activerecord 4.2.0 → 6.0.0

data/lib/active_record/relation/query_methods.rb

@@ -1,6 +1,10 @@
-require 'active_support/core_ext/array/wrap'
-require 'active_support/core_ext/string/filters'
-require 'active_model/forbidden_attributes_protection'
+# frozen_string_literal: true
+
+require "active_record/relation/from_clause"
+require "active_record/relation/query_attribute"
+require "active_record/relation/where_clause"
+require "active_record/relation/where_clause_factory"
+require "active_model/forbidden_attributes_protection"
 
 module ActiveRecord
   module QueryMethods
@@ -11,6 +15,8 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # WhereChain objects act as placeholder for queries in which #where does not have any parameter.
     # In this case, #where must be chained with #not to return a new relation.
     class WhereChain
+      include ActiveModel::ForbiddenAttributesProtection
+
       def initialize(scope)
         @scope = scope
       end
@@ -18,7 +24,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
       # Returns a new relation expressing WHERE + NOT condition according to
       # the conditions in the arguments.
       #
-      # +not+ accepts conditions as a string, array, or hash. See #where for
+      # #not accepts conditions as a string, array, or hash. See QueryMethods#where for
       # more details on each format.
       #
       #    User.where.not("name = 'Jon'")
@@ -35,77 +41,56 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #
       #    User.where.not(name: %w(Ko1 Nobu))
       #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name NOT IN ('Ko1', 'Nobu')
-      #
-      #    User.where.not(name: "Jon", role: "admin")
-      #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name != 'Jon' AND role != 'admin'
       def not(opts, *rest)
-        where_value = @scope.send(:build_where, opts, rest).map do |rel|
-          case rel
-          when NilClass
-            raise ArgumentError, 'Invalid argument for .where.not(), got nil.'
-          when Arel::Nodes::In
-            Arel::Nodes::NotIn.new(rel.left, rel.right)
-          when Arel::Nodes::Equality
-            Arel::Nodes::NotEqual.new(rel.left, rel.right)
-          when String
-            Arel::Nodes::Not.new(Arel::Nodes::SqlLiteral.new(rel))
-          else
-            Arel::Nodes::Not.new(rel)
-          end
-        end
+        opts = sanitize_forbidden_attributes(opts)
+
+        where_clause = @scope.send(:where_clause_factory).build(opts, rest)
 
         @scope.references!(PredicateBuilder.references(opts)) if Hash === opts
-        @scope.where_values += where_value
+
+        if not_behaves_as_nor?(opts)
+          ActiveSupport::Deprecation.warn(<<~MSG.squish)
+            NOT conditions will no longer behave as NOR in Rails 6.1.
+            To continue using NOR conditions, NOT each conditions manually
+            (`#{ opts.keys.map { |key| ".where.not(#{key.inspect} => ...)" }.join }`).
+          MSG
+          @scope.where_clause += where_clause.invert(:nor)
+        else
+          @scope.where_clause += where_clause.invert
+        end
+
         @scope
       end
-    end
 
-    Relation::MULTI_VALUE_METHODS.each do |name|
-      class_eval <<-CODE, __FILE__, __LINE__ + 1
-        def #{name}_values                   # def select_values
-          @values[:#{name}] || []            #   @values[:select] || []
-        end                                  # end
-                                             #
-        def #{name}_values=(values)          # def select_values=(values)
-          raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded #   raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded
-          check_cached_relation
-          @values[:#{name}] = values         #   @values[:select] = values
-        end                                  # end
-      CODE
+      private
+        def not_behaves_as_nor?(opts)
+          opts.is_a?(Hash) && opts.size > 1
+        end
     end
 
-    (Relation::SINGLE_VALUE_METHODS - [:create_with]).each do |name|
+    FROZEN_EMPTY_ARRAY = [].freeze
+    FROZEN_EMPTY_HASH = {}.freeze
+
+    Relation::VALUE_METHODS.each do |name|
+      method_name = \
+        case name
+        when *Relation::MULTI_VALUE_METHODS then "#{name}_values"
+        when *Relation::SINGLE_VALUE_METHODS then "#{name}_value"
+        when *Relation::CLAUSE_METHODS then "#{name}_clause"
+        end
       class_eval <<-CODE, __FILE__, __LINE__ + 1
-        def #{name}_value                    # def readonly_value
-          @values[:#{name}]                  #   @values[:readonly]
+        def #{method_name}                   # def includes_values
+          default = DEFAULT_VALUES[:#{name}] #   default = DEFAULT_VALUES[:includes]
+          @values.fetch(:#{name}, default)   #   @values.fetch(:includes, default)
         end                                  # end
-      CODE
-    end
 
-    Relation::SINGLE_VALUE_METHODS.each do |name|
-      class_eval <<-CODE, __FILE__, __LINE__ + 1
-        def #{name}_value=(value)            # def readonly_value=(value)
-          raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded #   raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded
-          check_cached_relation
-          @values[:#{name}] = value          #   @values[:readonly] = value
+        def #{method_name}=(value)           # def includes_values=(value)
+          assert_mutability!                 #   assert_mutability!
+          @values[:#{name}] = value          #   @values[:includes] = value
         end                                  # end
       CODE
     end
 
-    def check_cached_relation # :nodoc:
-      if defined?(@arel) && @arel
-        @arel = nil
-        ActiveSupport::Deprecation.warn(<<-MSG.squish)
-          Modifying already cached Relation. The cache will be reset. Use a
-          cloned Relation to prevent this warning.
-        MSG
-      end
-    end
-
-    def create_with_value # :nodoc:
-      @values[:create_with] || {}
-    end
-
     alias extensions extending_values
 
     # Specify relationships to be included in the result set. For
@@ -118,7 +103,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #
     # allows you to access the +address+ attribute of the +User+ model without
     # firing an additional query. This will often result in a
-    # performance improvement over a simple +join+.
+    # performance improvement over a simple join.
     #
     # You can also specify multiple relationships, like this:
     #
@@ -130,7 +115,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #
     # === conditions
     #
-    # If you want to add conditions to your included models you'll have
+    # If you want to add string conditions to your included models, you'll have
     # to explicitly reference them. For example:
     #
     #   User.includes(:posts).where('posts.name = ?', 'example')
@@ -139,8 +124,14 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #
     #   User.includes(:posts).where('posts.name = ?', 'example').references(:posts)
     #
-    # Note that +includes+ works with association names while +references+ needs
+    # Note that #includes works with association names while #references needs
     # the actual table name.
+    #
+    # If you pass the conditions via hash, you don't need to call #references
+    # explicitly, as #where references the tables for you. For example, this
+    # will work correctly:
+    #
+    #   User.includes(:posts).where(posts: { name: 'example' })
     def includes(*args)
       check_if_method_has_arguments!(:includes, args)
       spawn.includes!(*args)
@@ -157,9 +148,9 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # Forces eager loading by performing a LEFT OUTER JOIN on +args+:
     #
     #   User.eager_load(:posts)
-    #   => SELECT "users"."id" AS t0_r0, "users"."name" AS t0_r1, ...
-    #   FROM "users" LEFT OUTER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" =
-    #   "users"."id"
+    #   # SELECT "users"."id" AS t0_r0, "users"."name" AS t0_r1, ...
+    #   # FROM "users" LEFT OUTER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" =
+    #   # "users"."id"
     def eager_load(*args)
       check_if_method_has_arguments!(:eager_load, args)
       spawn.eager_load!(*args)
@@ -170,10 +161,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
       self
     end
 
-    # Allows preloading of +args+, in the same way that +includes+ does:
+    # Allows preloading of +args+, in the same way that #includes does:
     #
     #   User.preload(:posts)
-    #   => SELECT "posts".* FROM "posts" WHERE "posts"."user_id" IN (1, 2, 3)
+    #   # SELECT "posts".* FROM "posts" WHERE "posts"."user_id" IN (1, 2, 3)
     def preload(*args)
       check_if_method_has_arguments!(:preload, args)
       spawn.preload!(*args)
@@ -184,16 +175,29 @@ module ActiveRecord
       self
     end
 
+    # Extracts a named +association+ from the relation. The named association is first preloaded,
+    # then the individual association records are collected from the relation. Like so:
+    #
+    #   account.memberships.extract_associated(:user)
+    #   # => Returns collection of User records
+    #
+    # This is short-hand for:
+    #
+    #   account.memberships.preload(:user).collect(&:user)
+    def extract_associated(association)
+      preload(association).collect(&association)
+    end
+
     # Use to indicate that the given +table_names+ are referenced by an SQL string,
     # and should therefore be JOINed in any query rather than loaded separately.
-    # This method only works in conjunction with +includes+.
+    # This method only works in conjunction with #includes.
     # See #includes for more details.
     #
     #   User.includes(:posts).where("posts.name = 'foo'")
-    #   # => Doesn't JOIN the posts table, resulting in an error.
+    #   # Doesn't JOIN the posts table, resulting in an error.
     #
     #   User.includes(:posts).where("posts.name = 'foo'").references(:posts)
-    #   # => Query now knows the string references posts, so adds a JOIN
+    #   # Query now knows the string references posts, so adds a JOIN
     def references(*table_names)
       check_if_method_has_arguments!(:references, table_names)
       spawn.references!(*table_names)
@@ -209,12 +213,13 @@ module ActiveRecord
 
     # Works in two unique ways.
     #
-    # First: takes a block so it can be used just like Array#select.
+    # First: takes a block so it can be used just like <tt>Array#select</tt>.
     #
     #   Model.all.select { |m| m.field == value }
     #
     # This will build an array of objects from the database for the scope,
-    # converting them into an array and iterating through them using Array#select.
+    # converting them into an array and iterating through them using
+    # <tt>Array#select</tt>.
     #
     # Second: Modifies the SELECT statement for the query so that only certain
     # fields are retrieved:
@@ -242,47 +247,71 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #   # => "value"
     #
     # Accessing attributes of an object that do not have fields retrieved by a select
-    # except +id+ will throw <tt>ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError</tt>:
+    # except +id+ will throw ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError:
     #
     #   Model.select(:field).first.other_field
     #   # => ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError: missing attribute: other_field
     def select(*fields)
       if block_given?
-        to_a.select { |*block_args| yield(*block_args) }
-      else
-        raise ArgumentError, 'Call this with at least one field' if fields.empty?
-        spawn._select!(*fields)
+        if fields.any?
+          raise ArgumentError, "`select' with block doesn't take arguments."
+        end
+
+        return super()
       end
+
+      raise ArgumentError, "Call `select' with at least one field" if fields.empty?
+      spawn._select!(*fields)
     end
 
     def _select!(*fields) # :nodoc:
+      fields.reject!(&:blank?)
       fields.flatten!
-      fields.map! do |field|
-        klass.attribute_alias?(field) ? klass.attribute_alias(field) : field
-      end
       self.select_values += fields
       self
     end
 
+    # Allows you to change a previously set select statement.
+    #
+    #   Post.select(:title, :body)
+    #   # SELECT `posts`.`title`, `posts`.`body` FROM `posts`
+    #
+    #   Post.select(:title, :body).reselect(:created_at)
+    #   # SELECT `posts`.`created_at` FROM `posts`
+    #
+    # This is short-hand for <tt>unscope(:select).select(fields)</tt>.
+    # Note that we're unscoping the entire select statement.
+    def reselect(*args)
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:reselect, args)
+      spawn.reselect!(*args)
+    end
+
+    # Same as #reselect but operates on relation in-place instead of copying.
+    def reselect!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      self.select_values = args
+      self
+    end
+
     # Allows to specify a group attribute:
     #
     #   User.group(:name)
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" GROUP BY name
+    #   # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" GROUP BY name
     #
     # Returns an array with distinct records based on the +group+ attribute:
     #
     #   User.select([:id, :name])
-    #   => [#<User id: 1, name: "Oscar">, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar">, #<User id: 3, name: "Foo">
+    #   # => [#<User id: 1, name: "Oscar">, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar">, #<User id: 3, name: "Foo">]
     #
     #   User.group(:name)
-    #   => [#<User id: 3, name: "Foo", ...>, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar", ...>]
+    #   # => [#<User id: 3, name: "Foo", ...>, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar", ...>]
     #
     #   User.group('name AS grouped_name, age')
-    #   => [#<User id: 3, name: "Foo", age: 21, ...>, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar", age: 21, ...>, #<User id: 5, name: "Foo", age: 23, ...>]
+    #   # => [#<User id: 3, name: "Foo", age: 21, ...>, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar", age: 21, ...>, #<User id: 5, name: "Foo", age: 23, ...>]
     #
     # Passing in an array of attributes to group by is also supported.
+    #
     #   User.select([:id, :first_name]).group(:id, :first_name).first(3)
-    #   => [#<User id: 1, first_name: "Bill">, #<User id: 2, first_name: "Earl">, #<User id: 3, first_name: "Beto">]
+    #   # => [#<User id: 1, first_name: "Bill">, #<User id: 2, first_name: "Earl">, #<User id: 3, first_name: "Beto">]
     def group(*args)
       check_if_method_has_arguments!(:group, args)
       spawn.group!(*args)
@@ -298,27 +327,28 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # Allows to specify an order attribute:
     #
     #   User.order(:name)
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."name" ASC
+    #   # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."name" ASC
     #
     #   User.order(email: :desc)
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."email" DESC
+    #   # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."email" DESC
     #
     #   User.order(:name, email: :desc)
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."name" ASC, "users"."email" DESC
+    #   # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."name" ASC, "users"."email" DESC
     #
     #   User.order('name')
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name
+    #   # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name
     #
     #   User.order('name DESC')
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name DESC
+    #   # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name DESC
     #
     #   User.order('name DESC, email')
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name DESC, email
+    #   # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name DESC, email
     def order(*args)
       check_if_method_has_arguments!(:order, args)
       spawn.order!(*args)
     end
 
+    # Same as #order but operates on relation in-place instead of copying.
     def order!(*args) # :nodoc:
       preprocess_order_args(args)
 
@@ -340,8 +370,9 @@ module ActiveRecord
       spawn.reorder!(*args)
     end
 
+    # Same as #reorder but operates on relation in-place instead of copying.
     def reorder!(*args) # :nodoc:
-      preprocess_order_args(args)
+      preprocess_order_args(args) unless args.all?(&:blank?)
 
       self.reordering_value = true
       self.order_values = args
@@ -349,8 +380,8 @@ module ActiveRecord
     end
 
     VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES = Set.new([:where, :select, :group, :order, :lock,
-                                     :limit, :offset, :joins, :includes, :from,
-                                     :readonly, :having])
+                                     :limit, :offset, :joins, :left_outer_joins, :annotate,
+                                     :includes, :from, :readonly, :having, :optimizer_hints])
 
     # Removes an unwanted relation that is already defined on a chain of relations.
     # This is useful when passing around chains of relations and would like to
@@ -365,15 +396,15 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #   User.order('email DESC').select('id').where(name: "John")
     #       .unscope(:order, :select, :where) == User.all
     #
-    # One can additionally pass a hash as an argument to unscope specific :where values.
+    # One can additionally pass a hash as an argument to unscope specific +:where+ values.
     # This is done by passing a hash with a single key-value pair. The key should be
-    # :where and the value should be the where value to unscope. For example:
+    # +:where+ and the value should be the where value to unscope. For example:
     #
     #   User.where(name: "John", active: true).unscope(where: :name)
     #       == User.where(active: true)
     #
-    # This method is similar to <tt>except</tt>, but unlike
-    # <tt>except</tt>, it persists across merges:
+    # This method is similar to #except, but unlike
+    # #except, it persists across merges:
     #
     #   User.order('email').merge(User.except(:order))
     #       == User.order('email')
@@ -383,7 +414,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #
     # This means it can be used in association definitions:
     #
-    #   has_many :comments, -> { unscope where: :trashed }
+    #   has_many :comments, -> { unscope(where: :trashed) }
     #
     def unscope(*args)
       check_if_method_has_arguments!(:unscope, args)
@@ -397,16 +428,20 @@ module ActiveRecord
       args.each do |scope|
         case scope
         when Symbol
-          symbol_unscoping(scope)
+          scope = :left_outer_joins if scope == :left_joins
+          if !VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES.include?(scope)
+            raise ArgumentError, "Called unscope() with invalid unscoping argument ':#{scope}'. Valid arguments are :#{VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES.to_a.join(", :")}."
+          end
+          assert_mutability!
+          @values[scope] = DEFAULT_VALUES[scope]
         when Hash
           scope.each do |key, target_value|
             if key != :where
               raise ArgumentError, "Hash arguments in .unscope(*args) must have :where as the key."
             end
 
-            Array(target_value).each do |val|
-              where_unscoping(val)
-            end
+            target_values = Array(target_value).map(&:to_s)
+            self.where_clause = where_clause.except(*target_values)
           end
         else
           raise ArgumentError, "Unrecognized scoping: #{args.inspect}. Use .unscope(where: :attribute_name) or .unscope(:order), for example."
@@ -416,15 +451,35 @@ module ActiveRecord
       self
     end
 
-    # Performs a joins on +args+:
+    # Performs a joins on +args+. The given symbol(s) should match the name of
+    # the association(s).
     #
     #   User.joins(:posts)
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" INNER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" = "users"."id"
+    #   # SELECT "users".*
+    #   # FROM "users"
+    #   # INNER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" = "users"."id"
+    #
+    # Multiple joins:
+    #
+    #   User.joins(:posts, :account)
+    #   # SELECT "users".*
+    #   # FROM "users"
+    #   # INNER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" = "users"."id"
+    #   # INNER JOIN "accounts" ON "accounts"."id" = "users"."account_id"
+    #
+    # Nested joins:
+    #
+    #   User.joins(posts: [:comments])
+    #   # SELECT "users".*
+    #   # FROM "users"
+    #   # INNER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" = "users"."id"
+    #   # INNER JOIN "comments" "comments_posts"
+    #   #   ON "comments_posts"."post_id" = "posts"."id"
     #
     # You can use strings in order to customize your joins:
     #
     #   User.joins("LEFT JOIN bookmarks ON bookmarks.bookmarkable_type = 'Post' AND bookmarks.user_id = users.id")
-    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" LEFT JOIN bookmarks ON bookmarks.bookmarkable_type = 'Post' AND bookmarks.user_id = users.id
+    #   # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" LEFT JOIN bookmarks ON bookmarks.bookmarkable_type = 'Post' AND bookmarks.user_id = users.id
     def joins(*args)
       check_if_method_has_arguments!(:joins, args)
       spawn.joins!(*args)
@@ -437,12 +492,21 @@ module ActiveRecord
       self
     end
 
-    def bind(value) # :nodoc:
-      spawn.bind!(value)
+    # Performs a left outer joins on +args+:
+    #
+    #   User.left_outer_joins(:posts)
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" LEFT OUTER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" = "users"."id"
+    #
+    def left_outer_joins(*args)
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(__callee__, args)
+      spawn.left_outer_joins!(*args)
     end
+    alias :left_joins :left_outer_joins
 
-    def bind!(value) # :nodoc:
-      self.bind_values += [value]
+    def left_outer_joins!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      args.compact!
+      args.flatten!
+      self.left_outer_joins_values += args
       self
     end
 
@@ -489,7 +553,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # than the previous methods; you are responsible for ensuring that the values in the template
     # are properly quoted. The values are passed to the connector for quoting, but the caller
     # is responsible for ensuring they are enclosed in quotes in the resulting SQL. After quoting,
-    # the values are inserted using the same escapes as the Ruby core method <tt>Kernel::sprintf</tt>.
+    # the values are inserted using the same escapes as the Ruby core method +Kernel::sprintf+.
     #
     #   User.where(["name = '%s' and email = '%s'", "Joe", "joe@example.com"])
     #   # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = 'Joe' AND email = 'joe@example.com';
@@ -566,7 +630,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # If the condition is any blank-ish object, then #where is a no-op and returns
     # the current relation.
     def where(opts = :chain, *rest)
-      if opts == :chain
+      if :chain == opts
         WhereChain.new(spawn)
       elsif opts.blank?
         self
@@ -576,27 +640,61 @@ module ActiveRecord
     end
 
     def where!(opts, *rest) # :nodoc:
-      if Hash === opts
-        opts = sanitize_forbidden_attributes(opts)
-        references!(PredicateBuilder.references(opts))
-      end
-
-      self.where_values += build_where(opts, rest)
+      opts = sanitize_forbidden_attributes(opts)
+      references!(PredicateBuilder.references(opts)) if Hash === opts
+      self.where_clause += where_clause_factory.build(opts, rest)
       self
     end
 
     # Allows you to change a previously set where condition for a given attribute, instead of appending to that condition.
     #
-    #   Post.where(trashed: true).where(trashed: false)                       # => WHERE `trashed` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
-    #   Post.where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false)                     # => WHERE `trashed` = 0
-    #   Post.where(active: true).where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false) # => WHERE `active` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
+    #   Post.where(trashed: true).where(trashed: false)
+    #   # WHERE `trashed` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
     #
-    # This is short-hand for unscope(where: conditions.keys).where(conditions). Note that unlike reorder, we're only unscoping
-    # the named conditions -- not the entire where statement.
+    #   Post.where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false)
+    #   # WHERE `trashed` = 0
+    #
+    #   Post.where(active: true).where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false)
+    #   # WHERE `active` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
+    #
+    # This is short-hand for <tt>unscope(where: conditions.keys).where(conditions)</tt>.
+    # Note that unlike reorder, we're only unscoping the named conditions -- not the entire where statement.
     def rewhere(conditions)
       unscope(where: conditions.keys).where(conditions)
     end
 
+    # Returns a new relation, which is the logical union of this relation and the one passed as an
+    # argument.
+    #
+    # The two relations must be structurally compatible: they must be scoping the same model, and
+    # they must differ only by #where (if no #group has been defined) or #having (if a #group is
+    # present). Neither relation may have a #limit, #offset, or #distinct set.
+    #
+    #    Post.where("id = 1").or(Post.where("author_id = 3"))
+    #    # SELECT `posts`.* FROM `posts` WHERE ((id = 1) OR (author_id = 3))
+    #
+    def or(other)
+      unless other.is_a? Relation
+        raise ArgumentError, "You have passed #{other.class.name} object to #or. Pass an ActiveRecord::Relation object instead."
+      end
+
+      spawn.or!(other)
+    end
+
+    def or!(other) # :nodoc:
+      incompatible_values = structurally_incompatible_values_for_or(other)
+
+      unless incompatible_values.empty?
+        raise ArgumentError, "Relation passed to #or must be structurally compatible. Incompatible values: #{incompatible_values}"
+      end
+
+      self.where_clause = self.where_clause.or(other.where_clause)
+      self.having_clause = having_clause.or(other.having_clause)
+      self.references_values += other.references_values
+
+      self
+    end
+
     # Allows to specify a HAVING clause. Note that you can't use HAVING
     # without also specifying a GROUP clause.
     #
@@ -606,9 +704,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
     end
 
     def having!(opts, *rest) # :nodoc:
+      opts = sanitize_forbidden_attributes(opts)
       references!(PredicateBuilder.references(opts)) if Hash === opts
 
-      self.having_values += build_where(opts, rest)
+      self.having_clause += having_clause_factory.build(opts, rest)
       self
     end
 
@@ -643,7 +742,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     end
 
     # Specifies locking settings (default to +true+). For more information
-    # on locking, please see +ActiveRecord::Locking+.
+    # on locking, please see ActiveRecord::Locking.
     def lock(locks = true)
       spawn.lock!(locks)
     end
@@ -674,7 +773,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # For example:
     #
     #   @posts = current_user.visible_posts.where(name: params[:name])
-    #   # => the visible_posts method is expected to return a chainable Relation
+    #   # the visible_posts method is expected to return a chainable Relation
     #
     #   def visible_posts
     #     case role
@@ -688,7 +787,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #   end
     #
     def none
-      where("1=0").extending!(NullRelation)
+      spawn.none!
     end
 
     def none! # :nodoc:
@@ -700,7 +799,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #
     #   users = User.readonly
     #   users.first.save
-    #   => ActiveRecord::ReadOnlyRecord: ActiveRecord::ReadOnlyRecord
+    #   => ActiveRecord::ReadOnlyRecord: User is marked as readonly
     def readonly(value = true)
       spawn.readonly!(value)
     end
@@ -719,7 +818,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #   users = users.create_with(name: 'DHH')
     #   users.new.name # => 'DHH'
     #
-    # You can pass +nil+ to +create_with+ to reset attributes:
+    # You can pass +nil+ to #create_with to reset attributes:
     #
     #   users = users.create_with(nil)
     #   users.new.name # => 'Oscar'
@@ -732,7 +831,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
         value = sanitize_forbidden_attributes(value)
         self.create_with_value = create_with_value.merge(value)
       else
-        self.create_with_value = {}
+        self.create_with_value = FROZEN_EMPTY_HASH
       end
 
       self
@@ -741,46 +840,44 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # Specifies table from which the records will be fetched. For example:
     #
     #   Topic.select('title').from('posts')
-    #   # => SELECT title FROM posts
+    #   # SELECT title FROM posts
     #
     # Can accept other relation objects. For example:
     #
     #   Topic.select('title').from(Topic.approved)
-    #   # => SELECT title FROM (SELECT * FROM topics WHERE approved = 't') subquery
+    #   # SELECT title FROM (SELECT * FROM topics WHERE approved = 't') subquery
     #
     #   Topic.select('a.title').from(Topic.approved, :a)
-    #   # => SELECT a.title FROM (SELECT * FROM topics WHERE approved = 't') a
+    #   # SELECT a.title FROM (SELECT * FROM topics WHERE approved = 't') a
     #
     def from(value, subquery_name = nil)
       spawn.from!(value, subquery_name)
     end
 
     def from!(value, subquery_name = nil) # :nodoc:
-      self.from_value = [value, subquery_name]
+      self.from_clause = Relation::FromClause.new(value, subquery_name)
       self
     end
 
     # Specifies whether the records should be unique or not. For example:
     #
     #   User.select(:name)
-    #   # => Might return two records with the same name
+    #   # Might return two records with the same name
     #
     #   User.select(:name).distinct
-    #   # => Returns 1 record per distinct name
+    #   # Returns 1 record per distinct name
     #
     #   User.select(:name).distinct.distinct(false)
-    #   # => You can also remove the uniqueness
+    #   # You can also remove the uniqueness
     def distinct(value = true)
       spawn.distinct!(value)
     end
-    alias uniq distinct
 
     # Like #distinct, but modifies relation in place.
     def distinct!(value = true) # :nodoc:
       self.distinct_value = value
       self
     end
-    alias uniq! distinct!
 
     # Used to extend a scope with additional methods, either through
     # a module or through a block provided.
@@ -836,6 +933,29 @@ module ActiveRecord
       self
     end
 
+    # Specify optimizer hints to be used in the SELECT statement.
+    #
+    # Example (for MySQL):
+    #
+    #   Topic.optimizer_hints("MAX_EXECUTION_TIME(50000)", "NO_INDEX_MERGE(topics)")
+    #   # SELECT /*+ MAX_EXECUTION_TIME(50000) NO_INDEX_MERGE(topics) */ `topics`.* FROM `topics`
+    #
+    # Example (for PostgreSQL with pg_hint_plan):
+    #
+    #   Topic.optimizer_hints("SeqScan(topics)", "Parallel(topics 8)")
+    #   # SELECT /*+ SeqScan(topics) Parallel(topics 8) */ "topics".* FROM "topics"
+    def optimizer_hints(*args)
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:optimizer_hints, args)
+      spawn.optimizer_hints!(*args)
+    end
+
+    def optimizer_hints!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      args.flatten!
+
+      self.optimizer_hints_values |= args
+      self
+    end
+
     # Reverse the existing order clause on the relation.
     #
     #   User.order('name ASC').reverse_order # generated SQL has 'ORDER BY name DESC'
@@ -850,327 +970,390 @@ module ActiveRecord
       self
     end
 
-    # Returns the Arel object associated with the relation.
-    def arel # :nodoc:
-      @arel ||= build_arel
+    def skip_query_cache!(value = true) # :nodoc:
+      self.skip_query_cache_value = value
+      self
     end
 
-    private
+    def skip_preloading! # :nodoc:
+      self.skip_preloading_value = true
+      self
+    end
 
-    def build_arel
-      arel = Arel::SelectManager.new(table.engine, table)
+    # Adds an SQL comment to queries generated from this relation. For example:
+    #
+    #   User.annotate("selecting user names").select(:name)
+    #   # SELECT "users"."name" FROM "users" /* selecting user names */
+    #
+    #   User.annotate("selecting", "user", "names").select(:name)
+    #   # SELECT "users"."name" FROM "users" /* selecting */ /* user */ /* names */
+    #
+    # The SQL block comment delimiters, "/*" and "*/", will be added automatically.
+    def annotate(*args)
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:annotate, args)
+      spawn.annotate!(*args)
+    end
 
-      build_joins(arel, joins_values.flatten) unless joins_values.empty?
+    # Like #annotate, but modifies relation in place.
+    def annotate!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      self.annotate_values += args
+      self
+    end
 
-      collapse_wheres(arel, (where_values - [''])) #TODO: Add uniq with real value comparison / ignore uniqs that have binds
+    # Returns the Arel object associated with the relation.
+    def arel(aliases = nil) # :nodoc:
+      @arel ||= build_arel(aliases)
+    end
 
-      arel.having(*having_values.uniq.reject(&:blank?)) unless having_values.empty?
+    def construct_join_dependency(associations, join_type) # :nodoc:
+      ActiveRecord::Associations::JoinDependency.new(
+        klass, table, associations, join_type
+      )
+    end
 
-      arel.take(connection.sanitize_limit(limit_value)) if limit_value
-      arel.skip(offset_value.to_i) if offset_value
+    protected
+      def build_subquery(subquery_alias, select_value) # :nodoc:
+        subquery = except(:optimizer_hints).arel.as(subquery_alias)
 
-      arel.group(*group_values.uniq.reject(&:blank?)) unless group_values.empty?
+        Arel::SelectManager.new(subquery).project(select_value).tap do |arel|
+          arel.optimizer_hints(*optimizer_hints_values) unless optimizer_hints_values.empty?
+        end
+      end
 
-      build_order(arel)
+    private
+      def assert_mutability!
+        raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded
+        raise ImmutableRelation if defined?(@arel) && @arel
+      end
 
-      build_select(arel, select_values.uniq)
+      def build_arel(aliases)
+        arel = Arel::SelectManager.new(table)
 
-      arel.distinct(distinct_value)
-      arel.from(build_from) if from_value
-      arel.lock(lock_value) if lock_value
+        if !joins_values.empty?
+          build_joins(arel, joins_values.flatten, aliases)
+        elsif !left_outer_joins_values.empty?
+          build_left_outer_joins(arel, left_outer_joins_values.flatten, aliases)
+        end
 
-      arel
-    end
+        arel.where(where_clause.ast) unless where_clause.empty?
+        arel.having(having_clause.ast) unless having_clause.empty?
+        if limit_value
+          limit_attribute = ActiveModel::Attribute.with_cast_value(
+            "LIMIT",
+            connection.sanitize_limit(limit_value),
+            Type.default_value,
+          )
+          arel.take(Arel::Nodes::BindParam.new(limit_attribute))
+        end
+        if offset_value
+          offset_attribute = ActiveModel::Attribute.with_cast_value(
+            "OFFSET",
+            offset_value.to_i,
+            Type.default_value,
+          )
+          arel.skip(Arel::Nodes::BindParam.new(offset_attribute))
+        end
+        arel.group(*arel_columns(group_values.uniq.reject(&:blank?))) unless group_values.empty?
 
-    def symbol_unscoping(scope)
-      if !VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES.include?(scope)
-        raise ArgumentError, "Called unscope() with invalid unscoping argument ':#{scope}'. Valid arguments are :#{VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES.to_a.join(", :")}."
-      end
+        build_order(arel)
 
-      single_val_method = Relation::SINGLE_VALUE_METHODS.include?(scope)
-      unscope_code = "#{scope}_value#{'s' unless single_val_method}="
+        build_select(arel)
 
-      case scope
-      when :order
-        result = []
-      when :where
-        self.bind_values = []
-      else
-        result = [] unless single_val_method
-      end
+        arel.optimizer_hints(*optimizer_hints_values) unless optimizer_hints_values.empty?
+        arel.distinct(distinct_value)
+        arel.from(build_from) unless from_clause.empty?
+        arel.lock(lock_value) if lock_value
+        arel.comment(*annotate_values) unless annotate_values.empty?
 
-      self.send(unscope_code, result)
-    end
+        arel
+      end
 
-    def where_unscoping(target_value)
-      target_value = target_value.to_s
+      def build_from
+        opts = from_clause.value
+        name = from_clause.name
+        case opts
+        when Relation
+          if opts.eager_loading?
+            opts = opts.send(:apply_join_dependency)
+          end
+          name ||= "subquery"
+          opts.arel.as(name.to_s)
+        else
+          opts
+        end
+      end
 
-      where_values.reject! do |rel|
-        case rel
-        when Arel::Nodes::Between, Arel::Nodes::In, Arel::Nodes::NotIn, Arel::Nodes::Equality, Arel::Nodes::NotEqual, Arel::Nodes::LessThanOrEqual, Arel::Nodes::GreaterThanOrEqual
-          subrelation = (rel.left.kind_of?(Arel::Attributes::Attribute) ? rel.left : rel.right)
-          subrelation.name == target_value
+      def valid_association_list(associations)
+        associations.each do |association|
+          case association
+          when Hash, Symbol, Array
+            # valid
+          else
+            raise ArgumentError, "only Hash, Symbol and Array are allowed"
+          end
         end
       end
 
-      bind_values.reject! { |col,_| col.name == target_value }
-    end
+      def build_left_outer_joins(manager, outer_joins, aliases)
+        buckets = Hash.new { |h, k| h[k] = [] }
+        buckets[:association_join] = valid_association_list(outer_joins)
+        build_join_query(manager, buckets, Arel::Nodes::OuterJoin, aliases)
+      end
 
-    def custom_join_ast(table, joins)
-      joins = joins.reject(&:blank?)
+      def build_joins(manager, joins, aliases)
+        buckets = Hash.new { |h, k| h[k] = [] }
 
-      return [] if joins.empty?
+        unless left_outer_joins_values.empty?
+          left_joins = valid_association_list(left_outer_joins_values.flatten)
+          buckets[:stashed_join] << construct_join_dependency(left_joins, Arel::Nodes::OuterJoin)
+        end
 
-      joins.map! do |join|
-        case join
-        when Array
-          join = Arel.sql(join.join(' ')) if array_of_strings?(join)
-        when String
-          join = Arel.sql(join)
+        joins.map! do |join|
+          if join.is_a?(String)
+            table.create_string_join(Arel.sql(join.strip)) unless join.blank?
+          else
+            join
+          end
+        end.delete_if(&:blank?).uniq!
+
+        while joins.first.is_a?(Arel::Nodes::Join)
+          join_node = joins.shift
+          if join_node.is_a?(Arel::Nodes::StringJoin) && !buckets[:stashed_join].empty?
+            buckets[:join_node] << join_node
+          else
+            buckets[:leading_join] << join_node
+          end
         end
-        table.create_string_join(join)
-      end
-    end
 
-    def collapse_wheres(arel, wheres)
-      predicates = wheres.map do |where|
-        next where if ::Arel::Nodes::Equality === where
-        where = Arel.sql(where) if String === where
-        Arel::Nodes::Grouping.new(where)
-      end
+        joins.each do |join|
+          case join
+          when Hash, Symbol, Array
+            buckets[:association_join] << join
+          when ActiveRecord::Associations::JoinDependency
+            buckets[:stashed_join] << join
+          when Arel::Nodes::Join
+            buckets[:join_node] << join
+          else
+            raise "unknown class: %s" % join.class.name
+          end
+        end
 
-      arel.where(Arel::Nodes::And.new(predicates)) if predicates.present?
-    end
+        build_join_query(manager, buckets, Arel::Nodes::InnerJoin, aliases)
+      end
 
-    def build_where(opts, other = [])
-      case opts
-      when String, Array
-        [@klass.send(:sanitize_sql, other.empty? ? opts : ([opts] + other))]
-      when Hash
-        opts = PredicateBuilder.resolve_column_aliases(klass, opts)
+      def build_join_query(manager, buckets, join_type, aliases)
+        association_joins = buckets[:association_join]
+        stashed_joins     = buckets[:stashed_join]
+        leading_joins     = buckets[:leading_join]
+        join_nodes        = buckets[:join_node]
 
-        tmp_opts, bind_values = create_binds(opts)
-        self.bind_values += bind_values
+        join_sources = manager.join_sources
+        join_sources.concat(leading_joins) unless leading_joins.empty?
 
-        attributes = @klass.send(:expand_hash_conditions_for_aggregates, tmp_opts)
-        add_relations_to_bind_values(attributes)
+        unless association_joins.empty? && stashed_joins.empty?
+          alias_tracker = alias_tracker(leading_joins + join_nodes, aliases)
+          join_dependency = construct_join_dependency(association_joins, join_type)
+          join_sources.concat(join_dependency.join_constraints(stashed_joins, alias_tracker))
+        end
 
-        PredicateBuilder.build_from_hash(klass, attributes, table)
-      else
-        [opts]
+        join_sources.concat(join_nodes) unless join_nodes.empty?
       end
-    end
 
-    def create_binds(opts)
-      bindable, non_binds = opts.partition do |column, value|
-        case value
-        when String, Integer, ActiveRecord::StatementCache::Substitute
-          @klass.columns_hash.include? column.to_s
+      def build_select(arel)
+        if select_values.any?
+          arel.project(*arel_columns(select_values.uniq))
+        elsif klass.ignored_columns.any?
+          arel.project(*klass.column_names.map { |field| arel_attribute(field) })
         else
-          false
+          arel.project(table[Arel.star])
         end
       end
 
-      association_binds, non_binds = non_binds.partition do |column, value|
-        value.is_a?(Hash) && association_for_table(column)
+      def arel_columns(columns)
+        columns.flat_map do |field|
+          case field
+          when Symbol
+            arel_column(field.to_s) do |attr_name|
+              connection.quote_table_name(attr_name)
+            end
+          when String
+            arel_column(field, &:itself)
+          when Proc
+            field.call
+          else
+            field
+          end
+        end
       end
 
-      new_opts = {}
-      binds = []
+      def arel_column(field)
+        field = klass.attribute_aliases[field] || field
+        from = from_clause.name || from_clause.value
 
-      bindable.each do |(column,value)|
-        binds.push [@klass.columns_hash[column.to_s], value]
-        new_opts[column] = connection.substitute_at(column)
+        if klass.columns_hash.key?(field) && (!from || table_name_matches?(from))
+          arel_attribute(field)
+        else
+          yield field
+        end
       end
 
-      association_binds.each do |(column, value)|
-        association_relation = association_for_table(column).klass.send(:relation)
-        association_new_opts, association_bind = association_relation.send(:create_binds, value)
-        new_opts[column] = association_new_opts
-        binds += association_bind
+      def table_name_matches?(from)
+        /(?:\A|(?<!FROM)\s)(?:\b#{table.name}\b|#{connection.quote_table_name(table.name)})(?!\.)/i.match?(from.to_s)
       end
 
-      non_binds.each { |column,value| new_opts[column] = value }
-
-      [new_opts, binds]
-    end
-
-    def association_for_table(table_name)
-      table_name = table_name.to_s
-      @klass._reflect_on_association(table_name) ||
-        @klass._reflect_on_association(table_name.singularize)
-    end
-
-    def build_from
-      opts, name = from_value
-      case opts
-      when Relation
-        name ||= 'subquery'
-        self.bind_values = opts.bind_values + self.bind_values
-        opts.arel.as(name.to_s)
-      else
-        opts
-      end
-    end
+      def reverse_sql_order(order_query)
+        if order_query.empty?
+          return [arel_attribute(primary_key).desc] if primary_key
+          raise IrreversibleOrderError,
+            "Relation has no current order and table has no primary key to be used as default order"
+        end
 
-    def build_joins(manager, joins)
-      buckets = joins.group_by do |join|
-        case join
-        when String
-          :string_join
-        when Hash, Symbol, Array
-          :association_join
-        when ActiveRecord::Associations::JoinDependency
-          :stashed_join
-        when Arel::Nodes::Join
-          :join_node
-        else
-          raise 'unknown class: %s' % join.class.name
+        order_query.flat_map do |o|
+          case o
+          when Arel::Attribute
+            o.desc
+          when Arel::Nodes::Ordering
+            o.reverse
+          when String
+            if does_not_support_reverse?(o)
+              raise IrreversibleOrderError, "Order #{o.inspect} cannot be reversed automatically"
+            end
+            o.split(",").map! do |s|
+              s.strip!
+              s.gsub!(/\sasc\Z/i, " DESC") || s.gsub!(/\sdesc\Z/i, " ASC") || (s << " DESC")
+            end
+          else
+            o
+          end
         end
       end
 
-      association_joins         = buckets[:association_join] || []
-      stashed_association_joins = buckets[:stashed_join] || []
-      join_nodes                = (buckets[:join_node] || []).uniq
-      string_joins              = (buckets[:string_join] || []).map(&:strip).uniq
-
-      join_list = join_nodes + custom_join_ast(manager, string_joins)
+      def does_not_support_reverse?(order)
+        # Account for String subclasses like Arel::Nodes::SqlLiteral that
+        # override methods like #count.
+        order = String.new(order) unless order.instance_of?(String)
 
-      join_dependency = ActiveRecord::Associations::JoinDependency.new(
-        @klass,
-        association_joins,
-        join_list
-      )
+        # Uses SQL function with multiple arguments.
+        (order.include?(",") && order.split(",").find { |section| section.count("(") != section.count(")") }) ||
+          # Uses "nulls first" like construction.
+          /\bnulls\s+(?:first|last)\b/i.match?(order)
+      end
 
-      join_infos = join_dependency.join_constraints stashed_association_joins
+      def build_order(arel)
+        orders = order_values.uniq
+        orders.reject!(&:blank?)
 
-      join_infos.each do |info|
-        info.joins.each { |join| manager.from(join) }
-        manager.bind_values.concat info.binds
+        arel.order(*orders) unless orders.empty?
       end
 
-      manager.join_sources.concat(join_list)
-
-      manager
-    end
+      VALID_DIRECTIONS = [:asc, :desc, :ASC, :DESC,
+                          "asc", "desc", "ASC", "DESC"].to_set # :nodoc:
 
-    def build_select(arel, selects)
-      if !selects.empty?
-        expanded_select = selects.map do |field|
-          if (Symbol === field || String === field) && columns_hash.key?(field.to_s)
-            arel_table[field]
-          else
-            field
+      def validate_order_args(args)
+        args.each do |arg|
+          next unless arg.is_a?(Hash)
+          arg.each do |_key, value|
+            unless VALID_DIRECTIONS.include?(value)
+              raise ArgumentError,
+                "Direction \"#{value}\" is invalid. Valid directions are: #{VALID_DIRECTIONS.to_a.inspect}"
+            end
           end
         end
+      end
 
-        arel.project(*expanded_select)
-      else
-        arel.project(@klass.arel_table[Arel.star])
+      def preprocess_order_args(order_args)
+        order_args.reject!(&:blank?)
+        order_args.map! do |arg|
+          klass.sanitize_sql_for_order(arg)
+        end
+        order_args.flatten!
+
+        @klass.disallow_raw_sql!(
+          order_args.flat_map { |a| a.is_a?(Hash) ? a.keys : a },
+          permit: connection.column_name_with_order_matcher
+        )
+
+        validate_order_args(order_args)
+
+        references = order_args.grep(String)
+        references.map! { |arg| arg =~ /^\W?(\w+)\W?\./ && $1 }.compact!
+        references!(references) if references.any?
+
+        # if a symbol is given we prepend the quoted table name
+        order_args.map! do |arg|
+          case arg
+          when Symbol
+            order_column(arg.to_s).asc
+          when Hash
+            arg.map { |field, dir|
+              case field
+              when Arel::Nodes::SqlLiteral
+                field.send(dir.downcase)
+              else
+                order_column(field.to_s).send(dir.downcase)
+              end
+            }
+          else
+            arg
+          end
+        end.flatten!
       end
-    end
 
-    def reverse_sql_order(order_query)
-      order_query = ["#{quoted_table_name}.#{quoted_primary_key} ASC"] if order_query.empty?
-
-      order_query.flat_map do |o|
-        case o
-        when Arel::Nodes::Ordering
-          o.reverse
-        when String
-          o.to_s.split(',').map! do |s|
-            s.strip!
-            s.gsub!(/\sasc\Z/i, ' DESC') || s.gsub!(/\sdesc\Z/i, ' ASC') || s.concat(' DESC')
+      def order_column(field)
+        arel_column(field) do |attr_name|
+          if attr_name == "count" && !group_values.empty?
+            arel_attribute(attr_name)
+          else
+            Arel.sql(connection.quote_table_name(attr_name))
           end
-        else
-          o
         end
       end
-    end
-
-    def array_of_strings?(o)
-      o.is_a?(Array) && o.all? { |obj| obj.is_a?(String) }
-    end
 
-    def build_order(arel)
-      orders = order_values.uniq
-      orders.reject!(&:blank?)
-
-      arel.order(*orders) unless orders.empty?
-    end
-
-    VALID_DIRECTIONS = [:asc, :desc, :ASC, :DESC,
-                        'asc', 'desc', 'ASC', 'DESC'] # :nodoc:
-
-    def validate_order_args(args)
-      args.each do |arg|
-        next unless arg.is_a?(Hash)
-        arg.each do |_key, value|
-          raise ArgumentError, "Direction \"#{value}\" is invalid. Valid " \
-                               "directions are: #{VALID_DIRECTIONS.inspect}" unless VALID_DIRECTIONS.include?(value)
+      # Checks to make sure that the arguments are not blank. Note that if some
+      # blank-like object were initially passed into the query method, then this
+      # method will not raise an error.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #    Post.references()   # raises an error
+      #    Post.references([]) # does not raise an error
+      #
+      # This particular method should be called with a method_name and the args
+      # passed into that method as an input. For example:
+      #
+      # def references(*args)
+      #   check_if_method_has_arguments!("references", args)
+      #   ...
+      # end
+      def check_if_method_has_arguments!(method_name, args)
+        if args.blank?
+          raise ArgumentError, "The method .#{method_name}() must contain arguments."
         end
       end
-    end
-
-    def preprocess_order_args(order_args)
-      order_args.flatten!
-      validate_order_args(order_args)
 
-      references = order_args.grep(String)
-      references.map! { |arg| arg =~ /^([a-zA-Z]\w*)\.(\w+)/ && $1 }.compact!
-      references!(references) if references.any?
-
-      # if a symbol is given we prepend the quoted table name
-      order_args.map! do |arg|
-        case arg
-        when Symbol
-          arg = klass.attribute_alias(arg) if klass.attribute_alias?(arg)
-          table[arg].asc
-        when Hash
-          arg.map { |field, dir|
-            field = klass.attribute_alias(field) if klass.attribute_alias?(field)
-            table[field].send(dir.downcase)
-          }
-        else
-          arg
+      STRUCTURAL_OR_METHODS = Relation::VALUE_METHODS - [:extending, :where, :having, :unscope, :references]
+      def structurally_incompatible_values_for_or(other)
+        values = other.values
+        STRUCTURAL_OR_METHODS.reject do |method|
+          default = DEFAULT_VALUES[method]
+          @values.fetch(method, default) == values.fetch(method, default)
         end
-      end.flatten!
-    end
+      end
 
-    # Checks to make sure that the arguments are not blank. Note that if some
-    # blank-like object were initially passed into the query method, then this
-    # method will not raise an error.
-    #
-    # Example:
-    #
-    #    Post.references()   # => raises an error
-    #    Post.references([]) # => does not raise an error
-    #
-    # This particular method should be called with a method_name and the args
-    # passed into that method as an input. For example:
-    #
-    # def references(*args)
-    #   check_if_method_has_arguments!("references", args)
-    #   ...
-    # end
-    def check_if_method_has_arguments!(method_name, args)
-      if args.blank?
-        raise ArgumentError, "The method .#{method_name}() must contain arguments."
+      def where_clause_factory
+        @where_clause_factory ||= Relation::WhereClauseFactory.new(klass, predicate_builder)
       end
-    end
+      alias having_clause_factory where_clause_factory
 
-    # This function is recursive just for better readablity.
-    # #where argument doesn't support more than one level nested hash in real world.
-    def add_relations_to_bind_values(attributes)
-      if attributes.is_a?(Hash)
-        attributes.each_value do |value|
-          if value.is_a?(ActiveRecord::Relation)
-            self.bind_values += value.bind_values
-          else
-            add_relations_to_bind_values(value)
-          end
-        end
+      DEFAULT_VALUES = {
+        create_with: FROZEN_EMPTY_HASH,
+        where: Relation::WhereClause.empty,
+        having: Relation::WhereClause.empty,
+        from: Relation::FromClause.empty
+      }
+
+      Relation::MULTI_VALUE_METHODS.each do |value|
+        DEFAULT_VALUES[value] ||= FROZEN_EMPTY_ARRAY
       end
-    end
   end
 end