voxcity 0.7.0__py3-none-any.whl → 1.0.13__py3-none-any.whl

voxcity/geoprocessor/utils.py

@@ -1,825 +1,825 @@
-"""
-Utility functions for geographic operations and coordinate transformations.
-
-This module provides various utility functions for working with geographic data,
-including coordinate transformations, distance calculations, geocoding, and building
-polygon processing. It supports operations such as:
-
-- Tile coordinate calculations and quadkey conversions
-- Geographic distance calculations (Haversine and geodetic)
-- Coordinate system transformations
-- Polygon and GeoDataFrame operations
-- Raster file processing and merging
-- Geocoding and reverse geocoding
-- Timezone and location information retrieval
-- Building polygon validation and processing
-
-The module uses several external libraries for geographic operations:
-- pyproj: For coordinate transformations and geodetic calculations
-- geopandas: For handling geographic data frames
-- rasterio: For raster file operations
-- shapely: For geometric operations
-- geopy: For geocoding services
-- timezonefinder: For timezone lookups
-"""
-
-# Standard library imports
-import os
-import math
-from math import radians, sin, cos, sqrt, atan2
-from datetime import datetime
-
-# Third-party geographic processing libraries
-import numpy as np
-from pyproj import Geod, Transformer
-import geopandas as gpd
-import rasterio
-from rasterio.merge import merge
-from rasterio.warp import transform_bounds
-from rasterio.mask import mask
-from shapely.geometry import Polygon, box
-from fiona.crs import from_epsg
-from rtree import index
-
-# Geocoding and location services
-from geopy.geocoders import Nominatim
-from geopy.exc import GeocoderTimedOut, GeocoderServiceError, GeocoderInsufficientPrivileges
-from geopy.extra.rate_limiter import RateLimiter
-import reverse_geocoder as rg
-import pycountry
-
-# Timezone handling
-from timezonefinder import TimezoneFinder
-import pytz
-
-# Suppress rasterio warnings for non-georeferenced files
-import warnings
-warnings.filterwarnings("ignore", category=rasterio.errors.NotGeoreferencedWarning)
-
-# Global constants
-floor_height = 2.5  # Standard floor height in meters used for building height calculations
-
-# Package logging
-from ..utils.logging import get_logger
-logger = get_logger(__name__)
-
-# Build a compliant Nominatim user agent once and reuse it
-try:
-    # Prefer package metadata if available
-    from voxcity import __version__ as _vox_version, __email__ as _vox_email
-except Exception:
-    _vox_version, _vox_email = "dev", "contact@voxcity.local"
-
-_ENV_UA = os.environ.get("VOXCITY_NOMINATIM_UA", "").strip()
-_DEFAULT_UA = f"voxcity/{_vox_version} (+https://github.com/kunifujiwara/voxcity; contact: {_vox_email})"
-_NOMINATIM_USER_AGENT = _ENV_UA or _DEFAULT_UA
-
-def _create_nominatim_geolocator() -> Nominatim:
-    """
-    Create a Nominatim geolocator with a compliant identifying user agent.
-    The user agent can be overridden via the environment variable
-    VOXCITY_NOMINATIM_UA.
-    """
-    return Nominatim(user_agent=_NOMINATIM_USER_AGENT)
-
-def tile_from_lat_lon(lat, lon, level_of_detail):
-    """
-    Convert latitude/longitude coordinates to tile coordinates at a given zoom level.
-    Uses the Web Mercator projection (EPSG:3857) commonly used in web mapping.
-    
-    Args:
-        lat (float): Latitude in degrees (-90 to 90)
-        lon (float): Longitude in degrees (-180 to 180)
-        level_of_detail (int): Zoom level (0-23, where 0 is the entire world)
-        
-    Returns:
-        tuple: (tile_x, tile_y) tile coordinates in the global tile grid
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> tile_x, tile_y = tile_from_lat_lon(35.6762, 139.6503, 12)  # Tokyo at zoom 12
-    """
-    # Convert latitude to radians and calculate sine
-    sin_lat = math.sin(lat * math.pi / 180)
-    
-    # Convert longitude to normalized x coordinate (0-1)
-    x = (lon + 180) / 360
-    
-    # Convert latitude to y coordinate using Mercator projection formula
-    y = 0.5 - math.log((1 + sin_lat) / (1 - sin_lat)) / (4 * math.pi)
-    
-    # Calculate map size in pixels at this zoom level (256 * 2^zoom)
-    map_size = 256 << level_of_detail
-    
-    # Convert x,y to tile coordinates
-    tile_x = int(x * map_size / 256)
-    tile_y = int(y * map_size / 256)
-    return tile_x, tile_y
-
-def quadkey_to_tile(quadkey):
-    """
-    Convert a quadkey string to tile coordinates.
-    A quadkey is a string of digits (0-3) that identifies a tile at a certain zoom level.
-    Each digit in the quadkey represents a tile at a zoom level, with each subsequent digit
-    representing a more detailed zoom level.
-    
-    The quadkey numbering scheme:
-        - 0: Top-left quadrant
-        - 1: Top-right quadrant
-        - 2: Bottom-left quadrant
-        - 3: Bottom-right quadrant
-    
-    Args:
-        quadkey (str): Quadkey string (e.g., "120" for zoom level 3)
-        
-    Returns:
-        tuple: (tile_x, tile_y, level_of_detail) tile coordinates and zoom level
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> x, y, zoom = quadkey_to_tile("120")  # Returns coordinates at zoom level 3
-    """
-    tile_x = tile_y = 0
-    level_of_detail = len(quadkey)
-    
-    # Process each character in quadkey
-    for i in range(level_of_detail):
-        bit = level_of_detail - i - 1
-        mask = 1 << bit
-        
-        # Quadkey digit to binary: 
-        # 0 = neither x nor y bit set
-        # 1 = x bit set
-        # 2 = y bit set 
-        # 3 = both x and y bits set
-        if quadkey[i] == '1':
-            tile_x |= mask
-        elif quadkey[i] == '2':
-            tile_y |= mask
-        elif quadkey[i] == '3':
-            tile_x |= mask
-            tile_y |= mask
-    return tile_x, tile_y, level_of_detail
-
-def initialize_geod():
-    """
-    Initialize a Geod object for geodetic calculations using WGS84 ellipsoid.
-    The WGS84 ellipsoid (EPSG:4326) is the standard reference system used by GPS
-    and most modern mapping applications.
-    
-    The Geod object provides methods for:
-    - Forward geodetic calculations (direct)
-    - Inverse geodetic calculations (inverse)
-    - Area calculations
-    - Line length calculations
-    
-    Returns:
-        Geod: Initialized Geod object for WGS84 calculations
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> geod = initialize_geod()
-        >>> fwd_az, back_az, dist = geod.inv(lon1, lat1, lon2, lat2)
-    """
-    return Geod(ellps='WGS84')
-
-def calculate_distance(geod, lon1, lat1, lon2, lat2):
-    """
-    Calculate geodetic distance between two points on the Earth's surface.
-    Uses inverse geodetic computation to find the shortest distance along the ellipsoid,
-    which is more accurate than great circle (spherical) calculations.
-    
-    Args:
-        geod (Geod): Geod object for calculations, initialized with WGS84
-        lon1, lat1 (float): Coordinates of first point in decimal degrees
-        lon2, lat2 (float): Coordinates of second point in decimal degrees
-        
-    Returns:
-        float: Distance in meters between the two points along the ellipsoid
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> geod = initialize_geod()
-        >>> distance = calculate_distance(geod, 139.6503, 35.6762, 
-        ...                             -74.0060, 40.7128)  # Tokyo to NYC
-    """
-    # inv() returns forward azimuth, back azimuth, and distance
-    _, _, dist = geod.inv(lon1, lat1, lon2, lat2)
-    return dist
-
-def normalize_to_one_meter(vector, distance_in_meters):
-    """
-    Normalize a vector to represent one meter in geographic space.
-    Useful for creating unit vectors in geographic calculations, particularly
-    when working with distance-based operations or scaling geographic features.
-    
-    Args:
-        vector (numpy.ndarray): Vector to normalize, typically a direction vector
-        distance_in_meters (float): Current distance in meters that the vector represents
-        
-    Returns:
-        numpy.ndarray: Normalized vector where magnitude represents 1 meter
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> direction = np.array([3.0, 4.0])  # Vector of length 5
-        >>> unit_meter = normalize_to_one_meter(direction, 5.0)
-    """
-    return vector * (1 / distance_in_meters)
-
-def setup_transformer(from_crs, to_crs):
-    """
-    Set up a coordinate transformer between two Coordinate Reference Systems (CRS).
-    The always_xy=True parameter ensures consistent handling of coordinate order
-    by always using (x,y) or (longitude,latitude) order regardless of CRS definition.
-    
-    Common CRS codes:
-    - EPSG:4326 - WGS84 (latitude/longitude)
-    - EPSG:3857 - Web Mercator
-    - EPSG:2263 - NY State Plane
-    
-    Args:
-        from_crs: Source coordinate reference system (EPSG code, proj4 string, or CRS dict)
-        to_crs: Target coordinate reference system (EPSG code, proj4 string, or CRS dict)
-        
-    Returns:
-        Transformer: Initialized transformer object for coordinate conversion
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> transformer = setup_transformer("EPSG:4326", "EPSG:3857")
-        >>> x, y = transformer.transform(longitude, latitude)
-    """
-    return Transformer.from_crs(from_crs, to_crs, always_xy=True)
-
-def transform_coords(transformer, lon, lat):
-    """
-    Transform coordinates using provided transformer with error handling.
-    Includes validation for infinite values that may result from invalid transformations
-    or coordinates outside the valid range for the target CRS.
-    
-    Args:
-        transformer (Transformer): Coordinate transformer from setup_transformer()
-        lon, lat (float): Input coordinates in the source CRS
-        
-    Returns:
-        tuple: (x, y) transformed coordinates in the target CRS, or (None, None) if transformation fails
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> transformer = setup_transformer("EPSG:4326", "EPSG:3857")
-        >>> x, y = transform_coords(transformer, -74.0060, 40.7128)  # NYC coordinates
-        >>> if x is not None:
-        ...     print(f"Transformed coordinates: ({x}, {y})")
-    """
-    try:
-        x, y = transformer.transform(lon, lat)
-        if np.isinf(x) or np.isinf(y):
-            logger.warning("Transformation resulted in inf values for coordinates: %s, %s", lon, lat)
-        return x, y
-    except Exception as e:
-        logger.error("Error transforming coordinates %s, %s: %s", lon, lat, e)
-        return None, None
-
-def create_polygon(vertices):
-    """
-    Create a Shapely polygon from a list of vertices.
-    Input vertices must be in (longitude, latitude) format as required by Shapely.
-    The polygon will be automatically closed if the first and last vertices don't match.
-    
-    Args:
-        vertices (list): List of (longitude, latitude) coordinate pairs forming the polygon.
-                        The coordinates should be in counter-clockwise order for exterior rings
-                        and clockwise order for interior rings (holes).
-        
-    Returns:
-        Polygon: Shapely polygon object that can be used for spatial operations
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> vertices = [(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1)]  # Square
-        >>> polygon = create_polygon(vertices)
-        >>> print(f"Polygon area: {polygon.area}")
-    """
-    return Polygon(vertices)
-
-def create_geodataframe(polygon, crs=4326):
-    """
-    Create a GeoDataFrame from a Shapely polygon.
-    Default CRS is WGS84 (EPSG:4326) for geographic coordinates.
-    The GeoDataFrame provides additional functionality for spatial operations,
-    data analysis, and export to various geographic formats.
-    
-    Args:
-        polygon (Polygon): Shapely polygon object to convert
-        crs (int): Coordinate reference system EPSG code (default: 4326 for WGS84)
-        
-    Returns:
-        GeoDataFrame: GeoDataFrame containing the polygon with specified CRS
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> vertices = [(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1)]
-        >>> polygon = create_polygon(vertices)
-        >>> gdf = create_geodataframe(polygon)
-        >>> gdf.to_file("polygon.geojson", driver="GeoJSON")
-    """
-    return gpd.GeoDataFrame({'geometry': [polygon]}, crs=from_epsg(crs))
-
-def haversine_distance(lon1, lat1, lon2, lat2):
-    """
-    Calculate great-circle distance between two points using Haversine formula.
-    This is an approximation that treats the Earth as a perfect sphere.
-    
-    Args:
-        lon1, lat1 (float): Coordinates of first point
-        lon2, lat2 (float): Coordinates of second point
-        
-    Returns:
-        float: Distance in kilometers
-    """
-    R = 6371  # Earth's radius in kilometers
-    
-    # Convert all coordinates to radians
-    lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2 = map(radians, [lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2])
-    
-    # Calculate differences
-    dlat = lat2 - lat1
-    dlon = lon2 - lon1
-    
-    # Haversine formula
-    a = sin(dlat/2)**2 + cos(lat1) * cos(lat2) * sin(dlon/2)**2
-    c = 2 * atan2(sqrt(a), sqrt(1-a))
-    return R * c
-
-def get_raster_bbox(raster_path):
-    """
-    Get the bounding box of a raster file in its native coordinate system.
-    Returns a rectangular polygon representing the spatial extent of the raster,
-    which can be used for spatial queries and intersection tests.
-    
-    Args:
-        raster_path (str): Path to the raster file (GeoTIFF, IMG, etc.)
-        
-    Returns:
-        box: Shapely box representing the raster bounds in the raster's CRS
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> bbox = get_raster_bbox("elevation.tif")
-        >>> print(f"Raster extent: {bbox.bounds}")  # (minx, miny, maxx, maxy)
-    """
-    with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
-        bounds = src.bounds
-    return box(bounds.left, bounds.bottom, bounds.right, bounds.top)
-
-def raster_intersects_polygon(raster_path, polygon):
-    """
-    Check if a raster file's extent intersects with a given polygon.
-    Automatically handles coordinate system transformations by converting
-    the raster bounds to WGS84 (EPSG:4326) if needed before the intersection test.
-    
-    Args:
-        raster_path (str): Path to the raster file to check
-        polygon (Polygon): Shapely polygon to test intersection with (in WGS84)
-        
-    Returns:
-        bool: True if raster intersects or contains the polygon, False otherwise
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> aoi = create_polygon([(lon1, lat1), (lon2, lat2), ...])  # Area of interest
-        >>> if raster_intersects_polygon("dem.tif", aoi):
-        ...     print("Raster covers the area of interest")
-    """
-    with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
-        bounds = src.bounds
-        # Transform bounds to WGS84 if raster is in different CRS
-        if src.crs.to_epsg() != 4326:
-            bounds = transform_bounds(src.crs, 'EPSG:4326', *bounds)
-        raster_bbox = box(*bounds)
-        intersects = raster_bbox.intersects(polygon) or polygon.intersects(raster_bbox)
-        return intersects
-
-def save_raster(input_path, output_path):
-    """
-    Create a copy of a raster file at a new location.
-    Performs a direct file copy without any transformation or modification,
-    preserving all metadata, georeferencing, and pixel values.
-    
-    Args:
-        input_path (str): Source raster file path
-        output_path (str): Destination path for the copied raster
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> save_raster("original.tif", "backup/copy.tif")
-        >>> print("Copied original file to: backup/copy.tif")
-    """
-    import shutil
-    shutil.copy(input_path, output_path)
-    logger.info("Copied original file to: %s", output_path)
-
-def merge_geotiffs(geotiff_files, output_dir):
-    """
-    Merge multiple GeoTIFF files into a single mosaic.
-    Handles edge matching and overlapping areas between adjacent rasters.
-    The output will have the same coordinate system and data type as the input files.
-    
-    Important considerations:
-    - All input files should have the same coordinate system
-    - All input files should have the same data type
-    - Overlapping areas are handled by taking the first value encountered
-    
-    Args:
-        geotiff_files (list): List of paths to GeoTIFF files to merge
-        output_dir (str): Directory where the merged output will be saved
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> files = ["tile1.tif", "tile2.tif", "tile3.tif"]
-        >>> merge_geotiffs(files, "output_directory")
-        >>> print("Merged output saved to: output_directory/lulc.tif")
-    """
-    if not geotiff_files:
-        return
-
-    # Open all valid GeoTIFF files
-    src_files_to_mosaic = [rasterio.open(file) for file in geotiff_files if os.path.exists(file)]
-
-    if src_files_to_mosaic:
-        try:
-            # Merge rasters into a single mosaic and get output transform
-            mosaic, out_trans = merge(src_files_to_mosaic)
-
-            # Copy metadata from first raster and update for merged output
-            out_meta = src_files_to_mosaic[0].meta.copy()
-            out_meta.update({
-                "driver": "GTiff",
-                "height": mosaic.shape[1],
-                "width": mosaic.shape[2],
-                "transform": out_trans
-            })
-
-            # Save merged raster to output file
-            merged_path = os.path.join(output_dir, "lulc.tif")
-            with rasterio.open(merged_path, "w", **out_meta) as dest:
-                dest.write(mosaic)
-
-            logger.info("Merged output saved to: %s", merged_path)
-        except Exception as e:
-            logger.error("Error merging files: %s", e)
-    else:
-        logger.info("No valid files to merge.")
-
-    # Clean up by closing all opened files
-    for src in src_files_to_mosaic:
-        src.close()
-
-def convert_format_lat_lon(input_coords):
-    """
-    Convert coordinate format and close polygon.
-    Input coordinates are already in [lon, lat] format.
-    
-    Args:
-        input_coords (list): List of [lon, lat] coordinates
-        
-    Returns:
-        list: List of [lon, lat] coordinates with first point repeated at end
-    """
-    # Create list with coordinates in same order
-    output_coords = input_coords.copy()
-    # Close polygon by repeating first point at end
-    output_coords.append(output_coords[0])
-    return output_coords
-
-def get_coordinates_from_cityname(place_name):
-    """
-    Geocode a city name to get its coordinates using OpenStreetMap's Nominatim service.
-    Includes rate limiting and error handling to comply with Nominatim's usage policy.
-    
-    Note:
-    - Results may vary based on the specificity of the place name
-    - For better results, include country or state information
-    - Service has usage limits and may timeout
-    
-    Args:
-        place_name (str): Name of the city to geocode (e.g., "Tokyo, Japan")
-        
-    Returns:
-        tuple: (latitude, longitude) coordinates or None if geocoding fails
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> coords = get_coordinates_from_cityname("Paris, France")
-        >>> if coords:
-        ...     lat, lon = coords
-        ...     print(f"Paris coordinates: {lat}, {lon}")
-    """
-    # Initialize geocoder with compliant user agent
-    geolocator = _create_nominatim_geolocator()
-    geocode_once = RateLimiter(geolocator.geocode, min_delay_seconds=1.0, max_retries=0)
-    
-    try:
-        # Attempt to geocode the place name (single try; no retries on 403)
-        location = geocode_once(place_name, exactly_one=True, timeout=10)
-        
-        if location:
-            return (location.latitude, location.longitude)
-        else:
-            return None
-    except GeocoderInsufficientPrivileges:
-        logger.warning("Nominatim blocked the request (HTTP 403). Please set a proper user agent and avoid bulk requests.")
-        return None
-    except (GeocoderTimedOut, GeocoderServiceError):
-        logger.error("Geocoding service timed out or encountered an error for %s", place_name)
-        return None
-
-def get_city_country_name_from_rectangle(coordinates):
-    """
-    Get the city and country name for a location defined by a rectangle.
-    Uses reverse geocoding to find the nearest named place to the rectangle's center.
-    
-    The function:
-    1. Calculates the center point of the rectangle
-    2. Performs reverse geocoding with rate limiting
-    3. Extracts city and country information from the result
-    
-    Args:
-        coordinates (list): List of (longitude, latitude) coordinates defining the rectangle
-        
-    Returns:
-        str: String in format "city/ country" or fallback value if lookup fails
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> coords = [(139.65, 35.67), (139.66, 35.67),
-        ...           (139.66, 35.68), (139.65, 35.68)]
-        >>> location = get_city_country_name_from_rectangle(coords)
-        >>> print(f"Location: {location}")  # e.g., "Shibuya/ Japan"
-    """
-    # Calculate center point of rectangle
-    longitudes = [coord[0] for coord in coordinates]
-    latitudes = [coord[1] for coord in coordinates]
-    center_lon = sum(longitudes) / len(longitudes)
-    center_lat = sum(latitudes) / len(latitudes)
-    center_coord = (center_lat, center_lon)
-
-    # Initialize geocoder with compliant user agent and conservative rate limit (1 req/sec)
-    geolocator = _create_nominatim_geolocator()
-    reverse_once = RateLimiter(geolocator.reverse, min_delay_seconds=1.0, max_retries=0)
-
-    try:
-        # Attempt reverse geocoding of center coordinates (single try; no retries on 403)
-        location = reverse_once(center_coord, language='en', exactly_one=True, timeout=10)
-        if location:
-            address = location.raw['address']
-            # Try multiple address fields to find city name, falling back to county if needed
-            city = address.get('city', '') or address.get('town', '') or address.get('village', '') or address.get('county', '')
-            country = address.get('country', '')
-            return f"{city}/ {country}"
-        else:
-            logger.info("Reverse geocoding location not found for %s", center_coord)
-            return "Unknown Location/ Unknown Country"
-    except GeocoderInsufficientPrivileges:
-        # Fallback to offline reverse_geocoder at coarse resolution
-        try:
-            results = rg.search((center_lat, center_lon))
-            name = results[0].get('name') or ''
-            country = get_country_name(center_lon, center_lat) or ''
-            if name or country:
-                return f"{name}/ {country}".strip()
-        except Exception:
-            pass
-        logger.warning("Nominatim blocked the request (HTTP 403). Falling back to offline coarse reverse geocoding.")
-        return "Unknown Location/ Unknown Country"
-    except (GeocoderTimedOut, GeocoderServiceError) as e:
-        logger.error("Error retrieving location for %s: %s", center_coord, e)
-        return "Unknown Location/ Unknown Country"
-
-def get_timezone_info(rectangle_coords):
-    """
-    Get timezone and central meridian information for a location.
-    Uses the rectangle's center point to determine the local timezone and
-    calculates the central meridian based on the UTC offset.
-    
-    The function provides:
-    1. Local timezone identifier (e.g., "America/New_York")
-    2. UTC offset (e.g., "UTC-04:00")
-    3. Central meridian longitude for the timezone
-    
-    Args:
-        rectangle_coords (list): List of (longitude, latitude) coordinates defining the area
-        
-    Returns:
-        tuple: (timezone string with UTC offset, central meridian longitude string)
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> coords = [(139.65, 35.67), (139.66, 35.67),
-        ...           (139.66, 35.68), (139.65, 35.68)]
-        >>> tz, meridian = get_timezone_info(coords)
-        >>> print(f"Timezone: {tz}, Meridian: {meridian}")  # e.g., "UTC+09:00, 135.00000"
-    """
-    # Calculate center point of rectangle
-    longitudes = [coord[0] for coord in rectangle_coords]
-    latitudes = [coord[1] for coord in rectangle_coords]
-    center_lon = sum(longitudes) / len(longitudes)
-    center_lat = sum(latitudes) / len(latitudes)
-    
-    # Find timezone at center coordinates
-    tf = TimezoneFinder()
-    timezone_str = tf.timezone_at(lng=center_lon, lat=center_lat)
-    
-    if timezone_str:
-        # Get current time in local timezone to calculate offset
-        timezone = pytz.timezone(timezone_str)
-        now = datetime.now(timezone)
-        offset_seconds = now.utcoffset().total_seconds()
-        offset_hours = offset_seconds / 3600
-
-        # Format timezone offset and calculate central meridian
-        utc_offset = f"UTC{offset_hours:+.2f}"
-        timezone_longitude = offset_hours * 15  # Each hour offset = 15 degrees longitude
-        timezone_longitude_str = f"{timezone_longitude:.5f}"
-
-        return utc_offset, timezone_longitude_str
-    else:
-        # Return fallback values if timezone cannot be determined
-        logger.warning("Timezone not found for the given location, using UTC+00:00")
-        return "UTC+00:00", "0.00000"
-
-def validate_polygon_coordinates(geometry):
-    """
-    Validate and ensure proper closure of polygon coordinate rings.
-    Performs validation and correction of GeoJSON polygon geometries according to
-    the GeoJSON specification requirements.
-    
-    Validation checks:
-    1. Geometry type (Polygon or MultiPolygon)
-    2. Ring closure (first point equals last point)
-    3. Minimum number of points (4, including closure)
-    
-    Args:
-        geometry (dict): GeoJSON geometry object with 'type' and 'coordinates' properties
-        
-    Returns:
-        bool: True if polygon coordinates are valid or were successfully corrected,
-              False if validation failed
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> geom = {
-        ...     "type": "Polygon",
-        ...     "coordinates": [[[0,0], [1,0], [1,1], [0,1]]]  # Not closed
-        ... }
-        >>> if validate_polygon_coordinates(geom):
-        ...     print("Polygon is valid")  # Will close the ring automatically
-    """
-    if geometry['type'] == 'Polygon':
-        for ring in geometry['coordinates']:
-            # Ensure polygon is closed by checking/adding first point at end
-            if ring[0] != ring[-1]:
-                ring.append(ring[0])  # Close the ring
-            # Check minimum points needed for valid polygon (3 points + closing point)
-            if len(ring) < 4:
-                return False
-        return True
-    elif geometry['type'] == 'MultiPolygon':
-        for polygon in geometry['coordinates']:
-            for ring in polygon:
-                if ring[0] != ring[-1]:
-                    ring.append(ring[0])  # Close the ring
-                if len(ring) < 4:
-                    return False
-        return True
-    else:
-        return False
-
-def create_building_polygons(filtered_buildings):
-    """
-    Create building polygons with properties from filtered GeoJSON features.
-    Processes a list of GeoJSON building features to create Shapely polygons
-    with associated height and other properties, while also building a spatial index.
-    
-    Processing steps:
-    1. Extract and validate coordinates
-    2. Create Shapely polygons
-    3. Process building properties (height, levels, etc.)
-    4. Build spatial index for efficient querying
-    
-    Height calculation rules:
-    - Use explicit height if available
-    - Calculate from levels * floor_height if height not available
-    - Calculate from floors * floor_height if levels not available
-    - Use NaN if no height information available
-    
-    Args:
-        filtered_buildings (list): List of GeoJSON building features with properties
-        
-    Returns:
-        tuple: (
-            list of tuples (polygon, height, min_height, is_inner, feature_id),
-            rtree spatial index for the polygons
-        )
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> buildings = [
-        ...     {
-        ...         "type": "Feature",
-        ...         "geometry": {"type": "Polygon", "coordinates": [...]},
-        ...         "properties": {"height": 30, "levels": 10}
-        ...     },
-        ...     # ... more buildings ...
-        ... ]
-        >>> polygons, spatial_idx = create_building_polygons(buildings)
-    """
-    building_polygons = []
-    idx = index.Index()
-    valid_count = 0
-    count = 0
-    
-    # Find highest existing ID to avoid duplicates
-    id_list = []
-    for i, building in enumerate(filtered_buildings):
-        if building['properties'].get('id') is not None:
-            id_list.append(building['properties']['id'])
-    if len(id_list) > 0:
-        id_count = max(id_list)+1
-    else:
-        id_count = 1
-
-    for building in filtered_buildings:
-        try:
-            # Handle potential nested coordinate tuples
-            coords = building['geometry']['coordinates'][0]
-            # Flatten coordinates if they're nested tuples
-            if isinstance(coords[0], tuple):
-                coords = [list(c) for c in coords]
-            elif isinstance(coords[0][0], tuple):
-                coords = [list(c[0]) for c in coords]
-                
-            # Create polygon from coordinates
-            polygon = Polygon(coords)
-            
-            # Skip invalid geometries
-            if not polygon.is_valid:
-                logger.warning("Skipping invalid polygon geometry")
-                continue
-                
-            height = building['properties'].get('height')
-            levels = building['properties'].get('levels')
-            floors = building['properties'].get('num_floors')
-            min_height = building['properties'].get('min_height')
-            min_level = building['properties'].get('min_level')    
-            min_floor = building['properties'].get('min_floor')        
-
-            if (height is None) or (height<=0):
-                if levels is not None:
-                    height = floor_height * levels
-                elif floors is not None:
-                    height = floor_height * floors
-                else:
-                    count += 1
-                    height = np.nan
-
-            if (min_height is None) or (min_height<=0):
-                if min_level is not None:
-                    min_height = floor_height * float(min_level) 
-                elif min_floor is not None:
-                    min_height = floor_height * float(min_floor)
-                else:
-                    min_height = 0
-
-            if building['properties'].get('id') is not None:
-                feature_id = building['properties']['id']
-            else:
-                feature_id = id_count
-                id_count += 1
-
-            if building['properties'].get('is_inner') is not None:
-                is_inner = building['properties']['is_inner']
-            else:
-                is_inner = False
-
-            building_polygons.append((polygon, height, min_height, is_inner, feature_id))
-            idx.insert(valid_count, polygon.bounds)
-            valid_count += 1
-            
-        except Exception as e:
-            logger.warning("Skipping invalid building geometry: %s", e)
-            continue
-
-    return building_polygons, idx
-
-def get_country_name(lon, lat):
-    """
-    Get country name from coordinates using reverse geocoding.
-    Uses a local database for fast reverse geocoding to country level,
-    then converts the country code to full name using pycountry.
-    
-    Args:
-        lon (float): Longitude in decimal degrees
-        lat (float): Latitude in decimal degrees
-        
-    Returns:
-        str: Full country name or None if lookup fails
-        
-    Example:
-        >>> country = get_country_name(139.6503, 35.6762)
-        >>> print(f"Country: {country}")  # "Japan"
-    """
-    # Use reverse geocoder to get country code
-    results = rg.search((lat, lon))
-    country_code = results[0]['cc']
-    
-    # Convert country code to full name using pycountry
-    country = pycountry.countries.get(alpha_2=country_code)
-
-    if country:
-        return country.name
-    else:
+"""
+Utility functions for geographic operations and coordinate transformations.
+
+This module provides various utility functions for working with geographic data,
+including coordinate transformations, distance calculations, geocoding, and building
+polygon processing. It supports operations such as:
+
+- Tile coordinate calculations and quadkey conversions
+- Geographic distance calculations (Haversine and geodetic)
+- Coordinate system transformations
+- Polygon and GeoDataFrame operations
+- Raster file processing and merging
+- Geocoding and reverse geocoding
+- Timezone and location information retrieval
+- Building polygon validation and processing
+
+The module uses several external libraries for geographic operations:
+- pyproj: For coordinate transformations and geodetic calculations
+- geopandas: For handling geographic data frames
+- rasterio: For raster file operations
+- shapely: For geometric operations
+- geopy: For geocoding services
+- timezonefinder: For timezone lookups
+"""
+
+# Standard library imports
+import os
+import math
+from math import radians, sin, cos, sqrt, atan2
+from datetime import datetime
+
+# Third-party geographic processing libraries
+import numpy as np
+from pyproj import Geod, Transformer
+import geopandas as gpd
+import rasterio
+from rasterio.merge import merge
+from rasterio.warp import transform_bounds
+from rasterio.mask import mask
+from shapely.geometry import Polygon, box
+from fiona.crs import from_epsg
+from rtree import index
+
+# Geocoding and location services
+from geopy.geocoders import Nominatim
+from geopy.exc import GeocoderTimedOut, GeocoderServiceError, GeocoderInsufficientPrivileges
+from geopy.extra.rate_limiter import RateLimiter
+import reverse_geocoder as rg
+import pycountry
+
+# Timezone handling
+from timezonefinder import TimezoneFinder
+import pytz
+
+# Suppress rasterio warnings for non-georeferenced files
+import warnings
+warnings.filterwarnings("ignore", category=rasterio.errors.NotGeoreferencedWarning)
+
+# Global constants
+floor_height = 2.5  # Standard floor height in meters used for building height calculations
+
+# Package logging
+from ..utils.logging import get_logger
+logger = get_logger(__name__)
+
+# Build a compliant Nominatim user agent once and reuse it
+try:
+    # Prefer package metadata if available
+    from voxcity import __version__ as _vox_version, __email__ as _vox_email
+except Exception:
+    _vox_version, _vox_email = "dev", "contact@voxcity.local"
+
+_ENV_UA = os.environ.get("VOXCITY_NOMINATIM_UA", "").strip()
+_DEFAULT_UA = f"voxcity/{_vox_version} (+https://github.com/kunifujiwara/voxcity; contact: {_vox_email})"
+_NOMINATIM_USER_AGENT = _ENV_UA or _DEFAULT_UA
+
+def _create_nominatim_geolocator() -> Nominatim:
+    """
+    Create a Nominatim geolocator with a compliant identifying user agent.
+    The user agent can be overridden via the environment variable
+    VOXCITY_NOMINATIM_UA.
+    """
+    return Nominatim(user_agent=_NOMINATIM_USER_AGENT)
+
+def tile_from_lat_lon(lat, lon, level_of_detail):
+    """
+    Convert latitude/longitude coordinates to tile coordinates at a given zoom level.
+    Uses the Web Mercator projection (EPSG:3857) commonly used in web mapping.
+    
+    Args:
+        lat (float): Latitude in degrees (-90 to 90)
+        lon (float): Longitude in degrees (-180 to 180)
+        level_of_detail (int): Zoom level (0-23, where 0 is the entire world)
+        
+    Returns:
+        tuple: (tile_x, tile_y) tile coordinates in the global tile grid
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> tile_x, tile_y = tile_from_lat_lon(35.6762, 139.6503, 12)  # Tokyo at zoom 12
+    """
+    # Convert latitude to radians and calculate sine
+    sin_lat = math.sin(lat * math.pi / 180)
+    
+    # Convert longitude to normalized x coordinate (0-1)
+    x = (lon + 180) / 360
+    
+    # Convert latitude to y coordinate using Mercator projection formula
+    y = 0.5 - math.log((1 + sin_lat) / (1 - sin_lat)) / (4 * math.pi)
+    
+    # Calculate map size in pixels at this zoom level (256 * 2^zoom)
+    map_size = 256 << level_of_detail
+    
+    # Convert x,y to tile coordinates
+    tile_x = int(x * map_size / 256)
+    tile_y = int(y * map_size / 256)
+    return tile_x, tile_y
+
+def quadkey_to_tile(quadkey):
+    """
+    Convert a quadkey string to tile coordinates.
+    A quadkey is a string of digits (0-3) that identifies a tile at a certain zoom level.
+    Each digit in the quadkey represents a tile at a zoom level, with each subsequent digit
+    representing a more detailed zoom level.
+    
+    The quadkey numbering scheme:
+        - 0: Top-left quadrant
+        - 1: Top-right quadrant
+        - 2: Bottom-left quadrant
+        - 3: Bottom-right quadrant
+    
+    Args:
+        quadkey (str): Quadkey string (e.g., "120" for zoom level 3)
+        
+    Returns:
+        tuple: (tile_x, tile_y, level_of_detail) tile coordinates and zoom level
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> x, y, zoom = quadkey_to_tile("120")  # Returns coordinates at zoom level 3
+    """
+    tile_x = tile_y = 0
+    level_of_detail = len(quadkey)
+    
+    # Process each character in quadkey
+    for i in range(level_of_detail):
+        bit = level_of_detail - i - 1
+        mask = 1 << bit
+        
+        # Quadkey digit to binary: 
+        # 0 = neither x nor y bit set
+        # 1 = x bit set
+        # 2 = y bit set 
+        # 3 = both x and y bits set
+        if quadkey[i] == '1':
+            tile_x |= mask
+        elif quadkey[i] == '2':
+            tile_y |= mask
+        elif quadkey[i] == '3':
+            tile_x |= mask
+            tile_y |= mask
+    return tile_x, tile_y, level_of_detail
+
+def initialize_geod():
+    """
+    Initialize a Geod object for geodetic calculations using WGS84 ellipsoid.
+    The WGS84 ellipsoid (EPSG:4326) is the standard reference system used by GPS
+    and most modern mapping applications.
+    
+    The Geod object provides methods for:
+    - Forward geodetic calculations (direct)
+    - Inverse geodetic calculations (inverse)
+    - Area calculations
+    - Line length calculations
+    
+    Returns:
+        Geod: Initialized Geod object for WGS84 calculations
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> geod = initialize_geod()
+        >>> fwd_az, back_az, dist = geod.inv(lon1, lat1, lon2, lat2)
+    """
+    return Geod(ellps='WGS84')
+
+def calculate_distance(geod, lon1, lat1, lon2, lat2):
+    """
+    Calculate geodetic distance between two points on the Earth's surface.
+    Uses inverse geodetic computation to find the shortest distance along the ellipsoid,
+    which is more accurate than great circle (spherical) calculations.
+    
+    Args:
+        geod (Geod): Geod object for calculations, initialized with WGS84
+        lon1, lat1 (float): Coordinates of first point in decimal degrees
+        lon2, lat2 (float): Coordinates of second point in decimal degrees
+        
+    Returns:
+        float: Distance in meters between the two points along the ellipsoid
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> geod = initialize_geod()
+        >>> distance = calculate_distance(geod, 139.6503, 35.6762, 
+        ...                             -74.0060, 40.7128)  # Tokyo to NYC
+    """
+    # inv() returns forward azimuth, back azimuth, and distance
+    _, _, dist = geod.inv(lon1, lat1, lon2, lat2)
+    return dist
+
+def normalize_to_one_meter(vector, distance_in_meters):
+    """
+    Normalize a vector to represent one meter in geographic space.
+    Useful for creating unit vectors in geographic calculations, particularly
+    when working with distance-based operations or scaling geographic features.
+    
+    Args:
+        vector (numpy.ndarray): Vector to normalize, typically a direction vector
+        distance_in_meters (float): Current distance in meters that the vector represents
+        
+    Returns:
+        numpy.ndarray: Normalized vector where magnitude represents 1 meter
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> direction = np.array([3.0, 4.0])  # Vector of length 5
+        >>> unit_meter = normalize_to_one_meter(direction, 5.0)
+    """
+    return vector * (1 / distance_in_meters)
+
+def setup_transformer(from_crs, to_crs):
+    """
+    Set up a coordinate transformer between two Coordinate Reference Systems (CRS).
+    The always_xy=True parameter ensures consistent handling of coordinate order
+    by always using (x,y) or (longitude,latitude) order regardless of CRS definition.
+    
+    Common CRS codes:
+    - EPSG:4326 - WGS84 (latitude/longitude)
+    - EPSG:3857 - Web Mercator
+    - EPSG:2263 - NY State Plane
+    
+    Args:
+        from_crs: Source coordinate reference system (EPSG code, proj4 string, or CRS dict)
+        to_crs: Target coordinate reference system (EPSG code, proj4 string, or CRS dict)
+        
+    Returns:
+        Transformer: Initialized transformer object for coordinate conversion
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> transformer = setup_transformer("EPSG:4326", "EPSG:3857")
+        >>> x, y = transformer.transform(longitude, latitude)
+    """
+    return Transformer.from_crs(from_crs, to_crs, always_xy=True)
+
+def transform_coords(transformer, lon, lat):
+    """
+    Transform coordinates using provided transformer with error handling.
+    Includes validation for infinite values that may result from invalid transformations
+    or coordinates outside the valid range for the target CRS.
+    
+    Args:
+        transformer (Transformer): Coordinate transformer from setup_transformer()
+        lon, lat (float): Input coordinates in the source CRS
+        
+    Returns:
+        tuple: (x, y) transformed coordinates in the target CRS, or (None, None) if transformation fails
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> transformer = setup_transformer("EPSG:4326", "EPSG:3857")
+        >>> x, y = transform_coords(transformer, -74.0060, 40.7128)  # NYC coordinates
+        >>> if x is not None:
+        ...     print(f"Transformed coordinates: ({x}, {y})")
+    """
+    try:
+        x, y = transformer.transform(lon, lat)
+        if np.isinf(x) or np.isinf(y):
+            logger.warning("Transformation resulted in inf values for coordinates: %s, %s", lon, lat)
+        return x, y
+    except Exception as e:
+        logger.error("Error transforming coordinates %s, %s: %s", lon, lat, e)
+        return None, None
+
+def create_polygon(vertices):
+    """
+    Create a Shapely polygon from a list of vertices.
+    Input vertices must be in (longitude, latitude) format as required by Shapely.
+    The polygon will be automatically closed if the first and last vertices don't match.
+    
+    Args:
+        vertices (list): List of (longitude, latitude) coordinate pairs forming the polygon.
+                        The coordinates should be in counter-clockwise order for exterior rings
+                        and clockwise order for interior rings (holes).
+        
+    Returns:
+        Polygon: Shapely polygon object that can be used for spatial operations
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> vertices = [(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1)]  # Square
+        >>> polygon = create_polygon(vertices)
+        >>> print(f"Polygon area: {polygon.area}")
+    """
+    return Polygon(vertices)
+
+def create_geodataframe(polygon, crs=4326):
+    """
+    Create a GeoDataFrame from a Shapely polygon.
+    Default CRS is WGS84 (EPSG:4326) for geographic coordinates.
+    The GeoDataFrame provides additional functionality for spatial operations,
+    data analysis, and export to various geographic formats.
+    
+    Args:
+        polygon (Polygon): Shapely polygon object to convert
+        crs (int): Coordinate reference system EPSG code (default: 4326 for WGS84)
+        
+    Returns:
+        GeoDataFrame: GeoDataFrame containing the polygon with specified CRS
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> vertices = [(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1)]
+        >>> polygon = create_polygon(vertices)
+        >>> gdf = create_geodataframe(polygon)
+        >>> gdf.to_file("polygon.geojson", driver="GeoJSON")
+    """
+    return gpd.GeoDataFrame({'geometry': [polygon]}, crs=from_epsg(crs))
+
+def haversine_distance(lon1, lat1, lon2, lat2):
+    """
+    Calculate great-circle distance between two points using Haversine formula.
+    This is an approximation that treats the Earth as a perfect sphere.
+    
+    Args:
+        lon1, lat1 (float): Coordinates of first point
+        lon2, lat2 (float): Coordinates of second point
+        
+    Returns:
+        float: Distance in kilometers
+    """
+    R = 6371  # Earth's radius in kilometers
+    
+    # Convert all coordinates to radians
+    lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2 = map(radians, [lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2])
+    
+    # Calculate differences
+    dlat = lat2 - lat1
+    dlon = lon2 - lon1
+    
+    # Haversine formula
+    a = sin(dlat/2)**2 + cos(lat1) * cos(lat2) * sin(dlon/2)**2
+    c = 2 * atan2(sqrt(a), sqrt(1-a))
+    return R * c
+
+def get_raster_bbox(raster_path):
+    """
+    Get the bounding box of a raster file in its native coordinate system.
+    Returns a rectangular polygon representing the spatial extent of the raster,
+    which can be used for spatial queries and intersection tests.
+    
+    Args:
+        raster_path (str): Path to the raster file (GeoTIFF, IMG, etc.)
+        
+    Returns:
+        box: Shapely box representing the raster bounds in the raster's CRS
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> bbox = get_raster_bbox("elevation.tif")
+        >>> print(f"Raster extent: {bbox.bounds}")  # (minx, miny, maxx, maxy)
+    """
+    with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
+        bounds = src.bounds
+    return box(bounds.left, bounds.bottom, bounds.right, bounds.top)
+
+def raster_intersects_polygon(raster_path, polygon):
+    """
+    Check if a raster file's extent intersects with a given polygon.
+    Automatically handles coordinate system transformations by converting
+    the raster bounds to WGS84 (EPSG:4326) if needed before the intersection test.
+    
+    Args:
+        raster_path (str): Path to the raster file to check
+        polygon (Polygon): Shapely polygon to test intersection with (in WGS84)
+        
+    Returns:
+        bool: True if raster intersects or contains the polygon, False otherwise
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> aoi = create_polygon([(lon1, lat1), (lon2, lat2), ...])  # Area of interest
+        >>> if raster_intersects_polygon("dem.tif", aoi):
+        ...     print("Raster covers the area of interest")
+    """
+    with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
+        bounds = src.bounds
+        # Transform bounds to WGS84 if raster is in different CRS
+        if src.crs.to_epsg() != 4326:
+            bounds = transform_bounds(src.crs, 'EPSG:4326', *bounds)
+        raster_bbox = box(*bounds)
+        intersects = raster_bbox.intersects(polygon) or polygon.intersects(raster_bbox)
+        return intersects
+
+def save_raster(input_path, output_path):
+    """
+    Create a copy of a raster file at a new location.
+    Performs a direct file copy without any transformation or modification,
+    preserving all metadata, georeferencing, and pixel values.
+    
+    Args:
+        input_path (str): Source raster file path
+        output_path (str): Destination path for the copied raster
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> save_raster("original.tif", "backup/copy.tif")
+        >>> print("Copied original file to: backup/copy.tif")
+    """
+    import shutil
+    shutil.copy(input_path, output_path)
+    logger.info("Copied original file to: %s", output_path)
+
+def merge_geotiffs(geotiff_files, output_dir):
+    """
+    Merge multiple GeoTIFF files into a single mosaic.
+    Handles edge matching and overlapping areas between adjacent rasters.
+    The output will have the same coordinate system and data type as the input files.
+    
+    Important considerations:
+    - All input files should have the same coordinate system
+    - All input files should have the same data type
+    - Overlapping areas are handled by taking the first value encountered
+    
+    Args:
+        geotiff_files (list): List of paths to GeoTIFF files to merge
+        output_dir (str): Directory where the merged output will be saved
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> files = ["tile1.tif", "tile2.tif", "tile3.tif"]
+        >>> merge_geotiffs(files, "output_directory")
+        >>> print("Merged output saved to: output_directory/lulc.tif")
+    """
+    if not geotiff_files:
+        return
+
+    # Open all valid GeoTIFF files
+    src_files_to_mosaic = [rasterio.open(file) for file in geotiff_files if os.path.exists(file)]
+
+    if src_files_to_mosaic:
+        try:
+            # Merge rasters into a single mosaic and get output transform
+            mosaic, out_trans = merge(src_files_to_mosaic)
+
+            # Copy metadata from first raster and update for merged output
+            out_meta = src_files_to_mosaic[0].meta.copy()
+            out_meta.update({
+                "driver": "GTiff",
+                "height": mosaic.shape[1],
+                "width": mosaic.shape[2],
+                "transform": out_trans
+            })
+
+            # Save merged raster to output file
+            merged_path = os.path.join(output_dir, "lulc.tif")
+            with rasterio.open(merged_path, "w", **out_meta) as dest:
+                dest.write(mosaic)
+
+            logger.info("Merged output saved to: %s", merged_path)
+        except Exception as e:
+            logger.error("Error merging files: %s", e)
+    else:
+        logger.info("No valid files to merge.")
+
+    # Clean up by closing all opened files
+    for src in src_files_to_mosaic:
+        src.close()
+
+def convert_format_lat_lon(input_coords):
+    """
+    Convert coordinate format and close polygon.
+    Input coordinates are already in [lon, lat] format.
+    
+    Args:
+        input_coords (list): List of [lon, lat] coordinates
+        
+    Returns:
+        list: List of [lon, lat] coordinates with first point repeated at end
+    """
+    # Create list with coordinates in same order
+    output_coords = input_coords.copy()
+    # Close polygon by repeating first point at end
+    output_coords.append(output_coords[0])
+    return output_coords
+
+def get_coordinates_from_cityname(place_name):
+    """
+    Geocode a city name to get its coordinates using OpenStreetMap's Nominatim service.
+    Includes rate limiting and error handling to comply with Nominatim's usage policy.
+    
+    Note:
+    - Results may vary based on the specificity of the place name
+    - For better results, include country or state information
+    - Service has usage limits and may timeout
+    
+    Args:
+        place_name (str): Name of the city to geocode (e.g., "Tokyo, Japan")
+        
+    Returns:
+        tuple: (latitude, longitude) coordinates or None if geocoding fails
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> coords = get_coordinates_from_cityname("Paris, France")
+        >>> if coords:
+        ...     lat, lon = coords
+        ...     print(f"Paris coordinates: {lat}, {lon}")
+    """
+    # Initialize geocoder with compliant user agent
+    geolocator = _create_nominatim_geolocator()
+    geocode_once = RateLimiter(geolocator.geocode, min_delay_seconds=1.0, max_retries=0)
+    
+    try:
+        # Attempt to geocode the place name (single try; no retries on 403)
+        location = geocode_once(place_name, exactly_one=True, timeout=10)
+        
+        if location:
+            return (location.latitude, location.longitude)
+        else:
+            return None
+    except GeocoderInsufficientPrivileges:
+        logger.warning("Nominatim blocked the request (HTTP 403). Please set a proper user agent and avoid bulk requests.")
+        return None
+    except (GeocoderTimedOut, GeocoderServiceError):
+        logger.error("Geocoding service timed out or encountered an error for %s", place_name)
+        return None
+
+def get_city_country_name_from_rectangle(coordinates):
+    """
+    Get the city and country name for a location defined by a rectangle.
+    Uses reverse geocoding to find the nearest named place to the rectangle's center.
+    
+    The function:
+    1. Calculates the center point of the rectangle
+    2. Performs reverse geocoding with rate limiting
+    3. Extracts city and country information from the result
+    
+    Args:
+        coordinates (list): List of (longitude, latitude) coordinates defining the rectangle
+        
+    Returns:
+        str: String in format "city/ country" or fallback value if lookup fails
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> coords = [(139.65, 35.67), (139.66, 35.67),
+        ...           (139.66, 35.68), (139.65, 35.68)]
+        >>> location = get_city_country_name_from_rectangle(coords)
+        >>> print(f"Location: {location}")  # e.g., "Shibuya/ Japan"
+    """
+    # Calculate center point of rectangle
+    longitudes = [coord[0] for coord in coordinates]
+    latitudes = [coord[1] for coord in coordinates]
+    center_lon = sum(longitudes) / len(longitudes)
+    center_lat = sum(latitudes) / len(latitudes)
+    center_coord = (center_lat, center_lon)
+
+    # Initialize geocoder with compliant user agent and conservative rate limit (1 req/sec)
+    geolocator = _create_nominatim_geolocator()
+    reverse_once = RateLimiter(geolocator.reverse, min_delay_seconds=1.0, max_retries=0)
+
+    try:
+        # Attempt reverse geocoding of center coordinates (single try; no retries on 403)
+        location = reverse_once(center_coord, language='en', exactly_one=True, timeout=10)
+        if location:
+            address = location.raw['address']
+            # Try multiple address fields to find city name, falling back to county if needed
+            city = address.get('city', '') or address.get('town', '') or address.get('village', '') or address.get('county', '')
+            country = address.get('country', '')
+            return f"{city}/ {country}"
+        else:
+            logger.info("Reverse geocoding location not found for %s", center_coord)
+            return "Unknown Location/ Unknown Country"
+    except GeocoderInsufficientPrivileges:
+        # Fallback to offline reverse_geocoder at coarse resolution
+        try:
+            results = rg.search((center_lat, center_lon))
+            name = results[0].get('name') or ''
+            country = get_country_name(center_lon, center_lat) or ''
+            if name or country:
+                return f"{name}/ {country}".strip()
+        except Exception:
+            pass
+        logger.warning("Nominatim blocked the request (HTTP 403). Falling back to offline coarse reverse geocoding.")
+        return "Unknown Location/ Unknown Country"
+    except (GeocoderTimedOut, GeocoderServiceError) as e:
+        logger.error("Error retrieving location for %s: %s", center_coord, e)
+        return "Unknown Location/ Unknown Country"
+
+def get_timezone_info(rectangle_coords):
+    """
+    Get timezone and central meridian information for a location.
+    Uses the rectangle's center point to determine the local timezone and
+    calculates the central meridian based on the UTC offset.
+    
+    The function provides:
+    1. Local timezone identifier (e.g., "America/New_York")
+    2. UTC offset (e.g., "UTC-04:00")
+    3. Central meridian longitude for the timezone
+    
+    Args:
+        rectangle_coords (list): List of (longitude, latitude) coordinates defining the area
+        
+    Returns:
+        tuple: (timezone string with UTC offset, central meridian longitude string)
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> coords = [(139.65, 35.67), (139.66, 35.67),
+        ...           (139.66, 35.68), (139.65, 35.68)]
+        >>> tz, meridian = get_timezone_info(coords)
+        >>> print(f"Timezone: {tz}, Meridian: {meridian}")  # e.g., "UTC+09:00, 135.00000"
+    """
+    # Calculate center point of rectangle
+    longitudes = [coord[0] for coord in rectangle_coords]
+    latitudes = [coord[1] for coord in rectangle_coords]
+    center_lon = sum(longitudes) / len(longitudes)
+    center_lat = sum(latitudes) / len(latitudes)
+    
+    # Find timezone at center coordinates
+    tf = TimezoneFinder()
+    timezone_str = tf.timezone_at(lng=center_lon, lat=center_lat)
+    
+    if timezone_str:
+        # Get current time in local timezone to calculate offset
+        timezone = pytz.timezone(timezone_str)
+        now = datetime.now(timezone)
+        offset_seconds = now.utcoffset().total_seconds()
+        offset_hours = offset_seconds / 3600
+
+        # Format timezone offset and calculate central meridian
+        utc_offset = f"UTC{offset_hours:+.2f}"
+        timezone_longitude = offset_hours * 15  # Each hour offset = 15 degrees longitude
+        timezone_longitude_str = f"{timezone_longitude:.5f}"
+
+        return utc_offset, timezone_longitude_str
+    else:
+        # Return fallback values if timezone cannot be determined
+        logger.warning("Timezone not found for the given location, using UTC+00:00")
+        return "UTC+00:00", "0.00000"
+
+def validate_polygon_coordinates(geometry):
+    """
+    Validate and ensure proper closure of polygon coordinate rings.
+    Performs validation and correction of GeoJSON polygon geometries according to
+    the GeoJSON specification requirements.
+    
+    Validation checks:
+    1. Geometry type (Polygon or MultiPolygon)
+    2. Ring closure (first point equals last point)
+    3. Minimum number of points (4, including closure)
+    
+    Args:
+        geometry (dict): GeoJSON geometry object with 'type' and 'coordinates' properties
+        
+    Returns:
+        bool: True if polygon coordinates are valid or were successfully corrected,
+              False if validation failed
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> geom = {
+        ...     "type": "Polygon",
+        ...     "coordinates": [[[0,0], [1,0], [1,1], [0,1]]]  # Not closed
+        ... }
+        >>> if validate_polygon_coordinates(geom):
+        ...     print("Polygon is valid")  # Will close the ring automatically
+    """
+    if geometry['type'] == 'Polygon':
+        for ring in geometry['coordinates']:
+            # Ensure polygon is closed by checking/adding first point at end
+            if ring[0] != ring[-1]:
+                ring.append(ring[0])  # Close the ring
+            # Check minimum points needed for valid polygon (3 points + closing point)
+            if len(ring) < 4:
+                return False
+        return True
+    elif geometry['type'] == 'MultiPolygon':
+        for polygon in geometry['coordinates']:
+            for ring in polygon:
+                if ring[0] != ring[-1]:
+                    ring.append(ring[0])  # Close the ring
+                if len(ring) < 4:
+                    return False
+        return True
+    else:
+        return False
+
+def create_building_polygons(filtered_buildings):
+    """
+    Create building polygons with properties from filtered GeoJSON features.
+    Processes a list of GeoJSON building features to create Shapely polygons
+    with associated height and other properties, while also building a spatial index.
+    
+    Processing steps:
+    1. Extract and validate coordinates
+    2. Create Shapely polygons
+    3. Process building properties (height, levels, etc.)
+    4. Build spatial index for efficient querying
+    
+    Height calculation rules:
+    - Use explicit height if available
+    - Calculate from levels * floor_height if height not available
+    - Calculate from floors * floor_height if levels not available
+    - Use NaN if no height information available
+    
+    Args:
+        filtered_buildings (list): List of GeoJSON building features with properties
+        
+    Returns:
+        tuple: (
+            list of tuples (polygon, height, min_height, is_inner, feature_id),
+            rtree spatial index for the polygons
+        )
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> buildings = [
+        ...     {
+        ...         "type": "Feature",
+        ...         "geometry": {"type": "Polygon", "coordinates": [...]},
+        ...         "properties": {"height": 30, "levels": 10}
+        ...     },
+        ...     # ... more buildings ...
+        ... ]
+        >>> polygons, spatial_idx = create_building_polygons(buildings)
+    """
+    building_polygons = []
+    idx = index.Index()
+    valid_count = 0
+    count = 0
+    
+    # Find highest existing ID to avoid duplicates
+    id_list = []
+    for i, building in enumerate(filtered_buildings):
+        if building['properties'].get('id') is not None:
+            id_list.append(building['properties']['id'])
+    if len(id_list) > 0:
+        id_count = max(id_list)+1
+    else:
+        id_count = 1
+
+    for building in filtered_buildings:
+        try:
+            # Handle potential nested coordinate tuples
+            coords = building['geometry']['coordinates'][0]
+            # Flatten coordinates if they're nested tuples
+            if isinstance(coords[0], tuple):
+                coords = [list(c) for c in coords]
+            elif isinstance(coords[0][0], tuple):
+                coords = [list(c[0]) for c in coords]
+                
+            # Create polygon from coordinates
+            polygon = Polygon(coords)
+            
+            # Skip invalid geometries
+            if not polygon.is_valid:
+                logger.warning("Skipping invalid polygon geometry")
+                continue
+                
+            height = building['properties'].get('height')
+            levels = building['properties'].get('levels')
+            floors = building['properties'].get('num_floors')
+            min_height = building['properties'].get('min_height')
+            min_level = building['properties'].get('min_level')    
+            min_floor = building['properties'].get('min_floor')        
+
+            if (height is None) or (height<=0):
+                if levels is not None:
+                    height = floor_height * levels
+                elif floors is not None:
+                    height = floor_height * floors
+                else:
+                    count += 1
+                    height = np.nan
+
+            if (min_height is None) or (min_height<=0):
+                if min_level is not None:
+                    min_height = floor_height * float(min_level) 
+                elif min_floor is not None:
+                    min_height = floor_height * float(min_floor)
+                else:
+                    min_height = 0
+
+            if building['properties'].get('id') is not None:
+                feature_id = building['properties']['id']
+            else:
+                feature_id = id_count
+                id_count += 1
+
+            if building['properties'].get('is_inner') is not None:
+                is_inner = building['properties']['is_inner']
+            else:
+                is_inner = False
+
+            building_polygons.append((polygon, height, min_height, is_inner, feature_id))
+            idx.insert(valid_count, polygon.bounds)
+            valid_count += 1
+            
+        except Exception as e:
+            logger.warning("Skipping invalid building geometry: %s", e)
+            continue
+
+    return building_polygons, idx
+
+def get_country_name(lon, lat):
+    """
+    Get country name from coordinates using reverse geocoding.
+    Uses a local database for fast reverse geocoding to country level,
+    then converts the country code to full name using pycountry.
+    
+    Args:
+        lon (float): Longitude in decimal degrees
+        lat (float): Latitude in decimal degrees
+        
+    Returns:
+        str: Full country name or None if lookup fails
+        
+    Example:
+        >>> country = get_country_name(139.6503, 35.6762)
+        >>> print(f"Country: {country}")  # "Japan"
+    """
+    # Use reverse geocoder to get country code
+    results = rg.search((lat, lon))
+    country_code = results[0]['cc']
+    
+    # Convert country code to full name using pycountry
+    country = pycountry.countries.get(alpha_2=country_code)
+
+    if country:
+        return country.name
+    else:
         return None