brainstate 0.2.1__py2.py3-none-any.whl → 0.2.2__py2.py3-none-any.whl

brainstate/nn/_activations.py

@@ -1,1100 +1,1100 @@
-# Copyright 2024 BrainX Ecosystem Limited. All Rights Reserved.
-#
-# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-# You may obtain a copy of the License at
-#
-#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-#
-# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-# limitations under the License.
-# ==============================================================================
-
-
-"""
-Shared neural network activations and other functions.
-"""
-
-from typing import Any, Union, Sequence
-
-import brainunit as u
-import jax
-from jax.scipy.special import logsumexp
-
-from brainstate import random
-from brainstate.typing import ArrayLike
-
-__all__ = [
-    "tanh",
-    "relu",
-    "squareplus",
-    "softplus",
-    "soft_sign",
-    "sigmoid",
-    "silu",
-    "swish",
-    "log_sigmoid",
-    "elu",
-    "leaky_relu",
-    "hard_tanh",
-    "celu",
-    "selu",
-    "gelu",
-    "glu",
-    "logsumexp",
-    "log_softmax",
-    "softmax",
-    "standardize",
-    "one_hot",
-    "relu6",
-    "hard_sigmoid",
-    "hard_silu",
-    "hard_swish",
-    'hard_shrink',
-    'rrelu',
-    'mish',
-    'soft_shrink',
-    'prelu',
-    'tanh_shrink',
-    'softmin',
-    'sparse_plus',
-    'sparse_sigmoid',
-]
-
-
-def tanh(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Hyperbolic tangent activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{tanh}(x) = \frac{e^x - e^{-x}}{e^x + e^{-x}}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    return u.math.tanh(x)
-
-
-def softmin(x, axis=-1):
-    r"""
-    Softmin activation function.
-
-    Applies the Softmin function to an n-dimensional input tensor, rescaling elements
-    so that they lie in the range [0, 1] and sum to 1 along the specified axis.
-
-    .. math::
-        \text{Softmin}(x_{i}) = \frac{\exp(-x_i)}{\sum_j \exp(-x_j)}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array of any shape.
-    axis : int, optional
-        The axis along which Softmin will be computed. Every slice along this
-        dimension will sum to 1. Default is -1.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        Output array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    unnormalized = u.math.exp(-x)
-    return unnormalized / unnormalized.sum(axis, keepdims=True)
-
-
-def tanh_shrink(x):
-    r"""
-    Tanh shrink activation function.
-
-    Applies the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-        \text{Tanhshrink}(x) = x - \tanh(x)
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        Output array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    return x - u.math.tanh(x)
-
-
-def prelu(x, a=0.25):
-    r"""
-    Parametric Rectified Linear Unit activation function.
-
-    Applies the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-        \text{PReLU}(x) = \max(0,x) + a * \min(0,x)
-
-    or equivalently:
-
-    .. math::
-        \text{PReLU}(x) =
-        \begin{cases}
-        x, & \text{ if } x \geq 0 \\
-        ax, & \text{ otherwise }
-        \end{cases}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    a : float or ArrayLike, optional
-        The negative slope coefficient. Can be a learnable parameter.
-        Default is 0.25.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        Output array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    Notes
-    -----
-    When used in neural network layers, :math:`a` can be a learnable parameter
-    that is optimized during training.
-    """
-    return u.math.where(x >= 0., x, a * x)
-
-
-def soft_shrink(x, lambd=0.5):
-    r"""
-    Soft shrinkage activation function.
-
-    Applies the soft shrinkage function element-wise:
-
-    .. math::
-        \text{SoftShrinkage}(x) =
-        \begin{cases}
-        x - \lambda, & \text{ if } x > \lambda \\
-        x + \lambda, & \text{ if } x < -\lambda \\
-        0, & \text{ otherwise }
-        \end{cases}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array of any shape.
-    lambd : float, optional
-        The :math:`\lambda` value for the soft shrinkage formulation.
-        Must be non-negative. Default is 0.5.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        Output array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    return u.math.where(
-        x > lambd,
-        x - lambd,
-        u.math.where(
-            x < -lambd,
-            x + lambd,
-            u.Quantity(0., unit=u.get_unit(lambd))
-        )
-    )
-
-
-def mish(x):
-    r"""
-    Mish activation function.
-
-    Mish is a self-regularized non-monotonic activation function.
-
-    .. math::
-        \text{Mish}(x) = x * \text{Tanh}(\text{Softplus}(x))
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array of any shape.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        Output array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] Misra, D. (2019). "Mish: A Self Regularized Non-Monotonic Activation Function."
-           arXiv:1908.08681
-    """
-    return x * u.math.tanh(softplus(x))
-
-
-def rrelu(x, lower=0.125, upper=0.3333333333333333):
-    r"""
-    Randomized Leaky Rectified Linear Unit activation function.
-
-    The function is defined as:
-
-    .. math::
-        \text{RReLU}(x) =
-        \begin{cases}
-            x & \text{if } x \geq 0 \\
-            ax & \text{ otherwise }
-        \end{cases}
-
-    where :math:`a` is randomly sampled from uniform distribution
-    :math:`\mathcal{U}(\text{lower}, \text{upper})`.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array of any shape.
-    lower : float, optional
-        Lower bound of the uniform distribution for sampling the negative slope.
-        Default is 1/8.
-    upper : float, optional
-        Upper bound of the uniform distribution for sampling the negative slope.
-        Default is 1/3.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        Output array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] Xu, B., et al. (2015). "Empirical Evaluation of Rectified Activations
-           in Convolutional Network." arXiv:1505.00853
-    """
-    a = random.uniform(lower, upper, size=u.math.shape(x), dtype=x.dtype)
-    return u.math.where(u.get_mantissa(x) >= 0., x, a * x)
-
-
-def hard_shrink(x, lambd=0.5):
-    r"""
-    Hard shrinkage activation function.
-
-    Applies the hard shrinkage function element-wise:
-
-    .. math::
-        \text{HardShrink}(x) =
-        \begin{cases}
-        x, & \text{ if } x > \lambda \\
-        x, & \text{ if } x < -\lambda \\
-        0, & \text{ otherwise }
-        \end{cases}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array of any shape.
-    lambd : float, optional
-        The :math:`\lambda` threshold value for the hard shrinkage formulation.
-        Default is 0.5.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        Output array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    return u.math.where(
-        x > lambd,
-        x,
-        u.math.where(
-            x < -lambd,
-            x,
-            u.Quantity(0., unit=u.get_unit(x))
-        )
-    )
-
-
-def relu(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Rectified Linear Unit activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{relu}(x) = \max(x, 0)
-
-    Under differentiation, we take:
-
-    .. math::
-      \nabla \mathrm{relu}(0) = 0
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
-        >>> import brainstate 
-        >>> brainstate.nn.relu(jnp.array([-2., -1., -0.5, 0, 0.5, 1., 2.]))
-        Array([0. , 0. , 0. , 0. , 0.5, 1. , 2. ], dtype=float32)
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    relu6 : ReLU6 activation function.
-    leaky_relu : Leaky ReLU activation function.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] For more information see "Numerical influence of ReLU'(0) on backpropagation"
-           https://openreview.net/forum?id=urrcVI-_jRm
-    """
-    return u.math.relu(x)
-
-
-def squareplus(x: ArrayLike, b: ArrayLike = 4) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Squareplus activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{squareplus}(x) = \frac{x + \sqrt{x^2 + b}}{2}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    b : ArrayLike, optional
-        Smoothness parameter. Default is 4.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] So, D., et al. (2021). "Primer: Searching for Efficient Transformers
-           for Language Modeling." arXiv:2112.11687
-    """
-    return u.math.squareplus(x, b=b)
-
-
-def softplus(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Softplus activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{softplus}(x) = \log(1 + e^x)
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    return u.math.softplus(x)
-
-
-def soft_sign(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Soft-sign activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{soft\_sign}(x) = \frac{x}{|x| + 1}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    return u.math.soft_sign(x)
-
-
-def sigmoid(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Sigmoid activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{sigmoid}(x) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{-x}}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    log_sigmoid : Logarithm of the sigmoid function.
-    """
-    return u.math.sigmoid(x)
-
-
-def silu(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    SiLU (Sigmoid Linear Unit) activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{silu}(x) = x \cdot \mathrm{sigmoid}(x) = \frac{x}{1 + e^{-x}}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    sigmoid : The sigmoid function.
-    swish : Alias for silu.
-
-    Notes
-    -----
-    `swish` and `silu` are both aliases for the same function.
-    """
-    return u.math.silu(x)
-
-
-swish = silu
-
-
-def log_sigmoid(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Log-sigmoid activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{log\_sigmoid}(x) = \log(\mathrm{sigmoid}(x)) = -\log(1 + e^{-x})
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    sigmoid : The sigmoid function.
-    """
-    return u.math.log_sigmoid(x)
-
-
-def elu(x: ArrayLike, alpha: ArrayLike = 1.0) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Exponential Linear Unit activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{elu}(x) = \begin{cases}
-        x, & x > 0\\
-        \alpha \left(\exp(x) - 1\right), & x \le 0
-      \end{cases}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    alpha : ArrayLike, optional
-        Scalar or array of alpha values. Default is 1.0.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    selu : Scaled ELU activation function.
-    celu : Continuously-differentiable ELU activation function.
-    """
-    return u.math.elu(x, alpha=alpha)
-
-
-def leaky_relu(x: ArrayLike, negative_slope: ArrayLike = 1e-2) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Leaky Rectified Linear Unit activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{leaky\_relu}(x) = \begin{cases}
-        x, & x \ge 0\\
-        \alpha x, & x < 0
-      \end{cases}
-
-    where :math:`\alpha` = :code:`negative_slope`.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    negative_slope : ArrayLike, optional
-        Array or scalar specifying the negative slope. Default is 0.01.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    relu : Standard ReLU activation function.
-    prelu : Parametric ReLU with learnable slope.
-    """
-    return u.math.leaky_relu(x, negative_slope=negative_slope)
-
-
-def _hard_tanh(x, min_val=- 1.0, max_val=1.0):
-    return jax.numpy.where(x > max_val, max_val, jax.numpy.where(x < min_val, min_val, x))
-
-
-def hard_tanh(
-    x: ArrayLike,
-    min_val: float = - 1.0,
-    max_val: float = 1.0
-) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Hard hyperbolic tangent activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{hard\_tanh}(x) = \begin{cases}
-        -1, & x < -1\\
-        x, & -1 \le x \le 1\\
-        1, & 1 < x
-      \end{cases}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    min_val : float, optional
-        Minimum value of the linear region range. Default is -1.
-    max_val : float, optional
-        Maximum value of the linear region range. Default is 1.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    x = u.Quantity(x)
-    min_val = u.Quantity(min_val).to(x.unit).mantissa
-    max_val = u.Quantity(max_val).to(x.unit).mantissa
-    return u.maybe_decimal(_hard_tanh(x.mantissa, min_val=min_val, max_val=max_val) * x.unit)
-
-
-def celu(x: ArrayLike, alpha: ArrayLike = 1.0) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Continuously-differentiable Exponential Linear Unit activation.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{celu}(x) = \begin{cases}
-        x, & x > 0\\
-        \alpha \left(\exp(\frac{x}{\alpha}) - 1\right), & x \le 0
-      \end{cases}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    alpha : ArrayLike, optional
-        Scalar or array value controlling the smoothness. Default is 1.0.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] Barron, J. T. (2017). "Continuously Differentiable Exponential Linear Units."
-           arXiv:1704.07483
-    """
-    return u.math.celu(x, alpha=alpha)
-
-
-def selu(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Scaled Exponential Linear Unit activation.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{selu}(x) = \lambda \begin{cases}
-        x, & x > 0\\
-        \alpha e^x - \alpha, & x \le 0
-      \end{cases}
-
-    where :math:`\lambda = 1.0507009873554804934193349852946` and
-    :math:`\alpha = 1.6732632423543772848170429916717`.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    elu : Exponential Linear Unit activation function.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] Klambauer, G., et al. (2017). "Self-Normalizing Neural Networks."
-           NeurIPS 2017.
-    """
-    return u.math.selu(x)
-
-
-def gelu(x: ArrayLike, approximate: bool = True) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Gaussian Error Linear Unit activation function.
-
-    If ``approximate=False``, computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{gelu}(x) = \frac{x}{2} \left(1 + \mathrm{erf} \left(
-        \frac{x}{\sqrt{2}} \right) \right)
-
-    If ``approximate=True``, uses the approximate formulation of GELU:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{gelu}(x) = \frac{x}{2} \left(1 + \mathrm{tanh} \left(
-        \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi}} \left(x + 0.044715 x^3 \right) \right) \right)
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    approximate : bool, optional
-        Whether to use the approximate (True) or exact (False) formulation.
-        Default is True.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] Hendrycks, D., & Gimpel, K. (2016). "Gaussian Error Linear Units (GELUs)."
-           arXiv:1606.08415
-    """
-    return u.math.gelu(x, approximate=approximate)
-
-
-def glu(x: ArrayLike, axis: int = -1) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Gated Linear Unit activation function.
-
-    Computes the function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{glu}(x) =  x\left[\ldots, 0:\frac{n}{2}, \ldots\right] \cdot
-        \mathrm{sigmoid} \left( x\left[\ldots, \frac{n}{2}:n, \ldots\right]
-          \right)
-
-    where the array is split into two along ``axis``. The size of the ``axis``
-    dimension must be divisible by two.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array. The dimension specified by ``axis`` must be divisible by 2.
-    axis : int, optional
-        The axis along which the split should be computed. Default is -1.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as input except the ``axis`` dimension
-        is halved.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    sigmoid : The sigmoid activation function.
-    """
-    return u.math.glu(x, axis=axis)
-
-
-def log_softmax(x: ArrayLike,
-                axis: int | tuple[int, ...] | None = -1,
-                where: ArrayLike | None = None) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Log-Softmax function.
-
-    Computes the logarithm of the softmax function, which rescales
-    elements to the range :math:`[-\infty, 0)`.
-
-    .. math ::
-      \mathrm{log\_softmax}(x)_i = \log \left( \frac{\exp(x_i)}{\sum_j \exp(x_j)}
-      \right)
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    axis : int or tuple of int, optional
-        The axis or axes along which the log-softmax should be computed.
-        Either an integer or a tuple of integers. Default is -1.
-    where : ArrayLike, optional
-        Elements to include in the log-softmax computation.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    softmax : The softmax function.
-    """
-    return jax.nn.log_softmax(x, axis=axis, where=where)
-
-
-def softmax(x: ArrayLike,
-            axis: int | tuple[int, ...] | None = -1,
-            where: ArrayLike | None = None) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Softmax activation function.
-
-    Computes the function which rescales elements to the range :math:`[0, 1]`
-    such that the elements along :code:`axis` sum to :math:`1`.
-
-    .. math ::
-      \mathrm{softmax}(x) = \frac{\exp(x_i)}{\sum_j \exp(x_j)}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    axis : int or tuple of int, optional
-        The axis or axes along which the softmax should be computed. The
-        softmax output summed across these dimensions should sum to :math:`1`.
-        Either an integer or a tuple of integers. Default is -1.
-    where : ArrayLike, optional
-        Elements to include in the softmax computation.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    log_softmax : Logarithm of the softmax function.
-    softmin : Softmin activation function.
-    """
-    return jax.nn.softmax(x, axis=axis, where=where)
-
-
-def standardize(x: ArrayLike,
-                axis: int | tuple[int, ...] | None = -1,
-                variance: ArrayLike | None = None,
-                epsilon: ArrayLike = 1e-5,
-                where: ArrayLike | None = None) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Standardize (normalize) an array.
-
-    Normalizes an array by subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard
-    deviation :math:`\sqrt{\mathrm{variance}}`.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-    axis : int or tuple of int, optional
-        The axis or axes along which to compute the mean and variance.
-        Default is -1.
-    variance : ArrayLike, optional
-        Pre-computed variance. If None, variance is computed from ``x``.
-    epsilon : ArrayLike, optional
-        A small constant added to the variance to avoid division by zero.
-        Default is 1e-5.
-    where : ArrayLike, optional
-        Elements to include in the computation.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        Standardized array with the same shape as the input.
-    """
-    return jax.nn.standardize(x, axis=axis, where=where, variance=variance, epsilon=epsilon)
-
-
-def one_hot(x: Any,
-            num_classes: int, *,
-            dtype: Any = jax.numpy.float_,
-            axis: Union[int, Sequence[int]] = -1) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    """
-    One-hot encode the given indices.
-
-    Each index in the input ``x`` is encoded as a vector of zeros of length
-    ``num_classes`` with the element at ``index`` set to one.
-
-    Indices outside the range [0, num_classes) will be encoded as zeros.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        A tensor of indices.
-    num_classes : int
-        Number of classes in the one-hot dimension.
-    dtype : dtype, optional
-        The dtype for the returned values. Default is ``jnp.float_``.
-    axis : int or Sequence of int, optional
-        The axis or axes along which the function should be computed.
-        Default is -1.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        One-hot encoded array.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
-        >>> import brainstate 
-        >>> brainstate.nn.one_hot(jnp.array([0, 1, 2]), 3)
-        Array([[1., 0., 0.],
-               [0., 1., 0.],
-               [0., 0., 1.]], dtype=float32)
-
-        >>> # Indices outside the range are encoded as zeros
-        >>> brainstate.nn.one_hot(jnp.array([-1, 3]), 3)
-        Array([[0., 0., 0.],
-               [0., 0., 0.]], dtype=float32)
-    """
-    return jax.nn.one_hot(x, axis=axis, num_classes=num_classes, dtype=dtype)
-
-
-def relu6(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Rectified Linear Unit 6 activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{relu6}(x) = \min(\max(x, 0), 6)
-
-    Under differentiation, we take:
-
-    .. math::
-      \nabla \mathrm{relu}(0) = 0
-
-    and
-
-    .. math::
-      \nabla \mathrm{relu}(6) = 0
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    relu : Standard ReLU activation function.
-    """
-    return u.math.relu6(x)
-
-
-def hard_sigmoid(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Hard Sigmoid activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{hard\_sigmoid}(x) = \frac{\mathrm{relu6}(x + 3)}{6}
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    relu6 : ReLU6 activation function.
-    sigmoid : Standard sigmoid function.
-    """
-    return u.math.hard_sigmoid(x)
-
-
-def hard_silu(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Hard SiLU (Swish) activation function.
-
-    Computes the element-wise function:
-
-    .. math::
-      \mathrm{hard\_silu}(x) = x \cdot \mathrm{hard\_sigmoid}(x)
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    hard_sigmoid : Hard sigmoid activation function.
-    silu : Standard SiLU activation function.
-    hard_swish : Alias for hard_silu.
-
-    Notes
-    -----
-    Both `hard_silu` and `hard_swish` are aliases for the same function.
-    """
-    return u.math.hard_silu(x)
-
-
-hard_swish = hard_silu
-
-
-def sparse_plus(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Sparse plus activation function.
-
-    Computes the function:
-
-    .. math::
-
-      \mathrm{sparse\_plus}(x) = \begin{cases}
-        0, & x \leq -1\\
-        \frac{1}{4}(x+1)^2, & -1 < x < 1 \\
-        x, & 1 \leq x
-      \end{cases}
-
-    This is the twin function of the softplus activation, ensuring a zero output
-    for inputs less than -1 and a linear output for inputs greater than 1,
-    while remaining smooth, convex, and monotonic between -1 and 1.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    sparse_sigmoid : Derivative of sparse_plus.
-    softplus : Standard softplus activation function.
-    """
-    return u.math.sparse_plus(x)
-
-
-def sparse_sigmoid(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
-    r"""
-    Sparse sigmoid activation function.
-
-    Computes the function:
-
-    .. math::
-
-      \mathrm{sparse\_sigmoid}(x) = \begin{cases}
-        0, & x \leq -1\\
-        \frac{1}{2}(x+1), & -1 < x < 1 \\
-        1, & 1 \leq x
-      \end{cases}
-
-    This is the twin function of the standard sigmoid activation, ensuring a zero
-    output for inputs less than -1, a 1 output for inputs greater than 1, and a
-    linear output for inputs between -1 and 1. It is the derivative of `sparse_plus`.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : ArrayLike
-        Input array.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    jax.Array or Quantity
-        An array with the same shape as the input.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    sigmoid : Standard sigmoid activation function.
-    sparse_plus : Sparse plus activation function.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] Martins, A. F. T., & Astudillo, R. F. (2016). "From Softmax to Sparsemax:
-           A Sparse Model of Attention and Multi-Label Classification."
-           In ICML. See also "Learning with Fenchel-Young Losses", arXiv:1901.02324
-    """
-    return u.math.sparse_sigmoid(x)
+# Copyright 2024 BrainX Ecosystem Limited. All Rights Reserved.
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+# ==============================================================================
+
+
+"""
+Shared neural network activations and other functions.
+"""
+
+from typing import Any, Union, Sequence
+
+import brainunit as u
+import jax
+from jax.scipy.special import logsumexp
+
+from brainstate import random
+from brainstate.typing import ArrayLike
+
+__all__ = [
+    "tanh",
+    "relu",
+    "squareplus",
+    "softplus",
+    "soft_sign",
+    "sigmoid",
+    "silu",
+    "swish",
+    "log_sigmoid",
+    "elu",
+    "leaky_relu",
+    "hard_tanh",
+    "celu",
+    "selu",
+    "gelu",
+    "glu",
+    "logsumexp",
+    "log_softmax",
+    "softmax",
+    "standardize",
+    "one_hot",
+    "relu6",
+    "hard_sigmoid",
+    "hard_silu",
+    "hard_swish",
+    'hard_shrink',
+    'rrelu',
+    'mish',
+    'soft_shrink',
+    'prelu',
+    'tanh_shrink',
+    'softmin',
+    'sparse_plus',
+    'sparse_sigmoid',
+]
+
+
+def tanh(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Hyperbolic tangent activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{tanh}(x) = \frac{e^x - e^{-x}}{e^x + e^{-x}}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    return u.math.tanh(x)
+
+
+def softmin(x, axis=-1):
+    r"""
+    Softmin activation function.
+
+    Applies the Softmin function to an n-dimensional input tensor, rescaling elements
+    so that they lie in the range [0, 1] and sum to 1 along the specified axis.
+
+    .. math::
+        \text{Softmin}(x_{i}) = \frac{\exp(-x_i)}{\sum_j \exp(-x_j)}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array of any shape.
+    axis : int, optional
+        The axis along which Softmin will be computed. Every slice along this
+        dimension will sum to 1. Default is -1.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        Output array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    unnormalized = u.math.exp(-x)
+    return unnormalized / unnormalized.sum(axis, keepdims=True)
+
+
+def tanh_shrink(x):
+    r"""
+    Tanh shrink activation function.
+
+    Applies the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+        \text{Tanhshrink}(x) = x - \tanh(x)
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        Output array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    return x - u.math.tanh(x)
+
+
+def prelu(x, a=0.25):
+    r"""
+    Parametric Rectified Linear Unit activation function.
+
+    Applies the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+        \text{PReLU}(x) = \max(0,x) + a * \min(0,x)
+
+    or equivalently:
+
+    .. math::
+        \text{PReLU}(x) =
+        \begin{cases}
+        x, & \text{ if } x \geq 0 \\
+        ax, & \text{ otherwise }
+        \end{cases}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    a : float or ArrayLike, optional
+        The negative slope coefficient. Can be a learnable parameter.
+        Default is 0.25.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        Output array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    When used in neural network layers, :math:`a` can be a learnable parameter
+    that is optimized during training.
+    """
+    return u.math.where(x >= 0., x, a * x)
+
+
+def soft_shrink(x, lambd=0.5):
+    r"""
+    Soft shrinkage activation function.
+
+    Applies the soft shrinkage function element-wise:
+
+    .. math::
+        \text{SoftShrinkage}(x) =
+        \begin{cases}
+        x - \lambda, & \text{ if } x > \lambda \\
+        x + \lambda, & \text{ if } x < -\lambda \\
+        0, & \text{ otherwise }
+        \end{cases}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array of any shape.
+    lambd : float, optional
+        The :math:`\lambda` value for the soft shrinkage formulation.
+        Must be non-negative. Default is 0.5.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        Output array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    return u.math.where(
+        x > lambd,
+        x - lambd,
+        u.math.where(
+            x < -lambd,
+            x + lambd,
+            u.Quantity(0., unit=u.get_unit(lambd))
+        )
+    )
+
+
+def mish(x):
+    r"""
+    Mish activation function.
+
+    Mish is a self-regularized non-monotonic activation function.
+
+    .. math::
+        \text{Mish}(x) = x * \text{Tanh}(\text{Softplus}(x))
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array of any shape.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        Output array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Misra, D. (2019). "Mish: A Self Regularized Non-Monotonic Activation Function."
+           arXiv:1908.08681
+    """
+    return x * u.math.tanh(softplus(x))
+
+
+def rrelu(x, lower=0.125, upper=0.3333333333333333):
+    r"""
+    Randomized Leaky Rectified Linear Unit activation function.
+
+    The function is defined as:
+
+    .. math::
+        \text{RReLU}(x) =
+        \begin{cases}
+            x & \text{if } x \geq 0 \\
+            ax & \text{ otherwise }
+        \end{cases}
+
+    where :math:`a` is randomly sampled from uniform distribution
+    :math:`\mathcal{U}(\text{lower}, \text{upper})`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array of any shape.
+    lower : float, optional
+        Lower bound of the uniform distribution for sampling the negative slope.
+        Default is 1/8.
+    upper : float, optional
+        Upper bound of the uniform distribution for sampling the negative slope.
+        Default is 1/3.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        Output array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Xu, B., et al. (2015). "Empirical Evaluation of Rectified Activations
+           in Convolutional Network." arXiv:1505.00853
+    """
+    a = random.uniform(lower, upper, size=u.math.shape(x), dtype=x.dtype)
+    return u.math.where(u.get_mantissa(x) >= 0., x, a * x)
+
+
+def hard_shrink(x, lambd=0.5):
+    r"""
+    Hard shrinkage activation function.
+
+    Applies the hard shrinkage function element-wise:
+
+    .. math::
+        \text{HardShrink}(x) =
+        \begin{cases}
+        x, & \text{ if } x > \lambda \\
+        x, & \text{ if } x < -\lambda \\
+        0, & \text{ otherwise }
+        \end{cases}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array of any shape.
+    lambd : float, optional
+        The :math:`\lambda` threshold value for the hard shrinkage formulation.
+        Default is 0.5.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        Output array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    return u.math.where(
+        x > lambd,
+        x,
+        u.math.where(
+            x < -lambd,
+            x,
+            u.Quantity(0., unit=u.get_unit(x))
+        )
+    )
+
+
+def relu(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Rectified Linear Unit activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{relu}(x) = \max(x, 0)
+
+    Under differentiation, we take:
+
+    .. math::
+      \nabla \mathrm{relu}(0) = 0
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
+        >>> import brainstate 
+        >>> brainstate.nn.relu(jnp.array([-2., -1., -0.5, 0, 0.5, 1., 2.]))
+        Array([0. , 0. , 0. , 0. , 0.5, 1. , 2. ], dtype=float32)
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    relu6 : ReLU6 activation function.
+    leaky_relu : Leaky ReLU activation function.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] For more information see "Numerical influence of ReLU'(0) on backpropagation"
+           https://openreview.net/forum?id=urrcVI-_jRm
+    """
+    return u.math.relu(x)
+
+
+def squareplus(x: ArrayLike, b: ArrayLike = 4) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Squareplus activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{squareplus}(x) = \frac{x + \sqrt{x^2 + b}}{2}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    b : ArrayLike, optional
+        Smoothness parameter. Default is 4.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] So, D., et al. (2021). "Primer: Searching for Efficient Transformers
+           for Language Modeling." arXiv:2112.11687
+    """
+    return u.math.squareplus(x, b=b)
+
+
+def softplus(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Softplus activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{softplus}(x) = \log(1 + e^x)
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    return u.math.softplus(x)
+
+
+def soft_sign(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Soft-sign activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{soft\_sign}(x) = \frac{x}{|x| + 1}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    return u.math.soft_sign(x)
+
+
+def sigmoid(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Sigmoid activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{sigmoid}(x) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{-x}}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    log_sigmoid : Logarithm of the sigmoid function.
+    """
+    return u.math.sigmoid(x)
+
+
+def silu(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    SiLU (Sigmoid Linear Unit) activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{silu}(x) = x \cdot \mathrm{sigmoid}(x) = \frac{x}{1 + e^{-x}}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    sigmoid : The sigmoid function.
+    swish : Alias for silu.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    `swish` and `silu` are both aliases for the same function.
+    """
+    return u.math.silu(x)
+
+
+swish = silu
+
+
+def log_sigmoid(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Log-sigmoid activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{log\_sigmoid}(x) = \log(\mathrm{sigmoid}(x)) = -\log(1 + e^{-x})
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    sigmoid : The sigmoid function.
+    """
+    return u.math.log_sigmoid(x)
+
+
+def elu(x: ArrayLike, alpha: ArrayLike = 1.0) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Exponential Linear Unit activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{elu}(x) = \begin{cases}
+        x, & x > 0\\
+        \alpha \left(\exp(x) - 1\right), & x \le 0
+      \end{cases}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    alpha : ArrayLike, optional
+        Scalar or array of alpha values. Default is 1.0.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    selu : Scaled ELU activation function.
+    celu : Continuously-differentiable ELU activation function.
+    """
+    return u.math.elu(x, alpha=alpha)
+
+
+def leaky_relu(x: ArrayLike, negative_slope: ArrayLike = 1e-2) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Leaky Rectified Linear Unit activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{leaky\_relu}(x) = \begin{cases}
+        x, & x \ge 0\\
+        \alpha x, & x < 0
+      \end{cases}
+
+    where :math:`\alpha` = :code:`negative_slope`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    negative_slope : ArrayLike, optional
+        Array or scalar specifying the negative slope. Default is 0.01.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    relu : Standard ReLU activation function.
+    prelu : Parametric ReLU with learnable slope.
+    """
+    return u.math.leaky_relu(x, negative_slope=negative_slope)
+
+
+def _hard_tanh(x, min_val=- 1.0, max_val=1.0):
+    return jax.numpy.where(x > max_val, max_val, jax.numpy.where(x < min_val, min_val, x))
+
+
+def hard_tanh(
+    x: ArrayLike,
+    min_val: float = - 1.0,
+    max_val: float = 1.0
+) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Hard hyperbolic tangent activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{hard\_tanh}(x) = \begin{cases}
+        -1, & x < -1\\
+        x, & -1 \le x \le 1\\
+        1, & 1 < x
+      \end{cases}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    min_val : float, optional
+        Minimum value of the linear region range. Default is -1.
+    max_val : float, optional
+        Maximum value of the linear region range. Default is 1.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    x = u.Quantity(x)
+    min_val = u.Quantity(min_val).to(x.unit).mantissa
+    max_val = u.Quantity(max_val).to(x.unit).mantissa
+    return u.maybe_decimal(_hard_tanh(x.mantissa, min_val=min_val, max_val=max_val) * x.unit)
+
+
+def celu(x: ArrayLike, alpha: ArrayLike = 1.0) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Continuously-differentiable Exponential Linear Unit activation.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{celu}(x) = \begin{cases}
+        x, & x > 0\\
+        \alpha \left(\exp(\frac{x}{\alpha}) - 1\right), & x \le 0
+      \end{cases}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    alpha : ArrayLike, optional
+        Scalar or array value controlling the smoothness. Default is 1.0.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Barron, J. T. (2017). "Continuously Differentiable Exponential Linear Units."
+           arXiv:1704.07483
+    """
+    return u.math.celu(x, alpha=alpha)
+
+
+def selu(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Scaled Exponential Linear Unit activation.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{selu}(x) = \lambda \begin{cases}
+        x, & x > 0\\
+        \alpha e^x - \alpha, & x \le 0
+      \end{cases}
+
+    where :math:`\lambda = 1.0507009873554804934193349852946` and
+    :math:`\alpha = 1.6732632423543772848170429916717`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    elu : Exponential Linear Unit activation function.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Klambauer, G., et al. (2017). "Self-Normalizing Neural Networks."
+           NeurIPS 2017.
+    """
+    return u.math.selu(x)
+
+
+def gelu(x: ArrayLike, approximate: bool = True) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Gaussian Error Linear Unit activation function.
+
+    If ``approximate=False``, computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{gelu}(x) = \frac{x}{2} \left(1 + \mathrm{erf} \left(
+        \frac{x}{\sqrt{2}} \right) \right)
+
+    If ``approximate=True``, uses the approximate formulation of GELU:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{gelu}(x) = \frac{x}{2} \left(1 + \mathrm{tanh} \left(
+        \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi}} \left(x + 0.044715 x^3 \right) \right) \right)
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    approximate : bool, optional
+        Whether to use the approximate (True) or exact (False) formulation.
+        Default is True.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Hendrycks, D., & Gimpel, K. (2016). "Gaussian Error Linear Units (GELUs)."
+           arXiv:1606.08415
+    """
+    return u.math.gelu(x, approximate=approximate)
+
+
+def glu(x: ArrayLike, axis: int = -1) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Gated Linear Unit activation function.
+
+    Computes the function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{glu}(x) =  x\left[\ldots, 0:\frac{n}{2}, \ldots\right] \cdot
+        \mathrm{sigmoid} \left( x\left[\ldots, \frac{n}{2}:n, \ldots\right]
+          \right)
+
+    where the array is split into two along ``axis``. The size of the ``axis``
+    dimension must be divisible by two.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array. The dimension specified by ``axis`` must be divisible by 2.
+    axis : int, optional
+        The axis along which the split should be computed. Default is -1.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as input except the ``axis`` dimension
+        is halved.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    sigmoid : The sigmoid activation function.
+    """
+    return u.math.glu(x, axis=axis)
+
+
+def log_softmax(x: ArrayLike,
+                axis: int | tuple[int, ...] | None = -1,
+                where: ArrayLike | None = None) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Log-Softmax function.
+
+    Computes the logarithm of the softmax function, which rescales
+    elements to the range :math:`[-\infty, 0)`.
+
+    .. math ::
+      \mathrm{log\_softmax}(x)_i = \log \left( \frac{\exp(x_i)}{\sum_j \exp(x_j)}
+      \right)
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    axis : int or tuple of int, optional
+        The axis or axes along which the log-softmax should be computed.
+        Either an integer or a tuple of integers. Default is -1.
+    where : ArrayLike, optional
+        Elements to include in the log-softmax computation.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    softmax : The softmax function.
+    """
+    return jax.nn.log_softmax(x, axis=axis, where=where)
+
+
+def softmax(x: ArrayLike,
+            axis: int | tuple[int, ...] | None = -1,
+            where: ArrayLike | None = None) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Softmax activation function.
+
+    Computes the function which rescales elements to the range :math:`[0, 1]`
+    such that the elements along :code:`axis` sum to :math:`1`.
+
+    .. math ::
+      \mathrm{softmax}(x) = \frac{\exp(x_i)}{\sum_j \exp(x_j)}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    axis : int or tuple of int, optional
+        The axis or axes along which the softmax should be computed. The
+        softmax output summed across these dimensions should sum to :math:`1`.
+        Either an integer or a tuple of integers. Default is -1.
+    where : ArrayLike, optional
+        Elements to include in the softmax computation.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    log_softmax : Logarithm of the softmax function.
+    softmin : Softmin activation function.
+    """
+    return jax.nn.softmax(x, axis=axis, where=where)
+
+
+def standardize(x: ArrayLike,
+                axis: int | tuple[int, ...] | None = -1,
+                variance: ArrayLike | None = None,
+                epsilon: ArrayLike = 1e-5,
+                where: ArrayLike | None = None) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Standardize (normalize) an array.
+
+    Normalizes an array by subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard
+    deviation :math:`\sqrt{\mathrm{variance}}`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+    axis : int or tuple of int, optional
+        The axis or axes along which to compute the mean and variance.
+        Default is -1.
+    variance : ArrayLike, optional
+        Pre-computed variance. If None, variance is computed from ``x``.
+    epsilon : ArrayLike, optional
+        A small constant added to the variance to avoid division by zero.
+        Default is 1e-5.
+    where : ArrayLike, optional
+        Elements to include in the computation.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        Standardized array with the same shape as the input.
+    """
+    return jax.nn.standardize(x, axis=axis, where=where, variance=variance, epsilon=epsilon)
+
+
+def one_hot(x: Any,
+            num_classes: int, *,
+            dtype: Any = jax.numpy.float_,
+            axis: Union[int, Sequence[int]] = -1) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    """
+    One-hot encode the given indices.
+
+    Each index in the input ``x`` is encoded as a vector of zeros of length
+    ``num_classes`` with the element at ``index`` set to one.
+
+    Indices outside the range [0, num_classes) will be encoded as zeros.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        A tensor of indices.
+    num_classes : int
+        Number of classes in the one-hot dimension.
+    dtype : dtype, optional
+        The dtype for the returned values. Default is ``jnp.float_``.
+    axis : int or Sequence of int, optional
+        The axis or axes along which the function should be computed.
+        Default is -1.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        One-hot encoded array.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
+        >>> import brainstate 
+        >>> brainstate.nn.one_hot(jnp.array([0, 1, 2]), 3)
+        Array([[1., 0., 0.],
+               [0., 1., 0.],
+               [0., 0., 1.]], dtype=float32)
+
+        >>> # Indices outside the range are encoded as zeros
+        >>> brainstate.nn.one_hot(jnp.array([-1, 3]), 3)
+        Array([[0., 0., 0.],
+               [0., 0., 0.]], dtype=float32)
+    """
+    return jax.nn.one_hot(x, axis=axis, num_classes=num_classes, dtype=dtype)
+
+
+def relu6(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Rectified Linear Unit 6 activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{relu6}(x) = \min(\max(x, 0), 6)
+
+    Under differentiation, we take:
+
+    .. math::
+      \nabla \mathrm{relu}(0) = 0
+
+    and
+
+    .. math::
+      \nabla \mathrm{relu}(6) = 0
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    relu : Standard ReLU activation function.
+    """
+    return u.math.relu6(x)
+
+
+def hard_sigmoid(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Hard Sigmoid activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{hard\_sigmoid}(x) = \frac{\mathrm{relu6}(x + 3)}{6}
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    relu6 : ReLU6 activation function.
+    sigmoid : Standard sigmoid function.
+    """
+    return u.math.hard_sigmoid(x)
+
+
+def hard_silu(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Hard SiLU (Swish) activation function.
+
+    Computes the element-wise function:
+
+    .. math::
+      \mathrm{hard\_silu}(x) = x \cdot \mathrm{hard\_sigmoid}(x)
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    hard_sigmoid : Hard sigmoid activation function.
+    silu : Standard SiLU activation function.
+    hard_swish : Alias for hard_silu.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Both `hard_silu` and `hard_swish` are aliases for the same function.
+    """
+    return u.math.hard_silu(x)
+
+
+hard_swish = hard_silu
+
+
+def sparse_plus(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Sparse plus activation function.
+
+    Computes the function:
+
+    .. math::
+
+      \mathrm{sparse\_plus}(x) = \begin{cases}
+        0, & x \leq -1\\
+        \frac{1}{4}(x+1)^2, & -1 < x < 1 \\
+        x, & 1 \leq x
+      \end{cases}
+
+    This is the twin function of the softplus activation, ensuring a zero output
+    for inputs less than -1 and a linear output for inputs greater than 1,
+    while remaining smooth, convex, and monotonic between -1 and 1.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    sparse_sigmoid : Derivative of sparse_plus.
+    softplus : Standard softplus activation function.
+    """
+    return u.math.sparse_plus(x)
+
+
+def sparse_sigmoid(x: ArrayLike) -> Union[jax.Array, u.Quantity]:
+    r"""
+    Sparse sigmoid activation function.
+
+    Computes the function:
+
+    .. math::
+
+      \mathrm{sparse\_sigmoid}(x) = \begin{cases}
+        0, & x \leq -1\\
+        \frac{1}{2}(x+1), & -1 < x < 1 \\
+        1, & 1 \leq x
+      \end{cases}
+
+    This is the twin function of the standard sigmoid activation, ensuring a zero
+    output for inputs less than -1, a 1 output for inputs greater than 1, and a
+    linear output for inputs between -1 and 1. It is the derivative of `sparse_plus`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : ArrayLike
+        Input array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    jax.Array or Quantity
+        An array with the same shape as the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    sigmoid : Standard sigmoid activation function.
+    sparse_plus : Sparse plus activation function.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Martins, A. F. T., & Astudillo, R. F. (2016). "From Softmax to Sparsemax:
+           A Sparse Model of Attention and Multi-Label Classification."
+           In ICML. See also "Learning with Fenchel-Young Losses", arXiv:1901.02324
+    """
+    return u.math.sparse_sigmoid(x)