@lakutata/math 0.0.0-stage → 3.1.5

package/native/integrals/Integrals.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,1428 @@
+//The integrals of expressions (see Integrals.h)
+#include "Integrals.h"
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <atomic>
+#include <functional>
+#include <cmath>
+#include <complex>
+#include <map>
+#include <optional>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include <symengine/add.h>
+#include <symengine/constants.h>
+#include <symengine/functions.h>
+#include <symengine/infinity.h>
+#include <symengine/integer.h>
+#include <symengine/logic.h>
+#include <symengine/mul.h>
+#include <symengine/nan.h>
+#include <symengine/polys/basic_conversions.h>
+#include <symengine/polys/uexprpoly.h>
+#include <symengine/pow.h>
+#include <symengine/rational.h>
+#include <symengine/subs.h>
+#include <symengine/symbol.h>
+
+#include "../async/Pool.h"
+#include "../core/Errors.h"
+#include "../functions/SpecialIntegrals.h"
+#include "../limits/Gruntz.h"
+#include "../numeric/Numeric.h"
+#include "../ops/Operations.h"
+#include "../ops/Piecewise.h"
+#include "../parser/Parser.h"
+#include "../poly/Poly.h"
+#include "../poly/Rational.h"
+#include "../printer/Printer.h"
+#include "../simplify/Simplify.h"
+
+namespace math {
+
+using namespace SymEngine;
+
+namespace {
+
+using Variable = RCP<const Symbol>;
+
+//The nesting of the rules at most (substitutions within parts within substitutions…)
+constexpr unsigned LARGEST_DEPTH = 12;
+//The candidates of a substitution tried at most
+constexpr size_t LARGEST_CANDIDATES = 24;
+
+MathError notFound(const std::string &why)
+{
+    return MathError(ErrorCode::NotSupported, "The integral is not found: " + why);
+}
+
+//A variable of a substitution: a name no other has (the polynomials and the series know variables by their names)
+Variable fresh(const std::string &name)
+{
+    static std::atomic<size_t> count{0};
+    return symbol("@" + name + std::to_string(++count));
+}
+
+bool has(const Expr &e, const Variable &x)
+{
+    return has_symbol(*e, *x);
+}
+
+//A name of the parser that no variable of an expression has (u1, u2…)
+Variable plainName(const Expr &e)
+{
+    const auto symbols = free_symbols(*e);
+    for (size_t i = 1;; i++) {
+        const Variable candidate = symbol("u" + std::to_string(i));
+        if (!symbols.count(candidate)) return candidate;
+    }
+}
+
+Expr replaced(const Expr &e, const Expr &from, const Expr &to)
+{
+    map_basic_basic replacement;
+    replacement[from] = to;
+    return xreplace(e, replacement);
+}
+
+//The coefficients of a polynomial in x whose coefficients have no x, from the constant term up, or nothing (by the
+//symbol: the variables of the substitutions have names no parser takes)
+std::optional<std::vector<Expr>> polynomialIn(const Expr &e, const Variable &x)
+{
+    try {
+        const RCP<const UExprPoly> polynomial = from_basic<UExprPoly>(expand(e), x);
+        std::vector<Expr> c;
+        for (const auto &[power, coefficient] : polynomial->get_poly().get_dict()) {
+            if (power < 0 || power > 200 || has(coefficient.get_basic(), x)) return std::nullopt;
+            if (static_cast<size_t>(power) >= c.size()) c.resize(static_cast<size_t>(power) + 1, zero);
+            c[static_cast<size_t>(power)] = coefficient.get_basic();
+        }
+        if (c.empty()) c.push_back(zero);
+        return c;
+    } catch (SymEngineException &) {
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+}
+
+//a x + b: (a, b), a not 0
+std::optional<std::pair<Expr, Expr>> linearIn(const Expr &e, const Variable &x)
+{
+    if (!has(e, x)) return std::nullopt;
+    const auto c = polynomialIn(e, x);
+    if (!c || c->size() != 2) return std::nullopt;
+    return std::make_pair((*c)[1], (*c)[0]);
+}
+
+//Whether an expression is a fraction of polynomials in x: x by sums, products and integer powers
+bool rationalIn(const Expr &e, const Variable &x)
+{
+    if (!has(e, x) || eq(*e, *x)) return true;
+    if (is_a<Add>(*e) || is_a<Mul>(*e)) {
+        for (const Expr &part : e->get_args()) {
+            if (!rationalIn(part, x)) return false;
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+    if (is_a<Pow>(*e)) return is_a<Integer>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_exp()) && rationalIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_base(), x);
+    return false;
+}
+
+//The sign of a value without variables: 1, -1, 0, or 2 where it is not decided (parameters, complex values)
+int signOf(const Expr &e)
+{
+    if (!free_symbols(*e).empty()) return 2;
+    return compareOf(e, zero);
+}
+
+bool isExp(const Expr &e)
+{
+    return is_a<Pow>(*e) && eq(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_base(), *E);
+}
+
+//An antiderivative checked by its derivative: equal to the integrand where both are real at several points (the
+//other variables at fixed values); points where they are complex count only where they agree (a branch cut may differ)
+bool verified(const Expr &F, const Expr &f, const Variable &x)
+{
+    const Expr derivative = SymEngine::diff(F, x, true);
+    if (eq(*expand(sub(derivative, f)), *zero)) return true;
+    std::vector<Expr> others;
+    for (const auto &symbolFound : free_symbols(*add(F, f))) {
+        if (!eq(*symbolFound, *x)) others.push_back(symbolFound);
+    }
+    static const long points[][2] = {{37, 100}, {61, 100}, {-29, 100}, {17, 10}, {23, 10}, {-16, 10}, {39, 10}, {-31, 10}};
+    int agreeing = 0;
+    for (const auto &point : points) {
+        checkpoint();
+        map_basic_basic values;
+        values[x] = rational(point[0], point[1]);
+        for (size_t j = 0; j < others.size(); j++) values[others[j]] = rational(113 + 37 * static_cast<long>(j), 100);
+        std::complex<double> a, b;
+        try {
+            a = toComplex(subs(derivative, values));
+            b = toComplex(subs(f, values));
+        } catch (const MathError &error) {
+            if (error.code() == ErrorCode::Cancelled || error.code() == ErrorCode::Timeout) throw;
+            continue;
+        } catch (SymEngineException &) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if (!std::isfinite(a.real()) || !std::isfinite(a.imag()) || !std::isfinite(b.real()) || !std::isfinite(b.imag())) continue;
+        const bool close = std::abs(a - b) <= 1e-8 * std::max(1.0, std::abs(b));
+        const bool real = std::abs(a.imag()) <= 1e-12 * std::max(1.0, std::abs(a)) && std::abs(b.imag()) <= 1e-12 * std::max(1.0, std::abs(b));
+        if (real && !close) return false;
+        if (close) agreeing++;
+    }
+    return agreeing >= 2;
+}
+
+//Whether two expressions of x are equal at several points (where both are finite)
+bool verifiedAt(const Expr &a, const Expr &b, const Variable &x)
+{
+    static const long points[][2] = {{37, 10}, {61, 10}, {29, 10}, {113, 10}};
+    int agreeing = 0;
+    for (const auto &point : points) {
+        map_basic_basic values;
+        values[x] = rational(point[0], point[1]);
+        for (const auto &other : free_symbols(*add(a, b))) {
+            if (!eq(*other, *x)) values[other] = rational(13, 10);
+        }
+        try {
+            const std::complex<double> va = toComplex(subs(a, values)), vb = toComplex(subs(b, values));
+            if (std::abs(va - vb) > 1e-9 * std::max(1.0, std::abs(vb))) return false;
+            agreeing++;
+        } catch (const MathError &error) {
+            if (error.code() == ErrorCode::Cancelled || error.code() == ErrorCode::Timeout) throw;
+        } catch (SymEngineException &) {
+        }
+    }
+    return agreeing >= 2;
+}
+
+class Integrator {
+public:
+    explicit Integrator(const Variable &x, unsigned depth = 0) : x_(x), depth_(depth)
+    {
+    }
+
+    //An antiderivative of f in x, or nothing
+    std::optional<Expr> integral(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        checkpoint();
+        if (!has(f, x_)) return mul(f, x_);
+        if (depth_ >= LARGEST_DEPTH) return std::nullopt;
+        if (std::any_of(active_.begin(), active_.end(), [&f](const Expr &a) { return eq(*a, *f); })) return std::nullopt;
+        const auto cached = memo_.find(f);
+        if (cached != memo_.end()) return cached->second;
+        depth_++;
+        active_.push_back(f);
+        std::optional<Expr> result;
+        try {
+            result = attempt(f);
+        } catch (SymEngineException &) {
+            result = std::nullopt;
+        }
+        active_.pop_back();
+        depth_--;
+        memo_[f] = result;
+        return result;
+    }
+
+private:
+    Variable x_;
+    unsigned depth_;
+    std::vector<Expr> active_;
+    std::map<Expr, std::optional<Expr>, RCPBasicKeyLess> memo_;
+
+    //The rules in order, each on its own: one that fails (an operation SymEngine does not do) leaves the others
+    std::optional<Expr> attempt(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        if (eq(*f, *x_)) return div(mul(x_, x_), integer(2));
+        using Rule = std::optional<Expr> (Integrator::*)(const Expr &);
+        std::vector<Rule> rules;
+        if (is_a<Add>(*f)) rules.push_back(&Integrator::termwise);
+        if (is_a<Mul>(*f)) rules.push_back(&Integrator::constantFactor);
+        if (rationalIn(f, x_)) rules.push_back(&Integrator::rational);
+        for (const Rule rule : {&Integrator::table, &Integrator::specialFunctions, &Integrator::substitution, &Integrator::trigonometric, &Integrator::exponentialTrigonometric, &Integrator::parts, &Integrator::rewritten}) rules.push_back(rule);
+        for (const Rule rule : rules) {
+            try {
+                if (auto found = (this->*rule)(f)) return found;
+            } catch (const MathError &error) {
+                if (error.code() == ErrorCode::Cancelled || error.code() == ErrorCode::Timeout) throw;
+            } catch (SymEngineException &) {
+            }
+        }
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+
+    std::optional<Expr> termwise(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        Expr sum = zero;
+        for (const Expr &term : f->get_args()) {
+            const auto found = integral(term);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            sum = add(sum, *found);
+        }
+        return sum;
+    }
+
+    //c g: c times the integral of g, c the factors without x
+    std::optional<Expr> constantFactor(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        Expr constant = down_cast<const Mul &>(*f).get_coef(), rest = one;
+        for (const auto &[base, exponent] : down_cast<const Mul &>(*f).get_dict()) {
+            const Expr factor = pow(base, exponent);
+            if (has(factor, x_)) rest = mul(rest, factor);
+            else constant = mul(constant, factor);
+        }
+        if (eq(*constant, *one)) return std::nullopt;
+        const auto found = integral(rest);
+        if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+        return mul(constant, *found);
+    }
+
+    //A fraction of polynomials: its polynomial part, then its partial fractions: c/(a x + b)^k as a power or a
+    //logarithm, (B x + C)/q^k for an irreducible quadratic q by the reduction formula (a logarithm and an arctangent,
+    //an inverse hyperbolic tangent where the roots of q are real); a fraction over an irreducible factor of a higher
+    //degree only where its numerator is a multiple of the derivative of the factor
+    std::optional<Expr> rational(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        const Expr cancelled = cancelOf(togetherOf(f));
+        const auto [numerator, denominator] = fractionOf(cancelled);
+        if (!has(denominator, x_)) {
+            const auto c = polynomialIn(expand(cancelled), x_);
+            if (!c) return std::nullopt;
+            Expr sum = zero;
+            for (size_t k = 0; k < c->size(); k++) sum = add(sum, div(mul((*c)[k], pow(x_, integer(static_cast<long>(k + 1)))), integer(static_cast<long>(k + 1))));
+            return sum;
+        }
+        //(apart() takes a name of the parser: the variable of a substitution is named as one for it)
+        Expr parts;
+        try {
+            const Variable plain = plainName(cancelled);
+            parts = replaced(apartOf(replaced(cancelled, x_, plain), plain->get_name()), plain, x_);
+        } catch (const MathError &error) {
+            if (error.code() == ErrorCode::Cancelled || error.code() == ErrorCode::Timeout) throw;
+            return std::nullopt;
+        }
+        Expr sum = zero;
+        for (const Expr &term : is_a<Add>(*parts) ? parts->get_args() : vec_basic{parts}) {
+            const auto found = partialFraction(term);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            sum = add(sum, *found);
+        }
+        return sum;
+    }
+
+    std::optional<Expr> partialFraction(const Expr &term)
+    {
+        const auto [numerator, denominator] = fractionOf(term);
+        if (!has(denominator, x_)) {
+            const auto c = polynomialIn(expand(term), x_);
+            if (!c) return std::nullopt;
+            Expr sum = zero;
+            for (size_t k = 0; k < c->size(); k++) sum = add(sum, div(mul((*c)[k], pow(x_, integer(static_cast<long>(k + 1)))), integer(static_cast<long>(k + 1))));
+            return sum;
+        }
+        const FactoredPolynomial factored = factorPolynomial(denominator);
+        Expr q;
+        long k = 0;
+        Expr scale = factored.coefficient;
+        for (const auto &[factor, multiplicity] : factored.factors) {
+            if (!has(factor, x_)) {
+                scale = mul(scale, pow(factor, integer(multiplicity)));
+                continue;
+            }
+            if (!q.is_null()) return std::nullopt;
+            q = factor;
+            k = multiplicity;
+        }
+        if (q.is_null()) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr p = div(numerator, scale);
+        const auto qc = polynomialIn(q, x_);
+        const auto pc = polynomialIn(p, x_);
+        if (!qc || !pc) return std::nullopt;
+        if (qc->size() == 2) {
+            //p/(a x + b)^k, p without x
+            if (pc->size() > 1) return std::nullopt;
+            const Expr a = (*qc)[1];
+            if (k == 1) return div(mul(p, log(q)), a);
+            return div(mul(p, pow(q, integer(1 - k))), mul(integer(1 - k), a));
+        }
+        if (qc->size() == 3) return quadraticFraction(pc->size() > 1 ? (*pc)[1] : Expr(zero), (*pc)[0], *qc, q, k);
+        //p a multiple of q'
+        if (k == 1) {
+            const Expr derivative = SymEngine::diff(q, x_, true);
+            const Expr ratio = cancelOf(div(p, derivative));
+            if (!has(ratio, x_)) return mul(ratio, log(q));
+        }
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+
+    //(B x + C)/q^k, q = a x^2 + b x + c irreducible: B/(2a) q'/q^k + (C - B b/(2a))/q^k
+    std::optional<Expr> quadraticFraction(const Expr &B, const Expr &C, const std::vector<Expr> &qc, const Expr &q, long k)
+    {
+        const Expr a = qc[2], b = qc[1];
+        Expr result = zero;
+        if (!eq(*B, *zero)) {
+            const Expr factor = div(B, mul(integer(2), a));
+            result = add(result, mul(factor, k == 1 ? log(q) : div(pow(q, integer(1 - k)), integer(1 - k))));
+        }
+        const Expr rest = sub(C, div(mul(B, b), mul(integer(2), a)));
+        if (eq(*rest, *zero)) return result;
+        const auto j = reciprocalPower(qc, q, k);
+        if (!j) return std::nullopt;
+        return add(result, mul(rest, *j));
+    }
+
+    //The integral of 1/q^k: 2/sqrt(4ac - b^2) atan((2a x + b)/sqrt(4ac - b^2)) for k = 1 (for 4ac - b^2 < 0 a number,
+    //-2/sqrt(b^2 - 4ac) atanh((2a x + b)/sqrt(b^2 - 4ac))); for k > 1, J_k = (2a x + b)/((k - 1)(4ac - b^2) q^(k - 1)) +
+    //(2k - 3) 2a/((k - 1)(4ac - b^2)) J_(k - 1)
+    std::optional<Expr> reciprocalPower(const std::vector<Expr> &qc, const Expr &q, long k)
+    {
+        const Expr a = qc[2], b = qc[1], c = qc[0];
+        const Expr d = expand(sub(mul(integer(4), mul(a, c)), mul(b, b)));
+        if (eq(*d, *zero)) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr line = add(mul(integer(2), mul(a, x_)), b);
+        if (k == 1) {
+            if (signOf(d) == -1) {
+                const Expr r = sqrt(neg(d));
+                return mul(div(integer(-2), r), atanh(div(line, r)));
+            }
+            const Expr r = sqrt(d);
+            return mul(div(integer(2), r), atan(div(line, r)));
+        }
+        const auto previous = reciprocalPower(qc, q, k - 1);
+        if (!previous) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr kk = integer(k);
+        const Expr first = div(line, mul(mul(sub(kk, one), d), pow(q, integer(k - 1))));
+        const Expr second = mul(div(mul(sub(mul(integer(2), kk), integer(3)), mul(integer(2), a)), mul(sub(kk, one), d)), *previous);
+        return add(first, second);
+    }
+
+    //The table: powers and exponentials of a linear argument, the elementary functions of one, the squares of the
+    //functions whose derivatives they are, the square roots of quadratics and their reciprocals, e^(quadratic) by erf
+    std::optional<Expr> table(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        //P(x) q^(n/2)
+        if (is_a<Mul>(*f)) {
+            Expr polynomial = one, root;
+            for (const Expr &factor : factorsOf(f)) {
+                if (is_a<Pow>(*factor) && is_a<Rational>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_exp()) && root.is_null() && polynomialIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_base(), x_)) root = factor;
+                else if (polynomialIn(factor, x_)) polynomial = mul(polynomial, factor);
+                else return std::nullopt;
+            }
+            if (root.is_null()) return std::nullopt;
+            return polynomialOverRoot(polynomial, down_cast<const Pow &>(*root).get_base(), down_cast<const Pow &>(*root).get_exp());
+        }
+        if (is_a<Pow>(*f)) {
+            const Expr base = down_cast<const Pow &>(*f).get_base(), exponent = down_cast<const Pow &>(*f).get_exp();
+            if (!has(exponent, x_)) {
+                if (const auto line = linearIn(base, x_)) {
+                    const Expr &a = line->first;
+                    const Expr logarithm = div(log(base), a);
+                    const Expr power = div(pow(base, add(exponent, one)), mul(add(exponent, one), a));
+                    if (eq(*exponent, *minus_one)) return logarithm;
+                    if (is_a_Number(*exponent)) return power;
+                    //x^n of a parameter n: ln(x) where n = -1
+                    return SymEngine::piecewise({{logarithm, relationOf("=", exponent, minus_one)}, {power, boolTrue}});
+                }
+                if (const auto found = quadraticRoot(base, exponent)) return found;
+                //sqrt(q)^n, n odd above 1 or below -1: q^((n - 1)/2) sqrt(q)… by the polynomial rule below
+                if (const auto found = polynomialOverRoot(one, base, exponent)) return found;
+                if (const auto found = functionPower(base, exponent)) return found;
+            }
+            if (!has(base, x_)) {
+                const auto line = linearIn(exponent, x_);
+                if (line) {
+                    if (eq(*base, *E)) return div(f, line->first);
+                    return div(f, mul(line->first, log(base)));
+                }
+                if (eq(*base, *E)) return gaussian(exponent);
+            }
+            return std::nullopt;
+        }
+        if (is_a_sub<OneArgFunction>(*f)) {
+            const Expr u = f->get_args()[0];
+            const auto line = linearIn(u, x_);
+            if (!line) return std::nullopt;
+            const Expr &a = line->first;
+            std::optional<Expr> F;
+            if (is_a<Sin>(*f)) F = neg(cos(u));
+            else if (is_a<Cos>(*f)) F = sin(u);
+            else if (is_a<Tan>(*f)) F = neg(log(cos(u)));
+            else if (is_a<Cot>(*f)) F = log(sin(u));
+            else if (is_a<Sec>(*f)) F = log(add(sec(u), tan(u)));
+            else if (is_a<Csc>(*f)) F = neg(log(add(csc(u), cot(u))));
+            else if (is_a<Sinh>(*f)) F = cosh(u);
+            else if (is_a<Cosh>(*f)) F = sinh(u);
+            else if (is_a<Tanh>(*f)) F = log(cosh(u));
+            else if (is_a<Coth>(*f)) F = log(sinh(u));
+            else if (is_a<Sech>(*f)) F = mul(integer(2), atan(tanh(div(u, integer(2)))));
+            else if (is_a<Csch>(*f)) F = log(tanh(div(u, integer(2))));
+            else if (is_a<Log>(*f)) F = sub(mul(u, log(u)), u);
+            else if (is_a<ATan>(*f)) F = sub(mul(u, atan(u)), div(log(add(mul(u, u), one)), integer(2)));
+            else if (is_a<ACot>(*f)) F = add(mul(u, acot(u)), div(log(add(mul(u, u), one)), integer(2)));
+            else if (is_a<ASin>(*f)) F = add(mul(u, asin(u)), sqrt(sub(one, mul(u, u))));
+            else if (is_a<ACos>(*f)) F = sub(mul(u, acos(u)), sqrt(sub(one, mul(u, u))));
+            else if (is_a<ASinh>(*f)) F = sub(mul(u, asinh(u)), sqrt(add(mul(u, u), one)));
+            else if (is_a<ACosh>(*f)) F = sub(mul(u, acosh(u)), mul(sqrt(sub(u, one)), sqrt(add(u, one))));
+            else if (is_a<ATanh>(*f)) F = add(mul(u, atanh(u)), div(log(sub(one, mul(u, u))), integer(2)));
+            else if (is_a<Erf>(*f)) F = add(mul(u, erf(u)), div(exp(neg(mul(u, u))), sqrt(pi)));
+            if (!F) return std::nullopt;
+            return div(*F, a);
+        }
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+
+    //The integrals the special functions are: g(u)/w of a linear u, w = u/k (sin, cos, sinh, cosh, exp: k Si(u)/a, Ci,
+    //Shi, Chi, Ei), 1/ln(u) (li(u)/a), sin(c x^2) and cos(c x^2) of a number c > 0 (sqrt(pi/(2c)) fresnelS(sqrt(2c/pi) x),
+    //fresnelC)
+    std::optional<Expr> specialFunctions(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        if (is_a<Pow>(*f) && eq(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*f).get_exp(), *minus_one) && is_a<Log>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*f).get_base())) {
+            const Expr u = down_cast<const Pow &>(*f).get_base()->get_args()[0];
+            if (const auto line = linearIn(u, x_)) return div(liOf(u), line->first);
+            return std::nullopt;
+        }
+        if (is_a<Sin>(*f) || is_a<Cos>(*f)) {
+            const auto c = polynomialIn(f->get_args()[0], x_);
+            if (!c || c->size() != 3 || !eq(*(*c)[1], *zero) || !eq(*(*c)[0], *zero) || signOf((*c)[2]) != 1) return std::nullopt;
+            const Expr k = sqrt(div(mul(integer(2), (*c)[2]), pi));
+            return div(is_a<Sin>(*f) ? fresnelSOf(mul(k, x_)) : fresnelCOf(mul(k, x_)), k);
+        }
+        if (!is_a<Mul>(*f)) return std::nullopt;
+        Expr constant = one, function, denominator;
+        for (const Expr &factor : factorsOf(f)) {
+            if (!has(factor, x_)) {
+                constant = mul(constant, factor);
+            } else if (is_a<Pow>(*factor) && eq(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_exp(), *minus_one) && denominator.is_null() && linearIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_base(), x_)) {
+                denominator = down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_base();
+            } else if (function.is_null() && (is_a<Sin>(*factor) || is_a<Cos>(*factor) || is_a<Sinh>(*factor) || is_a<Cosh>(*factor) || isExp(factor))) {
+                function = factor;
+            } else {
+                return std::nullopt;
+            }
+        }
+        if (function.is_null() || denominator.is_null()) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr u = isExp(function) ? down_cast<const Pow &>(*function).get_exp() : function->get_args()[0];
+        const auto line = linearIn(u, x_);
+        if (!line) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr k = cancelOf(div(u, denominator));
+        if (has(k, x_)) return std::nullopt;
+        Expr F;
+        if (is_a<Sin>(*function)) F = siOf(u);
+        else if (is_a<Cos>(*function)) F = ciOf(u);
+        else if (is_a<Sinh>(*function)) F = shiOf(u);
+        else if (is_a<Cosh>(*function)) F = chiOf(u);
+        else F = eiOf(u);
+        return mul(constant, div(mul(k, F), line->first));
+    }
+
+    //g(u)^n of a linear u: sec^2, csc^2, sech^2, csch^2, tan^2, cot^2, the reciprocals of cos and sin and their squares
+    std::optional<Expr> functionPower(const Expr &g, const Expr &n)
+    {
+        if (!is_a_sub<OneArgFunction>(*g)) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr u = g->get_args()[0];
+        const auto line = linearIn(u, x_);
+        if (!line) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr &a = line->first;
+        std::optional<Expr> F;
+        if (eq(*n, *integer(2))) {
+            if (is_a<Sec>(*g)) F = tan(u);
+            else if (is_a<Csc>(*g)) F = neg(cot(u));
+            else if (is_a<Sech>(*g)) F = tanh(u);
+            else if (is_a<Csch>(*g)) F = neg(coth(u));
+            else if (is_a<Tan>(*g)) F = sub(tan(u), u);
+            else if (is_a<Cot>(*g)) F = sub(neg(cot(u)), u);
+            else if (is_a<Sin>(*g)) F = sub(div(u, integer(2)), div(sin(mul(integer(2), u)), integer(4)));
+            else if (is_a<Cos>(*g)) F = add(div(u, integer(2)), div(sin(mul(integer(2), u)), integer(4)));
+            else if (is_a<Tanh>(*g)) F = sub(u, tanh(u));
+            else if (is_a<Coth>(*g)) F = sub(u, coth(u));
+        } else if (eq(*n, *minus_one)) {
+            if (is_a<Cos>(*g)) F = log(add(sec(u), tan(u)));
+            else if (is_a<Sin>(*g)) F = neg(log(add(csc(u), cot(u))));
+            else if (is_a<Cosh>(*g)) F = mul(integer(2), atan(tanh(div(u, integer(2)))));
+            else if (is_a<Sinh>(*g)) F = log(tanh(div(u, integer(2))));
+        } else if (eq(*n, *integer(-2))) {
+            if (is_a<Cos>(*g)) F = tan(u);
+            else if (is_a<Sin>(*g)) F = neg(cot(u));
+            else if (is_a<Cosh>(*g)) F = tanh(u);
+            else if (is_a<Sinh>(*g)) F = neg(coth(u));
+        }
+        if (!F) return std::nullopt;
+        return div(*F, a);
+    }
+
+    //P(x) q^(n/2) for a polynomial P and a quadratic q, n odd: P divided by q (P = A q + B, B linear) gives A q^((n + 2)/2)
+    //+ B q^(n/2), and B q^(n/2) = b/(2a) q' q^(n/2) + (B - b/(2a) q') q^(n/2): a power of q, and a constant times q^(n/2),
+    //down to sqrt(q) and 1/sqrt(q) of the table (x^2/sqrt(x^2 + 1) is (x sqrt(x^2 + 1) - asinh(x))/2)
+    std::optional<Expr> polynomialOverRoot(const Expr &P, const Expr &q, const Expr &exponent)
+    {
+        if (!is_a<Rational>(*exponent) || get_den(down_cast<const Rational &>(*exponent).as_rational_class()) != 2) return std::nullopt;
+        const auto qc = polynomialIn(q, x_);
+        const auto pc = polynomialIn(P, x_);
+        if (!qc || qc->size() != 3 || !pc) return std::nullopt;
+        if (pc->size() == 1 && (eq(*exponent, *SymEngine::rational(1, 2)) || eq(*exponent, *SymEngine::rational(-1, 2)))) {
+            return quadraticRoot(q, exponent).has_value() ? std::optional<Expr>(mul(P, *quadraticRoot(q, exponent))) : std::nullopt;
+        }
+        if (depth_ > LARGEST_DEPTH - 2) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr a = (*qc)[2];
+        //A power of q alone, m = n/2 >= 3/2: (2a x + b) q^m/(2a(2m + 1)) + m D/(2a(2m + 1)) times the integral of q^(m - 1),
+        //D = 4ac - b^2
+        if (pc->size() == 1) {
+            const integer_class n = get_num(down_cast<const Rational &>(*exponent).as_rational_class());
+            if (n < 3) return std::nullopt;
+            const auto lower = integral(pow(q, sub(exponent, one)));
+            if (!lower) return std::nullopt;
+            const Expr b = (*qc)[1], D = sub(mul(integer(4), mul(a, (*qc)[0])), mul(b, b));
+            const Expr denominator = mul(mul(integer(2), a), add(mul(integer(2), exponent), one));
+            return mul(P, add(div(mul(add(mul(integer(2), mul(a, x_)), b), pow(q, exponent)), denominator), mul(div(mul(exponent, D), denominator), *lower)));
+        }
+        const auto [A, B] = divideOf(P, q, x_->get_name());
+        Expr result = zero;
+        if (!eq(*A, *zero)) {
+            const auto found = integral(mul(A, pow(q, add(exponent, one))));
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            result = add(result, *found);
+        }
+        const auto bc = polynomialIn(B, x_);
+        if (!bc) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr slope = bc->size() > 1 ? (*bc)[1] : Expr(zero);
+        const Expr factor = div(slope, mul(integer(2), a));
+        //b/(2a) q' q^(n/2): q^(n/2 + 1)/(n/2 + 1)
+        if (!eq(*factor, *zero)) result = add(result, mul(factor, div(pow(q, add(exponent, one)), add(exponent, one))));
+        const Expr rest = expand(sub(B, mul(factor, SymEngine::diff(q, x_, true))));
+        if (!eq(*rest, *zero)) {
+            const auto found = integral(mul(rest, pow(q, exponent)));
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            result = add(result, *found);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    //(a x^2 + b x + c)^(±1/2), its coefficients numbers: with t = x + b/(2a) and k = c - b^2/(4a), a > 0: 1/sqrt(a t^2 + k)
+    //is asinh(sqrt(a) t/sqrt(k))/sqrt(a) (acosh(sqrt(a) t/sqrt(-k))/sqrt(a) for k < 0), sqrt(a t^2 + k) is t sqrt(…)/2
+    //+ k/(2 sqrt(a)) of the same; a < 0 and k > 0: asin(sqrt(-a) t/sqrt(k))/sqrt(-a), t sqrt(…)/2 + k/(2 sqrt(-a)) asin(…)
+    std::optional<Expr> quadraticRoot(const Expr &base, const Expr &exponent)
+    {
+        const bool reciprocal = eq(*exponent, *SymEngine::rational(-1, 2));
+        if (!reciprocal && !eq(*exponent, *SymEngine::rational(1, 2))) return std::nullopt;
+        const auto c = polynomialIn(base, x_);
+        if (!c || c->size() != 3) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr a = (*c)[2];
+        const Expr t = add(x_, div((*c)[1], mul(integer(2), a)));
+        const Expr k = expand(sub((*c)[0], div(mul((*c)[1], (*c)[1]), mul(integer(4), a))));
+        const int sa = signOf(a), sk = signOf(k);
+        if (sa != 1 && sa != -1) return std::nullopt;
+        if (sk == 2 || sk == 0) return std::nullopt;
+        Expr inverse;
+        if (sa == 1) {
+            inverse = sk == 1 ? asinh(div(mul(sqrt(a), t), sqrt(k))) : acosh(div(mul(sqrt(a), t), sqrt(neg(k))));
+        } else {
+            if (sk != 1) return std::nullopt;
+            inverse = asin(div(mul(sqrt(neg(a)), t), sqrt(k)));
+        }
+        const Expr root = sqrt(sa == 1 ? a : neg(a));
+        if (reciprocal) return div(inverse, root);
+        return add(div(mul(t, sqrt(base)), integer(2)), div(mul(k, inverse), mul(integer(2), root)));
+    }
+
+    //e^(a x^2 + b x + c), a < 0 a number: e^(c - b^2/(4a)) sqrt(pi)/(2 sqrt(-a)) erf(sqrt(-a)(x + b/(2a)))
+    std::optional<Expr> gaussian(const Expr &exponent)
+    {
+        const auto c = polynomialIn(exponent, x_);
+        if (!c || c->size() != 3 || signOf((*c)[2]) != -1) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr a = (*c)[2], b = (*c)[1];
+        const Expr root = sqrt(neg(a));
+        const Expr shift = expand(sub((*c)[0], div(mul(b, b), mul(integer(4), a))));
+        return mul(div(mul(exp(shift), sqrt(pi)), mul(integer(2), root)), erf(mul(root, add(x_, div(b, mul(integer(2), a))))));
+    }
+
+    //The parts an expression may be a function of: the arguments of its functions, the bases and the exponents of its
+    //powers, the expression of each (a sum, a power), not x nor linear in x
+    void candidatesOf(const Expr &e, std::vector<Expr> &found)
+    {
+        if (!has(e, x_) || eq(*e, *x_)) return;
+        const auto add = [&found, this](const Expr &candidate) {
+            if (!has(candidate, x_) || eq(*candidate, *x_) || linearIn(candidate, x_)) return;
+            if (std::none_of(found.begin(), found.end(), [&candidate](const Expr &c) { return eq(*c, *candidate); })) found.push_back(candidate);
+        };
+        if (is_a<Pow>(*e)) {
+            const Expr base = down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_base(), exponent = down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_exp();
+            add(base);
+            if (has(exponent, x_)) {
+                add(exponent);
+                add(e);
+            }
+            candidatesOf(base, found);
+            candidatesOf(exponent, found);
+            return;
+        }
+        if (is_a_sub<Function>(*e)) {
+            add(e);
+            for (const Expr &argument : e->get_args()) {
+                add(argument);
+                candidatesOf(argument, found);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        for (const Expr &part : e->get_args()) candidatesOf(part, found);
+    }
+
+    //u-substitution: f/u' a function of u alone, its integral in u written with u
+    std::optional<Expr> substitution(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        std::vector<Expr> candidates;
+        candidatesOf(f, candidates);
+        if (candidates.size() > LARGEST_CANDIDATES) candidates.resize(LARGEST_CANDIDATES);
+        for (const Expr &u : candidates) {
+            checkpoint();
+            const Expr derivative = SymEngine::diff(u, x_, true);
+            if (eq(*derivative, *zero)) continue;
+            Expr g = div(f, derivative);
+            const Variable U = fresh("u");
+            Expr inU = replaced(g, u, U);
+            if (has(inU, x_)) {
+                //Cancelled first (x/(x^2 + 1)^3 over 2x)
+                try {
+                    g = cancelOf(g);
+                } catch (const MathError &error) {
+                    if (error.code() == ErrorCode::Cancelled || error.code() == ErrorCode::Timeout) throw;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                inU = replaced(g, u, U);
+                if (has(inU, x_)) continue;
+            }
+            Integrator inner(U, depth_ + 1);
+            const auto found = inner.integral(inU);
+            if (found) return replaced(*found, U, u);
+        }
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+
+    //The factors of a product, each to its power
+    std::vector<Expr> factorsOf(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        std::vector<Expr> factors;
+        if (is_a<Mul>(*f)) {
+            const Mul &product = down_cast<const Mul &>(*f);
+            if (!eq(*product.get_coef(), *one)) factors.push_back(product.get_coef());
+            for (const auto &[base, exponent] : product.get_dict()) factors.push_back(pow(base, exponent));
+        } else {
+            factors.push_back(f);
+        }
+        return factors;
+    }
+
+    //sin and cos of linear arguments: (argument, power of sin, power of cos) of one argument
+    struct SineCosine {
+        Expr argument;
+        long sine = 0, cosine = 0;
+    };
+
+    //The products of sines and cosines: of one angle, sin^m cos^n with an odd power by the substitution of the other
+    //function, even powers by the double angle; tan^n by tan^2 = sec^2 - 1; of two angles by the sums of angles
+    std::optional<Expr> trigonometric(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        Expr constant = one;
+        std::vector<std::pair<Expr, long>> functions;
+        for (const Expr &factor : factorsOf(f)) {
+            if (!has(factor, x_)) {
+                constant = mul(constant, factor);
+                continue;
+            }
+            Expr base = factor;
+            long power = 1;
+            if (is_a<Pow>(*factor) && is_a<Integer>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_exp())) {
+                base = down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_base();
+                power = mp_get_si(down_cast<const Integer &>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_exp()).as_integer_class());
+            }
+            if (!(is_a<Sin>(*base) || is_a<Cos>(*base) || is_a<Tan>(*base) || is_a<Sec>(*base) || is_a<Csc>(*base) || is_a<Cot>(*base))) return std::nullopt;
+            if (!linearIn(base->get_args()[0], x_)) return std::nullopt;
+            functions.emplace_back(base, power);
+        }
+        if (functions.empty()) return std::nullopt;
+        //tan^n, n >= 3: tan^(n - 2) sec^2 - tan^(n - 2)
+        if (functions.size() == 1 && is_a<Tan>(*functions[0].first) && functions[0].second >= 3) {
+            const Expr t = functions[0].first, u = t->get_args()[0];
+            const auto first = integral(mul(pow(t, integer(functions[0].second - 2)), pow(sec(u), integer(2))));
+            const auto second = integral(pow(t, integer(functions[0].second - 2)));
+            if (!first || !second) return std::nullopt;
+            return mul(constant, sub(*first, *second));
+        }
+        //In sines and cosines, by argument
+        std::vector<SineCosine> angles;
+        for (const auto &[function, power] : functions) {
+            const Expr u = function->get_args()[0];
+            long s = 0, c = 0;
+            if (is_a<Sin>(*function)) s = power;
+            else if (is_a<Cos>(*function)) c = power;
+            else if (is_a<Tan>(*function)) s = power, c = -power;
+            else if (is_a<Cot>(*function)) s = -power, c = power;
+            else if (is_a<Sec>(*function)) c = -power;
+            else s = -power;
+            auto found = std::find_if(angles.begin(), angles.end(), [&u](const SineCosine &a) { return eq(*a.argument, *u); });
+            if (found == angles.end()) {
+                angles.push_back({u, s, c});
+            } else {
+                found->sine += s;
+                found->cosine += c;
+            }
+        }
+        if (angles.size() == 2 && std::all_of(angles.begin(), angles.end(), [](const SineCosine &a) { return a.sine + a.cosine == 1 && a.sine >= 0 && a.cosine >= 0; })) {
+            //sin A cos B = (sin(A + B) + sin(A - B))/2, sin A sin B = (cos(A - B) - cos(A + B))/2, cos A cos B = (cos(A - B) +
+            //cos(A + B))/2
+            const Expr A = angles[0].argument, B = angles[1].argument;
+            Expr sum;
+            if (angles[0].sine == 1 && angles[1].cosine == 1) sum = div(add(sin(add(A, B)), sin(sub(A, B))), integer(2));
+            else if (angles[0].cosine == 1 && angles[1].sine == 1) sum = div(add(sin(add(A, B)), sin(sub(B, A))), integer(2));
+            else if (angles[0].sine == 1) sum = div(sub(cos(sub(A, B)), cos(add(A, B))), integer(2));
+            else sum = div(add(cos(sub(A, B)), cos(add(A, B))), integer(2));
+            const auto found = integral(expand(sum));
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            return mul(constant, *found);
+        }
+        if (angles.size() != 1) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr u = angles[0].argument;
+        const long m = angles[0].sine, n = angles[0].cosine;
+        const Expr a = linearIn(u, x_)->first;
+        const Variable U = fresh("u");
+        Expr inU;
+        if (m > 0 && m % 2 == 1) {
+            //sin^m cos^n = sin (1 - cos^2)^((m - 1)/2) cos^n: -1/a of the integral in U = cos
+            inU = neg(div(mul(pow(sub(one, mul(U, U)), integer((m - 1) / 2)), pow(U, integer(n))), a));
+            Integrator inner(U, depth_ + 1);
+            const auto found = inner.integral(expand(inU));
+            if (found) return mul(constant, replaced(*found, U, cos(u)));
+        }
+        if (n > 0 && n % 2 == 1) {
+            inU = div(mul(pow(U, integer(m)), pow(sub(one, mul(U, U)), integer((n - 1) / 2))), a);
+            Integrator inner(U, depth_ + 1);
+            const auto found = inner.integral(expand(inU));
+            if (found) return mul(constant, replaced(*found, U, sin(u)));
+        }
+        if (n < 0 && (-n - m) % 2 == 0 && -n - m >= 2 && m >= 0) {
+            //tan^m sec^(2j): (1/a) the integral of U^m (1 + U^2)^(j - 1) in U = tan
+            const long j = (-n - m) / 2;
+            inU = div(mul(pow(U, integer(m)), pow(add(one, mul(U, U)), integer(j - 1))), a);
+            Integrator inner(U, depth_ + 1);
+            const auto found = inner.integral(expand(inU));
+            if (found) return mul(constant, replaced(*found, U, tan(u)));
+        }
+        if (m >= 0 && n >= 0 && m % 2 == 0 && n % 2 == 0 && m + n >= 2) {
+            //sin^2 = (1 - cos(2u))/2, cos^2 = (1 + cos(2u))/2
+            const Expr twice = cos(mul(integer(2), u));
+            const Expr reduced = expand(mul(pow(div(sub(one, twice), integer(2)), integer(m / 2)), pow(div(add(one, twice), integer(2)), integer(n / 2))));
+            const auto found = integral(reduced);
+            if (found) return mul(constant, *found);
+        }
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+
+    //e^(a x + b) sin(c x + d) and with cos: e^(…)(a sin(…) - c cos(…))/(a^2 + c^2), e^(…)(a cos(…) + c sin(…))/(a^2 + c^2)
+    std::optional<Expr> exponentialTrigonometric(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        Expr constant = one, exponential, trigonometric;
+        for (const Expr &factor : factorsOf(f)) {
+            if (!has(factor, x_)) constant = mul(constant, factor);
+            else if (isExp(factor) && exponential.is_null()) exponential = factor;
+            else if ((is_a<Sin>(*factor) || is_a<Cos>(*factor)) && trigonometric.is_null()) trigonometric = factor;
+            else return std::nullopt;
+        }
+        if (exponential.is_null() || trigonometric.is_null()) return std::nullopt;
+        const auto e = linearIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*exponential).get_exp(), x_);
+        const auto t = linearIn(trigonometric->get_args()[0], x_);
+        if (!e || !t) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr a = e->first, c = t->first, u = trigonometric->get_args()[0];
+        const Expr norm = add(mul(a, a), mul(c, c));
+        const Expr inside = is_a<Sin>(*trigonometric) ? sub(mul(a, sin(u)), mul(c, cos(u))) : add(mul(a, cos(u)), mul(c, sin(u)));
+        return mul(constant, div(mul(exponential, inside), norm));
+    }
+
+    //The order of the factors taken as u in parts (LIATE): logarithms, inverse functions, algebraic, trigonometric,
+    //exponential; a larger number first
+    int priority(const Expr &factor)
+    {
+        Expr base = factor;
+        if (is_a<Pow>(*factor) && is_a<Integer>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_exp()) && down_cast<const Integer &>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_exp()).is_positive()) base = down_cast<const Pow &>(*factor).get_base();
+        if (is_a<Log>(*base)) return 5;
+        if (is_a<ATan>(*base) || is_a<ASin>(*base) || is_a<ACos>(*base) || is_a<ACot>(*base) || is_a<ASinh>(*base) || is_a<ACosh>(*base) || is_a<ATanh>(*base) || is_a<Erf>(*base)) return 4;
+        if (polynomialIn(factor, x_)) return 3;
+        if (is_a<Sin>(*base) || is_a<Cos>(*base) || is_a<Sinh>(*base) || is_a<Cosh>(*base)) return 2;
+        if (isExp(base)) return 1;
+        return 0;
+    }
+
+    //Integration by parts: u the factor first in LIATE, dv the rest: u v - the integral of v u'
+    std::optional<Expr> parts(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        std::vector<Expr> factors;
+        Expr constant = one;
+        for (const Expr &factor : factorsOf(f)) {
+            if (has(factor, x_)) factors.push_back(factor);
+            else constant = mul(constant, factor);
+        }
+        //A function alone (ln(x)^2, atan(x)^2…): u it, dv dx
+        if (factors.size() == 1) {
+            if (priority(factors[0]) < 4) return std::nullopt;
+            factors.push_back(one);
+        }
+        //u the factor first in LIATE, dv the product of the others (x e^x sin(x): u = x)
+        size_t chosen = 0;
+        for (size_t i = 1; i < factors.size(); i++) {
+            if (priority(factors[i]) > priority(factors[chosen])) chosen = i;
+        }
+        if (priority(factors[chosen]) == 0 || (factors.size() > 2 && priority(factors[chosen]) < 3)) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr u = factors[chosen];
+        Expr dv = one;
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < factors.size(); i++) {
+            if (i != chosen) dv = mul(dv, factors[i]);
+        }
+        const auto v = integral(dv);
+        if (!v) return std::nullopt;
+        const auto rest = integral(expand(mul(*v, SymEngine::diff(u, x_, true))));
+        if (!rest) return std::nullopt;
+        return mul(constant, sub(mul(u, *v), *rest));
+    }
+
+    //Other forms: expanded; tan, cot, sec, csc as sines and cosines; the hyperbolic functions as exponentials; a
+    //function of e^(x/q) alone, the substitution u = e^(x/q) (dx = q du/u)
+    std::optional<Expr> rewritten(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        const Expr expanded = expand(f);
+        if (!eq(*expanded, *f)) {
+            if (const auto found = integral(expanded)) return found;
+        }
+        if (const auto found = exponentialSubstitution(f)) return found;
+        if (const auto found = hyperbolicAsExponentials(f)) return found;
+        if (const auto found = halfAngleTangent(f)) return found;
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+
+    //sinh, cosh, tanh… of linear arguments as exponentials (cosh(x)^2 is (e^(2x) + 2 + e^(-2x))/4)
+    std::optional<Expr> hyperbolicAsExponentials(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        map_basic_basic replacements;
+        std::function<void(const Expr &)> collect = [&](const Expr &e) {
+            if (is_a<Sinh>(*e) || is_a<Cosh>(*e) || is_a<Tanh>(*e) || is_a<Coth>(*e) || is_a<Sech>(*e) || is_a<Csch>(*e)) {
+                const Expr u = e->get_args()[0];
+                const Expr p = exp(u), m = exp(neg(u));
+                const Expr s = div(sub(p, m), integer(2)), c = div(add(p, m), integer(2));
+                if (is_a<Sinh>(*e)) replacements[e] = s;
+                else if (is_a<Cosh>(*e)) replacements[e] = c;
+                else if (is_a<Tanh>(*e)) replacements[e] = div(s, c);
+                else if (is_a<Coth>(*e)) replacements[e] = div(c, s);
+                else if (is_a<Sech>(*e)) replacements[e] = div(one, c);
+                else replacements[e] = div(one, s);
+                return;
+            }
+            for (const Expr &argument : e->get_args()) collect(argument);
+        };
+        collect(f);
+        if (replacements.empty()) return std::nullopt;
+        return integral(expand(xreplace(f, replacements)));
+    }
+
+    //A fraction of polynomials in sin(u) and cos(u) of one linear u: t = tan(u/2), sin = 2t/(1 + t^2), cos = (1 - t^2)/(1 +
+    //t^2), dx = 2/(a(1 + t^2)) dt (Weierstrass; the definite integrals split at the poles of tan(u/2))
+    std::optional<Expr> halfAngleTangent(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        Expr angle;
+        bool usable = true;
+        std::function<void(const Expr &)> collect = [&](const Expr &e) {
+            if (!usable || !has(e, x_)) return;
+            if (is_a<Sin>(*e) || is_a<Cos>(*e) || is_a<Tan>(*e) || is_a<Cot>(*e) || is_a<Sec>(*e) || is_a<Csc>(*e)) {
+                const Expr u = e->get_args()[0];
+                if (!linearIn(u, x_) || (!angle.is_null() && !eq(*angle, *u))) usable = false;
+                angle = u;
+                return;
+            }
+            if (is_a<Add>(*e) || is_a<Mul>(*e)) {
+                for (const Expr &part : e->get_args()) collect(part);
+                return;
+            }
+            if (is_a<Pow>(*e) && is_a<Integer>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_exp())) {
+                collect(down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_base());
+                return;
+            }
+            usable = false;
+        };
+        collect(f);
+        if (!usable || angle.is_null()) return std::nullopt;
+        const Variable T = fresh("t");
+        const Expr square = add(one, mul(T, T));
+        const Expr s = div(mul(integer(2), T), square), c = div(sub(one, mul(T, T)), square);
+        map_basic_basic replacements;
+        replacements[sin(angle)] = s;
+        replacements[cos(angle)] = c;
+        replacements[tan(angle)] = div(s, c);
+        replacements[cot(angle)] = div(c, s);
+        replacements[sec(angle)] = div(one, c);
+        replacements[csc(angle)] = div(one, s);
+        const Expr a = linearIn(angle, x_)->first;
+        const Expr inT = cancelOf(togetherOf(div(mul(xreplace(f, replacements), integer(2)), mul(a, square))));
+        if (has(inT, x_) || !rationalIn(inT, T)) return std::nullopt;
+        Integrator inner(T, depth_ + 1);
+        const auto found = inner.integral(inT);
+        if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+        return replaced(*found, T, tan(div(angle, integer(2))));
+    }
+
+    std::optional<Expr> exponentialSubstitution(const Expr &f)
+    {
+        //The exponentials of the integrand: their exponents k x/q
+        std::vector<Expr> exponents;
+        std::function<bool(const Expr &)> collect = [&](const Expr &e) -> bool {
+            if (!has(e, x_)) return true;
+            if (eq(*e, *x_)) return false;
+            if (isExp(e)) {
+                const auto line = linearIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_exp(), x_);
+                if (!line || !(is_a<Integer>(*line->first) || is_a<Rational>(*line->first))) return false;
+                exponents.push_back(down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_exp());
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (is_a<Add>(*e) || is_a<Mul>(*e)) {
+                for (const Expr &part : e->get_args()) {
+                    if (!collect(part)) return false;
+                }
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (is_a<Pow>(*e) && is_a<Integer>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_exp())) return collect(down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_base());
+            return false;
+        };
+        if (!collect(f) || exponents.empty()) return std::nullopt;
+        //The gcd of the coefficients of x: e^(g x) the new variable
+        integer_class numerator(0), denominator(1);
+        for (const Expr &exponent : exponents) {
+            const Expr k = linearIn(exponent, x_)->first;
+            const rational_class value = is_a<Integer>(*k) ? rational_class(down_cast<const Integer &>(*k).as_integer_class()) : down_cast<const Rational &>(*k).as_rational_class();
+            integer_class n, d;
+            mp_gcd(n, numerator, get_num(value));
+            mp_lcm(d, denominator, get_den(value));
+            numerator = n;
+            denominator = d;
+        }
+        if (numerator < 0) numerator = -numerator;
+        const Expr g = Rational::from_mpq(rational_class(numerator, denominator));
+        const Variable U = fresh("u");
+        //e^(k x + b) = e^b U^(k/g)
+        map_basic_basic replacements;
+        std::function<Expr(const Expr &)> written = [&](const Expr &e) -> Expr {
+            if (!has(e, x_)) return e;
+            if (isExp(e)) {
+                const auto line = linearIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_exp(), x_);
+                return mul(exp(line->second), pow(U, div(line->first, g)));
+            }
+            if (is_a<Add>(*e)) {
+                Expr sum = zero;
+                for (const Expr &part : e->get_args()) sum = add(sum, written(part));
+                return sum;
+            }
+            if (is_a<Mul>(*e)) {
+                Expr product = one;
+                for (const Expr &part : e->get_args()) product = mul(product, written(part));
+                return product;
+            }
+            return pow(written(down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_base()), down_cast<const Pow &>(*e).get_exp());
+        };
+        const Expr inU = div(written(f), mul(g, U));
+        if (has(inU, x_) || !rationalIn(inU, U)) return std::nullopt;
+        Integrator inner(U, depth_ + 1);
+        const auto found = inner.integral(inU);
+        if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+        return replaced(*found, U, exp(mul(g, x_)));
+    }
+};
+
+constexpr double PI = 3.14159265358979323846;
+
+//The jumps of an antiderivative inside (low, high), numbers: the poles of tan, cot, sec and csc of linear arguments in it
+//(tan(x/2) of the substitution of the half angle), exactly
+void jumpsOf(const Expr &F, const Variable &x, double low, double high, std::vector<Expr> &points)
+{
+    if (is_a<Tan>(*F) || is_a<Cot>(*F) || is_a<Sec>(*F) || is_a<Csc>(*F)) {
+        const Expr v = F->get_args()[0];
+        const auto line = linearIn(v, x);
+        if (line && free_symbols(*line->first).empty() && free_symbols(*line->second).empty()) {
+            //v = a x + b at the poles: pi/2 + k pi (tan, sec), k pi (cot, csc)
+            const Expr offset = is_a<Tan>(*F) || is_a<Sec>(*F) ? div(pi, integer(2)) : Expr(zero);
+            const double a = toDouble(line->first), b = toDouble(line->second), o = toDouble(offset);
+            const double first = (std::min(a * low, a * high) + b - o) / PI, last = (std::max(a * low, a * high) + b - o) / PI;
+            if (std::isfinite(first) && std::isfinite(last) && last - first < 1000) {
+                for (long k = static_cast<long>(std::floor(first)); k <= static_cast<long>(std::ceil(last)); k++) {
+                    const Expr point = div(sub(add(offset, mul(integer(k), pi)), line->second), line->first);
+                    const double value = toDouble(point);
+                    if (value > low && value < high && std::none_of(points.begin(), points.end(), [&point](const Expr &p) { return eq(*p, *point); })) points.push_back(point);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    for (const Expr &argument : F->get_args()) jumpsOf(argument, x, low, high, points);
+}
+
+}
+
+Expr antiderivativeOf(const Expr &given, const std::string &name)
+{
+    if (!isName(name) || isBuiltin(name)) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, name + " is not a variable");
+    const Variable x = symbol(name);
+    const Expr f = evaluatedOf(given);
+    Integrator integrator(x);
+    const std::optional<Expr> found = integrator.integral(f);
+    if (!found) throw notFound("no rule of the package gives an antiderivative of " + toText(given) + " (numeric.integrate() computes definite integrals)");
+    //Tidied where that is shorter, and checked
+    Expr result = *found;
+    try {
+        const Expr tidy = simplifiedOf(result);
+        if (verified(tidy, f, x)) return tidy;
+    } catch (const MathError &error) {
+        if (error.code() == ErrorCode::Cancelled || error.code() == ErrorCode::Timeout) throw;
+    }
+    if (!verified(result, f, x)) throw notFound("the antiderivative found for " + toText(given) + " is not checked by its derivative");
+    return result;
+}
+
+Expr definiteIntegralOf(const Expr &given, const std::string &name, const Expr &from, const Expr &to)
+{
+    if (!isName(name) || isBuiltin(name)) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, name + " is not a variable");
+    const Variable x = symbol(name);
+    if (has(from, x) || has(to, x)) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, "The ends of an integral are not of its variable");
+    for (const Expr &end : {from, to}) {
+        if (is_a<NaN>(*end) || (is_a<Infty>(*end) && down_cast<const Infty &>(*end).is_unsigned_infinity())) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, "The ends of an integral are numbers, inf or -inf");
+    }
+    if (eq(*from, *to)) return zero;
+    const int order = compareOf(from, to);
+    if (order == 1) return neg(definiteIntegralOf(given, name, to, from));
+    const Expr f = evaluatedOf(given);
+    const Expr F = antiderivativeOf(f, name);
+    //Split at the poles of the integrand inside and at the jumps of the antiderivative (numbers ends only)
+    std::vector<Expr> ends{from};
+    const bool numbers = free_symbols(*from).empty() && free_symbols(*to).empty() && free_symbols(*f).size() <= 1;
+    double low = 0, high = 0;
+    if (numbers) {
+        low = is_a<Infty>(*from) ? -INFINITY : toDouble(from);
+        high = is_a<Infty>(*to) ? INFINITY : toDouble(to);
+        std::vector<Expr> inside;
+        for (const double pole : realPolesOf(f, name, std::isfinite(low) ? low : -1e300, std::isfinite(high) ? high : 1e300)) inside.push_back(numberFromDouble(pole));
+        if (std::isfinite(low) && std::isfinite(high)) jumpsOf(F, x, low, high, inside);
+        std::sort(inside.begin(), inside.end(), [](const Expr &a, const Expr &b) { return toDouble(a) < toDouble(b); });
+        ends.insert(ends.end(), inside.begin(), inside.end());
+    }
+    ends.push_back(to);
+    Expr total = zero;
+    for (size_t i = 0; i + 1 < ends.size(); i++) {
+        const Expr upper = limitOf(F, x, ends[i + 1], "-"), lower = limitOf(F, x, ends[i], "+");
+        //(the pieces on both sides of a pole added: inf where both grow toward inf, no value where they go to infinities
+        //of opposite signs, as 1/x on [-1, 1])
+        total = add(total, sub(upper, lower));
+    }
+    //An infinity beside a finite part keeps the infinity (the i pi of ln(x) at negative ends: -inf - i pi for 1/x on
+    //[-1, 0]); no value for nan or complexInfinity
+    if (is_a<Add>(*total)) {
+        const vec_basic parts = total->get_args();
+        for (const Expr &part : parts) {
+            if (is_a<Infty>(*part)) total = part;
+        }
+        for (const Expr &part : parts) {
+            if (is_a<NaN>(*part)) total = part;
+        }
+    }
+    if (is_a<NaN>(*total) || (is_a<Infty>(*total) && down_cast<const Infty &>(*total).is_unsigned_infinity())) {
+        throw MathError(ErrorCode::Domain, "The integral of " + toText(given) + " from " + toText(from) + " to " + toText(to) + " has no value");
+    }
+    //A number checked by the numeric integral where that converges (a jump of the antiderivative not found)
+    if (numbers && !is_a<Infty>(*total) && free_symbols(*total).empty()) {
+        try {
+            const IntegralResult numeric = integralOf(f, name, low, high, {}, 1e-10);
+            const std::complex<double> exact = toComplex(total);
+            if (numeric.converged && std::abs(exact.imag()) <= 1e-9 * std::max(1.0, std::abs(exact.real()))
+                && std::abs(numeric.value - exact.real()) > 1e-6 * std::max(1.0, std::abs(numeric.value)) + 10 * numeric.error) {
+                throw notFound("the antiderivative of " + toText(given) + " gives " + toText(total) + ", not the numeric value " + std::to_string(numeric.value) + " (a jump not found)");
+            }
+        } catch (const MathError &error) {
+            if (error.code() != ErrorCode::Domain && error.code() != ErrorCode::Argument) throw;
+        }
+    }
+    return is_a<Infty>(*total) ? total : simplifiedOf(total);
+}
+
+namespace {
+
+//The Laplace transform of f(t) at s (see Integrals.h), or nothing
+std::optional<Expr> laplace(const Expr &f, const Variable &t, const Expr &s)
+{
+    checkpoint();
+    if (!has(f, t)) return div(f, s);
+    if (is_a<Add>(*f)) {
+        Expr sum = zero;
+        for (const Expr &term : f->get_args()) {
+            const auto found = laplace(term, t, s);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            sum = add(sum, *found);
+        }
+        return sum;
+    }
+    if (eq(*f, *t)) return div(one, mul(s, s));
+    if (is_a<Mul>(*f)) {
+        Expr constant = down_cast<const Mul &>(*f).get_coef(), exponential, power, rest = one;
+        for (const auto &[base, exponent] : down_cast<const Mul &>(*f).get_dict()) {
+            const Expr factor = pow(base, exponent);
+            if (!has(factor, t)) constant = mul(constant, factor);
+            else if (isExp(factor) && exponential.is_null() && linearIn(exponent, t)) exponential = factor;
+            else if (eq(*base, *t) && is_a<Integer>(*exponent) && down_cast<const Integer &>(*exponent).is_positive() && power.is_null()) power = exponent;
+            else rest = mul(rest, factor);
+        }
+        if (!eq(*constant, *one)) {
+            const auto found = laplace(div(f, constant), t, s);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            return mul(constant, *found);
+        }
+        //e^(a t + b) g(t): e^b G(s - a)
+        if (!exponential.is_null() && has(rest, t)) {
+            const auto line = linearIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*exponential).get_exp(), t);
+            const Variable shifted = fresh("s");
+            const auto found = laplace(power.is_null() ? rest : mul(rest, pow(t, power)), t, shifted);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            return mul(exp(line->second), replaced(*found, shifted, sub(s, line->first)));
+        }
+        //t^n g(t): (-1)^n the n-th derivative of G(s)
+        if (!power.is_null() && has(rest, t)) {
+            const Variable variable = fresh("s");
+            const auto found = laplace(exponential.is_null() ? rest : mul(rest, exponential), t, variable);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            const long n = mp_get_si(down_cast<const Integer &>(*power).as_integer_class());
+            Expr derivative = *found;
+            for (long i = 0; i < n; i++) derivative = SymEngine::diff(derivative, variable, true);
+            return replaced(mul(integer(n % 2 == 0 ? 1 : -1), derivative), variable, s);
+        }
+        if (!exponential.is_null() && !power.is_null() && !has(rest, t)) {
+            const auto line = linearIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*exponential).get_exp(), t);
+            const auto found = laplace(pow(t, power), t, sub(s, line->first));
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            return mul(exp(line->second), *found);
+        }
+        //Products of two sines or cosines: their sums of angles
+        const vec_basic factors = f->get_args();
+        if (factors.size() == 2 && std::all_of(factors.begin(), factors.end(), [](const Expr &g) { return is_a<Sin>(*g) || is_a<Cos>(*g); })) {
+            const Expr A = factors[0]->get_args()[0], B = factors[1]->get_args()[0];
+            Expr sum;
+            if (is_a<Sin>(*factors[0]) && is_a<Cos>(*factors[1])) sum = div(add(sin(add(A, B)), sin(sub(A, B))), integer(2));
+            else if (is_a<Cos>(*factors[0]) && is_a<Sin>(*factors[1])) sum = div(add(sin(add(A, B)), sin(sub(B, A))), integer(2));
+            else if (is_a<Sin>(*factors[0])) sum = div(sub(cos(sub(A, B)), cos(add(A, B))), integer(2));
+            else sum = div(add(cos(sub(A, B)), cos(add(A, B))), integer(2));
+            return laplace(expand(sum), t, s);
+        }
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+    if (is_a<Pow>(*f)) {
+        const Expr base = down_cast<const Pow &>(*f).get_base(), exponent = down_cast<const Pow &>(*f).get_exp();
+        //t^n, n > -1: gamma(n + 1)/s^(n + 1)
+        if (eq(*base, *t) && !has(exponent, t) && signOf(add(exponent, one)) == 1) return div(gamma(add(exponent, one)), pow(s, add(exponent, one)));
+        if (eq(*base, *E)) {
+            const auto line = linearIn(exponent, t);
+            if (line) return div(exp(line->second), sub(s, line->first));
+        }
+        if (!has(base, t)) {
+            const auto line = linearIn(exponent, t);
+            if (line) return laplace(exp(mul(exponent, log(base))), t, s);
+        }
+        //sin^2, cos^2, sinh^2, cosh^2: by the double angle
+        if (eq(*exponent, *integer(2)) && is_a_sub<OneArgFunction>(*base)) {
+            const Expr u = base->get_args()[0], twice = mul(integer(2), u);
+            if (is_a<Sin>(*base)) return laplace(sub(div(one, integer(2)), div(cos(twice), integer(2))), t, s);
+            if (is_a<Cos>(*base)) return laplace(add(div(one, integer(2)), div(cos(twice), integer(2))), t, s);
+            if (is_a<Sinh>(*base)) return laplace(sub(div(cosh(twice), integer(2)), div(one, integer(2))), t, s);
+            if (is_a<Cosh>(*base)) return laplace(add(div(cosh(twice), integer(2)), div(one, integer(2))), t, s);
+        }
+        return std::nullopt;
+    }
+    if (is_a<Sin>(*f) || is_a<Cos>(*f) || is_a<Sinh>(*f) || is_a<Cosh>(*f)) {
+        const auto line = linearIn(f->get_args()[0], t);
+        if (!line) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr &b = line->first, &c = line->second;
+        //sin(b t + c) = sin(b t) cos(c) + cos(b t) sin(c)…
+        if (!eq(*c, *zero)) {
+            const Expr u = mul(b, t);
+            if (is_a<Sin>(*f)) return laplace(add(mul(sin(u), cos(c)), mul(cos(u), sin(c))), t, s);
+            if (is_a<Cos>(*f)) return laplace(sub(mul(cos(u), cos(c)), mul(sin(u), sin(c))), t, s);
+            if (is_a<Sinh>(*f)) return laplace(add(mul(sinh(u), cosh(c)), mul(cosh(u), sinh(c))), t, s);
+            return laplace(add(mul(cosh(u), cosh(c)), mul(sinh(u), sinh(c))), t, s);
+        }
+        const Expr b2 = mul(b, b);
+        if (is_a<Sin>(*f)) return div(b, add(mul(s, s), b2));
+        if (is_a<Cos>(*f)) return div(s, add(mul(s, s), b2));
+        if (is_a<Sinh>(*f)) return div(b, sub(mul(s, s), b2));
+        return div(s, sub(mul(s, s), b2));
+    }
+    return std::nullopt;
+}
+
+//The inverse Laplace transform of F(s) at t (see Integrals.h), or nothing
+std::optional<Expr> inverseLaplace(const Expr &F, const Variable &s, const Variable &t)
+{
+    checkpoint();
+    if (!has(F, s)) return std::nullopt;
+    if (is_a<Add>(*F)) {
+        Expr sum = zero;
+        for (const Expr &term : F->get_args()) {
+            const auto found = inverseLaplace(term, s, t);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            sum = add(sum, *found);
+        }
+        return sum;
+    }
+    if (is_a<Mul>(*F)) {
+        Expr constant = down_cast<const Mul &>(*F).get_coef(), shift, rest = one;
+        for (const auto &[base, exponent] : down_cast<const Mul &>(*F).get_dict()) {
+            const Expr factor = pow(base, exponent);
+            if (!has(factor, s)) constant = mul(constant, factor);
+            else if (isExp(factor) && shift.is_null() && linearIn(exponent, s)) shift = factor;
+            else rest = mul(rest, factor);
+        }
+        if (!eq(*constant, *one)) {
+            const auto found = inverseLaplace(div(F, constant), s, t);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            return mul(constant, *found);
+        }
+        //e^(-c s + d) G(s): e^d g(t - c) from t = c, 0 before
+        if (!shift.is_null()) {
+            const auto line = linearIn(down_cast<const Pow &>(*shift).get_exp(), s);
+            const Expr c = neg(line->first);
+            if (signOf(c) != 1) return std::nullopt;
+            const auto found = inverseLaplace(rest, s, t);
+            if (!found) return std::nullopt;
+            return SymEngine::piecewise({{zero, relationOf("<", t, c)}, {mul(exp(line->second), replaced(*found, t, sub(t, c))), boolTrue}});
+        }
+    }
+    //(s - a)^(-v), v > 0: e^(a t) t^(v - 1)/gamma(v)
+    if (is_a<Pow>(*F) && !has(down_cast<const Pow &>(*F).get_exp(), s) && !is_a<Integer>(*down_cast<const Pow &>(*F).get_exp())) {
+        const Expr base = down_cast<const Pow &>(*F).get_base(), v = neg(down_cast<const Pow &>(*F).get_exp());
+        const auto line = linearIn(base, s);
+        if (!line || signOf(v) != 1) return std::nullopt;
+        //(k s + m)^(-v) = k^(-v) (s + m/k)^(-v)
+        const Expr a = neg(div(line->second, line->first));
+        return mul(pow(line->first, neg(v)), div(mul(exp(mul(a, t)), pow(t, sub(v, one))), gamma(v)));
+    }
+    if (!rationalIn(F, s)) return std::nullopt;
+    //A fraction of polynomials whose numerator has a lower degree: its partial fractions
+    const Expr cancelled = cancelOf(togetherOf(F));
+    const auto [numerator, denominator] = fractionOf(cancelled);
+    const auto pn = polynomialIn(numerator, s), pd = polynomialIn(denominator, s);
+    if (!pn || !pd || pn->size() >= pd->size()) return std::nullopt;
+    const Variable plain = plainName(cancelled);
+    const Expr parts = replaced(apartOf(replaced(cancelled, s, plain), plain->get_name()), plain, s);
+    Expr sum = zero;
+    for (const Expr &term : is_a<Add>(*parts) ? parts->get_args() : vec_basic{parts}) {
+        const auto [n, d] = fractionOf(term);
+        const FactoredPolynomial factored = factorPolynomial(d);
+        Expr q, scale = factored.coefficient;
+        long k = 0;
+        for (const auto &[factor, multiplicity] : factored.factors) {
+            if (!has(factor, s)) {
+                scale = mul(scale, pow(factor, integer(multiplicity)));
+                continue;
+            }
+            if (!q.is_null()) return std::nullopt;
+            q = factor;
+            k = multiplicity;
+        }
+        if (q.is_null()) return std::nullopt;
+        const Expr p = div(n, scale);
+        const auto qc = polynomialIn(q, s), pc = polynomialIn(p, s);
+        if (!qc || !pc) return std::nullopt;
+        if (qc->size() == 2) {
+            //p/(alpha s + beta)^k: p alpha^(-k) t^(k - 1) e^(-beta t/alpha)/(k - 1)!
+            if (pc->size() > 1) return std::nullopt;
+            const Expr alpha = (*qc)[1], beta = (*qc)[0];
+            Expr factorial = one;
+            for (long j = 2; j < k; j++) factorial = mul(factorial, integer(j));
+            sum = add(sum, div(mul(mul(p, pow(alpha, integer(-k))), mul(pow(t, integer(k - 1)), exp(neg(mul(div(beta, alpha), t))))), factorial));
+            continue;
+        }
+        if (qc->size() != 3 || k > 32) return std::nullopt;
+        //(B s + C)/(a s^2 + b s + c)^k: with u = s - alpha, (s - alpha)^2 + beta^2, alpha = -b/(2a), beta^2 = c/a - alpha^2,
+        //e^(alpha t)(B' J(k) + (C' + B' alpha) I(k)), B' = B/a^k, C' = C/a^k, I(k) and J(k) the transforms of
+        //1/(u^2 + beta^2)^k and u/(u^2 + beta^2)^k: I(1) = sin(beta t)/beta, J(1) = cos(beta t) (sinh and cosh for
+        //beta^2 < 0), J(k + 1) = t I(k)/(2k) (of the derivative in u), I(k + 1) = ((2k - 1) I(k) - t J(k))/(2k beta^2)
+        //(1/(u^2 + beta^2)^(k + 1) = (d/du (u/(u^2 + beta^2)^k) + (2k - 1)/(u^2 + beta^2)^k)/(2k beta^2))
+        const Expr a = (*qc)[2], ak = pow(a, integer(k));
+        const Expr B = div(pc->size() > 1 ? (*pc)[1] : Expr(zero), ak), C = div((*pc)[0], ak);
+        const Expr alpha = neg(div((*qc)[1], mul(integer(2), a)));
+        const Expr beta2 = expand(sub(div((*qc)[0], a), mul(alpha, alpha)));
+        const int betaSign = signOf(beta2);
+        if (betaSign == 0) return std::nullopt;
+        Expr I, J;
+        if (betaSign == -1) {
+            const Expr gamma2 = sqrt(neg(beta2));
+            I = div(sinh(mul(gamma2, t)), gamma2);
+            J = cosh(mul(gamma2, t));
+        } else {
+            const Expr beta = sqrt(beta2);
+            I = div(sin(mul(beta, t)), beta);
+            J = cos(mul(beta, t));
+        }
+        for (long j = 1; j < k; j++) {
+            const Expr next = div(sub(mul(integer(2 * j - 1), I), mul(t, J)), mul(integer(2 * j), beta2));
+            J = div(mul(t, I), integer(2 * j));
+            I = expand(next);
+        }
+        const Expr inner = add(mul(B, J), mul(add(C, mul(B, alpha)), I));
+        sum = add(sum, mul(exp(mul(alpha, t)), inner));
+    }
+    return sum;
+}
+
+}
+
+Expr laplaceOf(const Expr &given, const std::string &tName, const std::string &sName)
+{
+    for (const std::string &name : {tName, sName}) {
+        if (!isName(name) || isBuiltin(name)) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, name + " is not a variable");
+    }
+    if (tName == sName) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, "The variables of a transform differ");
+    const Variable t = symbol(tName), s = symbol(sName);
+    const Expr f = evaluatedOf(given);
+    if (has(f, s)) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, "The expression of a Laplace transform has no " + sName + ": it is its variable");
+    std::optional<Expr> found;
+    try {
+        found = laplace(f, t, s);
+    } catch (SymEngineException &) {
+        found = std::nullopt;
+    }
+    if (!found) throw MathError(ErrorCode::NotSupported, "The Laplace transform of " + toText(given) + " is not found");
+    return simplifiedOf(*found);
+}
+
+Expr inverseLaplaceOf(const Expr &given, const std::string &sName, const std::string &tName)
+{
+    for (const std::string &name : {tName, sName}) {
+        if (!isName(name) || isBuiltin(name)) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, name + " is not a variable");
+    }
+    if (tName == sName) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, "The variables of a transform differ");
+    const Variable t = symbol(tName), s = symbol(sName);
+    const Expr F = evaluatedOf(given);
+    if (has(F, t)) throw MathError(ErrorCode::Argument, "The expression of an inverse Laplace transform has no " + tName + ": it is its variable");
+    std::optional<Expr> found;
+    try {
+        found = inverseLaplace(F, s, t);
+    } catch (SymEngineException &) {
+        found = std::nullopt;
+    } catch (const MathError &error) {
+        if (error.code() == ErrorCode::Cancelled || error.code() == ErrorCode::Timeout) throw;
+        found = std::nullopt;
+    }
+    if (!found) throw MathError(ErrorCode::NotSupported, "The inverse Laplace transform of " + toText(given) + " is not found");
+    const Expr result = simplifiedOf(*found);
+    //Checked by its transform where that is found (not for the shifts, which are piecewise)
+    try {
+        if (const auto back = laplace(result, t, s)) {
+            if (!eq(*cancelOf(togetherOf(sub(*back, F))), *zero) && !verifiedAt(*back, F, s)) {
+                throw MathError(ErrorCode::NotSupported, "The inverse Laplace transform found for " + toText(given) + " is not checked by its transform");
+            }
+        }
+    } catch (SymEngineException &) {
+    }
+    return result;
+}
+
+}