brainstate 0.2.0__py2.py3-none-any.whl → 0.2.1__py2.py3-none-any.whl

brainstate/util/_others_test.py

@@ -1,962 +1,962 @@
-# Copyright 2024 BrainX Ecosystem Limited. All Rights Reserved.
-#
-# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-# You may obtain a copy of the License at
-#
-#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-#
-# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-# limitations under the License.
-# ==============================================================================
-
-"""
-Comprehensive tests for the others module.
-"""
-
-import pickle
-import threading
-import unittest
-from unittest.mock import MagicMock, patch
-
-import jax
-import jax.numpy as jnp
-
-from brainstate.util._others import (
-    DictManager,
-    DotDict,
-    NameContext,
-    clear_buffer_memory,
-    flatten_dict,
-    get_unique_name,
-    is_instance_eval,
-    merge_dicts,
-    not_instance_eval,
-    split_total,
-    unflatten_dict,
-)
-
-
-class TestSplitTotal(unittest.TestCase):
-    """Test cases for split_total function."""
-
-    def test_float_fraction(self):
-        """Test with float fraction values."""
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0.5), 50)
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0.25), 25)
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0.75), 75)
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0.0), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 1.0), 100)
-
-    def test_int_fraction(self):
-        """Test with integer fraction values."""
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 25), 25)
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 100), 100)
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(50, 30), 30)
-
-    def test_edge_cases(self):
-        """Test edge cases."""
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(1, 0.5), 0)  # int(0.5) = 0
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(1, 1), 1)
-        self.assertEqual(split_total(10, 0.99), 9)  # int(9.9) = 9
-
-    def test_type_errors(self):
-        """Test type error handling."""
-        with self.assertRaises(TypeError) as ctx:
-            split_total("100", 0.5)
-        self.assertIn("must be an integer", str(ctx.exception))
-
-        with self.assertRaises(TypeError) as ctx:
-            split_total(100, "0.5")
-        self.assertIn("must be an integer or float", str(ctx.exception))
-
-        with self.assertRaises(TypeError) as ctx:
-            split_total(100.5, 0.5)
-        self.assertIn("must be an integer", str(ctx.exception))
-
-    def test_value_errors(self):
-        """Test value error handling."""
-        # Negative total
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
-            split_total(-10, 0.5)
-        self.assertIn("must be a positive integer", str(ctx.exception))
-
-        # Zero total
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
-            split_total(0, 0.5)
-        self.assertIn("must be a positive integer", str(ctx.exception))
-
-        # Negative fraction (float)
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
-            split_total(100, -0.5)
-        self.assertIn("cannot be negative", str(ctx.exception))
-
-        # Fraction > 1 (float)
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
-            split_total(100, 1.5)
-        self.assertIn("cannot be greater than 1", str(ctx.exception))
-
-        # Negative fraction (int)
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
-            split_total(100, -10)
-        self.assertIn("cannot be negative", str(ctx.exception))
-
-        # Fraction > total (int)
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
-            split_total(100, 150)
-        self.assertIn("cannot be greater than total", str(ctx.exception))
-
-
-class TestNameContext(unittest.TestCase):
-    """Test cases for NameContext and get_unique_name."""
-
-    def setUp(self):
-        """Reset the global NAME context before each test."""
-        global NAME
-        from brainstate.util._others import NAME
-        NAME.typed_names.clear()
-
-    def test_get_unique_name_basic(self):
-        """Test basic unique name generation."""
-        name1 = get_unique_name('layer')
-        name2 = get_unique_name('layer')
-        name3 = get_unique_name('layer')
-
-        self.assertEqual(name1, 'layer0')
-        self.assertEqual(name2, 'layer1')
-        self.assertEqual(name3, 'layer2')
-
-    def test_get_unique_name_with_prefix(self):
-        """Test unique name generation with prefix."""
-        name1 = get_unique_name('layer', 'conv_')
-        name2 = get_unique_name('layer', 'conv_')
-        name3 = get_unique_name('layer', 'dense_')
-
-        self.assertEqual(name1, 'conv_layer0')
-        self.assertEqual(name2, 'conv_layer1')
-        self.assertEqual(name3, 'dense_layer2')
-
-    def test_different_types(self):
-        """Test unique names for different types."""
-        layer1 = get_unique_name('layer')
-        neuron1 = get_unique_name('neuron')
-        layer2 = get_unique_name('layer')
-        neuron2 = get_unique_name('neuron')
-
-        self.assertEqual(layer1, 'layer0')
-        self.assertEqual(neuron1, 'neuron0')
-        self.assertEqual(layer2, 'layer1')
-        self.assertEqual(neuron2, 'neuron1')
-
-    def test_thread_local_context(self):
-        """Test that NameContext is thread-local."""
-        results = {}
-
-        def worker(thread_id):
-            name1 = get_unique_name(f'type_{thread_id}')
-            name2 = get_unique_name(f'type_{thread_id}')
-            results[thread_id] = (name1, name2)
-
-        threads = []
-        for i in range(3):
-            t = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(i,))
-            threads.append(t)
-            t.start()
-
-        for t in threads:
-            t.join()
-
-        # Each thread should have independent counters
-        for thread_id in range(3):
-            self.assertEqual(results[thread_id][0], f'type_{thread_id}0')
-            self.assertEqual(results[thread_id][1], f'type_{thread_id}1')
-
-    def test_name_context_reset(self):
-        """Test resetting name context."""
-        context = NameContext()
-        context.typed_names['test'] = 5
-
-        # Reset specific type
-        context.reset('test')
-        self.assertEqual(context.typed_names.get('test'), 0)
-
-        # Add more names
-        context.typed_names['test1'] = 1
-        context.typed_names['test2'] = 2
-
-        # Reset all
-        context.reset()
-        self.assertEqual(len(context.typed_names), 0)
-
-
-class TestDictManager(unittest.TestCase):
-    """Test cases for DictManager class."""
-
-    def test_initialization(self):
-        """Test DictManager initialization."""
-        # Empty initialization
-        dm1 = DictManager()
-        self.assertEqual(len(dm1), 0)
-
-        # From dict
-        dm2 = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
-        self.assertEqual(dm2['a'], 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dm2['b'], 2)
-
-        # From kwargs
-        dm3 = DictManager(a=1, b=2)
-        self.assertEqual(dm3['a'], 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dm3['b'], 2)
-
-        # From items
-        dm4 = DictManager([('a', 1), ('b', 2)])
-        self.assertEqual(dm4['a'], 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dm4['b'], 2)
-
-    def test_subset(self):
-        """Test subset filtering."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2.0, 'c': 'text', 'd': 3})
-
-        # By type
-        int_subset = dm.subset(int)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(int_subset), {'a': 1, 'd': 3})
-
-        # By multiple types
-        num_subset = dm.subset((int, float))
-        self.assertEqual(dict(num_subset), {'a': 1, 'b': 2.0, 'd': 3})
-
-        # By predicate
-        large_subset = dm.subset(lambda x: isinstance(x, (int, float)) and x > 1.5)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(large_subset), {'b': 2.0, 'd': 3})
-
-    def test_not_subset(self):
-        """Test not_subset filtering."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2.0, 'c': 'text', 'd': 3})
-
-        not_int = dm.not_subset(int)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(not_int), {'b': 2.0, 'c': 'text'})
-
-        not_num = dm.not_subset((int, float))
-        self.assertEqual(dict(not_num), {'c': 'text'})
-
-    def test_add_unique_key(self):
-        """Test adding unique keys."""
-        dm = DictManager()
-        obj1 = object()
-        obj2 = object()
-
-        # Add new key
-        dm.add_unique_key('key1', obj1)
-        self.assertIs(dm['key1'], obj1)
-
-        # Add same key with same object (should work)
-        dm.add_unique_key('key1', obj1)
-        self.assertIs(dm['key1'], obj1)
-
-        # Add same key with different object (should fail)
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
-            dm.add_unique_key('key1', obj2)
-        self.assertIn("already exists with a different value", str(ctx.exception))
-
-    def test_add_unique_value(self):
-        """Test adding unique values."""
-        dm = DictManager()
-        obj1 = object()
-
-        # First addition should succeed
-        result1 = dm.add_unique_value('key1', obj1)
-        self.assertTrue(result1)
-        self.assertIs(dm['key1'], obj1)
-
-        # Adding same value with different key should fail
-        result2 = dm.add_unique_value('key2', obj1)
-        self.assertFalse(result2)
-        self.assertNotIn('key2', dm)
-
-        # Adding different value should succeed
-        obj2 = object()
-        result3 = dm.add_unique_value('key2', obj2)
-        self.assertTrue(result3)
-        self.assertIs(dm['key2'], obj2)
-
-    def test_unique(self):
-        """Test getting unique values."""
-        obj1 = object()
-        obj2 = object()
-        dm = DictManager({'a': obj1, 'b': obj2, 'c': obj1, 'd': obj2, 'e': obj1})
-
-        unique_dm = dm.unique()
-        self.assertEqual(len(unique_dm), 2)
-        # Check that each object appears only once
-        values = list(unique_dm.values())
-        self.assertEqual(len(set(id(v) for v in values)), 2)
-
-    def test_unique_inplace(self):
-        """Test in-place unique operation."""
-        obj1 = object()
-        obj2 = object()
-        dm = DictManager({'a': obj1, 'b': obj2, 'c': obj1})
-
-        result = dm.unique_()
-        self.assertIs(result, dm)  # Should return self
-        self.assertEqual(len(dm), 2)  # One duplicate removed
-
-    def test_assign(self):
-        """Test assign method."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1})
-
-        # Assign from dict
-        dm.assign({'b': 2, 'c': 3})
-        self.assertEqual(dict(dm), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
-
-        # Assign from multiple dicts
-        dm.assign({'d': 4}, {'e': 5})
-        self.assertEqual(len(dm), 5)
-
-        # Assign with kwargs
-        dm.assign(f=6, g=7)
-        self.assertEqual(dm['f'], 6)
-        self.assertEqual(dm['g'], 7)
-
-        # Invalid argument
-        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
-            dm.assign([1, 2, 3])
-
-    def test_split(self):
-        """Test splitting by types."""
-        dm = DictManager({
-            'a': 1, 'b': 2.0, 'c': 'text',
-            'd': 3, 'e': 4.5, 'f': [1, 2]
-        })
-
-        int_dm, float_dm, rest = dm.split(int, float)
-
-        self.assertEqual(dict(int_dm), {'a': 1, 'd': 3})
-        self.assertEqual(dict(float_dm), {'b': 2.0, 'e': 4.5})
-        self.assertEqual(dict(rest), {'c': 'text', 'f': [1, 2]})
-
-    def test_filter_by_predicate(self):
-        """Test filtering with predicate."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-
-        # Filter by key
-        filtered = dm.filter_by_predicate(lambda k, v: k in ['a', 'c'])
-        self.assertEqual(dict(filtered), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
-
-        # Filter by value
-        filtered = dm.filter_by_predicate(lambda k, v: v > 2)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(filtered), {'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-
-        # Filter by both
-        filtered = dm.filter_by_predicate(lambda k, v: k == 'a' or v == 4)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(filtered), {'a': 1, 'd': 4})
-
-    def test_map_values(self):
-        """Test mapping function to values."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
-
-        doubled = dm.map_values(lambda x: x * 2)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(doubled), {'a': 2, 'b': 4, 'c': 6})
-
-        # Original should be unchanged
-        self.assertEqual(dict(dm), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
-
-    def test_map_keys(self):
-        """Test mapping function to keys."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
-
-        upper = dm.map_keys(str.upper)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(upper), {'A': 1, 'B': 2, 'C': 3})
-
-        # Test duplicate key error
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
-            dm.map_keys(lambda x: 'same')
-        self.assertIn("duplicate", str(ctx.exception))
-
-    def test_pop_by_keys(self):
-        """Test removing items by keys."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-
-        dm.pop_by_keys(['b', 'd'])
-        self.assertEqual(dict(dm), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
-
-        # Pop non-existent keys (should not raise)
-        dm.pop_by_keys(['x', 'y'])
-        self.assertEqual(dict(dm), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
-
-    def test_pop_by_values(self):
-        """Test removing items by values."""
-        obj1, obj2, obj3 = object(), object(), object()
-        dm = DictManager({'a': obj1, 'b': obj2, 'c': obj3})
-
-        # By identity
-        dm_copy = DictManager(dm)
-        dm_copy.pop_by_values([obj2], by='id')
-        self.assertEqual(len(dm_copy), 2)
-        self.assertNotIn('b', dm_copy)
-
-        # By value equality
-        dm2 = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
-        dm2.pop_by_values([2, 3], by='value')
-        self.assertEqual(dict(dm2), {'a': 1})
-
-        # Invalid method
-        with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
-            dm.pop_by_values([obj1], by='invalid')
-
-    def test_difference_operations(self):
-        """Test difference operations."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-
-        # Difference by keys
-        diff = dm.difference_by_keys(['b', 'd'])
-        self.assertEqual(dict(diff), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
-
-        # Difference by values
-        diff = dm.difference_by_values([2, 4], by='value')
-        self.assertEqual(dict(diff), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
-
-    def test_intersection_operations(self):
-        """Test intersection operations."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-
-        # Intersection by keys
-        inter = dm.intersection_by_keys(['a', 'c', 'e'])
-        self.assertEqual(dict(inter), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
-
-        # Intersection by values
-        inter = dm.intersection_by_values([1, 3, 5], by='value')
-        self.assertEqual(dict(inter), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
-
-    def test_operators(self):
-        """Test operator overloading."""
-        dm1 = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
-        dm2 = DictManager({'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-
-        # Addition
-        dm3 = dm1 + dm2
-        self.assertEqual(dict(dm3), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-        self.assertIsNot(dm3, dm1)  # New object
-
-        # Addition with regular dict
-        dm4 = dm1 + {'e': 5}
-        self.assertEqual(dm4['e'], 5)
-
-        # Union operator (Python 3.9+) - only test if available
-        import sys
-        if sys.version_info >= (3, 9):
-            dm5 = dm1 | dm2
-            self.assertEqual(dict(dm5), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-
-            # In-place union
-            dm1_copy = DictManager(dm1)
-            dm1_copy |= dm2
-            self.assertEqual(dict(dm1_copy), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
-
-        # Invalid operations should raise TypeError or return NotImplemented
-        # The actual behavior depends on whether __add__ returns NotImplemented
-        # or lets Python raise TypeError
-        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
-            _ = dm1 + 123
-        if sys.version_info >= (3, 9):
-            with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
-                _ = dm1 | 123
-
-    def test_copy_operations(self):
-        """Test copy operations."""
-        obj = object()
-        dm1 = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': obj})
-
-        # Shallow copy
-        dm2 = dm1.__copy__()
-        self.assertIsNot(dm2, dm1)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(dm2), dict(dm1))
-        self.assertIs(dm2['b'], obj)  # Same object reference
-
-        # Deep copy
-        dm3 = dm1.__deepcopy__({})
-        self.assertIsNot(dm3, dm1)
-        self.assertEqual(dm3['a'], 1)
-        # Note: object() can't be deep copied, but other values work
-
-    def test_jax_pytree(self):
-        """Test JAX pytree registration."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
-
-        # Flatten
-        values, keys = dm.tree_flatten()
-        self.assertEqual(len(values), 3)
-        self.assertEqual(len(keys), 3)
-
-        # Unflatten
-        dm2 = DictManager.tree_unflatten(keys, values)
-        self.assertEqual(dict(dm2), dict(dm))
-
-        # Test with JAX tree operations
-        dm3 = DictManager({'x': jnp.array([1, 2]), 'y': jnp.array([3, 4])})
-        doubled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(lambda x: x * 2, dm3)
-        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(doubled['x'], jnp.array([2, 4])))
-        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(doubled['y'], jnp.array([6, 8])))
-
-    def test_repr(self):
-        """Test string representation."""
-        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 'text'})
-        repr_str = repr(dm)
-        self.assertIn('DictManager', repr_str)
-        self.assertIn("'a': 1", repr_str)
-        self.assertIn("'b': 'text'", repr_str)
-
-
-class TestDotDict(unittest.TestCase):
-    """Test cases for DotDict class."""
-
-    def test_initialization(self):
-        """Test DotDict initialization."""
-        # From dict
-        dd1 = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
-        self.assertEqual(dd1.a, 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd1['b'], 2)
-
-        # From kwargs
-        dd2 = DotDict(a=1, b=2)
-        self.assertEqual(dd2.a, 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd2.b, 2)
-
-        # From tuple
-        dd3 = DotDict(('key', 'value'))
-        self.assertEqual(dd3.key, 'value')
-
-        # From items
-        dd4 = DotDict([('a', 1), ('b', 2)])
-        self.assertEqual(dd4.a, 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd4.b, 2)
-
-        # Empty
-        dd5 = DotDict()
-        self.assertEqual(len(dd5), 0)
-
-        # Invalid argument
-        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
-            DotDict(123)
-
-    def test_dot_access(self):
-        """Test dot notation access."""
-        dd = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 3}})
-
-        # Read access
-        self.assertEqual(dd.a, 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.b.c, 2)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.b.d, 3)
-
-        # Write access
-        dd.a = 10
-        dd.b.c = 20
-        self.assertEqual(dd['a'], 10)
-        self.assertEqual(dd['b']['c'], 20)
-
-        # Add new attributes
-        dd.e = 5
-        self.assertEqual(dd['e'], 5)
-
-    def test_nested_dict_conversion(self):
-        """Test automatic nested dict conversion."""
-        dd = DotDict({
-            'level1': {
-                'level2': {
-                    'level3': 'value'
-                }
-            }
-        })
-
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd.level1, DotDict)
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd.level1.level2, DotDict)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.level1.level2.level3, 'value')
-
-    def test_list_tuple_conversion(self):
-        """Test conversion of lists and tuples containing dicts."""
-        dd = DotDict({
-            'list': [{'a': 1}, {'b': 2}],
-            'tuple': ({'c': 3}, {'d': 4})
-        })
-
-        # List items should be DotDict
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd.list[0], DotDict)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.list[0].a, 1)
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd.list[1], DotDict)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.list[1].b, 2)
-
-        # Tuple items should be DotDict
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd.tuple[0], DotDict)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.tuple[0].c, 3)
-
-    def test_attribute_errors(self):
-        """Test attribute error handling."""
-        dd = DotDict({'a': 1})
-
-        # Non-existent attribute
-        with self.assertRaises(AttributeError) as ctx:
-            _ = dd.nonexistent
-        self.assertIn("has no attribute 'nonexistent'", str(ctx.exception))
-
-        # Delete non-existent attribute
-        with self.assertRaises(AttributeError):
-            del dd.nonexistent
-
-        # Try to set built-in method
-        with self.assertRaises(AttributeError) as ctx:
-            dd.keys = 'value'
-        self.assertIn("built-in method", str(ctx.exception))
-
-    def test_dir_method(self):
-        """Test __dir__ method."""
-        dd = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
-        attrs = dir(dd)
-
-        self.assertIn('a', attrs)
-        self.assertIn('b', attrs)
-        self.assertIn('keys', attrs)  # Built-in method
-        self.assertIn('values', attrs)  # Built-in method
-
-    def test_get_method(self):
-        """Test get method with default."""
-        dd = DotDict({'a': 1})
-
-        self.assertEqual(dd.get('a'), 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.get('b'), None)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.get('b', 'default'), 'default')
-
-    def test_copy_operations(self):
-        """Test copy operations."""
-        dd1 = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2}})
-
-        # Shallow copy
-        dd2 = dd1.copy()
-        self.assertIsNot(dd2, dd1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd2.a, 1)
-        dd2.a = 10
-        self.assertEqual(dd1.a, 1)  # Original unchanged
-
-        # Deep copy
-        dd3 = dd1.deepcopy()
-        self.assertIsNot(dd3, dd1)
-        self.assertIsNot(dd3.b, dd1.b)
-        dd3.b.c = 20
-        self.assertEqual(dd1.b.c, 2)  # Original unchanged
-
-    def test_to_dict_from_dict(self):
-        """Test conversion to/from standard dict."""
-        dd1 = DotDict({
-            'a': 1,
-            'b': {'c': 2, 'd': {'e': 3}},
-            'list': [{'f': 4}]
-        })
-
-        # Convert to dict
-        d = dd1.to_dict()
-        self.assertIsInstance(d, dict)
-        self.assertNotIsInstance(d, DotDict)
-        self.assertIsInstance(d['b'], dict)
-        self.assertNotIsInstance(d['b'], DotDict)
-        self.assertEqual(d['b']['d']['e'], 3)
-
-        # Convert from dict
-        dd2 = DotDict.from_dict(d)
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd2, DotDict)
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd2.b, DotDict)
-        self.assertEqual(dd2.b.d.e, 3)
-
-    def test_update_method(self):
-        """Test update with recursive merge."""
-        dd = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 3}})
-
-        # Simple update
-        dd.update({'a': 10})
-        self.assertEqual(dd.a, 10)
-
-        # Recursive merge
-        dd.update({'b': {'d': 30, 'e': 4}})
-        self.assertEqual(dd.b.c, 2)  # Preserved
-        self.assertEqual(dd.b.d, 30)  # Updated
-        self.assertEqual(dd.b.e, 4)  # Added
-
-        # Update with kwargs
-        dd.update(f=5, g=6)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.f, 5)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.g, 6)
-
-        # Multiple arguments error
-        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
-            dd.update({}, {})
-
-    def test_setdefault(self):
-        """Test setdefault method."""
-        dd = DotDict({'a': 1})
-
-        # Existing key
-        result = dd.setdefault('a', 10)
-        self.assertEqual(result, 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.a, 1)
-
-        # New key
-        result = dd.setdefault('b', 2)
-        self.assertEqual(result, 2)
-        self.assertEqual(dd.b, 2)
-
-        # New key with None default
-        result = dd.setdefault('c')
-        self.assertIsNone(result)
-        self.assertIsNone(dd.c)
-
-    def test_pickling(self):
-        """Test pickling/unpickling."""
-        dd1 = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2}})
-
-        # Pickle and unpickle
-        pickled = pickle.dumps(dd1)
-        dd2 = pickle.loads(pickled)
-
-        self.assertIsNot(dd2, dd1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd2.a, 1)
-        self.assertEqual(dd2.b.c, 2)
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd2, DotDict)
-        self.assertIsInstance(dd2.b, DotDict)
-
-    def test_jax_pytree(self):
-        """Test JAX pytree registration."""
-        dd = DotDict({'a': jnp.array([1, 2]), 'b': jnp.array([3, 4])})
-
-        # Tree operations
-        doubled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(lambda x: x * 2, dd)
-        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(doubled.a, jnp.array([2, 4])))
-        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(doubled.b, jnp.array([6, 8])))
-
-    def test_repr(self):
-        """Test string representation."""
-        dd = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': 'text'})
-        repr_str = repr(dd)
-        self.assertIn('DotDict', repr_str)
-        self.assertIn("'a': 1", repr_str)
-        self.assertIn("'b': 'text'", repr_str)
-
-
-class TestUtilityFunctions(unittest.TestCase):
-    """Test cases for utility functions."""
-
-    def test_merge_dicts_basic(self):
-        """Test basic dict merging."""
-        d1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
-        d2 = {'b': 3, 'c': 4}
-        d3 = {'d': 5}
-
-        result = merge_dicts(d1, d2, d3)
-        self.assertEqual(result, {'a': 1, 'b': 3, 'c': 4, 'd': 5})
-
-        # Original dicts should be unchanged
-        self.assertEqual(d1, {'a': 1, 'b': 2})
-
-    def test_merge_dicts_recursive(self):
-        """Test recursive dict merging."""
-        d1 = {'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 3}}
-        d2 = {'b': {'d': 4, 'e': 5}, 'f': 6}
-
-        result = merge_dicts(d1, d2, recursive=True)
-        self.assertEqual(result, {
-            'a': 1,
-            'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 4, 'e': 5},
-            'f': 6
-        })
-
-    def test_merge_dicts_non_recursive(self):
-        """Test non-recursive dict merging."""
-        d1 = {'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2}}
-        d2 = {'b': {'d': 3}}
-
-        result = merge_dicts(d1, d2, recursive=False)
-        self.assertEqual(result, {'a': 1, 'b': {'d': 3}})
-
-    def test_merge_dicts_errors(self):
-        """Test merge_dicts error handling."""
-        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
-            merge_dicts({'a': 1}, [1, 2, 3])
-
-    def test_flatten_dict(self):
-        """Test dictionary flattening."""
-        nested = {
-            'a': 1,
-            'b': {
-                'c': 2,
-                'd': {
-                    'e': 3,
-                    'f': 4
-                }
-            },
-            'g': 5
-        }
-
-        flat = flatten_dict(nested)
-        self.assertEqual(flat, {
-            'a': 1,
-            'b.c': 2,
-            'b.d.e': 3,
-            'b.d.f': 4,
-            'g': 5
-        })
-
-        # Custom separator
-        flat_dash = flatten_dict(nested, sep='-')
-        self.assertEqual(flat_dash, {
-            'a': 1,
-            'b-c': 2,
-            'b-d-e': 3,
-            'b-d-f': 4,
-            'g': 5
-        })
-
-    def test_unflatten_dict(self):
-        """Test dictionary unflattening."""
-        flat = {
-            'a': 1,
-            'b.c': 2,
-            'b.d.e': 3,
-            'b.d.f': 4,
-            'g': 5
-        }
-
-        nested = unflatten_dict(flat)
-        self.assertEqual(nested, {
-            'a': 1,
-            'b': {
-                'c': 2,
-                'd': {
-                    'e': 3,
-                    'f': 4
-                }
-            },
-            'g': 5
-        })
-
-        # Custom separator
-        flat_dash = {'a': 1, 'b-c': 2, 'b-d': 3}
-        nested_dash = unflatten_dict(flat_dash, sep='-')
-        self.assertEqual(nested_dash, {
-            'a': 1,
-            'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 3}
-        })
-
-    def test_flatten_unflatten_roundtrip(self):
-        """Test that flatten/unflatten is reversible."""
-        original = {
-            'level1': {
-                'level2': {
-                    'level3': 'value',
-                    'another': 42
-                },
-                'sibling': 'data'
-            },
-            'root': 'element'
-        }
-
-        flattened = flatten_dict(original)
-        unflattened = unflatten_dict(flattened)
-        self.assertEqual(unflattened, original)
-
-    def test_is_instance_eval(self):
-        """Test is_instance_eval function."""
-        # Single type
-        is_int = is_instance_eval(int)
-        self.assertTrue(is_int(5))
-        self.assertFalse(is_int("5"))
-        self.assertFalse(is_int(5.0))
-
-        # Multiple types
-        is_number = is_instance_eval(int, float)
-        self.assertTrue(is_number(5))
-        self.assertTrue(is_number(5.0))
-        self.assertFalse(is_number("5"))
-
-        # With subclasses
-        class MyList(list):
-            pass
-
-        is_list = is_instance_eval(list)
-        self.assertTrue(is_list([1, 2, 3]))
-        self.assertTrue(is_list(MyList([1, 2, 3])))
-        self.assertFalse(is_list((1, 2, 3)))
-
-    def test_not_instance_eval(self):
-        """Test not_instance_eval function."""
-        # Single type
-        not_int = not_instance_eval(int)
-        self.assertFalse(not_int(5))
-        self.assertTrue(not_int("5"))
-        self.assertTrue(not_int(5.0))
-
-        # Multiple types
-        not_number = not_instance_eval(int, float)
-        self.assertFalse(not_number(5))
-        self.assertFalse(not_number(5.0))
-        self.assertTrue(not_number("5"))
-        self.assertTrue(not_number([1, 2, 3]))
-
-
-class TestJaxIntegration(unittest.TestCase):
-    """Test JAX integration for DictManager and DotDict."""
-
-    def test_dictmanager_pytree_operations(self):
-        """Test DictManager with JAX tree operations."""
-        dm = DictManager({
-            'weights': jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0]),
-            'bias': jnp.array([0.1, 0.2])
-        })
-
-        # Tree map
-        scaled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(lambda x: x * 2, dm)
-        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(scaled['weights'], jnp.array([2.0, 4.0, 6.0])))
-        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(scaled['bias'], jnp.array([0.2, 0.4])))
-
-        # Tree reduce
-        total = jax.tree_util.tree_reduce(lambda x, y: x + y.sum(), dm, 0.0)
-        self.assertAlmostEqual(total, 6.3, places=5)
-
-    def test_dotdict_pytree_operations(self):
-        """Test DotDict with JAX tree operations."""
-        dd = DotDict({
-            'model': {
-                'weights': jnp.array([[1.0, 2.0], [3.0, 4.0]]),
-                'bias': jnp.array([0.1, 0.2])
-            },
-            'optimizer': {
-                'lr': 0.01
-            }
-        })
-
-        # Tree map on nested structure
-        def scale_arrays(x):
-            return x * 2 if isinstance(x, jnp.ndarray) else x
-
-        scaled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(scale_arrays, dd)
-        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(
-            scaled.model.weights,
-            jnp.array([[2.0, 4.0], [6.0, 8.0]])
-        ))
-        self.assertEqual(scaled.optimizer.lr, 0.01)  # Non-array unchanged
-
-    def test_mixed_pytree_structures(self):
-        """Test mixing DictManager and DotDict in pytree operations."""
-        structure = {
-            'dict_manager': DictManager({'a': jnp.array([1, 2])})
-        }
-
-        doubled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(lambda x: x * 2, structure)
-        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(
-            doubled['dict_manager']['a'],
-            jnp.array([2, 4])
-        ))
-
-
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-    unittest.main()
+# Copyright 2024 BrainX Ecosystem Limited. All Rights Reserved.
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+# ==============================================================================
+
+"""
+Comprehensive tests for the others module.
+"""
+
+import pickle
+import threading
+import unittest
+from unittest.mock import MagicMock, patch
+
+import jax
+import jax.numpy as jnp
+
+from brainstate.util._others import (
+    DictManager,
+    DotDict,
+    NameContext,
+    clear_buffer_memory,
+    flatten_dict,
+    get_unique_name,
+    is_instance_eval,
+    merge_dicts,
+    not_instance_eval,
+    split_total,
+    unflatten_dict,
+)
+
+
+class TestSplitTotal(unittest.TestCase):
+    """Test cases for split_total function."""
+
+    def test_float_fraction(self):
+        """Test with float fraction values."""
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0.5), 50)
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0.25), 25)
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0.75), 75)
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0.0), 0)
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 1.0), 100)
+
+    def test_int_fraction(self):
+        """Test with integer fraction values."""
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 25), 25)
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 0), 0)
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(100, 100), 100)
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(50, 30), 30)
+
+    def test_edge_cases(self):
+        """Test edge cases."""
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(1, 0.5), 0)  # int(0.5) = 0
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(1, 1), 1)
+        self.assertEqual(split_total(10, 0.99), 9)  # int(9.9) = 9
+
+    def test_type_errors(self):
+        """Test type error handling."""
+        with self.assertRaises(TypeError) as ctx:
+            split_total("100", 0.5)
+        self.assertIn("must be an integer", str(ctx.exception))
+
+        with self.assertRaises(TypeError) as ctx:
+            split_total(100, "0.5")
+        self.assertIn("must be an integer or float", str(ctx.exception))
+
+        with self.assertRaises(TypeError) as ctx:
+            split_total(100.5, 0.5)
+        self.assertIn("must be an integer", str(ctx.exception))
+
+    def test_value_errors(self):
+        """Test value error handling."""
+        # Negative total
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
+            split_total(-10, 0.5)
+        self.assertIn("must be a positive integer", str(ctx.exception))
+
+        # Zero total
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
+            split_total(0, 0.5)
+        self.assertIn("must be a positive integer", str(ctx.exception))
+
+        # Negative fraction (float)
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
+            split_total(100, -0.5)
+        self.assertIn("cannot be negative", str(ctx.exception))
+
+        # Fraction > 1 (float)
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
+            split_total(100, 1.5)
+        self.assertIn("cannot be greater than 1", str(ctx.exception))
+
+        # Negative fraction (int)
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
+            split_total(100, -10)
+        self.assertIn("cannot be negative", str(ctx.exception))
+
+        # Fraction > total (int)
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
+            split_total(100, 150)
+        self.assertIn("cannot be greater than total", str(ctx.exception))
+
+
+class TestNameContext(unittest.TestCase):
+    """Test cases for NameContext and get_unique_name."""
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        """Reset the global NAME context before each test."""
+        global NAME
+        from brainstate.util._others import NAME
+        NAME.typed_names.clear()
+
+    def test_get_unique_name_basic(self):
+        """Test basic unique name generation."""
+        name1 = get_unique_name('layer')
+        name2 = get_unique_name('layer')
+        name3 = get_unique_name('layer')
+
+        self.assertEqual(name1, 'layer0')
+        self.assertEqual(name2, 'layer1')
+        self.assertEqual(name3, 'layer2')
+
+    def test_get_unique_name_with_prefix(self):
+        """Test unique name generation with prefix."""
+        name1 = get_unique_name('layer', 'conv_')
+        name2 = get_unique_name('layer', 'conv_')
+        name3 = get_unique_name('layer', 'dense_')
+
+        self.assertEqual(name1, 'conv_layer0')
+        self.assertEqual(name2, 'conv_layer1')
+        self.assertEqual(name3, 'dense_layer2')
+
+    def test_different_types(self):
+        """Test unique names for different types."""
+        layer1 = get_unique_name('layer')
+        neuron1 = get_unique_name('neuron')
+        layer2 = get_unique_name('layer')
+        neuron2 = get_unique_name('neuron')
+
+        self.assertEqual(layer1, 'layer0')
+        self.assertEqual(neuron1, 'neuron0')
+        self.assertEqual(layer2, 'layer1')
+        self.assertEqual(neuron2, 'neuron1')
+
+    def test_thread_local_context(self):
+        """Test that NameContext is thread-local."""
+        results = {}
+
+        def worker(thread_id):
+            name1 = get_unique_name(f'type_{thread_id}')
+            name2 = get_unique_name(f'type_{thread_id}')
+            results[thread_id] = (name1, name2)
+
+        threads = []
+        for i in range(3):
+            t = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(i,))
+            threads.append(t)
+            t.start()
+
+        for t in threads:
+            t.join()
+
+        # Each thread should have independent counters
+        for thread_id in range(3):
+            self.assertEqual(results[thread_id][0], f'type_{thread_id}0')
+            self.assertEqual(results[thread_id][1], f'type_{thread_id}1')
+
+    def test_name_context_reset(self):
+        """Test resetting name context."""
+        context = NameContext()
+        context.typed_names['test'] = 5
+
+        # Reset specific type
+        context.reset('test')
+        self.assertEqual(context.typed_names.get('test'), 0)
+
+        # Add more names
+        context.typed_names['test1'] = 1
+        context.typed_names['test2'] = 2
+
+        # Reset all
+        context.reset()
+        self.assertEqual(len(context.typed_names), 0)
+
+
+class TestDictManager(unittest.TestCase):
+    """Test cases for DictManager class."""
+
+    def test_initialization(self):
+        """Test DictManager initialization."""
+        # Empty initialization
+        dm1 = DictManager()
+        self.assertEqual(len(dm1), 0)
+
+        # From dict
+        dm2 = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
+        self.assertEqual(dm2['a'], 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dm2['b'], 2)
+
+        # From kwargs
+        dm3 = DictManager(a=1, b=2)
+        self.assertEqual(dm3['a'], 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dm3['b'], 2)
+
+        # From items
+        dm4 = DictManager([('a', 1), ('b', 2)])
+        self.assertEqual(dm4['a'], 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dm4['b'], 2)
+
+    def test_subset(self):
+        """Test subset filtering."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2.0, 'c': 'text', 'd': 3})
+
+        # By type
+        int_subset = dm.subset(int)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(int_subset), {'a': 1, 'd': 3})
+
+        # By multiple types
+        num_subset = dm.subset((int, float))
+        self.assertEqual(dict(num_subset), {'a': 1, 'b': 2.0, 'd': 3})
+
+        # By predicate
+        large_subset = dm.subset(lambda x: isinstance(x, (int, float)) and x > 1.5)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(large_subset), {'b': 2.0, 'd': 3})
+
+    def test_not_subset(self):
+        """Test not_subset filtering."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2.0, 'c': 'text', 'd': 3})
+
+        not_int = dm.not_subset(int)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(not_int), {'b': 2.0, 'c': 'text'})
+
+        not_num = dm.not_subset((int, float))
+        self.assertEqual(dict(not_num), {'c': 'text'})
+
+    def test_add_unique_key(self):
+        """Test adding unique keys."""
+        dm = DictManager()
+        obj1 = object()
+        obj2 = object()
+
+        # Add new key
+        dm.add_unique_key('key1', obj1)
+        self.assertIs(dm['key1'], obj1)
+
+        # Add same key with same object (should work)
+        dm.add_unique_key('key1', obj1)
+        self.assertIs(dm['key1'], obj1)
+
+        # Add same key with different object (should fail)
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
+            dm.add_unique_key('key1', obj2)
+        self.assertIn("already exists with a different value", str(ctx.exception))
+
+    def test_add_unique_value(self):
+        """Test adding unique values."""
+        dm = DictManager()
+        obj1 = object()
+
+        # First addition should succeed
+        result1 = dm.add_unique_value('key1', obj1)
+        self.assertTrue(result1)
+        self.assertIs(dm['key1'], obj1)
+
+        # Adding same value with different key should fail
+        result2 = dm.add_unique_value('key2', obj1)
+        self.assertFalse(result2)
+        self.assertNotIn('key2', dm)
+
+        # Adding different value should succeed
+        obj2 = object()
+        result3 = dm.add_unique_value('key2', obj2)
+        self.assertTrue(result3)
+        self.assertIs(dm['key2'], obj2)
+
+    def test_unique(self):
+        """Test getting unique values."""
+        obj1 = object()
+        obj2 = object()
+        dm = DictManager({'a': obj1, 'b': obj2, 'c': obj1, 'd': obj2, 'e': obj1})
+
+        unique_dm = dm.unique()
+        self.assertEqual(len(unique_dm), 2)
+        # Check that each object appears only once
+        values = list(unique_dm.values())
+        self.assertEqual(len(set(id(v) for v in values)), 2)
+
+    def test_unique_inplace(self):
+        """Test in-place unique operation."""
+        obj1 = object()
+        obj2 = object()
+        dm = DictManager({'a': obj1, 'b': obj2, 'c': obj1})
+
+        result = dm.unique_()
+        self.assertIs(result, dm)  # Should return self
+        self.assertEqual(len(dm), 2)  # One duplicate removed
+
+    def test_assign(self):
+        """Test assign method."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1})
+
+        # Assign from dict
+        dm.assign({'b': 2, 'c': 3})
+        self.assertEqual(dict(dm), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
+
+        # Assign from multiple dicts
+        dm.assign({'d': 4}, {'e': 5})
+        self.assertEqual(len(dm), 5)
+
+        # Assign with kwargs
+        dm.assign(f=6, g=7)
+        self.assertEqual(dm['f'], 6)
+        self.assertEqual(dm['g'], 7)
+
+        # Invalid argument
+        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
+            dm.assign([1, 2, 3])
+
+    def test_split(self):
+        """Test splitting by types."""
+        dm = DictManager({
+            'a': 1, 'b': 2.0, 'c': 'text',
+            'd': 3, 'e': 4.5, 'f': [1, 2]
+        })
+
+        int_dm, float_dm, rest = dm.split(int, float)
+
+        self.assertEqual(dict(int_dm), {'a': 1, 'd': 3})
+        self.assertEqual(dict(float_dm), {'b': 2.0, 'e': 4.5})
+        self.assertEqual(dict(rest), {'c': 'text', 'f': [1, 2]})
+
+    def test_filter_by_predicate(self):
+        """Test filtering with predicate."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+
+        # Filter by key
+        filtered = dm.filter_by_predicate(lambda k, v: k in ['a', 'c'])
+        self.assertEqual(dict(filtered), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
+
+        # Filter by value
+        filtered = dm.filter_by_predicate(lambda k, v: v > 2)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(filtered), {'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+
+        # Filter by both
+        filtered = dm.filter_by_predicate(lambda k, v: k == 'a' or v == 4)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(filtered), {'a': 1, 'd': 4})
+
+    def test_map_values(self):
+        """Test mapping function to values."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
+
+        doubled = dm.map_values(lambda x: x * 2)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(doubled), {'a': 2, 'b': 4, 'c': 6})
+
+        # Original should be unchanged
+        self.assertEqual(dict(dm), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
+
+    def test_map_keys(self):
+        """Test mapping function to keys."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
+
+        upper = dm.map_keys(str.upper)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(upper), {'A': 1, 'B': 2, 'C': 3})
+
+        # Test duplicate key error
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as ctx:
+            dm.map_keys(lambda x: 'same')
+        self.assertIn("duplicate", str(ctx.exception))
+
+    def test_pop_by_keys(self):
+        """Test removing items by keys."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+
+        dm.pop_by_keys(['b', 'd'])
+        self.assertEqual(dict(dm), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
+
+        # Pop non-existent keys (should not raise)
+        dm.pop_by_keys(['x', 'y'])
+        self.assertEqual(dict(dm), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
+
+    def test_pop_by_values(self):
+        """Test removing items by values."""
+        obj1, obj2, obj3 = object(), object(), object()
+        dm = DictManager({'a': obj1, 'b': obj2, 'c': obj3})
+
+        # By identity
+        dm_copy = DictManager(dm)
+        dm_copy.pop_by_values([obj2], by='id')
+        self.assertEqual(len(dm_copy), 2)
+        self.assertNotIn('b', dm_copy)
+
+        # By value equality
+        dm2 = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
+        dm2.pop_by_values([2, 3], by='value')
+        self.assertEqual(dict(dm2), {'a': 1})
+
+        # Invalid method
+        with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
+            dm.pop_by_values([obj1], by='invalid')
+
+    def test_difference_operations(self):
+        """Test difference operations."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+
+        # Difference by keys
+        diff = dm.difference_by_keys(['b', 'd'])
+        self.assertEqual(dict(diff), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
+
+        # Difference by values
+        diff = dm.difference_by_values([2, 4], by='value')
+        self.assertEqual(dict(diff), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
+
+    def test_intersection_operations(self):
+        """Test intersection operations."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+
+        # Intersection by keys
+        inter = dm.intersection_by_keys(['a', 'c', 'e'])
+        self.assertEqual(dict(inter), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
+
+        # Intersection by values
+        inter = dm.intersection_by_values([1, 3, 5], by='value')
+        self.assertEqual(dict(inter), {'a': 1, 'c': 3})
+
+    def test_operators(self):
+        """Test operator overloading."""
+        dm1 = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
+        dm2 = DictManager({'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+
+        # Addition
+        dm3 = dm1 + dm2
+        self.assertEqual(dict(dm3), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+        self.assertIsNot(dm3, dm1)  # New object
+
+        # Addition with regular dict
+        dm4 = dm1 + {'e': 5}
+        self.assertEqual(dm4['e'], 5)
+
+        # Union operator (Python 3.9+) - only test if available
+        import sys
+        if sys.version_info >= (3, 9):
+            dm5 = dm1 | dm2
+            self.assertEqual(dict(dm5), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+
+            # In-place union
+            dm1_copy = DictManager(dm1)
+            dm1_copy |= dm2
+            self.assertEqual(dict(dm1_copy), {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4})
+
+        # Invalid operations should raise TypeError or return NotImplemented
+        # The actual behavior depends on whether __add__ returns NotImplemented
+        # or lets Python raise TypeError
+        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
+            _ = dm1 + 123
+        if sys.version_info >= (3, 9):
+            with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
+                _ = dm1 | 123
+
+    def test_copy_operations(self):
+        """Test copy operations."""
+        obj = object()
+        dm1 = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': obj})
+
+        # Shallow copy
+        dm2 = dm1.__copy__()
+        self.assertIsNot(dm2, dm1)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(dm2), dict(dm1))
+        self.assertIs(dm2['b'], obj)  # Same object reference
+
+        # Deep copy
+        dm3 = dm1.__deepcopy__({})
+        self.assertIsNot(dm3, dm1)
+        self.assertEqual(dm3['a'], 1)
+        # Note: object() can't be deep copied, but other values work
+
+    def test_jax_pytree(self):
+        """Test JAX pytree registration."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})
+
+        # Flatten
+        values, keys = dm.tree_flatten()
+        self.assertEqual(len(values), 3)
+        self.assertEqual(len(keys), 3)
+
+        # Unflatten
+        dm2 = DictManager.tree_unflatten(keys, values)
+        self.assertEqual(dict(dm2), dict(dm))
+
+        # Test with JAX tree operations
+        dm3 = DictManager({'x': jnp.array([1, 2]), 'y': jnp.array([3, 4])})
+        doubled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(lambda x: x * 2, dm3)
+        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(doubled['x'], jnp.array([2, 4])))
+        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(doubled['y'], jnp.array([6, 8])))
+
+    def test_repr(self):
+        """Test string representation."""
+        dm = DictManager({'a': 1, 'b': 'text'})
+        repr_str = repr(dm)
+        self.assertIn('DictManager', repr_str)
+        self.assertIn("'a': 1", repr_str)
+        self.assertIn("'b': 'text'", repr_str)
+
+
+class TestDotDict(unittest.TestCase):
+    """Test cases for DotDict class."""
+
+    def test_initialization(self):
+        """Test DotDict initialization."""
+        # From dict
+        dd1 = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
+        self.assertEqual(dd1.a, 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd1['b'], 2)
+
+        # From kwargs
+        dd2 = DotDict(a=1, b=2)
+        self.assertEqual(dd2.a, 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd2.b, 2)
+
+        # From tuple
+        dd3 = DotDict(('key', 'value'))
+        self.assertEqual(dd3.key, 'value')
+
+        # From items
+        dd4 = DotDict([('a', 1), ('b', 2)])
+        self.assertEqual(dd4.a, 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd4.b, 2)
+
+        # Empty
+        dd5 = DotDict()
+        self.assertEqual(len(dd5), 0)
+
+        # Invalid argument
+        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
+            DotDict(123)
+
+    def test_dot_access(self):
+        """Test dot notation access."""
+        dd = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 3}})
+
+        # Read access
+        self.assertEqual(dd.a, 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.b.c, 2)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.b.d, 3)
+
+        # Write access
+        dd.a = 10
+        dd.b.c = 20
+        self.assertEqual(dd['a'], 10)
+        self.assertEqual(dd['b']['c'], 20)
+
+        # Add new attributes
+        dd.e = 5
+        self.assertEqual(dd['e'], 5)
+
+    def test_nested_dict_conversion(self):
+        """Test automatic nested dict conversion."""
+        dd = DotDict({
+            'level1': {
+                'level2': {
+                    'level3': 'value'
+                }
+            }
+        })
+
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd.level1, DotDict)
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd.level1.level2, DotDict)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.level1.level2.level3, 'value')
+
+    def test_list_tuple_conversion(self):
+        """Test conversion of lists and tuples containing dicts."""
+        dd = DotDict({
+            'list': [{'a': 1}, {'b': 2}],
+            'tuple': ({'c': 3}, {'d': 4})
+        })
+
+        # List items should be DotDict
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd.list[0], DotDict)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.list[0].a, 1)
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd.list[1], DotDict)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.list[1].b, 2)
+
+        # Tuple items should be DotDict
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd.tuple[0], DotDict)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.tuple[0].c, 3)
+
+    def test_attribute_errors(self):
+        """Test attribute error handling."""
+        dd = DotDict({'a': 1})
+
+        # Non-existent attribute
+        with self.assertRaises(AttributeError) as ctx:
+            _ = dd.nonexistent
+        self.assertIn("has no attribute 'nonexistent'", str(ctx.exception))
+
+        # Delete non-existent attribute
+        with self.assertRaises(AttributeError):
+            del dd.nonexistent
+
+        # Try to set built-in method
+        with self.assertRaises(AttributeError) as ctx:
+            dd.keys = 'value'
+        self.assertIn("built-in method", str(ctx.exception))
+
+    def test_dir_method(self):
+        """Test __dir__ method."""
+        dd = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
+        attrs = dir(dd)
+
+        self.assertIn('a', attrs)
+        self.assertIn('b', attrs)
+        self.assertIn('keys', attrs)  # Built-in method
+        self.assertIn('values', attrs)  # Built-in method
+
+    def test_get_method(self):
+        """Test get method with default."""
+        dd = DotDict({'a': 1})
+
+        self.assertEqual(dd.get('a'), 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.get('b'), None)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.get('b', 'default'), 'default')
+
+    def test_copy_operations(self):
+        """Test copy operations."""
+        dd1 = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2}})
+
+        # Shallow copy
+        dd2 = dd1.copy()
+        self.assertIsNot(dd2, dd1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd2.a, 1)
+        dd2.a = 10
+        self.assertEqual(dd1.a, 1)  # Original unchanged
+
+        # Deep copy
+        dd3 = dd1.deepcopy()
+        self.assertIsNot(dd3, dd1)
+        self.assertIsNot(dd3.b, dd1.b)
+        dd3.b.c = 20
+        self.assertEqual(dd1.b.c, 2)  # Original unchanged
+
+    def test_to_dict_from_dict(self):
+        """Test conversion to/from standard dict."""
+        dd1 = DotDict({
+            'a': 1,
+            'b': {'c': 2, 'd': {'e': 3}},
+            'list': [{'f': 4}]
+        })
+
+        # Convert to dict
+        d = dd1.to_dict()
+        self.assertIsInstance(d, dict)
+        self.assertNotIsInstance(d, DotDict)
+        self.assertIsInstance(d['b'], dict)
+        self.assertNotIsInstance(d['b'], DotDict)
+        self.assertEqual(d['b']['d']['e'], 3)
+
+        # Convert from dict
+        dd2 = DotDict.from_dict(d)
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd2, DotDict)
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd2.b, DotDict)
+        self.assertEqual(dd2.b.d.e, 3)
+
+    def test_update_method(self):
+        """Test update with recursive merge."""
+        dd = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 3}})
+
+        # Simple update
+        dd.update({'a': 10})
+        self.assertEqual(dd.a, 10)
+
+        # Recursive merge
+        dd.update({'b': {'d': 30, 'e': 4}})
+        self.assertEqual(dd.b.c, 2)  # Preserved
+        self.assertEqual(dd.b.d, 30)  # Updated
+        self.assertEqual(dd.b.e, 4)  # Added
+
+        # Update with kwargs
+        dd.update(f=5, g=6)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.f, 5)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.g, 6)
+
+        # Multiple arguments error
+        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
+            dd.update({}, {})
+
+    def test_setdefault(self):
+        """Test setdefault method."""
+        dd = DotDict({'a': 1})
+
+        # Existing key
+        result = dd.setdefault('a', 10)
+        self.assertEqual(result, 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.a, 1)
+
+        # New key
+        result = dd.setdefault('b', 2)
+        self.assertEqual(result, 2)
+        self.assertEqual(dd.b, 2)
+
+        # New key with None default
+        result = dd.setdefault('c')
+        self.assertIsNone(result)
+        self.assertIsNone(dd.c)
+
+    def test_pickling(self):
+        """Test pickling/unpickling."""
+        dd1 = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2}})
+
+        # Pickle and unpickle
+        pickled = pickle.dumps(dd1)
+        dd2 = pickle.loads(pickled)
+
+        self.assertIsNot(dd2, dd1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd2.a, 1)
+        self.assertEqual(dd2.b.c, 2)
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd2, DotDict)
+        self.assertIsInstance(dd2.b, DotDict)
+
+    def test_jax_pytree(self):
+        """Test JAX pytree registration."""
+        dd = DotDict({'a': jnp.array([1, 2]), 'b': jnp.array([3, 4])})
+
+        # Tree operations
+        doubled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(lambda x: x * 2, dd)
+        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(doubled.a, jnp.array([2, 4])))
+        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(doubled.b, jnp.array([6, 8])))
+
+    def test_repr(self):
+        """Test string representation."""
+        dd = DotDict({'a': 1, 'b': 'text'})
+        repr_str = repr(dd)
+        self.assertIn('DotDict', repr_str)
+        self.assertIn("'a': 1", repr_str)
+        self.assertIn("'b': 'text'", repr_str)
+
+
+class TestUtilityFunctions(unittest.TestCase):
+    """Test cases for utility functions."""
+
+    def test_merge_dicts_basic(self):
+        """Test basic dict merging."""
+        d1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
+        d2 = {'b': 3, 'c': 4}
+        d3 = {'d': 5}
+
+        result = merge_dicts(d1, d2, d3)
+        self.assertEqual(result, {'a': 1, 'b': 3, 'c': 4, 'd': 5})
+
+        # Original dicts should be unchanged
+        self.assertEqual(d1, {'a': 1, 'b': 2})
+
+    def test_merge_dicts_recursive(self):
+        """Test recursive dict merging."""
+        d1 = {'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 3}}
+        d2 = {'b': {'d': 4, 'e': 5}, 'f': 6}
+
+        result = merge_dicts(d1, d2, recursive=True)
+        self.assertEqual(result, {
+            'a': 1,
+            'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 4, 'e': 5},
+            'f': 6
+        })
+
+    def test_merge_dicts_non_recursive(self):
+        """Test non-recursive dict merging."""
+        d1 = {'a': 1, 'b': {'c': 2}}
+        d2 = {'b': {'d': 3}}
+
+        result = merge_dicts(d1, d2, recursive=False)
+        self.assertEqual(result, {'a': 1, 'b': {'d': 3}})
+
+    def test_merge_dicts_errors(self):
+        """Test merge_dicts error handling."""
+        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
+            merge_dicts({'a': 1}, [1, 2, 3])
+
+    def test_flatten_dict(self):
+        """Test dictionary flattening."""
+        nested = {
+            'a': 1,
+            'b': {
+                'c': 2,
+                'd': {
+                    'e': 3,
+                    'f': 4
+                }
+            },
+            'g': 5
+        }
+
+        flat = flatten_dict(nested)
+        self.assertEqual(flat, {
+            'a': 1,
+            'b.c': 2,
+            'b.d.e': 3,
+            'b.d.f': 4,
+            'g': 5
+        })
+
+        # Custom separator
+        flat_dash = flatten_dict(nested, sep='-')
+        self.assertEqual(flat_dash, {
+            'a': 1,
+            'b-c': 2,
+            'b-d-e': 3,
+            'b-d-f': 4,
+            'g': 5
+        })
+
+    def test_unflatten_dict(self):
+        """Test dictionary unflattening."""
+        flat = {
+            'a': 1,
+            'b.c': 2,
+            'b.d.e': 3,
+            'b.d.f': 4,
+            'g': 5
+        }
+
+        nested = unflatten_dict(flat)
+        self.assertEqual(nested, {
+            'a': 1,
+            'b': {
+                'c': 2,
+                'd': {
+                    'e': 3,
+                    'f': 4
+                }
+            },
+            'g': 5
+        })
+
+        # Custom separator
+        flat_dash = {'a': 1, 'b-c': 2, 'b-d': 3}
+        nested_dash = unflatten_dict(flat_dash, sep='-')
+        self.assertEqual(nested_dash, {
+            'a': 1,
+            'b': {'c': 2, 'd': 3}
+        })
+
+    def test_flatten_unflatten_roundtrip(self):
+        """Test that flatten/unflatten is reversible."""
+        original = {
+            'level1': {
+                'level2': {
+                    'level3': 'value',
+                    'another': 42
+                },
+                'sibling': 'data'
+            },
+            'root': 'element'
+        }
+
+        flattened = flatten_dict(original)
+        unflattened = unflatten_dict(flattened)
+        self.assertEqual(unflattened, original)
+
+    def test_is_instance_eval(self):
+        """Test is_instance_eval function."""
+        # Single type
+        is_int = is_instance_eval(int)
+        self.assertTrue(is_int(5))
+        self.assertFalse(is_int("5"))
+        self.assertFalse(is_int(5.0))
+
+        # Multiple types
+        is_number = is_instance_eval(int, float)
+        self.assertTrue(is_number(5))
+        self.assertTrue(is_number(5.0))
+        self.assertFalse(is_number("5"))
+
+        # With subclasses
+        class MyList(list):
+            pass
+
+        is_list = is_instance_eval(list)
+        self.assertTrue(is_list([1, 2, 3]))
+        self.assertTrue(is_list(MyList([1, 2, 3])))
+        self.assertFalse(is_list((1, 2, 3)))
+
+    def test_not_instance_eval(self):
+        """Test not_instance_eval function."""
+        # Single type
+        not_int = not_instance_eval(int)
+        self.assertFalse(not_int(5))
+        self.assertTrue(not_int("5"))
+        self.assertTrue(not_int(5.0))
+
+        # Multiple types
+        not_number = not_instance_eval(int, float)
+        self.assertFalse(not_number(5))
+        self.assertFalse(not_number(5.0))
+        self.assertTrue(not_number("5"))
+        self.assertTrue(not_number([1, 2, 3]))
+
+
+class TestJaxIntegration(unittest.TestCase):
+    """Test JAX integration for DictManager and DotDict."""
+
+    def test_dictmanager_pytree_operations(self):
+        """Test DictManager with JAX tree operations."""
+        dm = DictManager({
+            'weights': jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0]),
+            'bias': jnp.array([0.1, 0.2])
+        })
+
+        # Tree map
+        scaled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(lambda x: x * 2, dm)
+        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(scaled['weights'], jnp.array([2.0, 4.0, 6.0])))
+        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(scaled['bias'], jnp.array([0.2, 0.4])))
+
+        # Tree reduce
+        total = jax.tree_util.tree_reduce(lambda x, y: x + y.sum(), dm, 0.0)
+        self.assertAlmostEqual(total, 6.3, places=5)
+
+    def test_dotdict_pytree_operations(self):
+        """Test DotDict with JAX tree operations."""
+        dd = DotDict({
+            'model': {
+                'weights': jnp.array([[1.0, 2.0], [3.0, 4.0]]),
+                'bias': jnp.array([0.1, 0.2])
+            },
+            'optimizer': {
+                'lr': 0.01
+            }
+        })
+
+        # Tree map on nested structure
+        def scale_arrays(x):
+            return x * 2 if isinstance(x, jnp.ndarray) else x
+
+        scaled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(scale_arrays, dd)
+        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(
+            scaled.model.weights,
+            jnp.array([[2.0, 4.0], [6.0, 8.0]])
+        ))
+        self.assertEqual(scaled.optimizer.lr, 0.01)  # Non-array unchanged
+
+    def test_mixed_pytree_structures(self):
+        """Test mixing DictManager and DotDict in pytree operations."""
+        structure = {
+            'dict_manager': DictManager({'a': jnp.array([1, 2])})
+        }
+
+        doubled = jax.tree_util.tree_map(lambda x: x * 2, structure)
+        self.assertTrue(jnp.allclose(
+            doubled['dict_manager']['a'],
+            jnp.array([2, 4])
+        ))
+
+
+if __name__ == '__main__':
+    unittest.main()