@lakutata/math 0.0.0-stage → 3.1.5

package/vendor/mpdecimal/libmpdec/io.c

@@ -0,0 +1,1610 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright (c) 2008-2025 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+ * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+ * are met:
+ *
+ * 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+ *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+ * 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+ *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+ *    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+ *
+ * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+ * ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+ * IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+ * ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+ * FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+ * DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+ * OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+ * HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+ * LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+ * OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+ * SUCH DAMAGE.
+ */
+
+
+#include <assert.h>
+#include <ctype.h>
+#include <errno.h>
+#include <limits.h>
+#include <locale.h>
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+#include <string.h>
+
+#include "io.h"
+#include "mpdecimal.h"
+#include "typearith.h"
+
+
+/* This file contains functions for decimal <-> string conversions, including
+   PEP-3101 formatting for numeric types. */
+
+
+#if defined(__GNUC__) && !defined(__INTEL_COMPILER) && __GNUC__ >= 7
+  #pragma GCC diagnostic ignored "-Wimplicit-fallthrough"
+  #pragma GCC diagnostic ignored "-Wmisleading-indentation"
+  #pragma GCC diagnostic ignored "-Warray-bounds"
+#endif
+
+
+/*
+ * Work around the behavior of tolower() and strcasecmp() in certain
+ * locales. For example, in tr_TR.utf8:
+ *
+ * tolower((unsigned char)'I') == 'I'
+ *
+ * u is the exact uppercase version of l; n is strlen(l) or strlen(l)+1
+ */
+static inline int
+_mpd_strneq(const char *s, const char *l, const char *u, size_t n)
+{
+    while (--n != SIZE_MAX) {
+        if (*s != *l && *s != *u) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        s++; u++; l++;
+    }
+
+    return 1;
+}
+
+static mpd_ssize_t
+strtoexp(const char *s)
+{
+    char *end;
+    mpd_ssize_t retval;
+
+    errno = 0;
+    retval = mpd_strtossize(s, &end, 10);
+    if (errno == 0 && !(*s != '\0' && *end == '\0'))
+        errno = EINVAL;
+
+    return retval;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Scan 'len' words. The most significant word contains 'r' digits,
+ * the remaining words are full words. Skip dpoint. The string 's' must
+ * consist of digits and an optional single decimal point at 'dpoint'.
+ */
+static void
+string_to_coeff(mpd_uint_t *data, const char *s, const char *dpoint, int r,
+                size_t len)
+{
+    int j;
+
+    if (r > 0) {
+        data[--len] = 0;
+        for (j = 0; j < r; j++, s++) {
+            if (s == dpoint) s++;
+            data[len] = 10 * data[len] + (*s - '0');
+        }
+    }
+
+    while (--len != SIZE_MAX) {
+        data[len] = 0;
+        for (j = 0; j < MPD_RDIGITS; j++, s++) {
+            if (s == dpoint) s++;
+            data[len] = 10 * data[len] + (*s - '0');
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/*
+ * Partially verify a numeric string of the form:
+ *
+ *     [cdigits][.][cdigits][eE][+-][edigits]
+ *
+ * If successful, return a pointer to the location of the first
+ * relevant coefficient digit. This digit is either non-zero or
+ * part of one of the following patterns:
+ *
+ *     ["0\x00", "0.\x00", "0.E", "0.e", "0E", "0e"]
+ *
+ * The locations of a single optional dot or indicator are stored
+ * in 'dpoint' and 'exp'.
+ *
+ * The end of the string is stored in 'end'. If an indicator [eE]
+ * occurs without trailing [edigits], the condition is caught
+ * later by strtoexp().
+ */
+static const char *
+scan_dpoint_exp(const char *s, const char **dpoint, const char **exp,
+                const char **end)
+{
+    const char *coeff = NULL;
+
+    *dpoint = NULL;
+    *exp = NULL;
+    for (; *s != '\0'; s++) {
+        switch (*s) {
+        case '.':
+            if (*dpoint != NULL || *exp != NULL)
+                return NULL;
+            *dpoint = s;
+            break;
+        case 'E': case 'e':
+            if (*exp != NULL)
+                return NULL;
+            *exp = s;
+            if (*(s+1) == '+' || *(s+1) == '-')
+                s++;
+            break;
+        default:
+            if (!isdigit((unsigned char)*s))
+                return NULL;
+            if (coeff == NULL && *exp == NULL) {
+                if (*s == '0') {
+                    if (!isdigit((unsigned char)*(s+1)))
+                        if (!(*(s+1) == '.' &&
+                              isdigit((unsigned char)*(s+2))))
+                            coeff = s;
+                }
+                else {
+                    coeff = s;
+                }
+            }
+            break;
+
+        }
+    }
+
+    *end = s;
+    return coeff;
+}
+
+/* scan the payload of a NaN */
+static const char *
+scan_payload(const char *s, const char **end)
+{
+    const char *coeff;
+
+    while (*s == '0')
+        s++;
+    coeff = s;
+
+    while (isdigit((unsigned char)*s))
+        s++;
+    *end = s;
+
+    return (*s == '\0') ? coeff : NULL;
+}
+
+/* convert a character string to a decimal */
+void
+mpd_qset_string(mpd_t *dec, const char *s, const mpd_context_t *ctx,
+                uint32_t *status)
+{
+    mpd_ssize_t q, r, len;
+    const char *coeff, *end;
+    const char *dpoint = NULL, *exp = NULL;
+    size_t digits;
+    uint8_t sign = MPD_POS;
+
+    mpd_set_flags(dec, 0);
+    dec->len = 0;
+    dec->exp = 0;
+
+    /* sign */
+    if (*s == '+') {
+        s++;
+    }
+    else if (*s == '-') {
+        mpd_set_negative(dec);
+        sign = MPD_NEG;
+        s++;
+    }
+
+    if (_mpd_strneq(s, "nan", "NAN", 3)) { /* NaN */
+        s += 3;
+        mpd_setspecial(dec, sign, MPD_NAN);
+        if (*s == '\0')
+            return;
+        /* validate payload: digits only */
+        if ((coeff = scan_payload(s, &end)) == NULL)
+            goto conversion_error;
+        /* payload consists entirely of zeros */
+        if (*coeff == '\0')
+            return;
+        digits = end - coeff;
+        /* prec >= 1, clamp is 0 or 1 */
+        if (digits > (size_t)(ctx->prec-ctx->clamp))
+            goto conversion_error;
+    } /* sNaN */
+    else if (_mpd_strneq(s, "snan", "SNAN", 4)) {
+        s += 4;
+        mpd_setspecial(dec, sign, MPD_SNAN);
+        if (*s == '\0')
+            return;
+        /* validate payload: digits only */
+        if ((coeff = scan_payload(s, &end)) == NULL)
+            goto conversion_error;
+        /* payload consists entirely of zeros */
+        if (*coeff == '\0')
+            return;
+        digits = end - coeff;
+        if (digits > (size_t)(ctx->prec-ctx->clamp))
+            goto conversion_error;
+    }
+    else if (_mpd_strneq(s, "inf", "INF", 3)) {
+        s += 3;
+        if (*s == '\0' || _mpd_strneq(s, "inity", "INITY", 6)) {
+            /* numeric-value: infinity */
+            mpd_setspecial(dec, sign, MPD_INF);
+            return;
+        }
+        goto conversion_error;
+    }
+    else {
+        /* scan for start of coefficient, decimal point, indicator, end */
+        if ((coeff = scan_dpoint_exp(s, &dpoint, &exp, &end)) == NULL)
+            goto conversion_error;
+
+        /* numeric-value: [exponent-part] */
+        if (exp) {
+            /* exponent-part */
+            end = exp; exp++;
+            dec->exp = strtoexp(exp);
+            if (errno) {
+                if (!(errno == ERANGE &&
+                     (dec->exp == MPD_SSIZE_MAX ||
+                      dec->exp == MPD_SSIZE_MIN)))
+                    goto conversion_error;
+            }
+        }
+
+        digits = end - coeff;
+        if (dpoint) {
+            size_t fracdigits = end-dpoint-1;
+            if (dpoint > coeff) digits--;
+
+            if (fracdigits > MPD_MAX_PREC) {
+                goto conversion_error;
+            }
+            if (dec->exp < MPD_SSIZE_MIN+(mpd_ssize_t)fracdigits) {
+                dec->exp = MPD_SSIZE_MIN;
+            }
+            else {
+                dec->exp -= (mpd_ssize_t)fracdigits;
+            }
+        }
+        if (digits > MPD_MAX_PREC) {
+            goto conversion_error;
+        }
+        if (dec->exp > MPD_EXP_INF) {
+            dec->exp = MPD_EXP_INF;
+        }
+        if (dec->exp == MPD_SSIZE_MIN) {
+            dec->exp = MPD_SSIZE_MIN+1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    _mpd_idiv_word(&q, &r, (mpd_ssize_t)digits, MPD_RDIGITS);
+
+    len = (r == 0) ? q : q+1;
+    if (len == 0) {
+        goto conversion_error; /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+    }
+    if (!mpd_qresize(dec, len, status)) {
+        mpd_seterror(dec, MPD_Malloc_error, status);
+        return;
+    }
+    dec->len = len;
+
+    string_to_coeff(dec->data, coeff, dpoint, (int)r, len);
+
+    mpd_setdigits(dec);
+    mpd_qfinalize(dec, ctx, status);
+    return;
+
+conversion_error:
+    /* standard wants a positive NaN */
+    mpd_seterror(dec, MPD_Conversion_syntax, status);
+}
+
+/* convert a character string to a decimal, use a maxcontext for conversion */
+void
+mpd_qset_string_exact(mpd_t *dec, const char *s, uint32_t *status)
+{
+    mpd_context_t maxcontext;
+    uint32_t workstatus = 0;
+
+    mpd_maxcontext(&maxcontext);
+    mpd_qset_string(dec, s, &maxcontext, &workstatus);
+
+    if (workstatus & (MPD_Inexact|MPD_Rounded|MPD_Clamped)) {
+        /* we want exact results */
+        mpd_seterror(dec, MPD_Invalid_operation, status);
+    }
+    *status |= (workstatus&MPD_Errors);
+}
+
+/* Print word x with n decimal digits to string s. dot is either NULL
+   or the location of a decimal point. */
+#define EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, d, dot) \
+        if (s == dot) *s++ = '.'; *s++ = '0' + (char)(x / d); x %= d
+static inline char *
+word_to_string(char *s, mpd_uint_t x, int n, char *dot)
+{
+    switch(n) {
+#ifdef CONFIG_64
+    case 20: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 10000000000000000000ULL, dot); /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+    case 19: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 1000000000000000000ULL, dot);
+    case 18: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 100000000000000000ULL, dot);
+    case 17: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 10000000000000000ULL, dot);
+    case 16: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 1000000000000000ULL, dot);
+    case 15: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 100000000000000ULL, dot);
+    case 14: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 10000000000000ULL, dot);
+    case 13: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 1000000000000ULL, dot);
+    case 12: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 100000000000ULL, dot);
+    case 11: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 10000000000ULL, dot);
+#endif
+    case 10: EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 1000000000UL, dot);
+    case 9:  EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 100000000UL, dot);
+    case 8:  EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 10000000UL, dot);
+    case 7:  EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 1000000UL, dot);
+    case 6:  EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 100000UL, dot);
+    case 5:  EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 10000UL, dot);
+    case 4:  EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 1000UL, dot);
+    case 3:  EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 100UL, dot);
+    case 2:  EXTRACT_DIGIT(s, x, 10UL, dot);
+    default: if (s == dot) *s++ = '.'; *s++ = '0' + (char)x;
+    }
+
+    *s = '\0';
+    return s;
+}
+
+/* Print exponent x to string s. Undefined for MPD_SSIZE_MIN. */
+static inline char *
+exp_to_string(char *s, mpd_ssize_t x)
+{
+    char sign = '+';
+
+    if (x < 0) {
+        sign = '-';
+        x = -x;
+    }
+    *s++ = sign;
+
+    return word_to_string(s, x, mpd_word_digits(x), NULL);
+}
+
+/* Print the coefficient of dec to string s. len(dec) > 0. */
+static inline char *
+coeff_to_string(char *s, const mpd_t *dec)
+{
+    mpd_uint_t x;
+    mpd_ssize_t i;
+
+    /* most significant word */
+    x = mpd_msword(dec);
+    s = word_to_string(s, x, mpd_word_digits(x), NULL);
+
+    /* remaining full words */
+    for (i=dec->len-2; i >= 0; --i) {
+        x = dec->data[i];
+        s = word_to_string(s, x, MPD_RDIGITS, NULL);
+    }
+
+    return s;
+}
+
+/* Print the coefficient of dec to string s. len(dec) > 0. dot is either
+   NULL or a pointer to the location of a decimal point. */
+static inline char *
+coeff_to_string_dot(char *s, char *dot, const mpd_t *dec)
+{
+    mpd_uint_t x;
+    mpd_ssize_t i;
+
+    /* most significant word */
+    x = mpd_msword(dec);
+    s = word_to_string(s, x, mpd_word_digits(x), dot);
+
+    /* remaining full words */
+    for (i=dec->len-2; i >= 0; --i) {
+        x = dec->data[i];
+        s = word_to_string(s, x, MPD_RDIGITS, dot);
+    }
+
+    return s;
+}
+
+/* Format type */
+#define MPD_FMT_LOWER       0x00000000
+#define MPD_FMT_UPPER       0x00000001
+#define MPD_FMT_TOSCI       0x00000002
+#define MPD_FMT_TOENG       0x00000004
+#define MPD_FMT_EXP         0x00000008
+#define MPD_FMT_FIXED       0x00000010
+#define MPD_FMT_PERCENT     0x00000020
+#define MPD_FMT_SIGN_SPACE  0x00000040
+#define MPD_FMT_SIGN_PLUS   0x00000080
+#define MPD_FMT_SIGN_COERCE 0x00000100
+
+/* Default place of the decimal point for MPD_FMT_TOSCI, MPD_FMT_EXP */
+#define MPD_DEFAULT_DOTPLACE 1
+
+/*
+ * Set *result to the string representation of a decimal. Return the length
+ * of *result, not including the terminating '\0' character.
+ *
+ * Formatting is done according to 'flags'. A return value of -1 with *result
+ * set to NULL indicates MPD_Malloc_error.
+ *
+ * 'dplace' is the default place of the decimal point. It is always set to
+ * MPD_DEFAULT_DOTPLACE except for zeros in combination with MPD_FMT_EXP.
+ */
+static mpd_ssize_t
+_mpd_to_string(char **result, const mpd_t *dec, int flags, mpd_ssize_t dplace)
+{
+    char *decstring = NULL, *cp = NULL;
+    mpd_ssize_t ldigits;
+    mpd_ssize_t mem = 0, k;
+
+    if (mpd_isspecial(dec)) {
+
+        mem = sizeof "-Infinity%";
+        if (mpd_isnan(dec) && dec->len > 0) {
+            /* diagnostic code */
+            mem += dec->digits;
+        }
+        cp = decstring = mpd_alloc(mem, sizeof *decstring);
+        if (cp == NULL) {
+            *result = NULL;
+            return -1;
+        }
+
+        if (mpd_isnegative(dec)) {
+            *cp++ = '-';
+        }
+        else if (flags&MPD_FMT_SIGN_SPACE) {
+            *cp++ = ' ';
+        }
+        else if (flags&MPD_FMT_SIGN_PLUS) {
+            *cp++ = '+';
+        }
+
+        if (mpd_isnan(dec)) {
+            if (mpd_isqnan(dec)) {
+                strcpy(cp, "NaN");
+                cp += 3;
+            }
+            else {
+                strcpy(cp, "sNaN");
+                cp += 4;
+            }
+            if (dec->len > 0) { /* diagnostic code */
+                cp = coeff_to_string(cp, dec);
+            }
+        }
+        else if (mpd_isinfinite(dec)) {
+            strcpy(cp, "Infinity");
+            cp += 8;
+        }
+        else { /* debug */
+            abort(); /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+        }
+    }
+    else {
+        assert(dec->len > 0);
+
+        /*
+         * For easier manipulation of the decimal point's location
+         * and the exponent that is finally printed, the number is
+         * rescaled to a virtual representation with exp = 0. Here
+         * ldigits denotes the number of decimal digits to the left
+         * of the decimal point and remains constant once initialized.
+         *
+         * dplace is the location of the decimal point relative to
+         * the start of the coefficient. Note that 3) always holds
+         * when dplace is shifted.
+         *
+         *   1) ldigits := dec->digits - dec->exp
+         *   2) dplace  := ldigits            (initially)
+         *   3) exp     := ldigits - dplace   (initially exp = 0)
+         *
+         *   0.00000_.____._____000000.
+         *    ^      ^    ^           ^
+         *    |      |    |           |
+         *    |      |    |           `- dplace >= digits
+         *    |      |    `- dplace in the middle of the coefficient
+         *    |      ` dplace = 1 (after the first coefficient digit)
+         *    `- dplace <= 0
+         */
+
+        ldigits = dec->digits + dec->exp;
+
+        if (flags&MPD_FMT_EXP) {
+            ;
+        }
+        else if (flags&MPD_FMT_FIXED || (dec->exp <= 0 && ldigits > -6)) {
+            /* MPD_FMT_FIXED: always use fixed point notation.
+             * MPD_FMT_TOSCI, MPD_FMT_TOENG: for a certain range,
+             * override exponent notation. */
+            dplace = ldigits;
+        }
+        else if (flags&MPD_FMT_TOENG) {
+            if (mpd_iszero(dec)) {
+                /* If the exponent is divisible by three,
+                 * dplace = 1. Otherwise, move dplace one
+                 * or two places to the left. */
+                dplace = -1 + mod_mpd_ssize_t(dec->exp+2, 3);
+            }
+            else { /* ldigits-1 is the adjusted exponent, which
+                    * should be divisible by three. If not, move
+                    * dplace one or two places to the right. */
+                dplace += mod_mpd_ssize_t(ldigits-1, 3);
+            }
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * Basic space requirements:
+         *
+         * [-][.][coeffdigits][E][-][expdigits+1][%]['\0']
+         *
+         * If the decimal point lies outside of the coefficient digits,
+         * space is adjusted accordingly.
+         */
+        if (dplace <= 0) {
+            mem = -dplace + dec->digits + 2;
+        }
+        else if (dplace >= dec->digits) {
+            mem = dplace;
+        }
+        else {
+            mem = dec->digits;
+        }
+        mem += (MPD_EXPDIGITS+1+6);
+
+        cp = decstring = mpd_alloc(mem, sizeof *decstring);
+        if (cp == NULL) {
+            *result = NULL;
+            return -1;
+        }
+
+
+        if (mpd_isnegative(dec) && !(flags&MPD_FMT_SIGN_COERCE && mpd_iszero(dec))) {
+            *cp++ = '-';
+        }
+        else if (flags&MPD_FMT_SIGN_SPACE) {
+            *cp++ = ' ';
+        }
+        else if (flags&MPD_FMT_SIGN_PLUS) {
+            *cp++ = '+';
+        }
+
+        if (dplace <= 0) {
+            /* space: -dplace+dec->digits+2 */
+            *cp++ = '0';
+            *cp++ = '.';
+            for (k = 0; k < -dplace; k++) {
+                *cp++ = '0';
+            }
+            cp = coeff_to_string(cp, dec);
+        }
+        else if (dplace >= dec->digits) {
+            /* space: dplace */
+            cp = coeff_to_string(cp, dec);
+            for (k = 0; k < dplace-dec->digits; k++) {
+                *cp++ = '0';
+            }
+        }
+        else {
+            /* space: dec->digits+1 */
+            cp = coeff_to_string_dot(cp, cp+dplace, dec);
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * Conditions for printing an exponent:
+         *
+         *   MPD_FMT_TOSCI, MPD_FMT_TOENG: only if ldigits != dplace
+         *   MPD_FMT_FIXED:                never (ldigits == dplace)
+         *   MPD_FMT_EXP:                  always
+         */
+        if (ldigits != dplace || flags&MPD_FMT_EXP) {
+            /* space: expdigits+2 */
+            *cp++ = (flags&MPD_FMT_UPPER) ? 'E' : 'e';
+            cp = exp_to_string(cp, ldigits-dplace);
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (flags&MPD_FMT_PERCENT) {
+        *cp++ = '%';
+    }
+
+    assert(cp < decstring+mem);
+    assert(cp-decstring < MPD_SSIZE_MAX);
+
+    *cp = '\0';
+    *result = decstring;
+    return (mpd_ssize_t)(cp-decstring);
+}
+
+char *
+mpd_to_sci(const mpd_t *dec, int fmt)
+{
+    char *res;
+    int flags = MPD_FMT_TOSCI;
+
+    flags |= fmt ? MPD_FMT_UPPER : MPD_FMT_LOWER;
+    (void)_mpd_to_string(&res, dec, flags, MPD_DEFAULT_DOTPLACE);
+    return res;
+}
+
+char *
+mpd_to_eng(const mpd_t *dec, int fmt)
+{
+    char *res;
+    int flags = MPD_FMT_TOENG;
+
+    flags |= fmt ? MPD_FMT_UPPER : MPD_FMT_LOWER;
+    (void)_mpd_to_string(&res, dec, flags, MPD_DEFAULT_DOTPLACE);
+    return res;
+}
+
+mpd_ssize_t
+mpd_to_sci_size(char **res, const mpd_t *dec, int fmt)
+{
+    int flags = MPD_FMT_TOSCI;
+
+    flags |= fmt ? MPD_FMT_UPPER : MPD_FMT_LOWER;
+    return _mpd_to_string(res, dec, flags, MPD_DEFAULT_DOTPLACE);
+}
+
+mpd_ssize_t
+mpd_to_eng_size(char **res, const mpd_t *dec, int fmt)
+{
+    int flags = MPD_FMT_TOENG;
+
+    flags |= fmt ? MPD_FMT_UPPER : MPD_FMT_LOWER;
+    return _mpd_to_string(res, dec, flags, MPD_DEFAULT_DOTPLACE);
+}
+
+/* Copy a single UTF-8 char to dest. See: The Unicode Standard, version 5.2,
+   chapter 3.9: Well-formed UTF-8 byte sequences. */
+static int
+_mpd_copy_utf8(char dest[5], const char *s)
+{
+    const unsigned char *cp = (const unsigned char *)s;
+    unsigned char lb, ub;
+    int count, i;
+
+
+    if (*cp == 0) {
+        /* empty string */
+        dest[0] = '\0';
+        return 0;
+    }
+    else if (*cp <= 0x7f) {
+        /* ascii */
+        dest[0] = *cp;
+        dest[1] = '\0';
+        return 1;
+    }
+    else if (0xc2 <= *cp && *cp <= 0xdf) {
+        lb = 0x80; ub = 0xbf;
+        count = 2;
+    }
+    else if (*cp == 0xe0) {
+        lb = 0xa0; ub = 0xbf;
+        count = 3;
+    }
+    else if (*cp <= 0xec) {
+        lb = 0x80; ub = 0xbf;
+        count = 3;
+    }
+    else if (*cp == 0xed) {
+        lb = 0x80; ub = 0x9f;
+        count = 3;
+    }
+    else if (*cp <= 0xef) {
+        lb = 0x80; ub = 0xbf;
+        count = 3;
+    }
+    else if (*cp == 0xf0) {
+        lb = 0x90; ub = 0xbf;
+        count = 4;
+    }
+    else if (*cp <= 0xf3) {
+        lb = 0x80; ub = 0xbf;
+        count = 4;
+    }
+    else if (*cp == 0xf4) {
+        lb = 0x80; ub = 0x8f;
+        count = 4;
+    }
+    else {
+        /* invalid */
+        goto error;
+    }
+
+    dest[0] = (char)*cp++;
+    if (*cp < lb || ub < *cp) {
+        goto error;
+    }
+    dest[1] = (char)*cp++;
+    for (i = 2; i < count; i++) {
+        if (*cp < 0x80 || 0xbf < *cp) {
+            goto error;
+        }
+        dest[i] = (char)*cp++;
+    }
+    dest[i] = '\0';
+
+    return count;
+
+error:
+    dest[0] = '\0';
+    return -1;
+}
+
+int
+mpd_validate_lconv(mpd_spec_t *spec)
+{
+    size_t n;
+#if CHAR_MAX == SCHAR_MAX
+    const char *cp = spec->grouping;
+    while (*cp != '\0') {
+        if (*cp++ < 0) {
+            return -1;
+        }
+    }
+#endif
+    n = strlen(spec->dot);
+    if (n == 0 || n > 4) {
+        return -1;
+    }
+    if (strlen(spec->sep) > 4) {
+        return -1;
+    }
+
+    return 0;
+}
+
+int
+mpd_parse_fmt_str(mpd_spec_t *spec, const char *fmt, int caps)
+{
+    char *cp = (char *)fmt;
+    int have_align = 0, n;
+
+    /* defaults */
+    spec->min_width = 0;
+    spec->prec = -1;
+    spec->type = caps ? 'G' : 'g';
+    spec->align = '>';
+    spec->sign = '-';
+    spec->sign_coerce = 0;
+    spec->dot = "";
+    spec->sep = "";
+    spec->grouping = "";
+
+
+    /* presume that the first character is a UTF-8 fill character */
+    if ((n = _mpd_copy_utf8(spec->fill, cp)) < 0) {
+        return 0;
+    }
+
+    /* alignment directive, prefixed by a fill character */
+    if (*cp && (*(cp+n) == '<' || *(cp+n) == '>' ||
+                *(cp+n) == '=' || *(cp+n) == '^')) {
+        cp += n;
+        spec->align = *cp++;
+        have_align = 1;
+    } /* alignment directive */
+    else {
+        /* default fill character */
+        spec->fill[0] = ' ';
+        spec->fill[1] = '\0';
+        if (*cp == '<' || *cp == '>' ||
+            *cp == '=' || *cp == '^') {
+            spec->align = *cp++;
+            have_align = 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* sign formatting */
+    if (*cp == '+' || *cp == '-' || *cp == ' ') {
+        spec->sign = *cp++;
+    }
+
+    /* coerce to positive zero */
+    if (*cp == 'z') {
+        spec->sign_coerce = 1;
+        cp++;
+    }
+
+    /* zero padding */
+    if (*cp == '0') {
+        /* zero padding implies alignment, which should not be
+         * specified twice. */
+        if (have_align) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        spec->align = 'z';
+        spec->fill[0] = *cp++;
+        spec->fill[1] = '\0';
+    }
+
+    /* minimum width */
+    if (isdigit((unsigned char)*cp)) {
+        if (*cp == '0') {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        errno = 0;
+        spec->min_width = mpd_strtossize(cp, &cp, 10);
+        if (errno == ERANGE || errno == EINVAL) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* thousands separator */
+    if (*cp == ',') {
+        spec->dot = ".";
+        spec->sep = ",";
+        spec->grouping = "\003\003";
+        cp++;
+    }
+
+    /* fraction digits or significant digits */
+    if (*cp == '.') {
+        cp++;
+        if (!isdigit((unsigned char)*cp)) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        errno = 0;
+        spec->prec = mpd_strtossize(cp, &cp, 10);
+        if (errno == ERANGE || errno == EINVAL) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* type */
+    if (*cp == 'E' || *cp == 'e' || *cp == 'F' || *cp == 'f' ||
+        *cp == 'G' || *cp == 'g' || *cp == '%') {
+        spec->type = *cp++;
+    }
+    else if (*cp == 'N' || *cp == 'n') {
+        /* locale specific conversion */
+        struct lconv *lc;
+        /* separator has already been specified */
+        if (*spec->sep) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        spec->type = *cp++;
+        spec->type = (spec->type == 'N') ? 'G' : 'g';
+        lc = localeconv();
+        spec->dot = lc->decimal_point;
+        spec->sep = lc->thousands_sep;
+        spec->grouping = lc->grouping;
+        if (mpd_validate_lconv(spec) < 0) {
+            return 0; /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* check correctness */
+    if (*cp != '\0') {
+        return 0;
+    }
+
+    return 1;
+}
+
+/*
+ * The following functions assume that spec->min_width <= MPD_MAX_PREC, which
+ * is made sure in mpd_qformat_spec. Then, even with a spec that inserts a
+ * four-byte separator after each digit, nbytes in the following struct
+ * cannot overflow.
+ */
+
+/* Multibyte string */
+typedef struct {
+    mpd_ssize_t nbytes; /* length in bytes */
+    mpd_ssize_t nchars; /* length in chars */
+    mpd_ssize_t cur;    /* current write index */
+    char *data;
+} mpd_mbstr_t;
+
+static inline void
+_mpd_bcopy(char *dest, const char *src, mpd_ssize_t n)
+{
+    while (--n >= 0) {
+        dest[n] = src[n];
+    }
+}
+
+static inline void
+_mbstr_copy_char(mpd_mbstr_t *dest, const char *src, mpd_ssize_t n)
+{
+    dest->nbytes += n;
+    dest->nchars += (n > 0 ? 1 : 0);
+    dest->cur -= n;
+
+    if (dest->data != NULL) {
+        _mpd_bcopy(dest->data+dest->cur, src, n);
+    }
+}
+
+static inline void
+_mbstr_copy_ascii(mpd_mbstr_t *dest, const char *src, mpd_ssize_t n)
+{
+    dest->nbytes += n;
+    dest->nchars += n;
+    dest->cur -= n;
+
+    if (dest->data != NULL) {
+        _mpd_bcopy(dest->data+dest->cur, src, n);
+    }
+}
+
+static inline void
+_mbstr_copy_pad(mpd_mbstr_t *dest, mpd_ssize_t n)
+{
+    dest->nbytes += n;
+    dest->nchars += n;
+    dest->cur -= n;
+
+    if (dest->data != NULL) {
+        char *cp = dest->data + dest->cur;
+        while (--n >= 0) {
+            cp[n] = '0';
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/*
+ * Copy a numeric string to dest->data, adding separators in the integer
+ * part according to spec->grouping. If leading zero padding is enabled
+ * and the result is smaller than spec->min_width, continue adding zeros
+ * and separators until the minimum width is reached.
+ *
+ * The final length of dest->data is stored in dest->nbytes. The number
+ * of UTF-8 characters is stored in dest->nchars.
+ *
+ * First run (dest->data == NULL): determine the length of the result
+ * string and store it in dest->nbytes.
+ *
+ * Second run (write to dest->data): data is written in chunks and in
+ * reverse order, starting with the rest of the numeric string.
+ */
+static void
+_mpd_add_sep_dot(mpd_mbstr_t *dest,
+                 const char *sign, /* location of optional sign */
+                 const char *src, mpd_ssize_t n_src, /* integer part and length */
+                 const char *dot, /* location of optional decimal point */
+                 const char *rest, mpd_ssize_t n_rest, /* remaining part and length */
+                 const mpd_spec_t *spec)
+{
+    mpd_ssize_t n_sep, n_sign, consume;
+    const char *g;
+    int pad = 0;
+
+    n_sign = sign ? 1 : 0;
+    n_sep = (mpd_ssize_t)strlen(spec->sep);
+    /* Initial write index: set to location of '\0' in the output string.
+     * Irrelevant for the first run. */
+    dest->cur = dest->nbytes;
+    dest->nbytes = dest->nchars = 0;
+
+    _mbstr_copy_ascii(dest, rest, n_rest);
+
+    if (dot) {
+        _mbstr_copy_char(dest, dot, (mpd_ssize_t)strlen(dot));
+    }
+
+    g = spec->grouping;
+    consume = *g;
+    while (1) {
+        /* If the group length is 0 or CHAR_MAX or greater than the
+         * number of source bytes, consume all remaining bytes. */
+        if (*g == 0 || *g == CHAR_MAX || consume > n_src) {
+            consume = n_src;
+        }
+        n_src -= consume;
+        if (pad) {
+            _mbstr_copy_pad(dest, consume);
+        }
+        else {
+            _mbstr_copy_ascii(dest, src+n_src, consume);
+        }
+
+        if (n_src == 0) {
+            /* Either the real source of intpart digits or the virtual
+             * source of padding zeros is exhausted. */
+            if (spec->align == 'z' &&
+                dest->nchars + n_sign < spec->min_width) {
+                /* Zero padding is set and length < min_width:
+                 * Generate n_src additional characters. */
+                n_src = spec->min_width - (dest->nchars + n_sign);
+                /* Next iteration:
+                 *   case *g == 0 || *g == CHAR_MAX:
+                 *      consume all padding characters
+                 *   case consume < g*:
+                 *      fill remainder of current group
+                 *   case consume == g*
+                 *      copying is a no-op */
+                consume = *g - consume;
+                /* Switch on virtual source of zeros. */
+                pad = 1;
+                continue;
+            }
+            break;
+        }
+
+        if (n_sep > 0) {
+            /* If padding is switched on, separators are counted
+             * as padding characters. This rule does not apply if
+             * the separator would be the first character of the
+             * result string. */
+            if (pad && n_src > 1) n_src -= 1;
+            _mbstr_copy_char(dest, spec->sep, n_sep);
+        }
+
+        /* If non-NUL, use the next value for grouping. */
+        if (*g && *(g+1)) g++;
+        consume = *g;
+    }
+
+    if (sign) {
+        _mbstr_copy_ascii(dest, sign, 1);
+    }
+
+    if (dest->data) {
+        dest->data[dest->nbytes] = '\0';
+    }
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert a numeric-string to its locale-specific appearance.
+ * The string must have one of these forms:
+ *
+ *     1) [sign] digits [exponent-part]
+ *     2) [sign] digits '.' [digits] [exponent-part]
+ *
+ * Not allowed, since _mpd_to_string() never returns this form:
+ *
+ *     3) [sign] '.' digits [exponent-part]
+ *
+ * Input: result->data := original numeric string (ASCII)
+ *        result->bytes := strlen(result->data)
+ *        result->nchars := strlen(result->data)
+ *
+ * Output: result->data := modified or original string
+ *         result->bytes := strlen(result->data)
+ *         result->nchars := number of characters (possibly UTF-8)
+ */
+static int
+_mpd_apply_lconv(mpd_mbstr_t *result, const mpd_spec_t *spec, uint32_t *status)
+{
+    const char *sign = NULL, *intpart = NULL, *dot = NULL;
+    const char *rest, *dp;
+    char *decstring;
+    mpd_ssize_t n_int, n_rest;
+
+    /* original numeric string */
+    dp = result->data;
+
+    /* sign */
+    if (*dp == '+' || *dp == '-' || *dp == ' ') {
+        sign = dp++;
+    }
+    /* integer part */
+    assert(isdigit((unsigned char)*dp));
+    intpart = dp++;
+    while (isdigit((unsigned char)*dp)) {
+        dp++;
+    }
+    n_int = (mpd_ssize_t)(dp-intpart);
+    /* decimal point */
+    if (*dp == '.') {
+        dp++; dot = spec->dot;
+    }
+    /* rest */
+    rest = dp;
+    n_rest = result->nbytes - (mpd_ssize_t)(dp-result->data);
+
+    if (dot == NULL && (*spec->sep == '\0' || *spec->grouping == '\0')) {
+        /* _mpd_add_sep_dot() would not change anything */
+        return 1;
+    }
+
+    /* Determine the size of the new decimal string after inserting the
+     * decimal point, optional separators and optional padding. */
+    decstring = result->data;
+    result->data = NULL;
+    _mpd_add_sep_dot(result, sign, intpart, n_int, dot,
+                     rest, n_rest, spec);
+
+    result->data = mpd_alloc(result->nbytes+1, 1);
+    if (result->data == NULL) {
+        *status |= MPD_Malloc_error;
+        mpd_free(decstring);
+        return 0;
+    }
+
+    /* Perform actual writes. */
+    _mpd_add_sep_dot(result, sign, intpart, n_int, dot,
+                     rest, n_rest, spec);
+
+    mpd_free(decstring);
+    return 1;
+}
+
+/* Add padding to the formatted string if necessary. */
+static int
+_mpd_add_pad(mpd_mbstr_t *result, const mpd_spec_t *spec, uint32_t *status)
+{
+    if (result->nchars < spec->min_width) {
+        mpd_ssize_t add_chars, add_bytes;
+        size_t lpad = 0, rpad = 0;
+        size_t n_fill, len, i, j;
+        char align = spec->align;
+        uint8_t err = 0;
+        char *cp;
+
+        n_fill = strlen(spec->fill);
+        add_chars = (spec->min_width - result->nchars);
+        /* max value: MPD_MAX_PREC * 4 */
+        add_bytes = add_chars * (mpd_ssize_t)n_fill;
+
+        cp = result->data = mpd_realloc(result->data,
+                                        result->nbytes+add_bytes+1,
+                                        sizeof *result->data, &err);
+        if (err) {
+            *status |= MPD_Malloc_error;
+            mpd_free(result->data);
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (align == 'z') {
+            align = '=';
+        }
+
+        if (align == '<') {
+            rpad = add_chars;
+        }
+        else if (align == '>' || align == '=') {
+            lpad = add_chars;
+        }
+        else { /* align == '^' */
+            lpad = add_chars/2;
+            rpad = add_chars-lpad;
+        }
+
+        len = result->nbytes;
+        if (align == '=' && (*cp == '-' || *cp == '+' || *cp == ' ')) {
+            /* leave sign in the leading position */
+            cp++; len--;
+        }
+
+        memmove(cp+n_fill*lpad, cp, len);
+        for (i = 0; i < lpad; i++) {
+            for (j = 0; j < n_fill; j++) {
+                cp[i*n_fill+j] = spec->fill[j];
+            }
+        }
+        cp += (n_fill*lpad + len);
+        for (i = 0; i < rpad; i++) {
+            for (j = 0; j < n_fill; j++) {
+                cp[i*n_fill+j] = spec->fill[j];
+            }
+        }
+
+        result->nbytes += add_bytes;
+        result->nchars += add_chars;
+        result->data[result->nbytes] = '\0';
+    }
+
+    return 1;
+}
+
+/* Round a number to prec digits. The adjusted exponent stays the same
+   or increases by one if rounding up crosses a power of ten boundary.
+   If result->digits would exceed MPD_MAX_PREC+1, MPD_Invalid_operation
+   is set and the result is NaN. */
+static inline void
+_mpd_round(mpd_t *result, const mpd_t *a, mpd_ssize_t prec,
+           const mpd_context_t *ctx, uint32_t *status)
+{
+    mpd_ssize_t exp = a->exp + a->digits - prec;
+
+    if (prec <= 0) {
+        mpd_seterror(result, MPD_Invalid_operation, status); /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+        return; /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+    }
+    if (mpd_isspecial(a) || mpd_iszero(a)) {
+        mpd_qcopy(result, a, status); /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+        return; /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+    }
+
+    mpd_qrescale_fmt(result, a, exp, ctx, status);
+    if (result->digits > prec) {
+        mpd_qrescale_fmt(result, result, exp+1, ctx, status);
+    }
+}
+
+/*
+ * Return the string representation of an mpd_t, formatted according to 'spec'.
+ * The format specification is assumed to be valid. Memory errors are indicated
+ * as usual. This function is quiet.
+ */
+char *
+mpd_qformat_spec(const mpd_t *dec, const mpd_spec_t *spec,
+                 const mpd_context_t *ctx, uint32_t *status)
+{
+    mpd_uint_t dt[MPD_MINALLOC_MAX];
+    mpd_t tmp = {MPD_STATIC|MPD_STATIC_DATA,0,0,0,MPD_MINALLOC_MAX,dt};
+    mpd_ssize_t dplace = MPD_DEFAULT_DOTPLACE;
+    mpd_mbstr_t result;
+    mpd_spec_t stackspec;
+    char type = spec->type;
+    int flags = 0;
+
+
+    if (spec->min_width > MPD_MAX_PREC) {
+        *status |= MPD_Invalid_operation;
+        return NULL;
+    }
+
+    if (isupper((unsigned char)type)) {
+        type = (char)tolower((unsigned char)type);
+        flags |= MPD_FMT_UPPER;
+    }
+
+    if (spec->sign_coerce) {
+        flags |= MPD_FMT_SIGN_COERCE;
+    }
+
+    if (spec->sign == ' ') {
+        flags |= MPD_FMT_SIGN_SPACE;
+    }
+    else if (spec->sign == '+') {
+        flags |= MPD_FMT_SIGN_PLUS;
+    }
+
+    if (mpd_isspecial(dec)) {
+        if (spec->align == 'z') {
+            stackspec = *spec;
+            stackspec.fill[0] = ' ';
+            stackspec.fill[1] = '\0';
+            stackspec.align = '>';
+            spec = &stackspec;
+        }
+        if (type == '%') {
+            flags |= MPD_FMT_PERCENT;
+        }
+    }
+    else {
+        uint32_t workstatus = 0;
+        mpd_ssize_t prec;
+
+        switch (type) {
+        case 'g': flags |= MPD_FMT_TOSCI; break;
+        case 'e': flags |= MPD_FMT_EXP; break;
+        case '%': flags |= MPD_FMT_PERCENT;
+                  if (!mpd_qcopy(&tmp, dec, status)) {
+                      return NULL;
+                  }
+                  tmp.exp += 2;
+                  dec = &tmp;
+                  type = 'f'; /* fall through */
+        case 'f': flags |= MPD_FMT_FIXED; break;
+        default: abort(); /* debug: GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+        }
+
+        if (spec->prec >= 0) {
+            if (spec->prec > MPD_MAX_PREC) {
+                *status |= MPD_Invalid_operation;
+                goto error;
+            }
+
+            switch (type) {
+            case 'g':
+                prec = (spec->prec == 0) ? 1 : spec->prec;
+                if (dec->digits > prec) {
+                    _mpd_round(&tmp, dec, prec, ctx,
+                               &workstatus);
+                    dec = &tmp;
+                }
+                break;
+            case 'e':
+                if (mpd_iszero(dec)) {
+                    dplace = 1-spec->prec;
+                }
+                else {
+                    _mpd_round(&tmp, dec, spec->prec+1, ctx,
+                               &workstatus);
+                    dec = &tmp;
+                }
+                break;
+            case 'f':
+                mpd_qrescale(&tmp, dec, -spec->prec, ctx,
+                             &workstatus);
+                dec = &tmp;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (type == 'f') {
+            if (mpd_iszero(dec) && dec->exp > 0) {
+                mpd_qrescale(&tmp, dec, 0, ctx, &workstatus);
+                dec = &tmp;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (workstatus&MPD_Errors) {
+            *status |= (workstatus&MPD_Errors);
+            goto error;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * At this point, for all scaled or non-scaled decimals:
+     *   1) 1 <= digits <= MAX_PREC+1
+     *   2) adjexp(scaled) = adjexp(orig) [+1]
+     *   3)   case 'g': MIN_ETINY <= exp <= MAX_EMAX+1
+     *        case 'e': MIN_ETINY-MAX_PREC <= exp <= MAX_EMAX+1
+     *        case 'f': MIN_ETINY <= exp <= MAX_EMAX+1
+     *   4) max memory alloc in _mpd_to_string:
+     *        case 'g': MAX_PREC+36
+     *        case 'e': MAX_PREC+36
+     *        case 'f': 2*MPD_MAX_PREC+30
+     */
+    result.nbytes = _mpd_to_string(&result.data, dec, flags, dplace);
+    result.nchars = result.nbytes;
+    if (result.nbytes < 0) {
+        *status |= MPD_Malloc_error;
+        goto error;
+    }
+
+    if (*spec->dot != '\0' && !mpd_isspecial(dec)) {
+        if (result.nchars > MPD_MAX_PREC+36) {
+            /* Since a group length of one is not explicitly
+             * disallowed, ensure that it is always possible to
+             * insert a four byte separator after each digit. */
+            *status |= MPD_Invalid_operation;
+            mpd_free(result.data);
+            goto error;
+        }
+        if (!_mpd_apply_lconv(&result, spec, status)) {
+            goto error;
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (spec->min_width) {
+        if (!_mpd_add_pad(&result, spec, status)) {
+            goto error;
+        }
+    }
+
+    mpd_del(&tmp);
+    return result.data;
+
+error:
+    mpd_del(&tmp);
+    return NULL;
+}
+
+char *
+mpd_qformat(const mpd_t *dec, const char *fmt, const mpd_context_t *ctx,
+            uint32_t *status)
+{
+    mpd_spec_t spec;
+
+    if (!mpd_parse_fmt_str(&spec, fmt, 1)) {
+        *status |= MPD_Invalid_operation;
+        return NULL;
+    }
+
+    return mpd_qformat_spec(dec, &spec, ctx, status);
+}
+
+/*
+ * The specification has a *condition* called Invalid_operation and an
+ * IEEE *signal* called Invalid_operation. The former corresponds to
+ * MPD_Invalid_operation, the latter to MPD_IEEE_Invalid_operation.
+ * MPD_IEEE_Invalid_operation comprises the following conditions:
+ *
+ * [MPD_Conversion_syntax, MPD_Division_impossible, MPD_Division_undefined,
+ *  MPD_Fpu_error, MPD_Invalid_context, MPD_Invalid_operation,
+ *  MPD_Malloc_error]
+ *
+ * In the following functions, 'flag' denotes the condition, 'signal'
+ * denotes the IEEE signal.
+ */
+
+static const char *mpd_flag_string[MPD_NUM_FLAGS] = {
+    "Clamped",
+    "Conversion_syntax",
+    "Division_by_zero",
+    "Division_impossible",
+    "Division_undefined",
+    "Fpu_error",
+    "Inexact",
+    "Invalid_context",
+    "Invalid_operation",
+    "Malloc_error",
+    "Not_implemented",
+    "Overflow",
+    "Rounded",
+    "Subnormal",
+    "Underflow",
+};
+
+static const char *mpd_signal_string[MPD_NUM_FLAGS] = {
+    "Clamped",
+    "IEEE_Invalid_operation",
+    "Division_by_zero",
+    "IEEE_Invalid_operation",
+    "IEEE_Invalid_operation",
+    "IEEE_Invalid_operation",
+    "Inexact",
+    "IEEE_Invalid_operation",
+    "IEEE_Invalid_operation",
+    "IEEE_Invalid_operation",
+    "Not_implemented",
+    "Overflow",
+    "Rounded",
+    "Subnormal",
+    "Underflow",
+};
+
+/* print conditions to buffer, separated by spaces */
+int
+mpd_snprint_flags(char *dest, int nmemb, uint32_t flags)
+{
+    char *cp;
+    int n, j;
+
+    assert(nmemb >= MPD_MAX_FLAG_STRING);
+
+    *dest = '\0'; cp = dest;
+    for (j = 0; j < MPD_NUM_FLAGS; j++) {
+        if (flags & (1U<<j)) {
+            n = snprintf(cp, nmemb, "%s ", mpd_flag_string[j]);
+            if (n < 0 || n >= nmemb) return -1;
+            cp += n; nmemb -= n;
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (cp != dest) {
+        *(--cp) = '\0';
+    }
+
+    return (int)(cp-dest);
+}
+
+/* print conditions to buffer, in list form */
+int
+mpd_lsnprint_flags(char *dest, int nmemb, uint32_t flags, const char *flag_string[])
+{
+    char *cp;
+    int n, j;
+
+    assert(nmemb >= MPD_MAX_FLAG_LIST);
+    if (flag_string == NULL) {
+        flag_string = mpd_flag_string;
+    }
+
+    *dest = '[';
+    *(dest+1) = '\0';
+    cp = dest+1;
+    --nmemb;
+
+    for (j = 0; j < MPD_NUM_FLAGS; j++) {
+        if (flags & (1U<<j)) {
+            n = snprintf(cp, nmemb, "%s, ", flag_string[j]);
+            if (n < 0 || n >= nmemb) return -1;
+            cp += n; nmemb -= n;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* erase the last ", " */
+    if (cp != dest+1) {
+        cp -= 2;
+    }
+
+    *cp++ = ']';
+    *cp = '\0';
+
+    return (int)(cp-dest); /* strlen, without NUL terminator */
+}
+
+/* print signals to buffer, in list form */
+int
+mpd_lsnprint_signals(char *dest, int nmemb, uint32_t flags, const char *signal_string[])
+{
+    char *cp;
+    int n, j;
+    int ieee_invalid_done = 0;
+
+    assert(nmemb >= MPD_MAX_SIGNAL_LIST);
+    if (signal_string == NULL) {
+        signal_string = mpd_signal_string;
+    }
+
+    *dest = '[';
+    *(dest+1) = '\0';
+    cp = dest+1;
+    --nmemb;
+
+    for (j = 0; j < MPD_NUM_FLAGS; j++) {
+        uint32_t f = flags & (1U<<j);
+        if (f) {
+            if (f&MPD_IEEE_Invalid_operation) {
+                if (ieee_invalid_done) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                ieee_invalid_done = 1;
+            }
+            n = snprintf(cp, nmemb, "%s, ", signal_string[j]);
+            if (n < 0 || n >= nmemb) return -1;
+            cp += n; nmemb -= n;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* erase the last ", " */
+    if (cp != dest+1) {
+        cp -= 2;
+    }
+
+    *cp++ = ']';
+    *cp = '\0';
+
+    return (int)(cp-dest); /* strlen, without NUL terminator */
+}
+
+/* The following two functions are mainly intended for debugging. */
+void
+mpd_fprint(FILE *file, const mpd_t *dec)
+{
+    char *decstring;
+
+    decstring = mpd_to_sci(dec, 1);
+    if (decstring != NULL) {
+        fprintf(file, "%s\n", decstring);
+        mpd_free(decstring);
+    }
+    else {
+        fputs("mpd_fprint: output error\n", file); /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+    }
+}
+
+void
+mpd_print(const mpd_t *dec)
+{
+    char *decstring;
+
+    decstring = mpd_to_sci(dec, 1);
+    if (decstring != NULL) {
+        printf("%s\n", decstring);
+        mpd_free(decstring);
+    }
+    else {
+        fputs("mpd_fprint: output error\n", stderr); /* GCOV_NOT_REACHED */
+    }
+}