to a page and some two. On pages 1b–2a two round medallions carry an inscription stating the work's subject and saying that it was prepared for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95). The text is written 37 lines to a page; the titles and chapter headings are gilded. Their illumination features floral compositions with arabesques (*rumi*) and Chinese-inspired motifs (*hatayi*-style), while that of the first two pages' medallions includes large floral motifs (*halkar*\\-style).  \n  \nThe work's dark-green cover is lacquered using a technique known as *Edirnekari*. The outer covers are richly decorated with gold and silver in floral compositions, while the inner covers feature medallions, pendants and corner-pieces. The binding is not original.  \n  \nThe work, which was written by the court panegyrist (*Şehnameci*) Sayyid Loqman Aşuri, consists of two main sections. The first begins with the universe and the signs of the zodiac and continues with stories taken from the Torah, the New Testament, and the Qur'an which tell of the lives of prophets and those who rendered service to the faith. These are illustrated with paintings. The first part ends with genealogical trees of the Prophet Muhammad, the Four Orthodox Caliphs, and the sultans and high officials of Muslim dynasties such as the Umayyads, the 'Abbasids, the early Islamic period, the Ghaznawids, the Ilkhanids, the Seljuqs and the Timurids. The second part opens with Sultan Osman, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, and goes up to Sultan Murad III, with 12 portraits of Ottoman sultans. It ends with descriptions of the political events of these sultans' reigns.  \n  \nThis work was made for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III, and the quality of its paintings, its binding and its calligraphy make it one of the greatest works of Ottoman art created for a sultan.","short_description":"This manuscript includes stories of the prophets, the birth of Islam and histories of Muslim states. It was written on the order of Sultan Murad III by the historian Sayyid Lokman and illuminated by famous *naqqash* (painters) Molla Kasım and Ustad Osman. It is a unique work of Ottoman art.","type":"Manuscript, miniature, paper, ink, leather binding, lacquered","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Sultan Murad III (r. AH 982–1003 / AD 1574–95).","dates":"Hegira 993 / AD 1583.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul.","dimensions":"Height 64.7 cm, width 41.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"It is stated on the work that it was prepared for the Treasury of Sultan Murad III (r. 982–1003 / 1574–95) in 993 (1583).","method_for_provenance":"The work was almost certainly written in Istanbul by order of the Sultan.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"Transferred to the Museum in 1915 from the Library of the complex in Aksaray (Istanbul) founded by the wife of Sultan Mahmud II and mother of Sultan Abdülaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) I, Pertevniyal Valide Sultan (d. 1300 / 1883; queen mother from 1277–92 / AD 1861–76).","bibliography":"Aksoy, Ş., “Zübdetü't Tevarih, Sultan III. Murad için Hazırlanan bir Şehname”, P. *Art, Culture, Antique*, 3, 1996, pp.17–37.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Istanbul, 1993, p.42, pl. 19A–E; pp.52–6.  \n  \nölçer, N. *et al*, *Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.272–5.  \n  \nRenda, G., “New Light on the Painters of the Zubdat at Tawarikh in the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul”, *Fourth International Congress of Turkish Art*, University of Provence, 1976, pp.183–207.","artist":"Calligrapher: Sayyid Loqman Aşuri; painters: al-Sayyid Lutfi, Molla Kasım (Mulla Qasim) and Ustad Osman and their workshop.","dynasty":"Ottoman","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","materials":["Delicate finished (aharlı) paper, ink, watercolour, gilding, the binding lacquered (Edirnekari technique)."],"keywords":["Lacquer; Edirnekari technique; gilding; ink; paper; painting; watercolour; zodiac"],"author":"Sevgi Kutluay","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"72cd6b04-4359-5c17-b1d0-29c1ddfe315f":{"name":"Marble balustrade.","description":"A marble balustrade consisting of nine adjoining pointed arches identical in form and dimensions, and supported by coupled columns of which there are close to 20. The details on the columns as well as on the capitals differ from each other but each pair of columns and their corresponding capitals are identical. The spandrel, the area between the arches, is ornamented with a series of carved marble circles. The column capitals assume one of two forms: the first resembles a finely detailed and knotted Corinthian capital and the second inclines more toward simplicity, approximating a whirling pomegranate blossom. The arches are decorated with carved ornamentation in the form of a knight's blazon. The decorative details on the pillars are varied but are distinguished generally by a chain of number “7s” wrapped around the body of the column in a vertical or horizontal format. The arches rest on marble panels, each supported by a pair of capitals on top of the coupled columns.  \nThis balustrade was originally in the Aqsa Mosque, where it is likely that its function was decorative. It was then transferred to the Islamic Museum following the renovation of the mosque. It is possible that this piece is tied to, with regard to the material, craftsmanship and technique of carving, a Crusader frieze (also at the Museum), which was transferred from the Dome of the Rock. Perhaps this piece was crafted in the same workshop as an atelier renowned for its high-quality carved marble was active in the Haram al-Sharif during the same period.","short_description":"This is a marble balustrade composed of nine adjoining tapered arches, identical in form and dimensions. They are supported by pairs of close to 20 pillars. The balustrade is a product of the Crusader period (Romanesque style).  It is relatively simple in appearance and detail. It was placed in al-Aqsa Mosque for decoration.","type":"Balustrade, marble","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 84 cm, length 348 cm, depth 12 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by comparison of both its technique and artistic style with pieces produced in the same period in Palestine, which were acquired by the Islamic Museum.","method_for_provenance":"The registers of the Islamic Museum indicate that the piece was transferred from al-Aqsa Mosque to the Islamic Museum in 1938. The balustrade appears in photographs published by R. W. Hamilton in 1949 showing the interior of the mosque before the balustrade was moved to the Museum. It is plausible that it was made in Jerusalem since large architectural pieces were usually made on site and a workshop was active in the Haram al-Sharif during the same period.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from al-Aqsa Mosque in 1938.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the so-called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in Al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution, and Impact”, *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*,No. 45, 1982.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provencial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidence on the Temple Area Atelier”, in *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Hewn and carved marble."],"keywords":["Balustrade; marble."],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"74efc106-e576-5569-bfb1-3b51d81c8622":{"name":"Church of the Holy Sepulchre.","alternate_name":"Qaniset al-Qiameh.","description":"The Church of the Holy Sepulchre enjoys a rich history and has extraordinarily distinguished artistic and architectural traits. The church is sacred to all the Christian faiths as, as is evident from the name, it is revered as the site of the Resurrection of Jesus following his Crucifixion, his suffering and death. According to Christian belief Jesus was buried (the sepulchre) in this church. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a large architectural complex that includes a number of smaller chapels; in total the area exceeds 5000 sq m.  \nWhen the first church was founded on this site during the Byzantine period it included four elements: atrium, basilica, open courtyard and the sepulchre or holy tomb. In AD 614 the Persians set fire to the church, badly damaging it; the church was repeatedly thereinafter partially destroyed and repaired over the next 400 years. The Patriarch, Modestus undertook restoration of the church following the attack, and made alterations to it, decreasing the scale of the original plan. The Caliph 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–4), who was notoriously protective of Christian sites, refused to pray in the church when the Patriarch Sophronius suggested he did so; apparently he was eager to protect the city's Christian rights.  \nThe Crusaders made alterations and additions to the church, the initial implementation of which had been the ambitious project of Constantine IX Monomachos and which transformed the design of the church once again. A new church was erected in AH 543 / AD 1149, which was known as the Church of Nisf al-Dunya (Church at the Centre of the Universe, a catholicon used by monks), in the Romanesque style. The church was built around the rocky hill of the Crucifixion, the Rock of Calvary (Golgotha) overlooking the Rotunda. Similarly, the alterations included those made to the entrance leading to the place of Crucifixion within the church building, while the level underneath it was made the burial place of some of the Frankish kings. A bell tower, the doors of which opened to the south instead of the east, was added in AH 566 / AD 1170. Despite these important changes, the most prominent features of the Church remained until AH 583 / AD 1187. Saladin followed the example of 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab and was tolerant of Christians and respected their rights to worship.  \nEntrance to the church is by way of a great portal, above which there is a huge stone lintel. The lintel is carved with decoration in low relief portraying scenes from the Bible. On entering the portal, there is a modern staircase that leads up to the site of the Crucifixion, which today is divided into two sections: east and west. What remains of the Rock of Calvary is found in the west-facing Greek area surrounded by a glass frame. The Rock is cracked and according to the Christian faith the crack occurred when Christ was stabbed by a Roman soldier and was stripped of his cloak.  \nA descending staircase confronts the ascending stairwell and leads to the Stone of Anointing where, to the west of the Stone, a wall has been erected that divides the entrance from the Church of Nisf al-Dunya. A little to the south is the holy dome covered by a large semi-circular stone dome with a cylindrical drum supported by a series of pillars. A central window opens onto the pivot of the dome, which is decorated with 12 petals in gold leaf, symbolising the 12 apostles of Christ. In addition to those areas discussed here, there are a number of other cells, rooms, halls and chapels in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.","short_description":"This holiest of holy Christian sites is revered as the site of the tomb and Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It is set almost in the centre of the old city of Jerusalem. The church is a great complex that includes a number of chapels, oratories, cloisters and subterranean chambers and holds many icons, mosaics and important religious statues. Renovations since its original construction has given it stylistic variety and it is now predominantly in the Romanesque and Gothic. The church has number of divisions which are imperceptible except by the religious raiment of each Christian sect that controls that section.","dates":"The first construction AD 326-335. The present construction inaugurated in AH 543 / AD 1149.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by means of historical sources.","bibliography":"Al-Natsheh, Y., *Kanisat al-Qiyama \\[Church of the Holy Sepulchre*\\], Jerusalem, 2002.","patrons":"Emperor Constantine (r. AD 308–37) and his mother, Helena.","architects":"The construction was supervised by Qasis of Constantinople, also known as Eustathius. The engineer/designer was known as Zanobious from Palmyra (today Tadmur in Syria).","dynasty":"The church dates back to the Byzantine period but several renovations were implemented in subsequent periods.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Resurrection; Crucifixion; church; Jesus"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"7c3a4cbc-d305-5a96-aabc-cbcebe9d6397":{"name":"Column capital.","description":"After Jerusalem was restored to the Muslims under the leadership of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) in AH 583 / AD 1187, he quickly tried to restore the Islamic character of Jerusalem generally, and that of the Haram al-Sharif specifically. The Muslims undertook the destruction and removal of Crusader additions to buildings, icons and decorations within the holy areas, until what remained was likely to be found only in the secular buildings. This operation provided a large quantity of building materials, especially invaluable marble and decorative stone fragments, most of which were re-used in the Ayyubid architectural projects in Jerusalem and outside. Some of these edifices are still standing and may still be seen today.  \nThis column capital is a good example of the process of the effacement of Christian representational iconography. Despite the preservation of most of the constituents of the capital, which clearly manifest its origins and epoch, the animated features on it have largely been obliterated. The process of effacement may have taken place hurriedly, or it may have been a symbolic act, since clear traces of the birds' features remain in addition to vegetal decoration.","short_description":"With the fall of Jerusalem under Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin), many Crusader additions were removed from al-Haram al-Sharif. This left behind many building materials including this carved marble capital. It was adorned with many vegetal, animal and human motifs and demonstrates the iconoclastic process in sacred Islamic sites.","type":"Capital, marble","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 32 cm, horizontal cross-section 20 cm x 20 cm.","method_for_datation":"The capital was dated by comparison of its carving and decorative themes with other Crusader pieces in Palestine.","method_for_provenance":"Similar capitals remain in different areas of the Haram al-Sharif and Jerusalem. Some of these capitals remain *in situ*, while others were re-used in other buildings. Only some capitals were defaced, while others were largely untouched. It is probable that this capital was produced in Jerusalem.","provenance":"Probably Jerusalem.","obtention":"This column capital was probably transferred from the Haram al-Sharif to the Islamic Museum during restorations, a process that is still underway. The Museum owns other Crusader column capitals that were exposed to iconoclastic acts.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the so-called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution, and Impact”, *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*,No. 45, 1982.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provencial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidences on the Temple Area Atelier”, in *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Hewn marble."],"keywords":["Carved decoration; column capital; Crusader; carved marble, iconoclasm; figurative representation"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"81acb278-b50c-55e2-a7e9-2609f1bc2386":{"name":"Marble frieze.","description":"A section from an ash-grey marble frieze, the provenance of which is uncertain but which might have been one of a number of marble pieces crafted in a workshop within the Haram al-Sharif in around AH 555 / AD 1160, during the Crusader period (AH 492–583 / AD 1099–1187), when the workshop became renowned for its marble carving. The frieze is classified as an example of Romanesque art. It was probably used as a lintel for an entrance to one of the buildings at the Haram al-Sharif or the area around it. It continued to be used as a lintel for the southern portals of the Dome of the Rock for an unspecified period, which led to it being disfigured with cement. The frieze was damaged further by obliteration of the facial features of some of the carved figures, and it is possible that the partial removal of the figurative motifs was done in order to use the work within the Dome of the Rock. The remaining animal forms survived intact, thereby enabling easy identification.  \nThe decorative themes include human forms likely to be of religious personalities, but the defacement has made identification difficult. There are also animal forms such as hunting dogs, dragons and birds such as ducks, and a mythical bird-like character that resembles a turkey. The Vegetal decoration assumes the form of a laurel wreath which wraps itself around the other motifs, entering into their spheres.  \nThis piece consists of a number of decorative units, each of which contains a complete decorative theme. For example one theme appears to show men and boys hunting animals and birds, each theme is connected to the next by means of the laurel wreath. The piece ingeniously appears, therefore, as one work; a collection within a single decorative panel, while a spiral-patterned frame in high relief marks the borders. The high level of skill in the Haram al-Sharif workshop is manifest in the skilful carving of this work, affirming that the frieze was produced to decorate the entrance of an important building, perhaps a religious one.  \nA break may be observed which divides it into two unequal parts.","short_description":"This is a grey marble frieze with carved decoration in the Romansque style. It was probably made during the Crusader period in al-Haram al-Sharif. Its decorative themes represent human and animal forms such as hunting dogs, dragons and birds. It also contains vegetal motifs forming a laurel wreath that wraps around the other forms.","type":"Frieze, marble","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 258 cm, width 37 cm, depth 20 cm.","method_for_datation":"Dating of this marble piece was possible by comparison of decorative themes and carving techniques with other pieces, particularly those present at the Holy Sepulchre Church (*Kanisat al-Qiyama*) and the Church of the Tomb of the Virgin Mary in Jerusalem.","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that the piece was produced in the workshop at the Haram al-Sharif, known to have been operational at the period.","provenance":"Possibly Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from the Dome of the Rock to the Islamic Museum in around 1959.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the So-Called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provincial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidence on the Temple Area Atelier”, *Zeitschirft für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution and Impact”, *Zeitschirft für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 45, 1982.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Hewn and carved marble."],"keywords":["Frieze; carved marble; Romanesque; figurative decoration; Crusader"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"869b86b6-4148-5cb5-9768-3fc1fa05ffdb":{"name":"Warrior relief.","description":"A grey marble slab that is rectangular and nearly square, on which two figures of warriors are carved in high relief. The figures have been depicted within a frame delineated by a deep contour line. Their heads are shown in profile, their bodies from the front; they wear helmets with pointed tops, armour, and short boots. They are shown with one foot forward, as if attacking. The figure on the left has a sword in one hand and a shield in the other. The figure on the right is holding his sword in one hand while grasping the sword's scabbard in the other. Both figures are shown in military dress, and their garments, as well as the details of their bodies, are defined with carved outlines.  \n  \nThe tree with split-palmette leaves on the right-hand side of the slab, as well as the vegetal forms used as fillers in the upper corners, shows the influence of Sassanid on Islamic decorative arts. The warriors' clothes and pointed helmets show similarities with those seen in medieval Crusader painting, offering valuable documentary evidence about military dress and equipment of the period.","short_description":"Konya was the capital of the Anatolian Seljuq Sultanate during the AH 6th–7th / AD 12th–13th centuries and its citadel was decorated with rich figurative reliefs. This warrior relief not only depicts the military costume and arms of the period but also is an important document for the period.","type":"Relief carving","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Sultanahmet","province":"Istanbul","dimensions":"Height 89 cm, width 91 cm, depth 10 cm.","method_for_datation":"Konya citadel, where it is thought this object originated, dates to the 6th / 12th century. For this reason the object is dated to the same century.","method_for_provenance":"It is known from several sources (e.g. the journals of the 19th-century French traveller Charles Texier) that the citadel at Konya, capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs, was adorned with figurative decoration in stone. This object is thought to have belonged to the citadel, which does not survive. It is thus probable that it was made in the vicinity of Konya.","provenance":"Konya, Turkey.","obtention":"The relief was transferred to the Tiled Pavilion (çinili Köşk), Istanbul, in 1870 as part of the 19th-century initiative to collect artworks from across the country. The object was transferred to the Museum in 1941.","bibliography":"*Anadolu Medeniyetleri III, Selçuklu-Osmanlı*, Istanbul, 1983, p.81.  \n  \nOgan, M. A., Kühnel, E., *İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzelerindeki Şaheserler, Vol. III, çinili Köşk'te Türk ve İslam Eserleri Koleksiyonu*, Berlin-Leipzig, 1938, p.36.  \n  \nÖlçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, p.114.  \n  \nRice, T. T., *The Seljuqs*, London, 1961, fig. 61.","dynasty":"Anatolian Seljuq","materials":["Relief-carved marble."],"keywords":["Crusader; relief decoration; warrior; Konya citadel; arms; armours; military wear; war; warfare"],"author":"Gönül Tekeli","translator":"Barry Wood, İnci Türkoğlu","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"8724a3b4-5bc3-563e-8060-000c6b3e01bf":{"name":"Maqam of Nabi Musa.","description":"The Maqam of the Prophet Musa (Moses) is one of the largest religious architectural complexes in Palestine comprising three levels: the basement, ground and first floors. Enclosed on all four sides, the complex covers an area of 5000 sq m. Its plan is almost square: the length of the north wall is about 74 m, the west wall about 70 m and the east wall 68 m. The south wall is the shortest at about 55 m.  \nThere are five entrances that all open out into the complex. The principle entrance is the west portal, located on the south side of the west wall. The complex is built of sandstone of which only the upper courses are square-cut and well dressed.  \nThe basement includes stables for horses and storage areas. The first and ground floors include more than 100 rooms and a series of halls, a minaret and a multiplicity of accoutrements. The mosque and the *maqam*, the most important sections of the complex,are at ground level. The mosque has a rectangular ground plan of 15 m x 10 m. It is composed of two aisles, with three cross vaults over each aisle. The *maqam* itself is located near the northwest cross vault. It has a square plan measuring 5.5 m. The middle of the *maqam* is smaller than its sides, measuring 4.7 m long, 1.6 m wide and 1.7 m high. It is built from well-dressed stone, and faces a west–east direction. It is encompassed within a wooden enclosure and covered by a *kiswa* of green cloth. The *maqam* is topped by a semi-circular dome supported by four pointed arches.  \nThe *maqam* has been endowed by many *awqaf*. Historically the *waqf* of the Prophet Moses is considered one of the richest and most famous, providing free food and accommodation to visitors as well as salaries for a large number of employees – approximately 50. The employees included the *waqf* supervisor, sheikh of sheikhs, scribe, servant, custodian, gatekeeper, muezzin, torchbearer, sweeper, keeper of the Qur'an sections, and distributor of the Qur'an sections as well as other employees. The Maqam of the Prophet Moses occupies an important position in the history of the Palestinian people from a religious, architectural, social, folkloric and political point of view.","short_description":"This is the largest and most famous of the *maqamat* (tomb sanctuaries) of Palestine. Its plan is almost square and it covers an area of 5000 sq m, with three levels. The complex includes stables, storage areas, a large mosque with a minaret and the room of the *maqam* as well as a number of porticoes and different facilities. These include 100 rooms crowned by domes for the residence of guests during the season. The complex is located in a unique desert environment on the Jerusalem–Jericho road. The *maqam* has an important place in Palestinian folklore and is associated with many social and political events.","dates":"The dome was erected on the tomb and the mosque was built in AH 668 / AD 1269. The building was extended in AH 885 / AD 1480, and the minaret was built some time after AH 880 / AD 1475–6. The complex was restored several times subsequently, in AH 1013 / AD 1604; AH 1150/ AD 1737; AH 1175 / AD 1761; AH 1235 / AD 1819; AH 1303 / AD 1885.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by five inscriptions found in the building, the most famous of which is the foundation inscription of Sultan Baybars, on which his titles and the date the dome was constructed appear (AH 668 (AD 1269)).","bibliography":"Al-'Asli, K., *Mawsam al-Nabi Musa fi Filistin, Tarikh al-Mawsam wa al-Maqam \\[The Festival of the Prophet Moses in Palestine: The History of the Festival and the Maqam\\],* Amman, 1990.  \nMurrar, K. M., *Maqam al-Nabi Musa, Dirasat Tarikhiya wa Athariya wa Mi'mariya \\[The Maqam of the Prophet Moses: Historical, Archaeological and Architectural Study\\],* Nablus, 1997.  \nMukhlis, Abd A., “Kaifa wa Matta Bad'a Mausam al-Nabi Musa \\[How and When Does the Festival of the Prophet Moses Start?”, in *Majallat huna al-Quds \\[Journal of Jerusalem\\],* No. 6, 1942.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.142–4.","patrons":"The first sponsor of the *maqam* and complex was Sultan Zahir Baybars (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77). The complex was restored during the Ottoman period by each of the following: ‘Ali Katkhuda ‘Azban; ‘Abd al-Latif al-Husayni; ‘Abdallah Pasha, governor of Sidon and Tripoli, and Muhammad Tahir al-Husayni, Mufti of Jerusalem.","architects":"Restoration of the *maqam* took place during the Ottoman period at the hands of architects from the family of Husayn bin ‘Ali bin al-Namri, among whom was ‘Abd al-Muhsin bin Mahmud bin Husayn, the chief architect of Jerusalem and his brother, al-Hajj Karim.","dynasty":"The *maqam* dates to the Mamluk period but the building was extended and restored during the Ottoman period.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Maqam; Prophet Moses; Mawsim, Season"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"8850561d-4d5d-5a91-862d-fe88824fcdc8":{"name":"Shawbak Castle.","description":"Shawbak is a Crusader, Ayyubid–Mamluk castle of the AH 6th–7th / AD 12th and 13th centuries. Located in southern Jordan, it is 120 km south of Kerak, and 35 km north of the fabulous Nabataean city of Petra. In AH 509 / AD 1115 Baldwin I, founder of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, led a major expedition into the region southeast of the Dead Sea. He crossed wadi Araba and marched to the fertile, wooded district of al-Shawbak. There atop a steep mountain, overlooking a well-watered valley, Baldwin erected a huge castle, which he named, 'le Crac de Montreal' and appointed Roman le Puy as lord of Montreal and the land of Oultre Jourdain.  \nShawbak (Montreal) is linked with two smaller fortresses built in and around Petra: al-Habis and al-Wu'ayra. The construction of these castles gave the Franks a loose control over the territory between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, and had the further advantage of hindering both the commercial and military connection between Syria, Egypt and the Hijaz. Shawbak fell to the soldiers of Salah al-Din (Saladin) in AH 584 / AD 1188 and was refortified several times by both the Ayyubids (AH 570–648 / AD 1174–1250) and the Mamluks (AH 648–923 / AD 1250–1517). The Castle was occupied by a village throughout the later Ottoman period (the 18th and 19th centuries AD) and was emptied of its inhabitants only in the 20th century. Considerable remains of all these periods fill the interior.  \nShawbak Castle, which has an irregular shape with maximum dimensions of 175 m x 90 m, possesses a Crusader church and a chapel as well as substantial secular buildings constructed out of stone taken from a nearby antique site and from quarries located one kilometre to the west of the castle. Numerous Arabic inscriptions in *naskhi* script record the various reconstructions of the castle. The impressive rusticated towers; curtain walls and a glacis (a paved slope) wrapped around the castle are fine examples of early Mamluk fortification showing the evolution of siege defences.","short_description":"Shawbak Castle was built in AH 509 / AD 1115 by Baldwin I, founder of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, who named it Le Crac de Montreal. It is linked with two smaller fortresses at Petra, which gave the Franks loose control over the area between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, and hindered the commercial and military connection between Syria, Egypt and the Hijaz. Shawbak fell to the forces of Salah al-Din in 584 / 1188. Numerous Arabic inscriptions record various reconstructions of the castle, including fine examples of early Mamluk fortification that show the evolution of siege defences.","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Shawbak","method_for_datation":"The monument was date by both inscriptions *in situ* and historical sources.","bibliography":"المومني، سعد محمد، \" القلاع الإسلامية في الأردن : الفترة الأيوبية و المملوكية\"، عمان، 1988، ص. 24– 93.  \nBrown, R. M., “Shaubak”, in: D. Homes-Fredericq and JB Hennessey, (eds), *Archaeology of Jordan*, II: 2, Leuven, 1989, pp.559–66.  \nKennedy, H., *Crusader Castles*, Cambridge, 1994, pp.23–5.","patrons":"Baldwin I (r. AH 509–12 / AD 1115–18).","dynasty":"Crusader, Ayyubid–Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":["Castle; Crac de Montreal; Crusaders; glacis"],"author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"8bb1aef3-8779-5dfe-8bd0-4fef627826bc":{"name":"Incense burner.","description":"A brass globular incense burner composed of identical hemispheres joined by a bayonet fitting, and with pierced holes through which the fumes from burning incense could escape. Gimbals inside the burner, cradle a small bowl which would remain in an upright position even when the sphere is rolled, a mechanism also known as ‘Cardan Suspension’. Spherical in shape this object resembles a hand warmer, but due to its large size and the loop at the apex, it was probably designed to be suspended from the ceiling or to hang from a chain and be swung to disseminate the incense.  \nSilver inlaid decoration, divided into four concentric circles, covers the surface. The rim of each hemisphere has an inscription band of silver inlay against arabesques. Above this row are five pierced medallions each containing a double-headed eagle, alternating with roundels filled with geometric motifs in a background of arabesque scrolls. At both ends of the sphere is another inscription band with a pierced medallion at the apex, containing a design composed of double-headed eagles and lion-headed masks.  \nThe symbol of the double-headed eagle was a popular motif used on blazons by several Mamluk sultans. However, here it seems to be a decorative motif rather than a heraldic emblem. Towards the end of the AH 7th / AD 13th century the figurative motifs of Ayyubid metalwork were gradually replaced by titulature and heraldry according to the taste of Mamluk patrons. This object is a fine example of the growing popularity of inscribed titles on Mamluk decorative objects.  \nThis object was made for Badr al-Din Baysari who is mentioned in the inscription at the apex. Baysari was one of the most prominent of the amirs in the early Mamluk period, as confirmed by the phrase ‘al-maqarr al-ali’ (‘the High Excellency’).","short_description":"A large spherical brass incense burner with silver inlaid decoration. Medallions at either end show one of the Mamluk heraldic emblems, a double-headed eagle. This burner is inscribed with the name Badr al-Din Baysari who was a prominent amir in the early Mamluk period.","type":"Metalwork, decoration object, silver","holder":"The British Museum.","initial_owner":"Badr al-Din Baysari.","dates":"Hegira 675–7 / AD 1277–9.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Diameter 18.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object was made for Badr al-Din Baysari who is mentioned in the inscription at the apex of this lamp, also mentioned are the regnal titles of two of his Mamluk masters: al-Zahiri (officer of Sultan Baybars from 658–75 / 1260–77) and al-Sa’idi (officer of Sultan Baraka Khan from 675–7 / 1277–9). Al-Sa’idi – is a sign of allegiance to Sultan al-Malik al-Sa’id Baraka Khan (r. 675–7 / 1277-9), which indicates that the incense burner was probably produced during his reign.","method_for_provenance":"This incense burner was made for Badr al-Din Baysari, a confidante of Sultan Baybars and one of the most important Syrian amirs. Originally in the service of the last Ayyubid Sultan, Baysari was then employed by the Mamluks after the Ayyubids were overthrown. This object was, therefore, probably made in Syria where Baysari was based. Moreover, there was an active patronage of inlaid metalwork in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods in Syria.","provenance":"Syria.","obtention":"Bequeathed to the British Museum by John Henderson in 1878.","bibliography":"The Arts of Islam, exhibition catalogue, London, 1976, cat. no. 210.  \nAtil, E., Renaissance of Islam: Art of the Mamluks, Washington D.C., 1981, p.58–9.  \nBarrett, D., Islamic Metalwork in the British Museum, London, 1949, plate no. 22.  \nWard, R., Islamic Metalwork, London, 1993, pp.110–1, fig. 87.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Brass pierced and engraved and inlaid with silver."],"keywords":["Figurative decoration; eagle; arabesque; calligraphy; patronage"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"8d173c69-e270-52ea-8792-452101a75d8b":{"name":"Hospital (*Bimaristan*) Nur al-Din.","alternate_name":"Maristan al-Nuri.","description":"The Bimaristan Nur al-Din, a hospital dating from the AH 6th / AD 12th century, is one of the most famous buildings in Damascus. At the time of its construction, it was considered remarkably new and refined, a sentiment recorded by the memoirs of the Valencian voyager from al-Andalus, Ibn Jubayr. It functioned as a therapeutic refuge for the sick as well as a medical school for aspiring physicians. The Mamluk Sultan Qalawun is said to have been saved from a lethal illness at this *bimaristan* – an experience which inspired him to build his famous institution in Cairo, The Complex of Sultan Qalawun. The Bimaristan Nur al-Din currently functions as a Museum of Arabic Medicine and Science. Located in a side road off the Suq al-Hamidiyyeh, it is easily discernable by its Mesopotamian-style red brick *muqarnas* dome rhythmically dotted with bulbs of dark glass. It is also famous for the eclecticism of its entrance façade, the woodcarving of its door, and the perfect balance of its axial symmetric four-*iwan* plan.  \nThe entrance block to the Bimaristan Nur al-Din protrudes at a right-angle to the building and it is accentuated by a portal featuring an unusually tall and shallow *muqarnas* façade, including a row of lobed arches at its base, and resting on top of a classically styled lintel. The door is an important example of fine wood carving and inlaid wood of the period. The identity of the door's designer is recorded in history as Abu al-Fadl Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Karim al-Harithi, known as al-Muhandis, or “the Geometer”. As both a medical doctor at the *bimaristan* and a creative craftsman of its gate, Abu al-Fadl demonstrates the multiplicity of expertise that scholars of this period usually enjoyed.  \nThe entrance leads into a square vestibule capped with a brick *muqarnas* dome; the adaptation of the *muqarnas* to the medium of stone was yet to take place in history. Once inside, the overhead *muqarnas* is a mesmerising vision of gradually receding cells pierced by beams of light.  \nPassage through the vestibule leads to the grand rectangular courtyard and its central square basin with bracketed inner corners. Surrounding the courtyard are four arch-vaulted *iwan*s: the west *iwan* which leads to the entrance, the south and north *iwan*s on either side of the courtyard, and the main, east *iwan* which is larger than the others and faces the entrance. This main *iwan* represents the grand hall of the *bimaristan*, a place where students attended lectures by renowned physicians and had access to medical manuscripts for study. A marble dado rail with a *naskhi* inscription quotes passages from the Qur'an pertaining to medicine and healing. This serves as an allegory to the building's function as well as a holy blessing.  \nOverlooking the southwest corner of the courtyard is an original arched window of perforated stucco, comprising a grid of octagonal stars with interlacing floral scrolls.","short_description":"A charming survival of a medieval Syrian hospital, the *bimaristan* was built by Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi in AH 549 / AD 1154. It had a strong architectural and institutional impact, inspiring the construction of Bimaristan al-Qaymari, also in Damascus, and the Sultan Qalawun complex in Cairo. The undulating *muqarnas* and classical-style lintel that accentuate its facade, the red-brick *muqarnas* dome and the perfect axial symmetry of the interior *iwans* around the courtyard, are examples of local adaptations to Eastern influences brought in by Nur al-Din. This *bimaristan* was a renowned medical centre in its timel.","dates":"Hegira 549 / AD 1154.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The monument is dated by the foundation text which is inscribed in four lineson a horseshoe-shaped marble sacramental table that is embedded in the eastern *iwan.*","bibliography":"Allen, T., “Ayyubid Architecture”, *Occidental* (electronic publication 7th edition), 2003.  \nBogard, F., *Composition et decors dans l'Architecture Damascaine aux XII et XIII siecles: La Formation d'une Esthetique dans la Damas Medievale*, PhD thesis, University de Provence, Aix-Marseille I, 2004.  \nHerzfeld, E., “Damascus: Studies in Architecture”, Part I, *Ars Islamica*, Vol. IX, 1942, pp.2–11  \nTabbaa, Y., \"The Muqarnas Dome: its origin and meaning\" *Muqarnas*, 3,Leiden, 1985, pp.61–76.  \nSakhnini, Z., *Mathaf al-Tib wa al-'Ulum 'ind al-Arab: Bimaristan Nur al-Din \\[The Museum of Medicine and Science of the Arabs: Bimaristan Nur al-Din*\\], Damascus, 1997, pp.31–53.  \nIbn Jubayr (d. 614 / 1217), *Rihlat Ibn Jubayr \\[The Voyage of Ibn Jubayr*\\], Beirut, 1999, p.241.","patrons":"Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi (r. AH 541–69 / AD 1146–74).","architects":"Abu al-Fadl al-Harithi (known as al-Muhandis, “the Geometer”).","dynasty":"Atabeg.","materials":[],"keywords":["Infirmary (bimaristan); stucco; windows; muqarnas; naskhi script; medicine; science; library; education; inlaid woodwork; Abu'l Fadl al-Muhandis; Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi; Mesopotamia"],"author":"Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, Zena Takieddine","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"912b204e-c92a-58e3-8cab-b04e1caa9f7e":{"name":"Dome of the Rock.","description":"Dome of the Rock is one of the oldest Islamic monuments still standing today. It has a grandiose monumental form representing one of a small number of buildings in the Islamic world that may be chronicled as part of the creation and formation of an Islamic art in general.  \nDome of the Rock is built on an octagonal plan topped by a semi-circular great dome and supported by a circular drum. Four doors, each facing one of the cardinal directions, are built into the walls of the building. The façades are covered with marble panels at the bottom and ceramic (glazed) tiles at the top. These tiles date back to the time of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent who ordered the replacement of the original glass mosaic with ceramic tiles in the period AH 952–9 / AD 1545–52. The marble panels were also renewed several times. The interior or inner drum, the cylinder which carries the dome, is also adorned with glass mosaic tiles. At present the outer dome is covered with gold-plated copper panels, although it was formerly of lead covered with a thin layer of gold-plate.  \nBoth the interior and exterior of the Dome of the Rock is built on an octagonal plan, surrounding the exalted Rock. According to Islamic belief the Rock is where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj*) on the night of his nocturnal journey from Mecca to Jerusalem *(Isra')*. The interior octagonal (which follows the outer octagon walls) is supported by eight piers and 16 columns. The rotunda is supported by four piers and 12 columns. Between the piers and columns span semi-circular arches, the façades and surfaces of which are decorated with mosaic tiles and colourful epigraphic texts. The rotunda is covered by a double dome. The inner dome has a diameter of 20.44 m, and is considered to be the oldest wooden structure still extant. It is composed of wooden panels that are decorated with written inscriptions and geometric decorations against a stucco background. Sixteen windows open on to the inside of the dome's drum. The drum is adorned with mosaic decorations and inscriptions from the Qur'an; it is enriched by a large number of inscriptions belonging to different restoration projects carried out by Muslim caliphs and sultans, the most famous being those that date to the Umayyad, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods. The dome is devoid of figurative decoration and exemplifies a response to changing religious orientation.","short_description":"This is the jewel of Islamic architecture and the oldest Islamic monument that has not undergone fundamental changes. It thus provides very important testimony to the creation and formation of Islamic architecture and early Islamic decorative arts. It is also considered to be one of the most beautiful monuments in the world. The building is octagonal in form and is covered on the outside with marble and glazed tilework. The interior is decorated with marble, mosaics, plaster and wood. The great gold dome that towers over the building symbolises Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 72 / AD 691.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by a foundation inscription, written in the *kufic* script. Furthermore, there are a group of early Muslim historians such as al-Maqdisi al-Bishari, the famous geographer (who died at the end of the 4th / 10th century) and who dated the construction of the building to 72 / 691.","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture*, Vol. 1,Oxford, 1932.  \nGrabar, O., and Nuseibah, S., *Dome of the Rock*, New York, 1996.  \nAl-Natseh, Y., *Qubbat al-Sakhra al-Mushrrafa: Jauhara al-Quds wa al-Masjid al-Aqsa al-Mubarak \\[Dome of the Rock: The Jewel of Jerusalem and the Early al-Aqsa Mosque\\],* Jerusalem, 2002.  \nRichmond, E. T., *Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem: A Description of its Structure and Decoration*, Oxford, 1924.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, pp.76–8; 54.","patrons":"The Umayyad caliph, 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705). The building was renovated by a large number of Muslim caliphs and sultans. The most prominent among them being: the Fatimid caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) and the Ottoman sultan, Sulayman the Magnificent (r. 926–74 / AD 1520–66).","architects":"Raja’ bin Haywa and Yazid bin Sal'am participated in the construction of the building. The name of the craftsman, Muhammad bin Balawar is associated with renovations that took place during the Fatimid era. Mustafa Raqam is linked with the late Ottoman restorations (AH 13th / AD 19th century).","dynasty":"Umayyad.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Isra’; Mi’raj; ceramic tile; rock; rock of bayt al-muqaddas; mosaic; kashani (ceramic tiles); dome; wooden dome; double dome; octagonal; copper; gold-plate"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"9ac5a090-8009-512f-bf82-741324800a8f":{"name":"Manuscript *Al-Nawadar al-Sultaniya wa al-Mahasin al-Yusufiya*\\[Sovereign Rarities and Yusufi Merits\\].","alternate_name":"The Biography of Salah al-Din","description":"A manuscript written in *naskhi* (cursive)script which, due to the physical condition of the paper, is not entirely legible. It consists of 412 pages, each of which contains 15 lines. The pages are yellowing due to their extremely old age, and the effects of airborne moisture in the paper.  \nThe author of the manuscript (Ibn Shaddad) joined the service of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93) who appointed him as an officer of his troops in Jerusalem. He remained a lieutenant to Saladin until his death, after which Ibn Shaddad headed to Aleppo where he built a *madrasa*. Next door to it he constructed a dar al-hadith (Hadith School). He settled in Aleppo until his death.  \nIbn Shaddad divided his manuscript into three parts: the first section covers the birth of Saladin, his creativity, characteristics, attributes, morals and nature; the second focuses on the changes in his circumstances, his wars and conquests to the end of his life; and the third revolves around the names of the cities and citadels that Saladin conquered between AH 583–86 / AD 1187–90.  \nThe author mentions that his contact with Saladin began in AH 584 / AD 1189 and he accompanied him until his death in AH 589 / AD 1193. Ibn Shaddad mentions that with regard to the history of events, some of which he was not eyewitness to, he depended on trusted sources. As for those events he did witness, he could describe what he saw himself. This biography is considered to be one of the most reliable references about him, thus historians rely on it for an accurate account of Saladin's life, especially in the final period of his life (AH 584–89 / AD 1189–93).  \nThe author gives detailed descriptions of historical events and battles as well as details of the weapons that were used by the Islamic and Crusader armies. Furthermore, the author gives many descriptions of the social and administrative situations in Islamic and Crusader societies, showing that there was communication between the Ayyubid and Crusader states.","short_description":"This is a biography of Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) written by his contemporary, Ibn Shaddad and examines his life, attributes, personality, wars and communication. This manuscript at al-Aqsa Mosque library is one of the best preserved and is accepted as the original copy scripted by the author himself.","type":"Manuscript","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif","initial_owner":"Baha’ Yusuf bin Rafi’, al-Shahir bi (known as Ibn Shaddad; d. AH 632 / AD 1234).","dates":"Hegira 626 / AD 1228.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 23.5 cm, width 16 cm, depth 4.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The manuscript has a date recorded on it.","method_for_provenance":"Jerusalem was narrowed down as the place of production based on what the manuscript says: that it was copied in Jerusalem and accepted as an authentic copy by the author.","provenance":"Jerusalem.","bibliography":"Conder, C. R., *The Life of Saladin* by *Beha ad-Din, compared with the Original Arabic and Annotated,* London, 1773.  \nIbn Shaddad, Biha' al-Din, Y., (d. 632 / 1234), *Nawadar al-Sultaniya wa al-Mahasin al-Yusufiya \\[Sovereign Rarities and Yusufi Merits*\\], Cairo, 1964.  \nMaalouf, A., *Crusades Through Arab Eyes*, New York, 1985.  \nSalameh, K., *Fahras Makhtutat Maktabat al-Masjid al-Aqsa \\[Catalogue of Manuscripts at the Library of al-Aqsa Mosque*\\], Jerusalem, 1983.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Black ink on paper."],"keywords":["Ibn Shaddad; naskhi script; biography; manuscript"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a0123f90-172b-59e1-9291-e46637556232":{"name":"Metal grille/enclosure.","description":"An iron grille or enclosure, of which the Museum displays 19 segments held together by the use of fine iron rods. The grille has been worked in the Gothic style, a style that predominated in the AH 6th / AD 12th century in Crusader art and architecture. This enclosure surrounded the rock which is located within the Dome of the Rock and from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens on the night of the *Mi'raj*.The enclosure was intended to protect the rock from European Christian pilgrims during the Crusader period who would take pieces of the rock back to their homeland either in the hope that they would be blessed by it or, due to the sacred nature of the rock, to imbed within church buildings. The rock was thus in danger of losing its natural shape and required protection. The enclosure, already in a delicate state of repair during the restoration works which took place around 1960, was replaced by a wooden balustrade worked in the Islamic carved-wood style. The iron grille was then put into storage at the Islamic Museum, but many pieces were lost in the interim.  \nThe grille is composed of segments that are identical in both width and height, except for the central four segments which are 257 cm high. Between each pair of rods are 21 repetitive decorative units, each one of which grows out of a small semi-circle of iron wire to become a flower. The flowers wrap around three times in a circular fashion extending from the centre, and face an identical blossom whose circles have been formed by wire coils spiralling in the opposite direction. The two flowers are connected together by a wire stay. This arrangement repeats itself to form the entire decorative format of the enclosure. It should be noted that a similar, small piece of a grille is still in the Dome of the Rock.","short_description":"This is an iron enclosure or grille formed from pieces of approximately equal size and similar repetitive decoration, joined by small intricate iron bands. It is in Gothic style, which predominated in the art and architecture of the Crusaders in Palestine. This enclosure surrounded the rock placed within the Dome of the Rock for its protection.","type":"Grille, metalwork","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 230 cm, length 570, width: 30 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated by comparison in both technique and decoration with those used in other pieces that go back to the Crusader period, such as the pair of candlesticks housed in the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","method_for_provenance":"It is probable that this piece was produced in Jerusalem where, as is generally the case with architectural furniture, it was made *in situ*.","provenance":"Probably Jerusalem.","obtention":"The piece was transferred from the Dome of the Rock to the Islamic Museum in about 1960.","bibliography":"Hunt, L. A., “Crusader Sculpture and the so-called Templar Workshop: A Reassessment of Two Carved Panels from the Dome of the Rock in Al-Haram al-Sharif Museum in Jerusalem”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, No. 132, 2000.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: Its Origin, Evolution, and Impact”, *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*,No. 45, 1982.  \nJacoby, Z., “The Provencial Impact on Crusader Sculpture in Jerusalem: More Evidence on the Temple Area Atelier”, in *Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte*, No. 48, 1985.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Forged iron fastened with rods."],"keywords":["Grille; Gothic; Crusader; metalwork; ironwork; vegetal decoration"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"a422b89c-541c-5d0c-b8ef-5292227a2201":{"name":"Pilgrim’s Flask.","description":"This canteen, often described as a pilgrim's flask, is a container used to carry water while travelling, on pilgrimage, or hunting trips. It is manufactured using a mould and its body is in the form of a disc with a mouth and a pair of loops attached to the side. To keep water from spilling out, the mouth is elongated by a tube of earthenware resembling a set of gradually narrowing rings stacked one on top of the other. The two loops flanking the flask's mouth can be strung by a rope to hang on the hip while travelling on foot, horse or camel-back.  \nThe surface of the body is decorated with a moulded imprint boldly portraying a Mamluk blazon, known in Arabic as 'rank'. The open-winged eagle on top of a chalice that is flanked by flowers is known to be the blazon of Prince Toquztimur. It is believed that he started out as an official cup-bearer and his blazontherefore displays the cup. When he rose to the rank of governor for Sultan Nasir al-Din Muhammad (r. AH 709–41 / AD 1309–40), he added the symbol of the eagle as a tribute to the Sultan. The six-petal roses that appear underneath the eagle may signify a tribute to Nasir al-Din's family, the Qalawun.","short_description":"This flask decorated with an emblem, a fashion that became popular during the Mamluk period, carries a symbol of an eagle and identifies the owner as Prince Toquztimur, the Mamluk Governor of Hama and later Aleppo.","type":"Flask, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Prince Toquztimur (r. AH 742–6 / AD 1341–5), Mamluk Governor of Hama and then Aleppo.","dates":"Hegira 742–6 / AD 1341–5.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 27.3 cm, diameter (of body) 18.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The canteen is datable by the blazon that identifies it with Prince Toquztimur (r. 742–6 / 1341–5). Similar objects have also been dated to this period.","method_for_provenance":"This object was found in Aleppo, but since Prince Toquztimur was the Governor of Hama and then of Aleppo, it is also possible that the flask was produced in Hama. Similar objects, in respect of both style of decoration and function have been given Syrian provenance.","provenance":"Aleppo or Hama, Syria.","obtention":"Purchased in 1933.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus*, Damascus, 1969, p.225.  \nAtil, E., *Art of the Mamluks: Renaissance of Islam*, Washington DC, 1981, p.190.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994, p.454.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.132.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004, pp.120–7.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Moulded earthenware."],"keywords":["Pilgrim flasks; canteen; earthenware; pottery; moulded; Aleppo; Toquztimur; blazon (or rank); eagle; cup; al-Nasir Muhammad; pilgrimage"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b233b9f9-606a-5020-b525-f2dfcb494a75":{"name":"Pilgrim bottle.","description":"The heavy, pinkish-grey earthenware flask belongs to the group of the so-called pilgrim bottles. The body of this type of pilgrim bottle is commonly composed of two flat circular sides, each with a broad, flanged edge and an unornamented strip of earthenware in the middle connecting the two side parts. This connecting strip is slightly concave so that the flask stands in a safe upright position on the edges of the side parts. Above, the bottle has a flared neck consisting of two sections separated by a ring in relief. The rim of the neck is damaged. For carrying and suspension, there are two handles fixed to the neck and to the shoulders. The bottle shows identical moulded decoration on both sides. At the centre there is an eight-petalled rosette surrounded by an arabesque scroll. The four double-framed leaf forms of the outer zone are set against a dense background pattern of tiny rhombs.  \nOn similar bottles the centre of the sides often bears an emblem easily recognised as belonging to one of the Ayyubid or Mamluk sultans and amirs. These emblems were attributes of their dignity. A rosette might not appear to be a specific emblem but it does actually belong to them. It is actually one of the oldest devices used under the Ayyubids and early Mamluks. They usually chose six-petalled rosettes. Only one amir, Musa bin Yaghmur (AH 599–663 / AD 1203–65), seems to be known whose emblem was a white eight-petalled rosette as seen on this bottle. He was governor of Cairo under the Ayyubid al-Malik al-Salih and in AH 648 / AD 1250 under al-Malik al-Mu'azzam governor of Damascus.  \nJudging by the unglazed body, this bottle could have been used for storing liquids such as water. The porous material allowed evaporation to keep the liquid stored in it cool.","short_description":"Earthenware flask. Characteristic are two flat circular sides and handles for carrying and suspension. Both sides are decorated with an eight-petalled rosette at the centre. This is the place where Ayyubid and Mamluk sultans and amirs usually marked their bottles with their own emblem.","type":"Bottle, earthenware","holder":"Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet).","owner":"National Museum of Fine Arts, Stockholm. In order to reorganise the expanding collections, the main part of the Islamic collection has been on permanent loan to the Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities since 1982.","dates":"Hegira 7th century / AD 13th century.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Height 26.5 cm, diameter of body 13.6 cm, diameter of rim 7.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"An Ayyubid amir, Musa bin Yaghmur (599–663 / 1203–65), is known to have as an emblem the eight-petalled rosette without shield.","method_for_provenance":"There are different clues. Musa bin Yaghmur to whom the bottle may be ascribed was governor of Damascus. Other pilgrim bottles of this type come from Syria and Jordan. This bottle is supposed to have been excavated, probably in Syria, since it was bought by the Swedish Crown Prince in Aleppo.","provenance":"Possibly Syria.","obtention":"Gift of the Swedish Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf in 1935.","bibliography":"Florence, E. D., “Some Islamic Pilgrim Bottles“, *Berytus, Archaeological Studies* 2, 1935, pp.5–10.  \nMayer, L. A., *Saracenic Heraldry*, Oxford, 1933.","dynasty":"Ayyubid / early Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Unglazed earthenware; moulded."],"keywords":["Earthenware; pottery; pilgrimage"],"author":"Friederike Voigt","copy_editor":"Monica Allen"},"b6518af0-5029-5a94-8521-524613b875bb":{"name":"Citadel of Aleppo.","description":"The Citadel of Aleppo is a masterpiece of medieval Islamic fortress architecture. Its massive ovoid shape and extensive defences enclose an area of approximately seven hectares. The natural hill upon which the Citadel was built has long been used as a stronghold (including evidence of a Hittite temple from the first millennium BC). During the Hamdanid reign of Aleppo under Sayf al-Dawla in the AH 4th / AD 10th century, early constructions of a citadel took place. The Citadel's strategic importance was reactivated by the time the Crusades began.  \nWhen Nur al-Din ruled Aleppo in the early AH 6th / AD 12th century, he rebuilt its fragmented interior and fortified the remnants of the earlier fortress. His expansion included the construction of Maqam Ibrahim, an important shrine with legendary associations to the Prophet Abraham. However, the majority of the citadel's surviving features date to the period of Saladin's son, al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi, who ruled between AH 582–613 / AD 1186–1216. He ordered the deeper, 22-m moat, the magnificent bridge, the glacis of smooth impregnable stone, the enlarged towers (or *burgs*), and the outstanding gateway designed to ambush any enemy who managed to approach. Unlike Damascus, Aleppo was more exposed to Frankish attacks from nearby Edessa and the western coastlands. There was also the threat of the powerful and stealthy \"Assassins\", followers of the esoteric Isma'ili sect of Shi'i Islam.  \nAl-Zahir rebuilt many of the civil and religious constructs initiated by Nur al-Din, including the Citadel's beautifully proportioned Great Mosque and the administrative Dar al-'Adl (House of Justice) facing the Citadel. Some scholars speculate the existence of a tunnel between the two.  \nMost importantly, al-Zahir Ghazi constructed the royal palace complex and baths within the Citadel walls. This represents a new development in the history of Islamic architecture. Palatial residences were not usually constructed behind military fortresses but due to high- level security during this period, a new model emerged. The palace was renovated by al-Aziz Muhammad in AH 627 / AD 1230, but most of it was destroyed by the Mongols.  \nAltogether, Al-Malik al-Zahir's project radically changed both the scale and scope of the Citadel and its surrounding area, making it the impressive sight it is today. Decorative elements appear particularly around the gates. Two well-known examples are the Lion Gate and the Serpent Gate, each decorated in high-relief figurative stone carving. Lions had long been used as signs of power and royalty; here symbolising throne guardians. The serpents and dragons on the other hand curl backwards to bite themselves; they mark the limits of a protected and controlled area.  \nParts of the Citadel, especially the entrance block and bridge, underwent renovation during the Mamluk period, some time in the AH 7th / AD 14th century. Stylistically this is evidenced by the more flamboyant decorative features.","short_description":"This masterpiece of medieval fortification is the hallmark of Aleppo since the AH 6th / AD 12th century. Its entrance block alone is an impressive work. Linking the citadel to the city by a stately ramp, it also includes two massively constructed towers which conceal a U-shaped corridor that would force an attacking army to change direction six times, while exposing them to projectiles and burning liquid from gaps in the vaults above. Most of the citadel's construction, both military as well as the palatial and religious buildings within, date to the Ayyubid al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi (d. 613 / 1216).","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Aleppo","method_for_datation":"Various inscriptions and historical records have preserved an accurate account of the various stages of the Citadel's construction and evolution.","bibliography":"Allen, T., “Ayyubid Architecture”, *Occidental* (electronic publication 7th edition), 2003.  \nEttinghausen, R., Grabar, O., and Jenkins-Madina, M., *Islamic Art and Architecture 650–1250*, New Haven, 2001, p.230.  \nHerzfeld, E., “Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum: Syrie du Nord”, Part 2: *Inscriptions et monuments d'Alep*, 3 Vols, Cairo, 1954–6, p.12.  \nBurns, R., *Monuments of Syria: An Historical Guide*, London-New York, 1999, p.33; fig. 3.  \nTabbaa, Y., Constructions of Piety and Power in Medieval Aleppo, Pennsylvania, 1997, pp.17–26, pp.53–6, pp.59–69, pp.71–96; figs 9–37.  \nQujjeh, M., \"Al-'amara fi 'ahd Sayf al-Daula al-Hamadani \\[Architecture in the Era of Sayf al-Din al-Hamadani\\]\", *al-Ma'rifa* 2006, no. 508; pp.280–4.  \nIbn Shaddad, Izz al-Din (d. 1285), *Al-A'laq al-Khateera fi dhikr Umara al-Sham w al-Jazira \\[The Crucial Core in the Mention of the Rulers of Greater Syria and the Jazira\\]*, Damascus, 1953.","patrons":"Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi (d. AH 569 / AD 1174); al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi (d. AH 613 / AD 1216); al-Malik al-‘Aziz Muhammad (d. AH 634 / AD 1236).","architects":"Many architects, builders and craftsmen took part in the construction, the involvement of master architect Thabit b. Shaqwayq during the reign of Nur al-Din is recorded in the historical literature. He was the supervising engineer who died when the upper entry block collapsed in AH 600 / AD 1203–4.","dynasty":"Zangid, Ayyubid and Mamluk.","materials":[],"keywords":["Citadel; palace; moat; fortress; defences; military architecture; Sayf al-Dawla al-Hamadani; Nur al-Din Mahmud bin al-Zangi; al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi bin Salah al-Din; Aleppo; figurative stone carving; zoomorphic stone carving; lions; serpents; dragons"],"author":"Zena Takieddine, Samer Abd al-Ghafour, Abd al-Razzaq Moaz","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"b6eaa68e-89bb-5d41-9802-1508be85c8ac":{"name":"Mausoleum of Saladin (Salah al-Din).","alternate_name":"Madrasa al-'Aziziyya.","description":"Salah al-Din's (Saladin's) tomb is located next to the northwestern corner of the Great Umayyad Mosque. Although Saladin died in AH 589 / AD 1193, he was initially interred at the Damascus Citadel until his son al-Malik al-Afdal Nur al-Din 'Ali, ruler of Damascus, completed the construction of the mausoleum. Saladin's body was transferred to its final resting place on the holy day of 'Ashura in AH 592 (AD 1195). Soon afterwards, Salah al-Din's other son, al-Malik al-Aziz ‘Uthman (‘Uthman II), ruler of Egypt, decided to construct a *madrasa* attached to his father's tomb. Thus it is also known as al-Madrasa al-'Aziziyya. The events surrounding the death and burial of Saladin are clearly recorded in the historical sources, based on the eyewitness account of Imad al-Din al-Isfahani (d. AH 597 / AD 1201), who was Saladin's confidant and administrative genius.  \nThe construction of the tomb is typically Damascene: a square chamber with *ablaq* walls and four arches capped by a cupola. The movement from square room to circular dome is achieved by a transitional drum in two zones: octagonal and 16-sided polygonal. The interior of the tomb chamber is mounted with blue and green Ottoman tiles of the AH 11th / AD 17th century known as *qashani*. More subtle decoration can be seen in the stone-paste floral and geometric designs above the arches.  \nIn the middle of this domed chamber lie two coffins. The white marble coffin was a gift from the German Emperor William II on the occasion of his visit to Damascus in 1903. Next to it is the original wooden cenotaph, a masterpiece of the linear interplay typical of Ayyubid woodworking. It is decorated with geometric and astral patterns as well as floral and vegetal motifs.  \nThe tomb chamber occupies the southwest corner of the building. A chamber used for Qur'anic recitation is accessible from its east side and a series of five smaller rooms are found along the north side. As for the building's exterior and its connection to the Madrasa Aziziyya, little of this original architecture has survived to modern times.","short_description":"Saladin's tomb is located in close proximity to the Great Umayyad Mosque and is considered a holy site. His mausoleum was built by his sons after his death in AH 589/ AD 1193 and his body was transferred there in 592 / 1195. The architecture is typically Damascene Ayyubid: a square chamber decorated with alternating muti-coloured stones and capped by a dome. The coffin itself is a very important example of the art of Ayyubid woodcarving. A second coffin, made of white marble, was presented as a gift to Damascus by the German Emperor in 1903.","dates":"Hegira 589–92 / AD 1193–6.","location":"Damascus","method_for_datation":"The original inscriptions have been modernised, but contemporary Ayyubid histories contain accounts of Salah al-Din's burial. Stylistic comparisons of Damascene Ayyubid architecture also support the 6th- / 12th-century dating.","bibliography":"Allen, T., “Ayyubid Architecture”, *Solipsist Press* (electronic publication 7th edition), 2003.  \nBurns, R., *Monuments of Syria: An Historical Guide*, London-New York, 1999.  \nMoaz, A. R., “Note sur le mausolée de Saladin à Damas: son fondateur et les circonstances de sa fondation”, *Bulletin d'etudes Orientales,* V, 1989, pp.39–40, 184–9.  \nSauvaget, J., \"Le cenotaphe de Saladin\", *Revue des Arts Asiatique*, 1930, p.168–75.  \nMoaz, K., \"Madafin al-Muluk wa al-Salateen fi Dimashq \\[The Tombs of Kings and Sultans in Damascus\\]\" *Al-Howliyyat al-Athariyya al-Suriyya \\[The Syrian Archaeological Annals*\\], Vol. I, Part II, 1951, pp.235–53.","patrons":"Al-Malik al-Afdal Nur al-Din ‘Ali (r. AH 582–92 / AD 1186–96).","dynasty":"Ayyubid.","materials":[],"keywords":["Mausoleum; cenotaph; qashani tiles; woodwork; al-Malik al-'Aziz 'Uthman ('Uthman II; in Turkey Osman II); Wilhelm II"],"author":"Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, Zena Takieddine","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"bfab383a-8a92-580d-828e-595be606bc38":{"name":"Painting.","description":"A fragment of a battle scene painted in gouache on paper. To the left of the painting is part of a wall with a balustrade from which two archers are drawing their bows ready to fire arrows at the enemy. A bearded figure on horseback, his lower half obscured slightly by the wall, wields a sword in his right hand and shield in the left. He is either about to attack or has just killed his opponent, whose body is bent backwards as if he is wounded or ready to throw the lance. In the centre of the painting another figure aims his lance at a soldier with a round shield and wide sword.  \nThe majority of works on paper discovered at Fustat are Fatimid and when this painting was acquired by the British Museum it was assumed that the painting was a Fatimid work. However, certain details suggest a later date, such as the kite-shaped shields, a type introduced by the Normans that was not in use in Egypt until the end of the AH 7th/ AD 13th century.","short_description":"A fragment of a gouache painting of a battle scene, from Fustat, Cairo. One of a small number of surviving paintings from the medieval period. The date of this painting is not certain; it is either Fatimid, like many other works on paper excavated at Fustat, or Ayyubid from the AH 7th / AD 13th century.","type":"Gouache on paper","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 7th century / AD 13th century.","location":"London","province":"England","dimensions":"Height 21 cm, width 31.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"This painting was previously thought by scholars to date to the Fatimid period, but recent research dates it later to the Ayyubid period, due to the headgear worn by the figures on the left that resembles 7th- / 13th-century illustrated manuscripts produced in Syria, and the figure on the upper right who has a kite-shaped shield, a Norman design not used in Egypt until the end of the 7th / 13th century.","method_for_provenance":"The painting was found in an excavation at Fustat, Cairo.","provenance":"Fustat, Egypt.","obtention":"Purchased in 1938.","bibliography":"Contadini, A., Fatimid Art at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 1998, p.13.  \nGray, B., \"A Fatimid Drawing\", British Museum Quarterly, XII, 1938, p.91–6.  \nL'Orient de Saladin au temps des Ayyoubides, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 2001, p.94, cat. no. 62.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","materials":["Gouache on paper."],"keywords":["Figurative painting"],"author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"ca942ff7-606f-5ad2-bbe5-0716cf554458":{"name":"Prick spur.","description":"Originally one of a pair of prick spurs, this spur would have been fixed to footwear, to the sides of the ankle, with the prick pointing out at the back of the heel. A horse-rider (cavalryman, horse-archer, or knight) would use it to prick his horse when commanding it to move or run. The spur has straight sides with two holes at the end of each for the straps that tie around the ankles. These two straight sides meet in the middle to form an elliptical arch. Attached to the point where the two sides meet is a section that has a conical shaped tip (the prick). The spur's straight sides indicate that it could not have been made after the AH 6th century / AD 12th century, while the two strap-holes on the end of the sides of the spur show that this item was not likely to have been made before 1100.","short_description":"Every Crusader knight, cavalryman and horse-archer would have had a pair of prick spurs like these fixed onto the heel of their footwear. The European Crusader would use the prick to coax his horse into moving or picking up speed.","type":"Metalwork, iron, arms, armours","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"About hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 15.2 cm, width 8 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis, and from extensive research carried out into the manufacture of European arms and armour. The spur's straight sides indicate that it could not have been made after the 12th century, while the strap-holes on the end of the sides of the spur show that this item was not likely to have been made before 1100 AD.","provenance":"Northern Europe (Germany or Austria).","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Nicolle, D., *The Crusades*, Oxford, 1988.","dynasty":"Crusader","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Iron."],"keywords":["Military object; crusader; pilgrimage"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"ce38f20b-4ae7-5ca9-bfa6-3a9eefa8c478":{"name":"Memorial Panel.","description":"The Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars undertook the task of repelling the Mongols in the AH mid-7th / AD mid-13th century as they advanced towards Egypt. In AH 664 / AD 1265, he occupied the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, including the city of Sis (Kozan), since its rulers had allied themselves with the Mongols in their war against the Muslims. On his way back to Egypt after the campaign, he stopped in the city of Homs and visited the Mosque of the Companion (of the Prophet Muhammad) Khalid bin al-Walid (d. AH 21/ AD 642), the Arab commander who led the Muslims against Byzantine forces during the time of the Prophet, and who was known as the \"Sword of God\". Baybars ordered the completion of a panel above the tomb of Khalid that commemorated his victory in Cilicia.  \nThis panel is one of a series that were placed in the mosque. Its overall form is rectangular, but its upper side is in the shape of an arc. There are five lines in Arabic *thuluth* script carved on the panel. The text translates as follows:  \n(1) In the name of God, the Merciful and Compassionate, this construction in the sanctuary of the Sword of God and the Companion of the Prophet of God, Khalid bin al-Walid, may God be pleased with him, was ordered  \n(2) by the Lord Sultan al-Malik al-Zahir, the pillar of religion, the ruler of Islam and Muslims, the killer of unbelievers and polytheists, the killer of rebels  \n(3) and insurgents, the one who revives justice in the two worlds, king of the two seas, ruler of the two *qiblas*, servant of the two holy sanctuaries, the grace of sovereignty, the sultan of Arabs, Persians, and Turks,  \n(4) ruler of time and companion of the Qur'an, Baybars al-Salihi, partner of the Commander of the Faithful, may God support his rule against his enemies, in  \n(5) \\[Homs\\], for the victory is in the year six hundred sixty-forty after the *hegira*  \n*Note: The word \"forty\" in line five should be \"four.\"*  \nThis text is decorated with finely executed vegetal motifs, and has traces of green and black on it.","short_description":"The text carved on this sandalwood panel commemorates the victory of the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars against the allies of the Mongols in Cilicia and serves to associate the Mamluk ruler with the memory of other great Muslim warriors.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77).","dates":"Hegira 664 / AD 1265.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 77 cm, width 1.33 m.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the panel specifies the year in which it was made: hegira 664 (1265).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription mentions that the panel was intended for the Mosque of Khalid bin al-Walid in Homs. It was probably made *in situ*.","provenance":"Mosque of Khalid bin al-Walid, Homs, Syria.","obtention":"In 1952, the Directorate General of Museums and Antiquities was informed that there were old wooden slabs of historical value in a compartment in the Khalid bin al-Walid Mosque that needed repair. Technicians from the Directorate restored the panels before they entered the Museum's collection in 1953.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus*, Damascus, 1969, p.206.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Carved Indian sandalwood."],"keywords":["Indian sandalwood; carved wood; painted wood; Hims (Homs); Mosque; Khalid bin al-Walid; Sultan al-Zahir Baybars; Mongols; Cilicia; Armenian Kingdom"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"d3cd72eb-4da3-52ee-8fe8-e450b2d00a90":{"name":"*Dinar* (gold coin).","description":"A Crusader coin, with the value of a *dinar* as it is made of gold. Although the Crusaders came as counter-Islamic warriors, they also settled in the region and engaged in commerce quite extensively. In order for their coins to have value and be recognisable within the market economy, they minted coins similar to the ones found in the region and inscribed their minting in Arabic. This coin follows a Fatimid prototype. Its inscription is arranged in three concentric circles. It was minted in Acre in AD 1251 (AH 649), during the rule of King Louis IX (d. AD 1270), the King of France who led the 7th and 8th crusades. The minting of these coins was instigated by the arrival of a new papal legislator to the Latin states in the spring of 1250 who considered it blasphemous to use coins containing the names of the Muslim prophets and the ruling caliphs. He immediately forbade their minting, replacing them with coins portraying Christian symbolism written in deliberate but faulty Arabic language.  \nThe following Arabic inscriptions are recorded on the coin in *naskhi* script:  \nObverse  \nMiddle – the phrase “God is one” is written, although the Arabic word for God (Ilah) is misspelled.  \nInner Ring – “The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit”  \nOuter Ring – “Minted in Acre in the year one thousand two hundred and fifty one, our Lord became incarnate.” This phrase is followed by a cross flanked by two dots.  \nReverse  \nMiddle – In the middle of a circle is a cross with dots in opposite quadrants; the upper left and lower right.  \nInner Circle – There is a small cross flanked by a pair of dots on each side, located in proximity to the cross in the middle circle. The inscription reads, “Our resurrection, our salvation is in Him, protect us”.  \nOuter Circle – On the perimeter is an unclear form of a cross with one dot on each side, then the phrase “We are proud of the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, in Him is our peace”.  \nNote that a number of the words are misspelled and the text has numerous linguistic errors, which makes it difficult to read.","short_description":"This gold coin, known as a *dinar*, was minted by the Crusader settlers in Acre. To maintain economic viability the Crusaders minted coins in the Islamic numismatic style, following the Fatimid prototype of Arabic inscriptions arranged in three concentric circles, with the addition of a central cross.","type":"Dinar, gold","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Hegira 649 / AD 1251.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Diameter 2.3 cm, weight 3.17 g.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the face of the coin specifies the date (1251).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the face of the coin specifies that it was minted in Acre.","provenance":"Acre, Palestine.","obtention":"Purchased in 1948.","bibliography":"Delpont, E. (ed), *L'Orient de Saladin: l'art des Ayyoubides*, Paris, 2001, p.105; fig. 84.","dynasty":"Crusader","materials":["Minted gold."],"keywords":["coin; coinage; dinar; gold; minted; Crusader; Acre; Fatimids; Louis IX; Christ; numismatics"],"author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"dd44c4b3-03fc-5979-8e45-d6162ea57c5a":{"name":"Sword.","description":"Although this sword was not found in Crusader lands, it is a typical example of a Crusader sword brought to the Holy Land and used by European warriors and knights. The sword has a double-edged slashing blade, which tapers off to a sharp point. It has a central, single channel (fuller) running along the blade on each side, the presence of which lightens the sword without affecting its strength thus making it more effective for cutting and hacking. The handle has a pommel (the knob at the top of the grip) in the shape of a chamfered wheel that is inlaid with brass in the form of a cross design on one side, and a design consisting of three half circles linked in the middle with three lines, on the other. This type of pommel came into use in about the AH 5th / AD 11th century, when sword blades increased in length too. Despite the disappointing number of artefacts that have survived from the Crusades, contemporary European manuscripts and their miniature paintings, together with monuments and their carvings, have depicted with impressive accuracy the types of arms and armour used during the Crusader period.","short_description":"Although this sword was not found in Crusader lands in the Middle East, it is a typical example of a Crusader sword brought to the Holy Land and used by European warriors and knights. Contemporary Medieval European manuscripts depict, with remarkable accuracy, Crusader arms and armour.","type":"Metalwork, iron, arms, armours","holder":"Burrell Collection, Glasgow Museums.","dates":"About hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Glasgow","province":"Scotland","dimensions":"Length 119.4 cm: comprising (pommel) 4.8 cm, (grip) 10 cm, (blade) 104 cm.","method_for_datation":"Artistic analysis: several reasonably accurate examples of these swords appear in contemporary European miniatures in manuscripts, and on stone carvings, confirming that northern European Crusader knights in the Holy Land used this type of sword.","provenance":"Continental / Northern Europe.","obtention":"Part of the collection given to the City of Glasgow by Sir William and Lady Burrell in 1944.","bibliography":"Coe, M. D., et al, *Swords and Hilt Weapons*, New York, 1989.  \n  \nNicolle, D., *The Crusades*, Oxford, 1988.","dynasty":"Crusader","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":["Iron, with brass inlay on pommel."],"keywords":["Military object; Crusader; pilgrimage; weapon; weaponry; arms; armours"],"author":"Noorah Al-Gailani","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"df881eea-95c8-5db6-825d-d04360d53ffd":{"name":"Mamluk *mashaf*","alternate_name":"Qur’anic manuscript, No. 16.","description":"A *mashaf* (Qur'anic manuscript) bound in deep-brown leather, made up of two covers (front and back) and a library marker. The ornamentation on this binding is reminiscent of Mamluk *mashafs* in that the intertwining geometric lines, by intersecting with each other, create fields of different sizes that are filled with embossed details. The margins of both sides of the binding are delineated with different decorative frames. The inside of the binding is also decorated with an embossed medium-sized circle surrounded by semi-circles.  \nFolio 1b–2a is composed of two pages written in *thuluth* script in black ink; the lettering branching out into illumination. There are 10 lines to each page; each line is surrounded by strokes that encircle the text. Folio 2b–3a forms the frontispiece of the *mashaf.* It comprises two pages that contain two identical panels covering most of the spread, and is composed of decoration made up of intersecting geometric lines. The lines encompass between them fields of varying sizes, and each field holds a golden blossom within it. Each blossom varies in size to fit the geometric zone that contains it. The decorative panels finish at the top and bottom with illuminated bands that include text from the Qur'an “al-Waqi'ah” (“The Event, The Inevitable” 56: 76–82). Vegetal decoration surrounds the bands and panels in gold and blue, framing all four sides of the pages.  \nFolio 3b–4a contains the opening pages of the *mashaf*. Both pages are identically decorated and are written in illuminated *thuluth* script composed of five lines. Ornamentation of climbing vegetal motifs, framing broad rectangular areas, is placed above and below the text as well as on the sides. On the remaining pages the text is written in *thuluth* script in black ink. The pause marks assume the shape of flowers in gold, blue and brown. The name “Majesty” (*al-Jalala)* and the *Basmala* (In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful) are written in gold. The chapter and verse number is white outlined in black; it sits on a wavy gold background on blue, or occasionally red, within a wide gold strip that forms a rectangular frame. The last two pages of the *mashaf*, which contain the last three chapters of the Qur'an, are written in gold.","short_description":"A complete Mamluk Qur’an in two covers of leather with intertwining geometric lines. At the beginning are two identical decorative panels with two blossoms. The text is written in *thuluth* script in black ink. The pause marks assume the shape of flowers in gold, blue and brown. Illumination is used especially in chapter names, a number of verses and where the word ‘Majesty’ appears.","type":"Mashaf, paper, manuscript","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"*Qadi* (Judge) Taj al-Din Abi Ishaq al-Maliki (d. AH 771 / AD 1369).","dates":"Before hegira 771 / AD 1369; during the lifetime of the original owner.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Length 47 cm, width 32 cm, depth 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"The dating of this *mashaf* is supported by the knowledge of the life-span of the original owner, *Qadi* (Judge) Taj al-Din Abi Ishaq al-Maliki (d. 771 / 1369).","method_for_provenance":"Egypt was narrowed down as the place where the *mashaf* was copied due to the style of the script, the decoration used, as well as the leather binding. The *mashaf* is fairly typical of Egyptian manuscripts of this sort produced in the same period.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"The *mashaf* was transferred from al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil) where it had been endowed by its owner for recitation, to the Islamic Museum in 1927.","bibliography":"Al-'Asqalani, Ahmad bin 'Ali bin Hajar (d. 852 / 1448), *Al-Durar al-Kamina fi al-A'yan al-Mi'a al-Thamina \\[The Valuable Jewellery of the Personalities of the Eighth Century\\],* Vols. 1 and 6, Hyderabad, 1972.  \nSalameh, K., *Al-Makhtutat al-Qur'aniya fi al-Muthaf al-Islamu fi al-Haram al-Sharif \\[Qur'anic Manuscripts in the Islamic Museum in al-Haram al-Sharif*\\], Paris, 2003.  \nAl-Maqrizi, Taqi al-Din, A., (d. 845 / 1442), *Al-Suluk li Marifat Duwal al-Muluk \\[The Right Ways to Know the Lands of the Rulers*\\], Vols. 2 and 3, Cairo, 1970.  \nal-Shaja'i, Shams al-Din, *Al-Malik al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun Salihi wa Awladahu \\[The Ruler, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun Salihi and his Sons*\\], Fisbadan, 1978.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Coloured inks on paper with gilding; the binding, embossed leather."],"keywords":["Illumination; leather binding; thuluth; embossed decoration; vegetal decoration; geometric decoration; Qur’an; mashaf; paper; religious manuscript"],"author":"Khader Salameh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e1e587a5-e3ec-54cd-a541-b98bd284ead1":{"name":"Tower of al-Zahir Baybars.","description":"The floor-plan of the tower is approximately the shape of a three-quarter circle. The higher sections of the eastern and northern facades are decorated with a large group of lions chiselled from stone, for this reason the tower was once known as the Lion Tower. The lion was in fact the blazon of Sultan Baybars who, in addition to building this tower, also renovated some of the citadels in the *Sham* region (Bilad al-Sham was the traditional Arab name for the region that today contains Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine), including the Citadel of 'Ajlun in Jordan. The Tower of al-Zahir Baybars was obscured underground until recently (1983) when it was discovered during construction of the Police Museum. The museum was constructed on top of a section of the newly discovered tower, while the lower section remains underground.","short_description":"When Sultan Baybars al-Bunduqdari entered the Citadel in AH 659 / AD 1260, a new era began in Egyptian history. He is termed the real founder of the Mamluk state, which he ruled for 17 years. He repelled the attacks of the Moguls and the Crusaders and re-instated the Abbasid caliphate in Egypt after the fall of Baghdad. He installed the new caliph, al-Mustansir Billah, to rule the Islamic countries. The tower bears the blazon of its sponsor in the form of a lion.","dates":"Hegira 658–76 / AD 1260–77.","location":"Cairo","method_for_datation":"Dating of the building was supported by historical sources such as the *Khitat* of al-Maqrizi and the research of Creswell (1924) on the citadel of Cairo, which mentions that the tower was the work of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars.","bibliography":"Casanova, P., “Histoire et Description de la Citadelle du Caire”, *Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique Française du Caire*, No. 6, Paris, 1897.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., “Archaeological Researches at the Citadel of Cairo”, *Bulletin l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale,* No. 23, Cairo, 1924, pp.89–167.  \nRabbat, N., *The Citadel of Cairo*, Geneva, 1989.  \nZaki, Abd al-Rahman, *Qal'a Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi wa ma hawlaha min al-Athar \\[Citadel of Salah al-Din Ayyubi and the Surrounding Monuments*\\], Cairo, 1971.","patrons":"Sultan al-Zahir Baybars al-Bunduqdari (r. AH 658–76 / AD 1260–77).","dynasty":"Mamluk.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Tower; figurative decoration; war-time architecture; military architecture"],"author":"Tarek Torky","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"e67f38ec-fa2d-5d97-b5a7-c6d7c6f6bd23":{"name":"Aqsa Mosque.","description":"The Aqsa Mosque is a rectangular building within the Haram al-Sharif. The Haram site slopes from the north to the south and this tendency is addressed by a platform that traverses it, and upon which the mosque was erected. The layout of the present mosque is the result of reconstructions and modifications that have characterised a number of building stages in different periods, and which are the subject of some debate among historians and researchers.  \nThe first stages of construction of the Aqsa Mosque are associated with the Caliph 'Umar bin al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) who erected a *mihrab* and a simple mosque on the same site as the present mosque. Mujir al-Din (d. AH 928 / AD 1521), an historian and authority on the architecture of Jerusalem, mentions that Caliph 'Umar while clearing the Haram area of debris, uncovered the sacred rock. He consulted those with him about the ideal position of the mosque and was advised to situate it to the north of the rock, but he refused, saying: “But we must make its *qibla*, its front \\[any part of the wall on the south\\], as has the Prophet of God made the *qibla* of our mosques, their front”. In about AH 49–50 / AD 670, the famous traveller Arculf stated that the mosque was located in the southern area of the Haram; it was erected on great wooden piers constructed from re-used material found in the region and that the mosque was widened to accommodate 3000 worshippers.  \nNothing tangible remains of the original mosque, known as the Masjid al-'Umari, since it was renovated at the beginning of AH 65 / AD 685.  \nThe Aqsa Mosque was built during the reign of Abd al-Malik. It had 15 arcades, none of which have survived intact except those on the southern wall, due to the fact that the mosque was badly damaged by a number of earthquakes and was restored a number of times.  \nDuring the Crusader period the Aqsa Mosque was converted into a church. A large recess was added in the eastern side, corresponding to the layout of churches facing the east. The recess remains to this day.  \nThe present al-Aqsa mosque has nine entrances: seven of them are located in the northern wall, one in the west wall and another in the east. The northern wall is preceded by a colonnade composed of seven slabs of stone, each covered by an intersecting vault. The colonnade opens out on to the plaza of the Haram al-Sharif through a large tapered arch.  \nThe ground plan of the mosque is a rectangle measuring 50 m x 80 m. It is composed of seven aisles extending from north to south; the middle one being the widest and highest of them. The three western colonnades are supported by large piers, while the eastern colonnades are supported by a series of marble columns imported from Italy during the restoration of this section by the High Islamic Council in the first half of the 20th century. At the southern end of the middle aisle there is a wooden semi-circular dome supported by corner squinches. Below the dome is the beautiful *mihrab* built by order of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) when he liberated the mosque from the Franks in AH 583 / AD 1187.","short_description":"The present building is a product of many architectural developments, since all the dynasties that ruled the Islamic state left their mark on this building, which also fell victim to successive earthquakes. The last catastrophe was the result of an arson attack in 1969. Not much remains of the first building stages (Umayyad); its form has changed as a result of continuous renovation and restoration and it has been lengthened and not widened as is the case for Umayyad mosques. It is now composed of seven colonnades, the widest in the middle, and is topped by a gabled roof. It is connected to the miracle of the *Isra’* and *Mi’raj* (Night of the Prophet’s Ascension) for the site was mentioned in the Qur’an.","dates":"Hegira 65–96 / AD 685–715.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building is dated by inscriptions, historical sources, as well as evidence of finds from archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Creswell, K. A. C., *Early Muslim Architecture,* Oxford, 1932.  \nHamilton, R. W., *The Structural History of the Aqsa Mosque: A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938–42*, London, 1949.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza*, pp.74–6.","patrons":"Caliph 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. AH 65–86 / AD 685–705) and al-Walid bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 86–96 / AD 705–15). The building was renovated several times thereafter, in the eras of: the Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja’far al-Mansur (r. AH 136–58 / AD 754–75), Caliph al-Mahdi (r. AH 158–69 / AD 775–85), the Fatimid Caliph, al-Zahir (r. AH 411–27 / AD 1021–36), Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93), Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40) and a number of the Ottoman sultans.","dynasty":"Built in the Umayyad period; renovated in the Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Congregational mosque; haram; religious building; mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fc08aed9-57d3-59a7-83b4-abccf4770360":{"name":"Candlestick of Qalawun.","description":"A copper candlestick consisting of a cylindrical body, base and neck. The cylindrical neck is smaller in diameter than the base and body. At the top of the neck is a candleholder that is wider than the neck. Three decorative bands wrap themselves around the relatively broad base of the candlestick. The first band consists of shapes that are separated from each other by polygons. The second band is characterised by interwoven half-leaves that wrap around each other like a necklace. The third band is similar in shape to an ear of wheat. The body of this candlestick is reminiscent of another, also in the Museum, that belonged to al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun.  \nThe body of the candlestick exhibited here has an engraved inscription band in large Mamluk *naskhi* script, which fills its surface. The spaces in between the inscription are filled with intertwining vegetal motifs, which continue until there are no spaces remaining on the surface of the candlestick body. The inscription reads: “The possession of our lord, the great *amir*, the all-knowing, the just, the sovereign, the victorious”.The inscription is intersected by two circular medallions, each of which is formed by an outer circle filled with depictions of lotus flowers, and an inner circle that contains one big flower. The body ends with two bands of vegetal decoration that resemble the remaining decorative scheme of the body.  \nThe top-plate of the candlestick is devoid of decoration and it is probably not original; the original was probably decorated and perhaps had an inscription band. It is likely that replacement of the top-plate took place when the neck of the candlestick was replaced, but it is not known when these alterations took place. The replaced neck, also undecorated, indicates the decline in craftsmanship during the late Mamluk period. There is striking similarity between this candlestick and that of al-Nasir Muhammad, which suggests that both candlesticks were made by the same craftsman in the same period.","short_description":"A copper candlestick with thick vegetal decorative motifs. Its epigraphic inscriptions are within medallions and written in large Mamluk *naskhi* script, with backgrounds of vegetal decoration. The inscriptions are linked to the ruler, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun, who endowed it to al-Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron.","type":"Candlestick, copper","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Mamluk Sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40).","dates":"Hegira 693–741 / AD 1294–1340.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 38.5 cm, height (of neck) 19.5 cm, diameter 23.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was dated based on the inscriptions on it, which also mention the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun.","method_for_provenance":"Cairo was narrowed down as the place of production by studying the craftsmanship and decoration of these candlesticks, and by comparing them with two similar candlesticks in the Islamic Museum in Cairo that were produced in the same period.","provenance":"Probably Cairo, Egypt.","obtention":"The piece was transferred after 1967 from al-Haram al-Ibrahimi in Hebron (al-Khalil), to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., *Islamic Art Through the Ages: Masterpieces of the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem*, 1998.  \n\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, “Three Candlesticks from the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif”, *Levant*, No. 20, 1988.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Copper, engraved and inlaid with silver."],"keywords":["Naskhi script; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; candlestick; copper; engraving; copper; inlay; silver"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fc210313-c572-52b3-ab9c-6ec080f0812a":{"name":"Oil lamp.","description":"A glass lamp composed of three sections: base, body and the neck, and completely covered with vegetal decoration beautifully and skilfully executed. It is painted with a variety of colours, with enamel and with profuse gilding. In addition it is adorned with written inscriptions and the blazon of the endower. The neck of the lamp is wide and narrows as it moves in closer to the body, thus taking the form of a conic glass. The neck is adorned with both vegetal motifs that fill the surface, and with an inscription band in Mamluk *thuluth* script. The inscription, 8 cm high, rendered in dark-blue, includes part of a verse from the Qur'an, “al-Tauba” (“the Repentance” 9: 18): “The Mosques of Allah shall be visited and maintained by such as believe in Allah and the Last Day”.The verse is intercepted by three circular medallions with a red circle at the centre, within which is a gilded goblet, the blazon of Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri. A decorative band is located between the body of the lamp and its neck formed from eight consecutive lotus flowers. The body is decorated with a relatively large gilded inscription band, against a dark-blue background, it reads: “This has been ordered by the Sublime, our lord, the *amir*, al-Saifi Tankaz supporter of the honourable and protected Mamluks in al-Sham \\[Syria\\]”. The inscription is interrupted by six suspension loops that are used to attach the chains for hanging the lamp. There is decorative band below that containing the inscription this is adorned with vegetal motifs. The lower area of the body, before transferring to the base, contains six medallions, three of which contain blazons and the remaining three of which are filled with vegetal motifs. The base of the lamp is 4 cm high; it is wider at the bottom than the top. The base is adorned with three bands filled with gilded vegetal decoration.","short_description":"The glass lamp is completely covered with intricate and skilful vegetal decoration and is painted in a variety of colours, with enamel and gilding. The body bears a gilded inscription and the blazon of its endower, Amir Tankiz al-Nasiri, against a dark-blue background. The lamp has a number of decorative medallions.","type":"Oil lamp, glass","holder":"Islamic Museum, al-Aqsa Mosque / al-Haram al-Sharif.","initial_owner":"Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri who occupied the position of a representative of the Sultanate in al-Sham (Great Syria) region in AH 712–40 / AD 1312–40. This was during the rule of the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun (who ruled three times: AH 693–4, 698–708 and 709–41 / AD 1294–5, 1299–1309 and 1309–40).","dates":"Hegira 712–40 / AD 1312–40.","location":"Jerusalem","dimensions":"Height 33 cm, diameter (of mouth) 18 cm.","method_for_datation":"The lamp was dated based on the written inscriptions on it, which mention the name of its owner, Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri.","method_for_provenance":"Lamps, similar to that exhibited here, were renowned during the Mamluk period. They were typically produced in either Cairo or Damascus, so it is likely that this piece was made in Damascus in view of the fact that Amir Tankaz was a deputy there.","provenance":"Probably Damascus or Cairo.","obtention":"The lamp was transferred from al-Haram al-Ibrahimi (the Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron (al-Khalil) to the Islamic Museum in Jerusalem in 1967.","bibliography":"Abu Khalaf, M., *Islamic Art Through the Ages: Masterpieces of the Islamic Museum of al-Haram al-Sharif,* Jerusalem, 1998.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","materials":["Painted, enamelled and gilded glass."],"keywords":["Thuluth; gilded glass; painted glass; epigraphic decoration; vegetal decoration; lamp; mosque interior decoration"],"author":"Nazmi Al-Ju'beh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"},"fe0665ae-557f-5721-993c-8b5887d08251":{"name":"Qubbat al-Su’ud (Dome of Ascension).","description":"Qubbat al-Su'ud (Dome of Ascension) is an independent commemorative building the design of which is based on an octagonal plan on the outside, and a circular one on the inside. The building is located at the centre of a walled-in area with unequal sides. It is built from medium-sized white stone blocks which have turned to ash-grey due to the climate.  \nThe Dome of Ascension is Byzantine in origin (AH 17 / AD 638) and circular in form. The Franks replaced it in AH 492–583 / AD 1099–1187 with a roofless octagonal building which was renovated and then abandoned, during the Ayyubid period after the Battle of Hattin (AH 583 / AD 1187). It was then turned into a mosque but only on the condition that Christians could still use it during festivals, special events and even on ordinary days, without any restrictions or conditions.  \nThe present building has a stone octagonal façade and is composed of three sections. The first section is the “body”, composed of eight tapered arches supported on piers with compact marble columns. The columns terminate with capitals adorned with representations of animals and humans, which are associated with the Christian era. The arches, originally open, were blocked off in the Ayyubid era by a series of stone courses. The opening for a door was prepared on the western façade, and the capitals with their multiplicity of decorative motifs were restored.  \nThe second section of the building is the drum of the dome, which is circular in form and forms a zone of transition between the octagonal body and the dome. This section of the building is closed; there are no openings, except a long window on the western façade. The third section of the building is the dome, which is covered on the outside by tesserae, and which is crowned by a small stone crescent.  \nThe entrance to the building is emphasised by means of a tiled passageway leading from the door on the western façade. The interior floor is also tiled with tesserae. The area where “the footprint of Christ” lies is slightly elevated and surrounded by a rectangular stone frame. On the southern side of the octagon lies a *mihrab* that was placed there during the Ayyubid period, and which become an important Islamic landmark alongside the Christian relic, represented by the spot from which Christ ascended to heaven.","short_description":"This is a commemorative building located on the heights of the nearby summit of the holy Mount of Olives that overlooks Jerusalem. From the outside the building assumes an octagonal form, while the interior has a circular plan. The site was the location for a Byzantine church, which was built to commemorate the Ascension of Christ to heaven. The distinguishing features of this Byzantine building were completely changed by the Franks and Salah a-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin). The site is sacred to Muslims and Christians.","dates":"Hegira 595 / AD 1198.","location":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"The building was dated by architectural comparisons with the domes of the Haram al-Sharif, and supported by other historical information such as travelogues. Archaeological excavations uncovered fragments of Byzantine ceramics, confirming that the site was originally Byzantine.","bibliography":"Abu Rayya, R., *Al-Mawqi' al-Islamiya 'ala Jabal al-Zaytun/Tur Zita \\[The Islamic Site on the Mount of Olives\\],* MA Thesis, al-Quds University, 1999.  \nBieberstein, K., and Bloedhorn, H., *Jerusalem Grundzuege der Baugeschichte vom Chalkolithikum bis zur Fruhziet der Osmanischen Herrschaft,* Vol. III. Wiesbaden, 1994.  \nAl-Hanbali, Mujir al-Din, (d. 927 / 1520), *Al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds wa al-Khalil \\[The Significant Ambiance in the History of Jerusalem and Hebron\\]*, Amman, 1973.  \nPierotti, E., *Jerusalem Explored*, London, 1864.  \n*Pilgrimage, Sciences and Sufism: Islamic Art in the West Bank and Gaza,* pp.138–9.","patrons":"The overseer of the building is not known, but the renovation and addition of the mihrab was likely to have been ordered by Sultan Salah al-Din Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r. AH 564–89 / AD 1169–93).","dynasty":"Ayyubid / Crusader.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PA_EN_001","materials":[],"keywords":["Ascension; commemorative architecture; dome; church; mosque"],"author":"Yusuf al-Natsheh","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez"}}