passagemath-modules 10.6.31__cp314-cp314-macosx_13_0_x86_64.whl

sage/combinat/root_system/root_system.py

@@ -0,0 +1,882 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-modules
+r"""
+Root systems
+============
+
+See :ref:`sage.combinat.root_system.all` for an overview.
+"""
+# ***************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2007      Mike Hansen <mhansen@gmail.com>,
+#                               Justin Walker <justin at mac.com>
+#                     2008-2009 Nicolas M. Thiery <nthiery at users.sf.net>
+#
+#  Distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL)
+#  The full text of the GPL is available at:
+#
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ***************************************************************************
+# Design largely inspired from MuPAD-Combinat
+from sage.structure.sage_object import SageObject
+from sage.structure.unique_representation import UniqueRepresentation
+from .cartan_type import CartanType
+from sage.rings.integer_ring import ZZ
+from sage.rings.rational_field import QQ
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from .root_space import RootSpace
+from .weight_space import WeightSpace
+
+
+class RootSystem(UniqueRepresentation, SageObject):
+    r"""
+    A class for root systems.
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    We construct the root system for type `B_3`::
+
+        sage: R = RootSystem(['B',3]); R
+        Root system of type ['B', 3]
+
+    ``R`` models the root system abstractly. It comes equipped with various
+    realizations of the root and weight lattices, where all computations
+    take place. Let us play first with the root lattice::
+
+        sage: space = R.root_lattice(); space
+        Root lattice of the Root system of type ['B', 3]
+
+    This is the free `\ZZ`-module `\bigoplus_i \ZZ.\alpha_i` spanned
+    by the simple roots::
+
+        sage: space.base_ring()
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: list(space.basis())
+        [alpha[1], alpha[2], alpha[3]]
+
+    Let us do some computations with the simple roots::
+
+        sage: alpha = space.simple_roots()
+        sage: alpha[1] + alpha[2]
+        alpha[1] + alpha[2]
+
+    There is a canonical pairing between the root lattice and the
+    coroot lattice::
+
+        sage: R.coroot_lattice()
+        Coroot lattice of the Root system of type ['B', 3]
+
+    We construct the simple coroots, and do some computations (see
+    comments about duality below for some caveat)::
+
+        sage: alphacheck = space.simple_coroots()
+        sage: list(alphacheck)
+        [alphacheck[1], alphacheck[2], alphacheck[3]]
+
+    We can carry over the same computations in any of the other
+    realizations of the root lattice, like the root space
+    `\bigoplus_i \QQ.\alpha_i`, the weight lattice
+    `\bigoplus_i \ZZ.\Lambda_i`, the weight
+    space `\bigoplus_i \QQ.\Lambda_i`. For example::
+
+        sage: space = R.weight_space(); space
+        Weight space over the Rational Field of the Root system of type ['B', 3]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: space.base_ring()
+        Rational Field
+        sage: list(space.basis())
+        [Lambda[1], Lambda[2], Lambda[3]]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: alpha = space.simple_roots()                                              # needs sage.graphs
+        sage: alpha[1] + alpha[2]                                                       # needs sage.graphs
+        Lambda[1] + Lambda[2] - 2*Lambda[3]
+
+    The fundamental weights are the dual basis of the coroots::
+
+        sage: Lambda = space.fundamental_weights()
+        sage: Lambda[1]
+        Lambda[1]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: alphacheck = space.simple_coroots()                                       # needs sage.graphs
+        sage: list(alphacheck)                                                          # needs sage.graphs
+        [alphacheck[1], alphacheck[2], alphacheck[3]]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: [Lambda[i].scalar(alphacheck[1]) for i in space.index_set()]
+        [1, 0, 0]
+        sage: [Lambda[i].scalar(alphacheck[2]) for i in space.index_set()]
+        [0, 1, 0]
+        sage: [Lambda[i].scalar(alphacheck[3]) for i in space.index_set()]
+        [0, 0, 1]
+
+    Let us use the simple reflections. In the weight space, they
+    work as in the *number game*: firing the node `i` on an
+    element `x` adds `c` times the simple root
+    `\alpha_i`, where `c` is the coefficient of
+    `i` in `x`::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.graphs
+        sage: Lambda[1].simple_reflection(1)
+        -Lambda[1] + Lambda[2]
+        sage: Lambda[2].simple_reflection(1)
+        Lambda[2]
+        sage: Lambda[3].simple_reflection(1)
+        Lambda[3]
+        sage: (-2*Lambda[1] + Lambda[2] + Lambda[3]).simple_reflection(1)
+        2*Lambda[1] - Lambda[2] + Lambda[3]
+
+    It can be convenient to manipulate the simple reflections
+    themselves::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.graphs
+        sage: s = space.simple_reflections()
+        sage: s[1](Lambda[1])
+        -Lambda[1] + Lambda[2]
+        sage: s[1](Lambda[2])
+        Lambda[2]
+        sage: s[1](Lambda[3])
+        Lambda[3]
+
+    .. RUBRIC:: Ambient spaces
+
+    The root system may also come equipped with an ambient space.
+    This is a `\QQ`-module, endowed with its canonical Euclidean
+    scalar product, which admits simultaneous embeddings of the
+    (extended) weight and the (extended) coweight lattice, and
+    therefore the root and the coroot lattice. This is implemented on
+    a type by type basis for the finite crystallographic root systems
+    following Bourbaki's conventions and is extended to the affine
+    cases. Coefficients permitting, this is also available as an
+    ambient lattice.
+
+    .. SEEALSO:: :meth:`ambient_space` and :meth:`ambient_lattice` for details
+
+    In finite type `A`, we recover the natural representation of the
+    symmetric group as group of permutation matrices::
+
+        sage: RootSystem(["A",2]).ambient_space().weyl_group().simple_reflections()     # needs sage.libs.gap sage.libs.pari
+        Finite family {1: [0 1 0]
+                          [1 0 0]
+                          [0 0 1],
+                       2: [1 0 0]
+                          [0 0 1]
+                          [0 1 0]}
+
+    In type `B`, `C`, and `D`, we recover the natural representation
+    of the Weyl group as groups of signed permutation matrices::
+
+        sage: RootSystem(["B",3]).ambient_space().weyl_group().simple_reflections()     # needs sage.libs.gap sage.libs.pari
+        Finite family {1: [0 1 0]
+                          [1 0 0]
+                          [0 0 1],
+                       2: [1 0 0]
+                          [0 0 1]
+                          [0 1 0],
+                       3: [ 1  0  0]
+                          [ 0  1  0]
+                          [ 0  0 -1]}
+
+    In (untwisted) affine types `A`, ..., `D`, one can recover from
+    the ambient space the affine permutation representation, in window
+    notation. Let us consider the ambient space for affine type `A`::
+
+        sage: L = RootSystem(["A",2,1]).ambient_space(); L
+        Ambient space of the Root system of type ['A', 2, 1]
+
+    Define the "identity" by an appropriate vector at level `-3`::
+
+        sage: e = L.basis(); Lambda = L.fundamental_weights()                           # needs sage.graphs
+        sage: id = e[0] + 2*e[1] + 3*e[2]  - 3*Lambda[0]                                # needs sage.graphs
+
+    The corresponding permutation is obtained by projecting it onto
+    the classical ambient space::
+
+        sage: L.classical()
+        Ambient space of the Root system of type ['A', 2]
+        sage: L.classical()(id)                                                         # needs sage.graphs
+        (1, 2, 3)
+
+    Here is the orbit of the identity under the action of the finite
+    group::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.graphs sage.libs.gap sage.libs.pari
+        sage: W = L.weyl_group()
+        sage: S3 = [ w.action(id) for w in W.classical() ]
+        sage: [L.classical()(x) for x in S3]
+        [(1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 2), (2, 3, 1), (2, 1, 3), (1, 3, 2), (3, 2, 1)]
+
+    And the action of `s_0` on these yields::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.graphs sage.libs.gap sage.libs.pari
+        sage: s = W.simple_reflections()
+        sage: [L.classical()(s[0].action(x)) for x in S3]
+        [(0, 2, 4), (-1, 1, 6), (-2, 3, 5), (0, 1, 5), (-1, 3, 4), (-2, 2, 6)]
+
+    We can also plot various components of the ambient spaces::
+
+        sage: L = RootSystem(['A',2]).ambient_space()
+        sage: L.plot()                                                                  # needs sage.plot sage.symbolic
+        Graphics object consisting of 13 graphics primitives
+
+    For more on plotting, see :ref:`sage.combinat.root_system.plot`.
+
+    .. RUBRIC:: Dual root systems
+
+    The root system is aware of its dual root system::
+
+        sage: R.dual
+        Dual of root system of type ['B', 3]
+
+    ``R.dual`` is really the root system of type `C_3`::
+
+        sage: R.dual.cartan_type()
+        ['C', 3]
+
+    And the coroot lattice that we have been manipulating before is
+    really implemented as the root lattice of the dual root system::
+
+        sage: R.dual.root_lattice()
+        Coroot lattice of the Root system of type ['B', 3]
+
+    In particular, the coroots for the root lattice are in fact the
+    roots of the coroot lattice::
+
+        sage: list(R.root_lattice().simple_coroots())
+        [alphacheck[1], alphacheck[2], alphacheck[3]]
+        sage: list(R.coroot_lattice().simple_roots())
+        [alphacheck[1], alphacheck[2], alphacheck[3]]
+        sage: list(R.dual.root_lattice().simple_roots())
+        [alphacheck[1], alphacheck[2], alphacheck[3]]
+
+    The coweight lattice and space are defined similarly. Note that, to
+    limit confusion, all the output have been tweaked appropriately.
+
+    .. SEEALSO::
+
+        - :mod:`sage.combinat.root_system`
+        - :class:`RootSpace`
+        - :class:`WeightSpace`
+        - :class:`AmbientSpace`
+        - :class:`~sage.combinat.root_system.root_lattice_realizations.RootLatticeRealizations`
+        - :class:`~sage.combinat.root_system.weight_lattice_realizations.WeightLatticeRealizations`
+
+    TESTS::
+
+        sage: R = RootSystem(['C',3])
+        sage: TestSuite(R).run()                                                        # needs sage.graphs
+        sage: L = R.ambient_space()
+        sage: s = L.simple_reflections() # this used to break the testsuite below due to caching an unpicklable method
+        sage: s = L.simple_projections() # todo: not implemented
+        sage: TestSuite(L).run()                                                        # needs sage.graphs
+        sage: L = R.root_space()
+        sage: s = L.simple_reflections()
+        sage: TestSuite(L).run()
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: for T in CartanType.samples(crystallographic=True):  # long time (13s on sage.math, 2012)
+        ....:     TestSuite(RootSystem(T)).run()
+
+    Some checks for equality::
+
+        sage: r1 = RootSystem(['A',3])
+        sage: r2 = RootSystem(['B',3])
+        sage: r1 == r1
+        True
+        sage: r1 == r2
+        False
+        sage: r1 != r1
+        False
+
+    Check that root systems inherit a hash method from ``UniqueRepresentation``::
+
+        sage: hash(r1)  # random
+        42
+    """
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def __classcall__(cls, cartan_type, as_dual_of=None):
+        """
+        Straighten arguments to enable unique representation.
+
+        .. SEEALSO:: :class:`UniqueRepresentation`
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(["A",3]) is RootSystem(CartanType(["A",3]))
+            True
+            sage: RootSystem(["B",3], as_dual_of=None) is RootSystem("B3")
+            True
+        """
+        return super().__classcall__(cls, CartanType(cartan_type), as_dual_of)
+
+    def __init__(self, cartan_type, as_dual_of=None):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: R = RootSystem(['A',3])
+            sage: R
+            Root system of type ['A', 3]
+        """
+        self._cartan_type = CartanType(cartan_type)
+
+        # Duality
+        # The root system can be defined as dual of another root system. This will
+        # only affects the pretty printing
+        if as_dual_of is None:
+            self.dual_side = False
+            # still fails for CartanType G2xA1
+            try:
+                self.dual = RootSystem(self._cartan_type.dual(),
+                                       as_dual_of=self)
+            except Exception:
+                pass
+        else:
+            self.dual_side = True
+            self.dual = as_dual_of
+
+    def _test_root_lattice_realizations(self, **options):
+        """
+        Run tests on all the root lattice realizations of this root
+        system.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(["A",3])._test_root_lattice_realizations()                 # needs sage.graphs
+
+        .. SEEALSO:: :class:`TestSuite`.
+        """
+        options.pop('tester', None)
+        from sage.misc.sage_unittest import TestSuite
+        TestSuite(self.root_lattice()).run(**options)
+        TestSuite(self.root_space()).run(**options)
+        TestSuite(self.weight_lattice()).run(**options)
+        TestSuite(self.weight_space()).run(**options)
+        if self.cartan_type().is_affine():
+            TestSuite(self.weight_lattice(extended=True)).run(**options)
+            TestSuite(self.weight_space(extended=True)).run(**options)
+        if self.ambient_lattice() is not None:
+            TestSuite(self.ambient_lattice()).run(**options)
+        if self.ambient_space() is not None:
+            TestSuite(self.ambient_space()).run(**options)
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3])    # indirect doctest
+            Root system of type ['A', 3]
+            sage: RootSystem(['B',3]).dual    # indirect doctest
+            Dual of root system of type ['B', 3]
+        """
+        if self.dual_side:
+            return "Dual of root system of type %s" % self.dual.cartan_type()
+        else:
+            return "Root system of type %s" % self.cartan_type()
+
+    def cartan_type(self):
+        """
+        Return the Cartan type of the root system.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R = RootSystem(['A',3])
+            sage: R.cartan_type()
+            ['A', 3]
+        """
+        return self._cartan_type
+
+    @cached_method
+    def dynkin_diagram(self):
+        """
+        Return the Dynkin diagram of the root system.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R = RootSystem(['A',3])
+            sage: R.dynkin_diagram()                                                    # needs sage.graphs
+            O---O---O
+            1   2   3
+            A3
+        """
+        return self.cartan_type().dynkin_diagram()
+
+    @cached_method
+    def cartan_matrix(self):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).cartan_matrix()                                   # needs sage.graphs
+            [ 2 -1  0]
+            [-1  2 -1]
+            [ 0 -1  2]
+        """
+        return self.cartan_type().cartan_matrix()
+
+    @cached_method
+    def index_set(self):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).index_set()
+            (1, 2, 3)
+        """
+        return self.cartan_type().index_set()
+
+    @cached_method
+    def is_finite(self):
+        """
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is a finite root system.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(["A",3]).is_finite()
+            True
+            sage: RootSystem(["A",3,1]).is_finite()
+            False
+        """
+        return self.cartan_type().is_finite()
+
+    @cached_method
+    def is_irreducible(self):
+        """
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is an irreducible root system.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A', 3]).is_irreducible()
+            True
+            sage: RootSystem("A2xB2").is_irreducible()
+            False
+        """
+        return self.cartan_type().is_irreducible()
+
+    def root_lattice(self):
+        """
+        Return the root lattice associated to ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).root_lattice()
+            Root lattice of the Root system of type ['A', 3]
+        """
+        return self.root_space(ZZ)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def root_space(self, base_ring=QQ):
+        """
+        Return the root space associated to ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).root_space()
+            Root space over the Rational Field of the Root system of type ['A', 3]
+        """
+        return RootSpace(self, base_ring)
+
+    def root_poset(self, restricted=False, facade=False):
+        r"""
+        Return the (restricted) root poset associated to ``self``.
+
+        The elements are given by the positive roots (resp. non-simple, positive roots), and
+        `\alpha \leq \beta` iff `\beta - \alpha` is a nonnegative linear combination of simple roots.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``restricted`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); if ``True``, only
+          non-simple roots are considered
+        - ``facade`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); passes facade option to
+          the poset generator
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Phi = RootSystem(['A',2]).root_poset(); Phi                           # needs sage.graphs
+            Finite poset containing 3 elements
+            sage: sorted(Phi.cover_relations(), key=str)                                # needs sage.graphs
+            [[alpha[1], alpha[1] + alpha[2]], [alpha[2], alpha[1] + alpha[2]]]
+
+            sage: Phi = RootSystem(['A',3]).root_poset(restricted=True); Phi            # needs sage.graphs
+            Finite poset containing 3 elements
+            sage: sorted(Phi.cover_relations(), key=str)                                # needs sage.graphs
+            [[alpha[1] + alpha[2], alpha[1] + alpha[2] + alpha[3]],
+             [alpha[2] + alpha[3], alpha[1] + alpha[2] + alpha[3]]]
+
+            sage: Phi = RootSystem(['B',2]).root_poset(); Phi                           # needs sage.graphs
+            Finite poset containing 4 elements
+            sage: Phi.cover_relations()                                                 # needs sage.graphs
+            [[alpha[2], alpha[1] + alpha[2]], [alpha[1], alpha[1] + alpha[2]],
+             [alpha[1] + alpha[2], alpha[1] + 2*alpha[2]]]
+        """
+        return self.root_lattice().root_poset(restricted=restricted, facade=facade)
+
+    def coroot_lattice(self):
+        """
+        Return the coroot lattice associated to ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).coroot_lattice()
+            Coroot lattice of the Root system of type ['A', 3]
+        """
+        return self.dual.root_lattice()
+
+    def coroot_space(self, base_ring=QQ):
+        """
+        Return the coroot space associated to ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).coroot_space()
+            Coroot space over the Rational Field of the Root system of type ['A', 3]
+        """
+        return self.dual.root_space(base_ring)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def weight_lattice(self, extended=False):
+        """
+        Return the weight lattice associated to ``self``.
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            - :meth:`weight_space`
+            - :meth:`coweight_space`, :meth:`coweight_lattice`
+            - :class:`~sage.combinat.root_system.WeightSpace`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).weight_lattice()
+            Weight lattice of the Root system of type ['A', 3]
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3,1]).weight_space(extended=True)
+            Extended weight space over the Rational Field
+             of the Root system of type ['A', 3, 1]
+        """
+        return WeightSpace(self, ZZ, extended=extended)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def weight_space(self, base_ring=QQ, extended=False):
+        """
+        Return the weight space associated to ``self``.
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            - :meth:`weight_lattice`
+            - :meth:`coweight_space`, :meth:`coweight_lattice`
+            - :class:`~sage.combinat.root_system.WeightSpace`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).weight_space()
+            Weight space over the Rational Field of the Root system of type ['A', 3]
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3,1]).weight_space(extended=True)
+            Extended weight space over the Rational Field
+             of the Root system of type ['A', 3, 1]
+        """
+        return WeightSpace(self, base_ring, extended=extended)
+
+    def coweight_lattice(self, extended=False):
+        """
+        Return the coweight lattice associated to ``self``.
+
+        This is the weight lattice of the dual root system.
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            - :meth:`coweight_space`
+            - :meth:`weight_space`, :meth:`weight_lattice`
+            - :class:`~sage.combinat.root_system.WeightSpace`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).coweight_lattice()
+            Coweight lattice of the Root system of type ['A', 3]
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3,1]).coweight_lattice(extended=True)
+            Extended coweight lattice of the Root system of type ['A', 3, 1]
+        """
+        return self.dual.weight_lattice(extended=extended)
+
+    def coweight_space(self, base_ring=QQ, extended=False):
+        """
+        Return the coweight space associated to ``self``.
+
+        This is the weight space of the dual root system.
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            - :meth:`coweight_lattice`
+            - :meth:`weight_space`, :meth:`weight_lattice`
+            - :class:`~sage.combinat.root_system.WeightSpace`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3]).coweight_space()
+            Coweight space over the Rational Field of the Root system of type ['A', 3]
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',3,1]).coweight_space(extended=True)
+            Extended coweight space over the Rational Field
+             of the Root system of type ['A', 3, 1]
+        """
+        return self.dual.weight_space(base_ring, extended=extended)
+
+    def ambient_lattice(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the ambient lattice for this root_system.
+
+        This is the ambient space, over `\ZZ`.
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            - :meth:`ambient_space`
+            - :meth:`root_lattice`
+            - :meth:`weight_lattice`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',4]).ambient_lattice()
+            Ambient lattice of the Root system of type ['A', 4]
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',4,1]).ambient_lattice()
+            Ambient lattice of the Root system of type ['A', 4, 1]
+
+        Except in type A, only an ambient space can be realized::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['B',4]).ambient_lattice()
+            sage: RootSystem(['C',4]).ambient_lattice()
+            sage: RootSystem(['D',4]).ambient_lattice()
+            sage: RootSystem(['E',6]).ambient_lattice()
+            sage: RootSystem(['F',4]).ambient_lattice()
+            sage: RootSystem(['G',2]).ambient_lattice()
+        """
+        return self.ambient_space(ZZ)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def ambient_space(self, base_ring=QQ):
+        r"""
+        Return the usual ambient space for this root_system.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``base_ring`` -- a base ring (default: `\QQ`)
+
+        This is a ``base_ring``-module, endowed with its canonical
+        Euclidean scalar product, which admits simultaneous embeddings
+        into the weight and the coweight lattice, and therefore the
+        root and the coroot lattice, and preserves scalar products
+        between elements of the coroot lattice and elements of the
+        root or weight lattice (and dually).
+
+        There is no mechanical way to define the ambient space just
+        from the Cartan matrix. Instead it is constructed from hard
+        coded type by type data, according to the usual Bourbaki
+        conventions. Such data is provided for all the finite
+        (crystallographic) types. From this data, ambient spaces can be
+        built as well for dual types, reducible types and affine
+        types. When no data is available, or if the base ring is not
+        large enough, None is returned.
+
+        .. WARNING:: for affine types
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            - The section on ambient spaces in :class:`RootSystem`
+            - :meth:`ambient_lattice`
+            - :class:`~sage.combinat.root_system.ambient_space.AmbientSpace`
+            - :class:`~sage.combinat.root_system.ambient_space.type_affine.AmbientSpace`
+            - :meth:`root_space`
+            - :meth:`weight:space`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['A',4]).ambient_space()
+            Ambient space of the Root system of type ['A', 4]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['B',4]).ambient_space()
+            Ambient space of the Root system of type ['B', 4]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['C',4]).ambient_space()
+            Ambient space of the Root system of type ['C', 4]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['D',4]).ambient_space()
+            Ambient space of the Root system of type ['D', 4]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['E',6]).ambient_space()
+            Ambient space of the Root system of type ['E', 6]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['F',4]).ambient_space()
+            Ambient space of the Root system of type ['F', 4]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['G',2]).ambient_space()
+            Ambient space of the Root system of type ['G', 2]
+
+        An alternative base ring can be provided as an option::
+
+            sage: e = RootSystem(['B',3]).ambient_space(RR)
+            sage: TestSuite(e).run()                                                    # needs sage.graphs
+
+        It should contain the smallest ring over which the ambient
+        space can be defined (`\ZZ` in type `A` or `\QQ` otherwise).
+        Otherwise ``None`` is returned::
+
+            sage: RootSystem(['B',2]).ambient_space(ZZ)
+
+        The base ring should also be totally ordered. In practice,
+        only `\ZZ` and `\QQ` are really supported at this point, but
+        you are welcome to experiment::
+
+            sage: e = RootSystem(['G',2]).ambient_space(RR)
+            sage: TestSuite(e).run()                                                    # needs sage.graphs
+            Failure in _test_root_lattice_realization:
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            AssertionError: 2.00000000000000 != 2.00000000000000
+            ------------------------------------------------------------
+            The following tests failed: _test_root_lattice_realization
+        """
+        if not hasattr(self.cartan_type(),"AmbientSpace"):
+            return None
+        AmbientSpace = self.cartan_type().AmbientSpace
+        if not base_ring.has_coerce_map_from(AmbientSpace.smallest_base_ring(self.cartan_type())):
+            return None
+        return AmbientSpace(self, base_ring)
+
+    def coambient_space(self, base_ring=QQ):
+        r"""
+        Return the coambient space for this root system.
+
+        This is the ambient space of the dual root system.
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            - :meth:`ambient_space`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: L = RootSystem(["B",2]).ambient_space(); L
+            Ambient space of the Root system of type ['B', 2]
+            sage: coL = RootSystem(["B",2]).coambient_space(); coL
+            Coambient space of the Root system of type ['B', 2]
+
+        The roots and coroots are interchanged::
+
+            sage: coL.simple_roots()
+            Finite family {1: (1, -1), 2: (0, 2)}
+            sage: L.simple_coroots()
+            Finite family {1: (1, -1), 2: (0, 2)}
+
+            sage: coL.simple_coroots()
+            Finite family {1: (1, -1), 2: (0, 1)}
+            sage: L.simple_roots()
+            Finite family {1: (1, -1), 2: (0, 1)}
+        """
+        return self.dual.ambient_space(base_ring)
+
+    def coxeter_number(self):
+        """
+        Return the Coxeter number of an irreducible finite root system.
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            :meth:`~sage.combinat.root_system.cartan_type.CartanType_standard_finite.coxeter_number`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: rt = RootSystem(['C', 5])
+            sage: rt.coxeter_number()
+            10
+        """
+        # Check if RootSystem is finite and irreducible
+        if not (self.is_finite() and self.is_irreducible()):
+            raise ValueError("the Coxeter number is defined only for finite and irreducible root systems")
+        # Hand over to CartanType method
+        return self._cartan_type.coxeter_number()
+
+    def dual_coxeter_number(self):
+        """
+        Return the dual Coxeter number of a irreducible finite root system.
+
+        The dual Coxeter number is equal to 1 plus the sum of the coefficients
+        of simple roots in the highest short root of the dual root system.
+
+        .. SEEALSO:: :meth:`~sage.combinat.root_system.cartan_type.CartanType_standard_finite.dual_coxeter_number`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: rt = RootSystem(['C', 5])
+            sage: rt.dual_coxeter_number()
+            6
+
+        The dual Coxeter number is not the same concept as the Coxeter number
+        of the dual root system::
+
+            sage: rt.dual
+            Dual of root system of type ['C', 5]
+            sage: rt.dual.coxeter_number()
+            10
+        """
+        # Check if RootSystem is finite and irreducible
+        if not (self.is_finite() and self.is_irreducible()):
+            raise ValueError("the dual Coxeter number is defined only for finite and irreducible root systems")
+        # Hand over to CartanType method
+        return self._cartan_type.dual_coxeter_number()
+
+
+def WeylDim(ct, coeffs):
+    """
+    The Weyl Dimension Formula.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``ct`` -- a Cartan type
+
+    - ``coeffs`` -- list of nonnegative integers
+
+    The length of the list must equal the rank type[1]. A dominant
+    weight hwv is constructed by summing the fundamental weights with
+    coefficients from this list. The dimension of the irreducible
+    representation of the semisimple complex Lie algebra with highest
+    weight vector hwv is returned.
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    For `SO(7)`, the Cartan type is `B_3`, so::
+
+        sage: WeylDim(['B',3],[1,0,0])  # standard representation of SO(7)
+        7
+        sage: WeylDim(['B',3],[0,1,0])  # exterior square
+        21
+        sage: WeylDim(['B',3],[0,0,1])  # spin representation of spin(7)
+        8
+        sage: WeylDim(['B',3],[1,0,1])  # sum of the first and third fundamental weights
+        48
+        sage: [WeylDim(['F',4],x) for x in ([1,0,0,0],[0,1,0,0],[0,0,1,0],[0,0,0,1])]
+        [52, 1274, 273, 26]
+        sage: [WeylDim(['E', 6], x)
+        ....:  for x in ([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1],
+        ....:            [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2], [0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0],
+        ....:            [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1], [2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])]
+        [1, 78, 27, 351, 351, 351, 27, 650, 351]
+    """
+    ct = CartanType(ct)
+    lattice = RootSystem(ct).ambient_space()
+    rank = ct.rank()
+    fw = lattice.fundamental_weights()
+    hwv = lattice.sum(coeffs[i]*fw[i+1] for i in range(min(rank, len(coeffs))))
+    return lattice.weyl_dimension(hwv)