brainstate 0.2.0__py2.py3-none-any.whl → 0.2.1__py2.py3-none-any.whl

brainstate/transform/_loop_collect_return.py

@@ -1,675 +1,675 @@
-# Copyright 2024 BrainX Ecosystem Limited. All Rights Reserved.
-#
-# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-# You may obtain a copy of the License at
-#
-#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-#
-# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-# limitations under the License.
-# ==============================================================================
-
-import math
-from functools import wraps
-from typing import Callable, Optional, TypeVar, Tuple, Any
-
-import jax
-import jax.numpy as jnp
-
-from brainstate._utils import set_module_as
-from ._make_jaxpr import StatefulFunction
-from ._progress_bar import ProgressBar
-from ._unvmap import unvmap
-from ._util import wrap_single_fun
-
-__all__ = [
-    # "scan" syntax, which is similar to jax.lax.scan
-    'scan', 'checkpointed_scan',
-
-    # "for_loop" syntax
-    'for_loop', 'checkpointed_for_loop',
-]
-
-X = TypeVar('X')
-Y = TypeVar('Y')
-T = TypeVar('T')
-Carry = TypeVar('Carry')
-
-
-def _wrap_fun_with_pbar(
-    fun: Callable[[Carry, X], Tuple[Carry, Y]],
-    pbar_runner: Callable
-):
-    @wraps(fun)
-    def new_fun(new_carry, inputs):
-        i, old_carry = new_carry
-        new_carry, new_outputs = fun(old_carry, inputs)
-        pbar_runner(unvmap(i, op='none'), carry=new_carry, y=new_outputs)
-        return (i + 1, new_carry), new_outputs
-
-    return new_fun
-
-
-@set_module_as('brainstate.transform')
-def scan(
-    f: Callable[[Carry, X], Tuple[Carry, Y]],
-    init: Carry,
-    xs: X,
-    length: int | None = None,
-    reverse: bool = False,
-    unroll: int | bool = 1,
-    pbar: ProgressBar | int | None = None,
-) -> Tuple[Carry, Y]:
-    """
-    Scan a function over leading array axes while carrying along state.
-
-    The `Haskell-like type signature`_ in brief is
-
-    .. code-block:: haskell
-
-      scan :: (c -> a -> (c, b)) -> c -> [a] -> (c, [b])
-
-    where for any array type specifier ``t``, ``[t]`` represents the type with an additional
-    leading axis, and if ``t`` is a pytree (container) type with array leaves then ``[t]``
-    represents the type with the same pytree structure and corresponding leaves
-    each with an additional leading axis.
-
-    When the type of ``xs`` (denoted `a` above) is an array type or None, and the type
-    of ``ys`` (denoted `b` above) is an array type, the semantics of :func:`~scan` are
-    given roughly by this Python implementation:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> def scan(f, init, xs, length=None):
-        ...     if xs is None:
-        ...         xs = [None] * length
-        ...     carry = init
-        ...     ys = []
-        ...     for x in xs:
-        ...         carry, y = f(carry, x)
-        ...         ys.append(y)
-        ...     return carry, np.stack(ys)
-
-    Unlike that Python version, both ``xs`` and ``ys`` may be arbitrary pytree
-    values, and so multiple arrays can be scanned over at once and produce multiple
-    output arrays. ``None`` is actually a special case of this, as it represents an
-    empty pytree.
-
-    Also unlike that Python version, :func:`~scan` is a JAX primitive and is
-    lowered to a single WhileOp. That makes it useful for reducing
-    compilation times for JIT-compiled functions, since native Python
-    loop constructs in an :func:`~jax.jit` function are unrolled, leading to large
-    XLA computations.
-
-    Finally, the loop-carried value ``carry`` must hold a fixed shape and dtype
-    across all iterations (and not just be consistent up to NumPy rank/shape
-    broadcasting and dtype promotion rules, for example). In other words, the type
-    ``c`` in the type signature above represents an array with a fixed shape and
-    dtype (or a nested tuple/list/dict container data structure with a fixed
-    structure and arrays with fixed shape and dtype at the leaves).
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    f : callable
-        A Python function to be scanned of type ``c -> a -> (c, b)``, meaning
-        that ``f`` accepts two arguments where the first is a value of the loop
-        carry and the second is a slice of ``xs`` along its leading axis, and that
-        ``f`` returns a pair where the first element represents a new value for
-        the loop carry and the second represents a slice of the output.
-    init : Carry
-        An initial loop carry value of type ``c``, which can be a scalar,
-        array, or any pytree (nested Python tuple/list/dict) thereof, representing
-        the initial loop carry value. This value must have the same structure as
-        the first element of the pair returned by ``f``.
-    xs : X
-        The value of type ``[a]`` over which to scan along the leading axis,
-        where ``[a]`` can be an array or any pytree (nested Python
-        tuple/list/dict) thereof with consistent leading axis sizes.
-    length : int, optional
-        Optional integer specifying the number of loop iterations, which
-        must agree with the sizes of leading axes of the arrays in ``xs`` (but can
-        be used to perform scans where no input ``xs`` are needed).
-    reverse : bool, default False
-        Optional boolean specifying whether to run the scan iteration
-        forward (the default) or in reverse, equivalent to reversing the leading
-        axes of the arrays in both ``xs`` and in ``ys``.
-    unroll : int or bool, default 1
-        Optional positive int or bool specifying, in the underlying
-        operation of the scan primitive, how many scan iterations to unroll within
-        a single iteration of a loop. If an integer is provided, it determines how
-        many unrolled loop iterations to run within a single rolled iteration of
-        the loop. If a boolean is provided, it will determine if the loop is
-        completely unrolled (i.e. `unroll=True`) or left completely unrolled (i.e.
-        `unroll=False`).
-    pbar : ProgressBar or int, optional
-        Optional :class:`~.ProgressBar` instance to display the progress
-        of the scan operation.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    tuple of (Carry, Y)
-        A pair of type ``(c, [b])`` where the first element represents the final
-        loop carry value and the second element represents the stacked outputs of
-        the second output of ``f`` when scanned over the leading axis of the inputs.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    Basic scan operation:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> import brainstate
-        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
-        >>>
-        >>> def step_fn(carry, x):
-        ...     return carry + x, carry * x
-        >>>
-        >>> init = 0.0
-        >>> xs = jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
-        >>> final_carry, ys = brainstate.transform.scan(step_fn, init, xs)
-
-    Scan with progress bar:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> pbar = brainstate.transform.ProgressBar(freq=10)
-        >>> final_carry, ys = brainstate.transform.scan(step_fn, init, xs, pbar=pbar)
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. _Haskell-like type signature: https://wiki.haskell.org/Type_signature
-    """
-    # check "f"
-    if not callable(f):
-        raise TypeError("f argument should be a callable.")
-
-    # check "xs"
-    xs_flat, xs_tree = jax.tree.flatten(xs)
-    try:
-        lengths = [x.shape[0] for x in xs_flat]
-    except AttributeError as err:
-        raise ValueError("scan got value with no leading axis to scan over: "
-                         "{}.".format(', '.join(str(x) for x in xs_flat if not hasattr(x, 'shape')))) from err
-    if length is not None:
-        length = int(length)
-        if not all(length == l for l in lengths):
-            raise ValueError(("scan got `length` argument of {} which disagrees with "
-                              "leading axis sizes {}.").format(length, [x.shape[0] for x in xs_flat]))
-    else:
-        unique_lengths = set(lengths)
-        if len(unique_lengths) > 1:
-            msg = "scan got values with different leading axis sizes: {}."
-            raise ValueError(msg.format(', '.join(str(x.shape[0]) for x in xs_flat)))
-        elif len(unique_lengths) == 0:
-            raise ValueError("scan got no values to scan over and `length` not provided.")
-        else:
-            length, = unique_lengths
-
-    # function with progress bar
-    has_pbar = False
-    if pbar is not None:
-        has_pbar = True
-        if isinstance(pbar, ProgressBar):
-            pbar_runner = pbar.init(length)
-        elif isinstance(pbar, int):
-            pbar_runner = ProgressBar(freq=pbar).init(length)
-        else:
-            raise TypeError("pbar argument should be a ProgressBar instance or an integer.")
-        f = _wrap_fun_with_pbar(f, pbar_runner)
-        init = (0, init) if pbar else init
-
-    # not jit
-    if jax.config.jax_disable_jit:
-        if length == 0:
-            raise ValueError(
-                "zero-length scan is not supported in disable_jit() mode because the output type is unknown.")
-        carry = init
-        ys = []
-        maybe_reversed = reversed if reverse else lambda x: x
-        for i in maybe_reversed(range(length)):
-            xs_slice = [jax.lax.index_in_dim(x, i, keepdims=False) for x in xs_flat]
-            carry, y = f(carry, jax.tree.unflatten(xs_tree, xs_slice))
-            ys.append(y)
-        stacked_y = jax.tree.map(lambda *elems: jnp.stack(elems), *maybe_reversed(ys))
-        if has_pbar:
-            return carry[1], stacked_y
-        else:
-            return carry, stacked_y
-
-    # evaluate jaxpr, get all states #
-    # ------------------------------ #
-    xs_avals = [jax.core.get_aval(x) for x in xs_flat]
-    x_avals = [jax.core.mapped_aval(length, 0, aval) for aval in xs_avals]
-    args = [init, xs_tree.unflatten(x_avals)]
-    stateful_fun = StatefulFunction(f, name='scan').make_jaxpr(*args)
-    state_trace = stateful_fun.get_state_trace(*args)
-    all_writen_state_vals = state_trace.get_write_state_values(True)
-    all_read_state_vals = state_trace.get_read_state_values(True)
-    wrapped_f = wrap_single_fun(stateful_fun, state_trace.been_writen, all_read_state_vals)
-
-    # scan
-    init = (all_writen_state_vals, init)
-    (
-        (
-            all_writen_state_vals,
-            carry
-        ),
-        ys
-    ) = jax.lax.scan(
-        wrapped_f,
-        init,
-        xs,
-        length=length,
-        reverse=reverse,
-        unroll=unroll
-    )
-    # assign the written state values and restore the read state values
-    state_trace.assign_state_vals_v2(all_read_state_vals, all_writen_state_vals)
-    # carry
-    if has_pbar:
-        carry = carry[1]
-    return carry, ys
-
-
-@set_module_as('brainstate.transform')
-def checkpointed_scan(
-    f: Callable[[Carry, X], Tuple[Carry, Y]],
-    init: Carry,
-    xs: X,
-    length: Optional[int] = None,
-    base: int = 16,
-    pbar: Optional[ProgressBar | int] = None,
-) -> Tuple[Carry, Y]:
-    """
-    Scan a function over leading array axes while carrying along state.
-    This function is similar to :func:`~scan` but with a checkpointed version.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    f : callable
-        A Python function to be scanned of type ``c -> a -> (c, b)``, meaning
-        that ``f`` accepts two arguments where the first is a value of the loop
-        carry and the second is a slice of ``xs`` along its leading axis, and that
-        ``f`` returns a pair where the first element represents a new value for
-        the loop carry and the second represents a slice of the output.
-    init : Carry
-        An initial loop carry value of type ``c``, which can be a scalar,
-        array, or any pytree (nested Python tuple/list/dict) thereof, representing
-        the initial loop carry value. This value must have the same structure as
-        the first element of the pair returned by ``f``.
-    xs : X
-        The value of type ``[a]`` over which to scan along the leading axis,
-        where ``[a]`` can be an array or any pytree (nested Python
-        tuple/list/dict) thereof with consistent leading axis sizes.
-    length : int, optional
-        Optional integer specifying the number of loop iterations, which
-        must agree with the sizes of leading axes of the arrays in ``xs`` (but can
-        be used to perform scans where no input ``xs`` are needed).
-    base : int, default 16
-        Optional integer specifying the base for the bounded scan loop.
-    pbar : ProgressBar or int, optional
-        Optional :class:`~.ProgressBar` instance to display the progress
-        of the scan operation.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    tuple of (Carry, Y)
-        A pair of type ``(c, [b])`` where the first element represents the final
-        loop carry value and the second element represents the stacked outputs of
-        the second output of ``f`` when scanned over the leading axis of the inputs.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    Basic checkpointed scan operation:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> import brainstate
-        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
-        >>>
-        >>> def step_fn(carry, x):
-        ...     return carry + x, carry * x
-        >>>
-        >>> init = 0.0
-        >>> xs = jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
-        >>> final_carry, ys = brainstate.transform.checkpointed_scan(step_fn, init, xs)
-
-    Using custom base for checkpointing:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> final_carry, ys = brainstate.transform.checkpointed_scan(
-        ...     step_fn, init, xs, base=8
-        ... )
-    """
-    # check "f"
-    if not callable(f):
-        raise TypeError("f argument should be a callable.")
-
-    # check "xs"
-    xs_flat, xs_tree = jax.tree.flatten(xs)
-    try:
-        lengths = [x.shape[0] for x in xs_flat]
-    except AttributeError as err:
-        raise ValueError("scan got value with no leading axis to scan over: "
-                         "{}.".format(', '.join(str(x) for x in xs_flat if not hasattr(x, 'shape')))) from err
-    if length is not None:
-        length = int(length)
-        if not all(length == l for l in lengths):
-            raise ValueError(("scan got `length` argument of {} which disagrees with "
-                              "leading axis sizes {}.").format(length, [x.shape[0] for x in xs_flat]))
-    else:
-        unique_lengths = set(lengths)
-        if len(unique_lengths) > 1:
-            msg = "scan got values with different leading axis sizes: {}."
-            raise ValueError(msg.format(', '.join(str(x.shape[0]) for x in xs_flat)))
-        elif len(unique_lengths) == 0:
-            raise ValueError("scan got no values to scan over and `length` not provided.")
-        else:
-            length, = unique_lengths
-
-    # function with progress bar
-    if isinstance(pbar, ProgressBar):
-        pbar_runner = pbar.init(length)
-    elif isinstance(pbar, int):
-        pbar_runner = ProgressBar(freq=pbar).init(length)
-    else:
-        pbar_runner = None
-
-    # evaluate jaxpr
-    xs_avals = [jax.core.get_aval(x) for x in xs_flat]
-    x_avals = [jax.core.mapped_aval(length, 0, aval) for aval in xs_avals]
-    args = (init, xs_tree.unflatten(x_avals))
-    stateful_fun = StatefulFunction(f, name='checkpoint_scan').make_jaxpr(*args)
-    state_trace = stateful_fun.get_state_trace(*args)
-    cache_key = stateful_fun.get_arg_cache_key(*args)
-    # get all states
-    been_written = state_trace.been_writen
-    read_state_vals = state_trace.get_read_state_values(True)
-    write_state_vals = state_trace.get_write_state_values(True)
-
-    # initialize the collected values/dataa
-    out_info = stateful_fun.get_out_shapes_by_cache(cache_key)[0]
-    assert len(out_info) == 2, "function in checkpointed_scan should return two data: carray and out."
-    data2collection = jax.tree.map(lambda x: jnp.zeros((length,) + x.shape, x.dtype), out_info[1])
-    del out_info
-
-    def wrapped_cond_fun(inp):
-        return inp[-1] < length
-
-    def wrapped_body_fun(inp):
-        (prev_write_states, carray), prev_collect, i = inp
-        # progress bar
-        if pbar_runner is not None:
-            pbar_runner(unvmap(i, op='none'))
-        # call the function
-        prev_states = [w_val if write else r_val
-                       for write, w_val, r_val in zip(been_written, prev_write_states, read_state_vals)]
-        new_states, (new_carray, out4updates) = stateful_fun.jaxpr_call(
-            prev_states, carray, jax.tree.map(lambda x: x[i], xs)
-        )
-        # new written states
-        new_write_states = tuple([val if write else None for write, val in zip(been_written, new_states)])
-
-        # out of length
-        pred = i < length
-        new_collect = jax.tree.map(
-            # lambda x, update: x.at[i].set(jax.lax.select(pred, update, x[i])),
-            lambda x, update: jax.lax.select(pred, x.at[i].set(update), x),
-            prev_collect,
-            out4updates,
-        )
-        new_write_states = jax.tree.map(
-            lambda ps, ns: None if ns is None else jax.lax.select(pred, ns, ps),
-            prev_write_states,
-            new_write_states,
-            is_leaf=lambda x: x is None
-        )
-        new_carray = jax.tree.map(
-            lambda pc, nc: jax.lax.select(pred, nc, pc),
-            carray,
-            new_carray,
-        )
-        return (new_write_states, new_carray), new_collect, i + 1
-
-    # while_loop
-    rounded_max_steps = base ** int(math.ceil(math.log(length, base)))
-    (write_state_vals, carry), data2collection, _ = (
-        _bounded_while_loop(
-            wrapped_cond_fun,
-            wrapped_body_fun,
-            ((write_state_vals, init), data2collection, 0),
-            rounded_max_steps,
-            base,
-            pbar_runner
-        )
-    )
-    # assign the written state values and restore the read state values
-    state_trace.assign_state_vals_v2(read_state_vals, write_state_vals)
-    del write_state_vals, read_state_vals, stateful_fun
-    return carry, data2collection
-
-
-def _forloop_to_scan_fun(f: Callable):
-    @wraps(f)
-    def scan_fun(carry, x):
-        return carry, f(*x)
-
-    return scan_fun
-
-
-@set_module_as('brainstate.transform')
-def for_loop(
-    f: Callable[..., Y],
-    *xs,
-    length: Optional[int] = None,
-    reverse: bool = False,
-    unroll: int | bool = 1,
-    pbar: Optional[ProgressBar | int] = None
-) -> Y:
-    """
-    ``for-loop`` control flow with :py:class:`~.State`.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    f : callable
-        A Python function to be looped over that accepts variadic arguments
-        corresponding to slices of ``xs`` along their leading axes, and returns
-        the output for that iteration.
-    *xs
-        The values over which to loop along the leading axis,
-        where each can be an array or any pytree (nested Python
-        tuple/list/dict) thereof with consistent leading axis sizes.
-    length : int, optional
-        Optional integer specifying the number of loop iterations, which
-        must agree with the sizes of leading axes of the arrays in ``xs`` (but can
-        be used to perform loops where no input ``xs`` are needed).
-    reverse : bool, default False
-        Optional boolean specifying whether to run the loop iteration
-        forward (the default) or in reverse, equivalent to reversing the leading
-        axes of the arrays in both ``xs`` and in ``ys``.
-    unroll : int or bool, default 1
-        Optional positive int or bool specifying, in the underlying
-        operation of the scan primitive, how many loop iterations to unroll within
-        a single iteration of a loop. If an integer is provided, it determines how
-        many unrolled loop iterations to run within a single rolled iteration of
-        the loop. If a boolean is provided, it will determine if the loop is
-        completely unrolled (i.e. `unroll=True`) or left completely unrolled (i.e.
-        `unroll=False`).
-    pbar : ProgressBar or int, optional
-        Optional :class:`~.ProgressBar` instance to display the progress
-        of the loop operation.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    Y
-        The stacked outputs of ``f`` when looped over the leading axis of the inputs.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    Basic for-loop operation:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> import brainstate
-        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
-        >>>
-        >>> def process_item(x, y):
-        ...     return x * y + 1
-        >>>
-        >>> xs = jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
-        >>> ys = jnp.array([4.0, 5.0, 6.0])
-        >>> results = brainstate.transform.for_loop(process_item, xs, ys)
-
-    For-loop with progress bar:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> pbar = brainstate.transform.ProgressBar(freq=10)
-        >>> results = brainstate.transform.for_loop(process_item, xs, ys, pbar=pbar)
-
-    For-loop with reverse iteration:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> results = brainstate.transform.for_loop(process_item, xs, ys, reverse=True)
-    """
-    _, ys = scan(
-        _forloop_to_scan_fun(f),
-        init=None,
-        xs=xs,
-        length=length,
-        reverse=reverse,
-        unroll=unroll,
-        pbar=pbar
-    )
-    return ys
-
-
-@set_module_as('brainstate.transform')
-def checkpointed_for_loop(
-    f: Callable[..., Y],
-    *xs: X,
-    length: Optional[int] = None,
-    base: int = 16,
-    pbar: Optional[ProgressBar | int] = None,
-) -> Y:
-    """
-    ``for-loop`` control flow with :py:class:`~.State` with a checkpointed version, similar to :py:func:`for_loop`.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    f : callable
-        A Python function to be looped over that accepts variadic arguments
-        corresponding to slices of ``xs`` along their leading axes, and returns
-        the output for that iteration.
-    *xs : X
-        The values over which to loop along the leading axis,
-        where each can be an array or any pytree (nested Python
-        tuple/list/dict) thereof with consistent leading axis sizes.
-    length : int, optional
-        Optional integer specifying the number of loop iterations, which
-        must agree with the sizes of leading axes of the arrays in ``xs`` (but can
-        be used to perform loops where no input ``xs`` are needed).
-    base : int, default 16
-        Optional integer specifying the base for the bounded loop.
-    pbar : ProgressBar or int, optional
-        Optional :class:`~.ProgressBar` instance to display the progress
-        of the loop operation.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    Y
-        The stacked outputs of ``f`` when looped over the leading axis of the inputs.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    Basic checkpointed for-loop operation:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> import brainstate
-        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
-        >>>
-        >>> def process_item(x, y):
-        ...     return x * y + 1
-        >>>
-        >>> xs = jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
-        >>> ys = jnp.array([4.0, 5.0, 6.0])
-        >>> results = brainstate.transform.checkpointed_for_loop(process_item, xs, ys)
-
-    Using custom base for checkpointing:
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        >>> results = brainstate.transform.checkpointed_for_loop(
-        ...     process_item, xs, ys, base=8
-        ... )
-    """
-    _, ys = checkpointed_scan(
-        _forloop_to_scan_fun(f),
-        init=None,
-        xs=xs,
-        length=length,
-        base=base,
-        pbar=pbar
-    )
-    return ys
-
-
-# This function is adapted from ``while_loop`` in
-# `equinox <https://github.com/patrick-kidger/equinox/blob/main/equinox/internal/_loop/loop.py>`_.
-
-# There's several tricks happening here to work around various limitations of JAX.
-# (Also see https://github.com/google/jax/issues/2139#issuecomment-1039293633)
-# 1. `unvmap_any` prior to using `lax.cond`. JAX has a problem in that vmap-of-cond
-#    is converted to a `lax.select`, which executes both branches unconditionally.
-#    Thus writing this naively, using a plain `lax.cond`, will mean the loop always
-#    runs to `max_steps` when executing under vmap. Instead we run (only) until every
-#    batch element has finished.
-# 2. Treating in-place updates specially in the body_fun. Specifically we need to
-#    `lax.select` the update-to-make, not the updated buffer. This is because the
-#    latter instead results in XLA:CPU failing to determine that the buffer can be
-#    updated in-place, and instead it makes a copy. c.f. JAX issue #8192.
-#    This is done through the extra `inplace` argument provided to `body_fun`.
-# 3. The use of the `@jax.checkpoint` decorator. Backpropagation through a
-#    `bounded_while_loop` will otherwise run in θ(max_steps) time, rather than
-#    θ(number of steps actually taken).
-# 4. The use of `base`. In theory `base=2` is optimal at run time, as it implies the
-#    fewest superfluous operations. In practice this implies quite deep recursion in
-#    the construction of the bounded while loop, and this slows down the jaxpr
-#    creation and the XLA compilation. We choose `base=16` as a reasonable-looking
-#    compromise between compilation time and run time.
-
-def _bounded_while_loop(
-    cond_fun: Callable,
-    body_fun: Callable,
-    val: Any,
-    max_steps: int,
-    base: int,
-    pbar_runner: Optional[Callable] = None
-):
-    if max_steps == 1:
-        return body_fun(val)
-    else:
-
-        def true_call(val_):
-            return _bounded_while_loop(cond_fun, body_fun, val_, max_steps // base, base, pbar_runner)
-
-        def false_call(val_):
-            if pbar_runner is not None:
-                pbar_runner(unvmap(val_[-1] + max_steps, op='none'))
-            return val_[:-1] + (val_[-1] + max_steps,)
-
-        def scan_fn(val_, _):
-            return jax.lax.cond(unvmap(cond_fun(val_), op='any'), true_call, false_call, val_), None
-
-        # Don't put checkpointing on the lowest level
-        if max_steps != base:
-            scan_fn = jax.checkpoint(scan_fn, prevent_cse=False)  # pyright: ignore
-
-        return jax.lax.scan(scan_fn, val, xs=None, length=base)[0]
+# Copyright 2024 BrainX Ecosystem Limited. All Rights Reserved.
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+# ==============================================================================
+
+import math
+from functools import wraps
+from typing import Callable, Optional, TypeVar, Tuple, Any
+
+import jax
+import jax.numpy as jnp
+
+from brainstate._utils import set_module_as
+from ._make_jaxpr import StatefulFunction
+from ._progress_bar import ProgressBar
+from ._unvmap import unvmap
+from ._util import wrap_single_fun
+
+__all__ = [
+    # "scan" syntax, which is similar to jax.lax.scan
+    'scan', 'checkpointed_scan',
+
+    # "for_loop" syntax
+    'for_loop', 'checkpointed_for_loop',
+]
+
+X = TypeVar('X')
+Y = TypeVar('Y')
+T = TypeVar('T')
+Carry = TypeVar('Carry')
+
+
+def _wrap_fun_with_pbar(
+    fun: Callable[[Carry, X], Tuple[Carry, Y]],
+    pbar_runner: Callable
+):
+    @wraps(fun)
+    def new_fun(new_carry, inputs):
+        i, old_carry = new_carry
+        new_carry, new_outputs = fun(old_carry, inputs)
+        pbar_runner(unvmap(i, op='none'), carry=new_carry, y=new_outputs)
+        return (i + 1, new_carry), new_outputs
+
+    return new_fun
+
+
+@set_module_as('brainstate.transform')
+def scan(
+    f: Callable[[Carry, X], Tuple[Carry, Y]],
+    init: Carry,
+    xs: X,
+    length: int | None = None,
+    reverse: bool = False,
+    unroll: int | bool = 1,
+    pbar: ProgressBar | int | None = None,
+) -> Tuple[Carry, Y]:
+    """
+    Scan a function over leading array axes while carrying along state.
+
+    The `Haskell-like type signature`_ in brief is
+
+    .. code-block:: haskell
+
+      scan :: (c -> a -> (c, b)) -> c -> [a] -> (c, [b])
+
+    where for any array type specifier ``t``, ``[t]`` represents the type with an additional
+    leading axis, and if ``t`` is a pytree (container) type with array leaves then ``[t]``
+    represents the type with the same pytree structure and corresponding leaves
+    each with an additional leading axis.
+
+    When the type of ``xs`` (denoted `a` above) is an array type or None, and the type
+    of ``ys`` (denoted `b` above) is an array type, the semantics of :func:`~scan` are
+    given roughly by this Python implementation:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> def scan(f, init, xs, length=None):
+        ...     if xs is None:
+        ...         xs = [None] * length
+        ...     carry = init
+        ...     ys = []
+        ...     for x in xs:
+        ...         carry, y = f(carry, x)
+        ...         ys.append(y)
+        ...     return carry, np.stack(ys)
+
+    Unlike that Python version, both ``xs`` and ``ys`` may be arbitrary pytree
+    values, and so multiple arrays can be scanned over at once and produce multiple
+    output arrays. ``None`` is actually a special case of this, as it represents an
+    empty pytree.
+
+    Also unlike that Python version, :func:`~scan` is a JAX primitive and is
+    lowered to a single WhileOp. That makes it useful for reducing
+    compilation times for JIT-compiled functions, since native Python
+    loop constructs in an :func:`~jax.jit` function are unrolled, leading to large
+    XLA computations.
+
+    Finally, the loop-carried value ``carry`` must hold a fixed shape and dtype
+    across all iterations (and not just be consistent up to NumPy rank/shape
+    broadcasting and dtype promotion rules, for example). In other words, the type
+    ``c`` in the type signature above represents an array with a fixed shape and
+    dtype (or a nested tuple/list/dict container data structure with a fixed
+    structure and arrays with fixed shape and dtype at the leaves).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    f : callable
+        A Python function to be scanned of type ``c -> a -> (c, b)``, meaning
+        that ``f`` accepts two arguments where the first is a value of the loop
+        carry and the second is a slice of ``xs`` along its leading axis, and that
+        ``f`` returns a pair where the first element represents a new value for
+        the loop carry and the second represents a slice of the output.
+    init : Carry
+        An initial loop carry value of type ``c``, which can be a scalar,
+        array, or any pytree (nested Python tuple/list/dict) thereof, representing
+        the initial loop carry value. This value must have the same structure as
+        the first element of the pair returned by ``f``.
+    xs : X
+        The value of type ``[a]`` over which to scan along the leading axis,
+        where ``[a]`` can be an array or any pytree (nested Python
+        tuple/list/dict) thereof with consistent leading axis sizes.
+    length : int, optional
+        Optional integer specifying the number of loop iterations, which
+        must agree with the sizes of leading axes of the arrays in ``xs`` (but can
+        be used to perform scans where no input ``xs`` are needed).
+    reverse : bool, default False
+        Optional boolean specifying whether to run the scan iteration
+        forward (the default) or in reverse, equivalent to reversing the leading
+        axes of the arrays in both ``xs`` and in ``ys``.
+    unroll : int or bool, default 1
+        Optional positive int or bool specifying, in the underlying
+        operation of the scan primitive, how many scan iterations to unroll within
+        a single iteration of a loop. If an integer is provided, it determines how
+        many unrolled loop iterations to run within a single rolled iteration of
+        the loop. If a boolean is provided, it will determine if the loop is
+        completely unrolled (i.e. `unroll=True`) or left completely unrolled (i.e.
+        `unroll=False`).
+    pbar : ProgressBar or int, optional
+        Optional :class:`~.ProgressBar` instance to display the progress
+        of the scan operation.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple of (Carry, Y)
+        A pair of type ``(c, [b])`` where the first element represents the final
+        loop carry value and the second element represents the stacked outputs of
+        the second output of ``f`` when scanned over the leading axis of the inputs.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Basic scan operation:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> import brainstate
+        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
+        >>>
+        >>> def step_fn(carry, x):
+        ...     return carry + x, carry * x
+        >>>
+        >>> init = 0.0
+        >>> xs = jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
+        >>> final_carry, ys = brainstate.transform.scan(step_fn, init, xs)
+
+    Scan with progress bar:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> pbar = brainstate.transform.ProgressBar(freq=10)
+        >>> final_carry, ys = brainstate.transform.scan(step_fn, init, xs, pbar=pbar)
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. _Haskell-like type signature: https://wiki.haskell.org/Type_signature
+    """
+    # check "f"
+    if not callable(f):
+        raise TypeError("f argument should be a callable.")
+
+    # check "xs"
+    xs_flat, xs_tree = jax.tree.flatten(xs)
+    try:
+        lengths = [x.shape[0] for x in xs_flat]
+    except AttributeError as err:
+        raise ValueError("scan got value with no leading axis to scan over: "
+                         "{}.".format(', '.join(str(x) for x in xs_flat if not hasattr(x, 'shape')))) from err
+    if length is not None:
+        length = int(length)
+        if not all(length == l for l in lengths):
+            raise ValueError(("scan got `length` argument of {} which disagrees with "
+                              "leading axis sizes {}.").format(length, [x.shape[0] for x in xs_flat]))
+    else:
+        unique_lengths = set(lengths)
+        if len(unique_lengths) > 1:
+            msg = "scan got values with different leading axis sizes: {}."
+            raise ValueError(msg.format(', '.join(str(x.shape[0]) for x in xs_flat)))
+        elif len(unique_lengths) == 0:
+            raise ValueError("scan got no values to scan over and `length` not provided.")
+        else:
+            length, = unique_lengths
+
+    # function with progress bar
+    has_pbar = False
+    if pbar is not None:
+        has_pbar = True
+        if isinstance(pbar, ProgressBar):
+            pbar_runner = pbar.init(length)
+        elif isinstance(pbar, int):
+            pbar_runner = ProgressBar(freq=pbar).init(length)
+        else:
+            raise TypeError("pbar argument should be a ProgressBar instance or an integer.")
+        f = _wrap_fun_with_pbar(f, pbar_runner)
+        init = (0, init) if pbar else init
+
+    # not jit
+    if jax.config.jax_disable_jit:
+        if length == 0:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "zero-length scan is not supported in disable_jit() mode because the output type is unknown.")
+        carry = init
+        ys = []
+        maybe_reversed = reversed if reverse else lambda x: x
+        for i in maybe_reversed(range(length)):
+            xs_slice = [jax.lax.index_in_dim(x, i, keepdims=False) for x in xs_flat]
+            carry, y = f(carry, jax.tree.unflatten(xs_tree, xs_slice))
+            ys.append(y)
+        stacked_y = jax.tree.map(lambda *elems: jnp.stack(elems), *maybe_reversed(ys))
+        if has_pbar:
+            return carry[1], stacked_y
+        else:
+            return carry, stacked_y
+
+    # evaluate jaxpr, get all states #
+    # ------------------------------ #
+    xs_avals = [jax.core.get_aval(x) for x in xs_flat]
+    x_avals = [jax.core.mapped_aval(length, 0, aval) for aval in xs_avals]
+    args = [init, xs_tree.unflatten(x_avals)]
+    stateful_fun = StatefulFunction(f, name='scan').make_jaxpr(*args)
+    state_trace = stateful_fun.get_state_trace(*args)
+    all_writen_state_vals = state_trace.get_write_state_values(True)
+    all_read_state_vals = state_trace.get_read_state_values(True)
+    wrapped_f = wrap_single_fun(stateful_fun, state_trace.been_writen, all_read_state_vals)
+
+    # scan
+    init = (all_writen_state_vals, init)
+    (
+        (
+            all_writen_state_vals,
+            carry
+        ),
+        ys
+    ) = jax.lax.scan(
+        wrapped_f,
+        init,
+        xs,
+        length=length,
+        reverse=reverse,
+        unroll=unroll
+    )
+    # assign the written state values and restore the read state values
+    state_trace.assign_state_vals_v2(all_read_state_vals, all_writen_state_vals)
+    # carry
+    if has_pbar:
+        carry = carry[1]
+    return carry, ys
+
+
+@set_module_as('brainstate.transform')
+def checkpointed_scan(
+    f: Callable[[Carry, X], Tuple[Carry, Y]],
+    init: Carry,
+    xs: X,
+    length: Optional[int] = None,
+    base: int = 16,
+    pbar: Optional[ProgressBar | int] = None,
+) -> Tuple[Carry, Y]:
+    """
+    Scan a function over leading array axes while carrying along state.
+    This function is similar to :func:`~scan` but with a checkpointed version.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    f : callable
+        A Python function to be scanned of type ``c -> a -> (c, b)``, meaning
+        that ``f`` accepts two arguments where the first is a value of the loop
+        carry and the second is a slice of ``xs`` along its leading axis, and that
+        ``f`` returns a pair where the first element represents a new value for
+        the loop carry and the second represents a slice of the output.
+    init : Carry
+        An initial loop carry value of type ``c``, which can be a scalar,
+        array, or any pytree (nested Python tuple/list/dict) thereof, representing
+        the initial loop carry value. This value must have the same structure as
+        the first element of the pair returned by ``f``.
+    xs : X
+        The value of type ``[a]`` over which to scan along the leading axis,
+        where ``[a]`` can be an array or any pytree (nested Python
+        tuple/list/dict) thereof with consistent leading axis sizes.
+    length : int, optional
+        Optional integer specifying the number of loop iterations, which
+        must agree with the sizes of leading axes of the arrays in ``xs`` (but can
+        be used to perform scans where no input ``xs`` are needed).
+    base : int, default 16
+        Optional integer specifying the base for the bounded scan loop.
+    pbar : ProgressBar or int, optional
+        Optional :class:`~.ProgressBar` instance to display the progress
+        of the scan operation.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple of (Carry, Y)
+        A pair of type ``(c, [b])`` where the first element represents the final
+        loop carry value and the second element represents the stacked outputs of
+        the second output of ``f`` when scanned over the leading axis of the inputs.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Basic checkpointed scan operation:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> import brainstate
+        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
+        >>>
+        >>> def step_fn(carry, x):
+        ...     return carry + x, carry * x
+        >>>
+        >>> init = 0.0
+        >>> xs = jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
+        >>> final_carry, ys = brainstate.transform.checkpointed_scan(step_fn, init, xs)
+
+    Using custom base for checkpointing:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> final_carry, ys = brainstate.transform.checkpointed_scan(
+        ...     step_fn, init, xs, base=8
+        ... )
+    """
+    # check "f"
+    if not callable(f):
+        raise TypeError("f argument should be a callable.")
+
+    # check "xs"
+    xs_flat, xs_tree = jax.tree.flatten(xs)
+    try:
+        lengths = [x.shape[0] for x in xs_flat]
+    except AttributeError as err:
+        raise ValueError("scan got value with no leading axis to scan over: "
+                         "{}.".format(', '.join(str(x) for x in xs_flat if not hasattr(x, 'shape')))) from err
+    if length is not None:
+        length = int(length)
+        if not all(length == l for l in lengths):
+            raise ValueError(("scan got `length` argument of {} which disagrees with "
+                              "leading axis sizes {}.").format(length, [x.shape[0] for x in xs_flat]))
+    else:
+        unique_lengths = set(lengths)
+        if len(unique_lengths) > 1:
+            msg = "scan got values with different leading axis sizes: {}."
+            raise ValueError(msg.format(', '.join(str(x.shape[0]) for x in xs_flat)))
+        elif len(unique_lengths) == 0:
+            raise ValueError("scan got no values to scan over and `length` not provided.")
+        else:
+            length, = unique_lengths
+
+    # function with progress bar
+    if isinstance(pbar, ProgressBar):
+        pbar_runner = pbar.init(length)
+    elif isinstance(pbar, int):
+        pbar_runner = ProgressBar(freq=pbar).init(length)
+    else:
+        pbar_runner = None
+
+    # evaluate jaxpr
+    xs_avals = [jax.core.get_aval(x) for x in xs_flat]
+    x_avals = [jax.core.mapped_aval(length, 0, aval) for aval in xs_avals]
+    args = (init, xs_tree.unflatten(x_avals))
+    stateful_fun = StatefulFunction(f, name='checkpoint_scan').make_jaxpr(*args)
+    state_trace = stateful_fun.get_state_trace(*args)
+    cache_key = stateful_fun.get_arg_cache_key(*args)
+    # get all states
+    been_written = state_trace.been_writen
+    read_state_vals = state_trace.get_read_state_values(True)
+    write_state_vals = state_trace.get_write_state_values(True)
+
+    # initialize the collected values/dataa
+    out_info = stateful_fun.get_out_shapes_by_cache(cache_key)[0]
+    assert len(out_info) == 2, "function in checkpointed_scan should return two data: carray and out."
+    data2collection = jax.tree.map(lambda x: jnp.zeros((length,) + x.shape, x.dtype), out_info[1])
+    del out_info
+
+    def wrapped_cond_fun(inp):
+        return inp[-1] < length
+
+    def wrapped_body_fun(inp):
+        (prev_write_states, carray), prev_collect, i = inp
+        # progress bar
+        if pbar_runner is not None:
+            pbar_runner(unvmap(i, op='none'))
+        # call the function
+        prev_states = [w_val if write else r_val
+                       for write, w_val, r_val in zip(been_written, prev_write_states, read_state_vals)]
+        new_states, (new_carray, out4updates) = stateful_fun.jaxpr_call(
+            prev_states, carray, jax.tree.map(lambda x: x[i], xs)
+        )
+        # new written states
+        new_write_states = tuple([val if write else None for write, val in zip(been_written, new_states)])
+
+        # out of length
+        pred = i < length
+        new_collect = jax.tree.map(
+            # lambda x, update: x.at[i].set(jax.lax.select(pred, update, x[i])),
+            lambda x, update: jax.lax.select(pred, x.at[i].set(update), x),
+            prev_collect,
+            out4updates,
+        )
+        new_write_states = jax.tree.map(
+            lambda ps, ns: None if ns is None else jax.lax.select(pred, ns, ps),
+            prev_write_states,
+            new_write_states,
+            is_leaf=lambda x: x is None
+        )
+        new_carray = jax.tree.map(
+            lambda pc, nc: jax.lax.select(pred, nc, pc),
+            carray,
+            new_carray,
+        )
+        return (new_write_states, new_carray), new_collect, i + 1
+
+    # while_loop
+    rounded_max_steps = base ** int(math.ceil(math.log(length, base)))
+    (write_state_vals, carry), data2collection, _ = (
+        _bounded_while_loop(
+            wrapped_cond_fun,
+            wrapped_body_fun,
+            ((write_state_vals, init), data2collection, 0),
+            rounded_max_steps,
+            base,
+            pbar_runner
+        )
+    )
+    # assign the written state values and restore the read state values
+    state_trace.assign_state_vals_v2(read_state_vals, write_state_vals)
+    del write_state_vals, read_state_vals, stateful_fun
+    return carry, data2collection
+
+
+def _forloop_to_scan_fun(f: Callable):
+    @wraps(f)
+    def scan_fun(carry, x):
+        return carry, f(*x)
+
+    return scan_fun
+
+
+@set_module_as('brainstate.transform')
+def for_loop(
+    f: Callable[..., Y],
+    *xs,
+    length: Optional[int] = None,
+    reverse: bool = False,
+    unroll: int | bool = 1,
+    pbar: Optional[ProgressBar | int] = None
+) -> Y:
+    """
+    ``for-loop`` control flow with :py:class:`~.State`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    f : callable
+        A Python function to be looped over that accepts variadic arguments
+        corresponding to slices of ``xs`` along their leading axes, and returns
+        the output for that iteration.
+    *xs
+        The values over which to loop along the leading axis,
+        where each can be an array or any pytree (nested Python
+        tuple/list/dict) thereof with consistent leading axis sizes.
+    length : int, optional
+        Optional integer specifying the number of loop iterations, which
+        must agree with the sizes of leading axes of the arrays in ``xs`` (but can
+        be used to perform loops where no input ``xs`` are needed).
+    reverse : bool, default False
+        Optional boolean specifying whether to run the loop iteration
+        forward (the default) or in reverse, equivalent to reversing the leading
+        axes of the arrays in both ``xs`` and in ``ys``.
+    unroll : int or bool, default 1
+        Optional positive int or bool specifying, in the underlying
+        operation of the scan primitive, how many loop iterations to unroll within
+        a single iteration of a loop. If an integer is provided, it determines how
+        many unrolled loop iterations to run within a single rolled iteration of
+        the loop. If a boolean is provided, it will determine if the loop is
+        completely unrolled (i.e. `unroll=True`) or left completely unrolled (i.e.
+        `unroll=False`).
+    pbar : ProgressBar or int, optional
+        Optional :class:`~.ProgressBar` instance to display the progress
+        of the loop operation.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    Y
+        The stacked outputs of ``f`` when looped over the leading axis of the inputs.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Basic for-loop operation:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> import brainstate
+        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
+        >>>
+        >>> def process_item(x, y):
+        ...     return x * y + 1
+        >>>
+        >>> xs = jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
+        >>> ys = jnp.array([4.0, 5.0, 6.0])
+        >>> results = brainstate.transform.for_loop(process_item, xs, ys)
+
+    For-loop with progress bar:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> pbar = brainstate.transform.ProgressBar(freq=10)
+        >>> results = brainstate.transform.for_loop(process_item, xs, ys, pbar=pbar)
+
+    For-loop with reverse iteration:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> results = brainstate.transform.for_loop(process_item, xs, ys, reverse=True)
+    """
+    _, ys = scan(
+        _forloop_to_scan_fun(f),
+        init=None,
+        xs=xs,
+        length=length,
+        reverse=reverse,
+        unroll=unroll,
+        pbar=pbar
+    )
+    return ys
+
+
+@set_module_as('brainstate.transform')
+def checkpointed_for_loop(
+    f: Callable[..., Y],
+    *xs: X,
+    length: Optional[int] = None,
+    base: int = 16,
+    pbar: Optional[ProgressBar | int] = None,
+) -> Y:
+    """
+    ``for-loop`` control flow with :py:class:`~.State` with a checkpointed version, similar to :py:func:`for_loop`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    f : callable
+        A Python function to be looped over that accepts variadic arguments
+        corresponding to slices of ``xs`` along their leading axes, and returns
+        the output for that iteration.
+    *xs : X
+        The values over which to loop along the leading axis,
+        where each can be an array or any pytree (nested Python
+        tuple/list/dict) thereof with consistent leading axis sizes.
+    length : int, optional
+        Optional integer specifying the number of loop iterations, which
+        must agree with the sizes of leading axes of the arrays in ``xs`` (but can
+        be used to perform loops where no input ``xs`` are needed).
+    base : int, default 16
+        Optional integer specifying the base for the bounded loop.
+    pbar : ProgressBar or int, optional
+        Optional :class:`~.ProgressBar` instance to display the progress
+        of the loop operation.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    Y
+        The stacked outputs of ``f`` when looped over the leading axis of the inputs.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Basic checkpointed for-loop operation:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> import brainstate
+        >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
+        >>>
+        >>> def process_item(x, y):
+        ...     return x * y + 1
+        >>>
+        >>> xs = jnp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
+        >>> ys = jnp.array([4.0, 5.0, 6.0])
+        >>> results = brainstate.transform.checkpointed_for_loop(process_item, xs, ys)
+
+    Using custom base for checkpointing:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        >>> results = brainstate.transform.checkpointed_for_loop(
+        ...     process_item, xs, ys, base=8
+        ... )
+    """
+    _, ys = checkpointed_scan(
+        _forloop_to_scan_fun(f),
+        init=None,
+        xs=xs,
+        length=length,
+        base=base,
+        pbar=pbar
+    )
+    return ys
+
+
+# This function is adapted from ``while_loop`` in
+# `equinox <https://github.com/patrick-kidger/equinox/blob/main/equinox/internal/_loop/loop.py>`_.
+
+# There's several tricks happening here to work around various limitations of JAX.
+# (Also see https://github.com/google/jax/issues/2139#issuecomment-1039293633)
+# 1. `unvmap_any` prior to using `lax.cond`. JAX has a problem in that vmap-of-cond
+#    is converted to a `lax.select`, which executes both branches unconditionally.
+#    Thus writing this naively, using a plain `lax.cond`, will mean the loop always
+#    runs to `max_steps` when executing under vmap. Instead we run (only) until every
+#    batch element has finished.
+# 2. Treating in-place updates specially in the body_fun. Specifically we need to
+#    `lax.select` the update-to-make, not the updated buffer. This is because the
+#    latter instead results in XLA:CPU failing to determine that the buffer can be
+#    updated in-place, and instead it makes a copy. c.f. JAX issue #8192.
+#    This is done through the extra `inplace` argument provided to `body_fun`.
+# 3. The use of the `@jax.checkpoint` decorator. Backpropagation through a
+#    `bounded_while_loop` will otherwise run in θ(max_steps) time, rather than
+#    θ(number of steps actually taken).
+# 4. The use of `base`. In theory `base=2` is optimal at run time, as it implies the
+#    fewest superfluous operations. In practice this implies quite deep recursion in
+#    the construction of the bounded while loop, and this slows down the jaxpr
+#    creation and the XLA compilation. We choose `base=16` as a reasonable-looking
+#    compromise between compilation time and run time.
+
+def _bounded_while_loop(
+    cond_fun: Callable,
+    body_fun: Callable,
+    val: Any,
+    max_steps: int,
+    base: int,
+    pbar_runner: Optional[Callable] = None
+):
+    if max_steps == 1:
+        return body_fun(val)
+    else:
+
+        def true_call(val_):
+            return _bounded_while_loop(cond_fun, body_fun, val_, max_steps // base, base, pbar_runner)
+
+        def false_call(val_):
+            if pbar_runner is not None:
+                pbar_runner(unvmap(val_[-1] + max_steps, op='none'))
+            return val_[:-1] + (val_[-1] + max_steps,)
+
+        def scan_fn(val_, _):
+            return jax.lax.cond(unvmap(cond_fun(val_), op='any'), true_call, false_call, val_), None
+
+        # Don't put checkpointing on the lowest level
+        if max_steps != base:
+            scan_fn = jax.checkpoint(scan_fn, prevent_cse=False)  # pyright: ignore
+
+        return jax.lax.scan(scan_fn, val, xs=None, length=base)[0]