rn-leveldb 3.11.0

package/cpp/leveldb/db/db_test.cc

@@ -0,0 +1,2305 @@
+// Copyright (c) 2011 The LevelDB Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Use of this source code is governed by a BSD-style license that can be
+// found in the LICENSE file. See the AUTHORS file for names of contributors.
+
+#include "leveldb/db.h"
+
+#include <atomic>
+#include <cinttypes>
+#include <string>
+
+#include "gtest/gtest.h"
+#include "third_party/benchmark/include/benchmark/benchmark.h"
+#include "db/db_impl.h"
+#include "db/filename.h"
+#include "db/version_set.h"
+#include "db/write_batch_internal.h"
+#include "leveldb/cache.h"
+#include "leveldb/env.h"
+#include "leveldb/filter_policy.h"
+#include "leveldb/table.h"
+#include "port/port.h"
+#include "port/thread_annotations.h"
+#include "util/hash.h"
+#include "util/logging.h"
+#include "util/mutexlock.h"
+#include "util/testutil.h"
+
+namespace leveldb {
+
+static std::string RandomString(Random* rnd, int len) {
+  std::string r;
+  test::RandomString(rnd, len, &r);
+  return r;
+}
+
+static std::string RandomKey(Random* rnd) {
+  int len =
+      (rnd->OneIn(3) ? 1  // Short sometimes to encourage collisions
+                     : (rnd->OneIn(100) ? rnd->Skewed(10) : rnd->Uniform(10)));
+  return test::RandomKey(rnd, len);
+}
+
+namespace {
+class AtomicCounter {
+ public:
+  AtomicCounter() : count_(0) {}
+  void Increment() { IncrementBy(1); }
+  void IncrementBy(int count) LOCKS_EXCLUDED(mu_) {
+    MutexLock l(&mu_);
+    count_ += count;
+  }
+  int Read() LOCKS_EXCLUDED(mu_) {
+    MutexLock l(&mu_);
+    return count_;
+  }
+  void Reset() LOCKS_EXCLUDED(mu_) {
+    MutexLock l(&mu_);
+    count_ = 0;
+  }
+
+ private:
+  port::Mutex mu_;
+  int count_ GUARDED_BY(mu_);
+};
+
+void DelayMilliseconds(int millis) {
+  Env::Default()->SleepForMicroseconds(millis * 1000);
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+// Test Env to override default Env behavior for testing.
+class TestEnv : public EnvWrapper {
+ public:
+  explicit TestEnv(Env* base) : EnvWrapper(base), ignore_dot_files_(false) {}
+
+  void SetIgnoreDotFiles(bool ignored) { ignore_dot_files_ = ignored; }
+
+  Status GetChildren(const std::string& dir,
+                     std::vector<std::string>* result) override {
+    Status s = target()->GetChildren(dir, result);
+    if (!s.ok() || !ignore_dot_files_) {
+      return s;
+    }
+
+    std::vector<std::string>::iterator it = result->begin();
+    while (it != result->end()) {
+      if ((*it == ".") || (*it == "..")) {
+        it = result->erase(it);
+      } else {
+        ++it;
+      }
+    }
+
+    return s;
+  }
+
+ private:
+  bool ignore_dot_files_;
+};
+
+// Special Env used to delay background operations.
+class SpecialEnv : public EnvWrapper {
+ public:
+  // sstable/log Sync() calls are blocked while this pointer is non-null.
+  std::atomic<bool> delay_data_sync_;
+
+  // sstable/log Sync() calls return an error.
+  std::atomic<bool> data_sync_error_;
+
+  // Simulate no-space errors while this pointer is non-null.
+  std::atomic<bool> no_space_;
+
+  // Simulate non-writable file system while this pointer is non-null.
+  std::atomic<bool> non_writable_;
+
+  // Force sync of manifest files to fail while this pointer is non-null.
+  std::atomic<bool> manifest_sync_error_;
+
+  // Force write to manifest files to fail while this pointer is non-null.
+  std::atomic<bool> manifest_write_error_;
+
+  bool count_random_reads_;
+  AtomicCounter random_read_counter_;
+
+  explicit SpecialEnv(Env* base)
+      : EnvWrapper(base),
+        delay_data_sync_(false),
+        data_sync_error_(false),
+        no_space_(false),
+        non_writable_(false),
+        manifest_sync_error_(false),
+        manifest_write_error_(false),
+        count_random_reads_(false) {}
+
+  Status NewWritableFile(const std::string& f, WritableFile** r) {
+    class DataFile : public WritableFile {
+     private:
+      SpecialEnv* const env_;
+      WritableFile* const base_;
+
+     public:
+      DataFile(SpecialEnv* env, WritableFile* base) : env_(env), base_(base) {}
+      ~DataFile() { delete base_; }
+      Status Append(const Slice& data) {
+        if (env_->no_space_.load(std::memory_order_acquire)) {
+          // Drop writes on the floor
+          return Status::OK();
+        } else {
+          return base_->Append(data);
+        }
+      }
+      Status Close() { return base_->Close(); }
+      Status Flush() { return base_->Flush(); }
+      Status Sync() {
+        if (env_->data_sync_error_.load(std::memory_order_acquire)) {
+          return Status::IOError("simulated data sync error");
+        }
+        while (env_->delay_data_sync_.load(std::memory_order_acquire)) {
+          DelayMilliseconds(100);
+        }
+        return base_->Sync();
+      }
+    };
+    class ManifestFile : public WritableFile {
+     private:
+      SpecialEnv* env_;
+      WritableFile* base_;
+
+     public:
+      ManifestFile(SpecialEnv* env, WritableFile* b) : env_(env), base_(b) {}
+      ~ManifestFile() { delete base_; }
+      Status Append(const Slice& data) {
+        if (env_->manifest_write_error_.load(std::memory_order_acquire)) {
+          return Status::IOError("simulated writer error");
+        } else {
+          return base_->Append(data);
+        }
+      }
+      Status Close() { return base_->Close(); }
+      Status Flush() { return base_->Flush(); }
+      Status Sync() {
+        if (env_->manifest_sync_error_.load(std::memory_order_acquire)) {
+          return Status::IOError("simulated sync error");
+        } else {
+          return base_->Sync();
+        }
+      }
+    };
+
+    if (non_writable_.load(std::memory_order_acquire)) {
+      return Status::IOError("simulated write error");
+    }
+
+    Status s = target()->NewWritableFile(f, r);
+    if (s.ok()) {
+      if (strstr(f.c_str(), ".ldb") != nullptr ||
+          strstr(f.c_str(), ".log") != nullptr) {
+        *r = new DataFile(this, *r);
+      } else if (strstr(f.c_str(), "MANIFEST") != nullptr) {
+        *r = new ManifestFile(this, *r);
+      }
+    }
+    return s;
+  }
+
+  Status NewRandomAccessFile(const std::string& f, RandomAccessFile** r) {
+    class CountingFile : public RandomAccessFile {
+     private:
+      RandomAccessFile* target_;
+      AtomicCounter* counter_;
+
+     public:
+      CountingFile(RandomAccessFile* target, AtomicCounter* counter)
+          : target_(target), counter_(counter) {}
+      ~CountingFile() override { delete target_; }
+      Status Read(uint64_t offset, size_t n, Slice* result,
+                  char* scratch) const override {
+        counter_->Increment();
+        return target_->Read(offset, n, result, scratch);
+      }
+    };
+
+    Status s = target()->NewRandomAccessFile(f, r);
+    if (s.ok() && count_random_reads_) {
+      *r = new CountingFile(*r, &random_read_counter_);
+    }
+    return s;
+  }
+};
+
+class DBTest : public testing::Test {
+ public:
+  std::string dbname_;
+  SpecialEnv* env_;
+  DB* db_;
+
+  Options last_options_;
+
+  DBTest() : env_(new SpecialEnv(Env::Default())), option_config_(kDefault) {
+    filter_policy_ = NewBloomFilterPolicy(10);
+    dbname_ = testing::TempDir() + "db_test";
+    DestroyDB(dbname_, Options());
+    db_ = nullptr;
+    Reopen();
+  }
+
+  ~DBTest() {
+    delete db_;
+    DestroyDB(dbname_, Options());
+    delete env_;
+    delete filter_policy_;
+  }
+
+  // Switch to a fresh database with the next option configuration to
+  // test.  Return false if there are no more configurations to test.
+  bool ChangeOptions() {
+    option_config_++;
+    if (option_config_ >= kEnd) {
+      return false;
+    } else {
+      DestroyAndReopen();
+      return true;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Return the current option configuration.
+  Options CurrentOptions() {
+    Options options;
+    options.reuse_logs = false;
+    switch (option_config_) {
+      case kReuse:
+        options.reuse_logs = true;
+        break;
+      case kFilter:
+        options.filter_policy = filter_policy_;
+        break;
+      case kUncompressed:
+        options.compression = kNoCompression;
+        break;
+      default:
+        break;
+    }
+    return options;
+  }
+
+  DBImpl* dbfull() { return reinterpret_cast<DBImpl*>(db_); }
+
+  void Reopen(Options* options = nullptr) {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(TryReopen(options));
+  }
+
+  void Close() {
+    delete db_;
+    db_ = nullptr;
+  }
+
+  void DestroyAndReopen(Options* options = nullptr) {
+    delete db_;
+    db_ = nullptr;
+    DestroyDB(dbname_, Options());
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(TryReopen(options));
+  }
+
+  Status TryReopen(Options* options) {
+    delete db_;
+    db_ = nullptr;
+    Options opts;
+    if (options != nullptr) {
+      opts = *options;
+    } else {
+      opts = CurrentOptions();
+      opts.create_if_missing = true;
+    }
+    last_options_ = opts;
+
+    return DB::Open(opts, dbname_, &db_);
+  }
+
+  Status Put(const std::string& k, const std::string& v) {
+    return db_->Put(WriteOptions(), k, v);
+  }
+
+  Status Delete(const std::string& k) { return db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), k); }
+
+  std::string Get(const std::string& k, const Snapshot* snapshot = nullptr) {
+    ReadOptions options;
+    options.snapshot = snapshot;
+    std::string result;
+    Status s = db_->Get(options, k, &result);
+    if (s.IsNotFound()) {
+      result = "NOT_FOUND";
+    } else if (!s.ok()) {
+      result = s.ToString();
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  // Return a string that contains all key,value pairs in order,
+  // formatted like "(k1->v1)(k2->v2)".
+  std::string Contents() {
+    std::vector<std::string> forward;
+    std::string result;
+    Iterator* iter = db_->NewIterator(ReadOptions());
+    for (iter->SeekToFirst(); iter->Valid(); iter->Next()) {
+      std::string s = IterStatus(iter);
+      result.push_back('(');
+      result.append(s);
+      result.push_back(')');
+      forward.push_back(s);
+    }
+
+    // Check reverse iteration results are the reverse of forward results
+    size_t matched = 0;
+    for (iter->SeekToLast(); iter->Valid(); iter->Prev()) {
+      EXPECT_LT(matched, forward.size());
+      EXPECT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), forward[forward.size() - matched - 1]);
+      matched++;
+    }
+    EXPECT_EQ(matched, forward.size());
+
+    delete iter;
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  std::string AllEntriesFor(const Slice& user_key) {
+    Iterator* iter = dbfull()->TEST_NewInternalIterator();
+    InternalKey target(user_key, kMaxSequenceNumber, kTypeValue);
+    iter->Seek(target.Encode());
+    std::string result;
+    if (!iter->status().ok()) {
+      result = iter->status().ToString();
+    } else {
+      result = "[ ";
+      bool first = true;
+      while (iter->Valid()) {
+        ParsedInternalKey ikey;
+        if (!ParseInternalKey(iter->key(), &ikey)) {
+          result += "CORRUPTED";
+        } else {
+          if (last_options_.comparator->Compare(ikey.user_key, user_key) != 0) {
+            break;
+          }
+          if (!first) {
+            result += ", ";
+          }
+          first = false;
+          switch (ikey.type) {
+            case kTypeValue:
+              result += iter->value().ToString();
+              break;
+            case kTypeDeletion:
+              result += "DEL";
+              break;
+          }
+        }
+        iter->Next();
+      }
+      if (!first) {
+        result += " ";
+      }
+      result += "]";
+    }
+    delete iter;
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  int NumTableFilesAtLevel(int level) {
+    std::string property;
+    EXPECT_TRUE(db_->GetProperty(
+        "leveldb.num-files-at-level" + NumberToString(level), &property));
+    return std::stoi(property);
+  }
+
+  int TotalTableFiles() {
+    int result = 0;
+    for (int level = 0; level < config::kNumLevels; level++) {
+      result += NumTableFilesAtLevel(level);
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  // Return spread of files per level
+  std::string FilesPerLevel() {
+    std::string result;
+    int last_non_zero_offset = 0;
+    for (int level = 0; level < config::kNumLevels; level++) {
+      int f = NumTableFilesAtLevel(level);
+      char buf[100];
+      std::snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "%s%d", (level ? "," : ""), f);
+      result += buf;
+      if (f > 0) {
+        last_non_zero_offset = result.size();
+      }
+    }
+    result.resize(last_non_zero_offset);
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  int CountFiles() {
+    std::vector<std::string> files;
+    env_->GetChildren(dbname_, &files);
+    return static_cast<int>(files.size());
+  }
+
+  uint64_t Size(const Slice& start, const Slice& limit) {
+    Range r(start, limit);
+    uint64_t size;
+    db_->GetApproximateSizes(&r, 1, &size);
+    return size;
+  }
+
+  void Compact(const Slice& start, const Slice& limit) {
+    db_->CompactRange(&start, &limit);
+  }
+
+  // Do n memtable compactions, each of which produces an sstable
+  // covering the range [small_key,large_key].
+  void MakeTables(int n, const std::string& small_key,
+                  const std::string& large_key) {
+    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+      Put(small_key, "begin");
+      Put(large_key, "end");
+      dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Prevent pushing of new sstables into deeper levels by adding
+  // tables that cover a specified range to all levels.
+  void FillLevels(const std::string& smallest, const std::string& largest) {
+    MakeTables(config::kNumLevels, smallest, largest);
+  }
+
+  void DumpFileCounts(const char* label) {
+    std::fprintf(stderr, "---\n%s:\n", label);
+    std::fprintf(
+        stderr, "maxoverlap: %lld\n",
+        static_cast<long long>(dbfull()->TEST_MaxNextLevelOverlappingBytes()));
+    for (int level = 0; level < config::kNumLevels; level++) {
+      int num = NumTableFilesAtLevel(level);
+      if (num > 0) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "  level %3d : %d files\n", level, num);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  std::string DumpSSTableList() {
+    std::string property;
+    db_->GetProperty("leveldb.sstables", &property);
+    return property;
+  }
+
+  std::string IterStatus(Iterator* iter) {
+    std::string result;
+    if (iter->Valid()) {
+      result = iter->key().ToString() + "->" + iter->value().ToString();
+    } else {
+      result = "(invalid)";
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  bool DeleteAnSSTFile() {
+    std::vector<std::string> filenames;
+    EXPECT_LEVELDB_OK(env_->GetChildren(dbname_, &filenames));
+    uint64_t number;
+    FileType type;
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < filenames.size(); i++) {
+      if (ParseFileName(filenames[i], &number, &type) && type == kTableFile) {
+        EXPECT_LEVELDB_OK(env_->RemoveFile(TableFileName(dbname_, number)));
+        return true;
+      }
+    }
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  // Returns number of files renamed.
+  int RenameLDBToSST() {
+    std::vector<std::string> filenames;
+    EXPECT_LEVELDB_OK(env_->GetChildren(dbname_, &filenames));
+    uint64_t number;
+    FileType type;
+    int files_renamed = 0;
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < filenames.size(); i++) {
+      if (ParseFileName(filenames[i], &number, &type) && type == kTableFile) {
+        const std::string from = TableFileName(dbname_, number);
+        const std::string to = SSTTableFileName(dbname_, number);
+        EXPECT_LEVELDB_OK(env_->RenameFile(from, to));
+        files_renamed++;
+      }
+    }
+    return files_renamed;
+  }
+
+ private:
+  // Sequence of option configurations to try
+  enum OptionConfig { kDefault, kReuse, kFilter, kUncompressed, kEnd };
+
+  const FilterPolicy* filter_policy_;
+  int option_config_;
+};
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, Empty) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_TRUE(db_ != nullptr);
+    ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("foo"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, EmptyKey) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("", "v1"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get(""));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("", "v2"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get(""));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, EmptyValue) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("key", "v1"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("key"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("key", ""));
+    ASSERT_EQ("", Get("key"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("key", "v2"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("key"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, ReadWrite) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("bar", "v2"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v3"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v3", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("bar"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, PutDeleteGet) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "foo", "v1"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "foo", "v2"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "foo"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("foo"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetFromImmutableLayer) {
+  do {
+    Options options = CurrentOptions();
+    options.env = env_;
+    options.write_buffer_size = 100000;  // Small write buffer
+    Reopen(&options);
+
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+
+    // Block sync calls.
+    env_->delay_data_sync_.store(true, std::memory_order_release);
+    Put("k1", std::string(100000, 'x'));  // Fill memtable.
+    Put("k2", std::string(100000, 'y'));  // Trigger compaction.
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+    // Release sync calls.
+    env_->delay_data_sync_.store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetFromVersions) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetMemUsage) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    std::string val;
+    ASSERT_TRUE(db_->GetProperty("leveldb.approximate-memory-usage", &val));
+    int mem_usage = std::stoi(val);
+    ASSERT_GT(mem_usage, 0);
+    ASSERT_LT(mem_usage, 5 * 1024 * 1024);
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetSnapshot) {
+  do {
+    // Try with both a short key and a long key
+    for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
+      std::string key = (i == 0) ? std::string("foo") : std::string(200, 'x');
+      ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(key, "v1"));
+      const Snapshot* s1 = db_->GetSnapshot();
+      ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(key, "v2"));
+      ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get(key));
+      ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get(key, s1));
+      dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+      ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get(key));
+      ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get(key, s1));
+      db_->ReleaseSnapshot(s1);
+    }
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetIdenticalSnapshots) {
+  do {
+    // Try with both a short key and a long key
+    for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
+      std::string key = (i == 0) ? std::string("foo") : std::string(200, 'x');
+      ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(key, "v1"));
+      const Snapshot* s1 = db_->GetSnapshot();
+      const Snapshot* s2 = db_->GetSnapshot();
+      const Snapshot* s3 = db_->GetSnapshot();
+      ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(key, "v2"));
+      ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get(key));
+      ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get(key, s1));
+      ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get(key, s2));
+      ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get(key, s3));
+      db_->ReleaseSnapshot(s1);
+      dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+      ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get(key));
+      ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get(key, s2));
+      db_->ReleaseSnapshot(s2);
+      ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get(key, s3));
+      db_->ReleaseSnapshot(s3);
+    }
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, IterateOverEmptySnapshot) {
+  do {
+    const Snapshot* snapshot = db_->GetSnapshot();
+    ReadOptions read_options;
+    read_options.snapshot = snapshot;
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v2"));
+
+    Iterator* iterator1 = db_->NewIterator(read_options);
+    iterator1->SeekToFirst();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(!iterator1->Valid());
+    delete iterator1;
+
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+
+    Iterator* iterator2 = db_->NewIterator(read_options);
+    iterator2->SeekToFirst();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(!iterator2->Valid());
+    delete iterator2;
+
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snapshot);
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetLevel0Ordering) {
+  do {
+    // Check that we process level-0 files in correct order.  The code
+    // below generates two level-0 files where the earlier one comes
+    // before the later one in the level-0 file list since the earlier
+    // one has a smaller "smallest" key.
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("bar", "b"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v2"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("foo"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetOrderedByLevels) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    Compact("a", "z");
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v2"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("foo"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("foo"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetPicksCorrectFile) {
+  do {
+    // Arrange to have multiple files in a non-level-0 level.
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("a", "va"));
+    Compact("a", "b");
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("x", "vx"));
+    Compact("x", "y");
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("f", "vf"));
+    Compact("f", "g");
+    ASSERT_EQ("va", Get("a"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("vf", Get("f"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("vx", Get("x"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, GetEncountersEmptyLevel) {
+  do {
+    // Arrange for the following to happen:
+    //   * sstable A in level 0
+    //   * nothing in level 1
+    //   * sstable B in level 2
+    // Then do enough Get() calls to arrange for an automatic compaction
+    // of sstable A.  A bug would cause the compaction to be marked as
+    // occurring at level 1 (instead of the correct level 0).
+
+    // Step 1: First place sstables in levels 0 and 2
+    int compaction_count = 0;
+    while (NumTableFilesAtLevel(0) == 0 || NumTableFilesAtLevel(2) == 0) {
+      ASSERT_LE(compaction_count, 100) << "could not fill levels 0 and 2";
+      compaction_count++;
+      Put("a", "begin");
+      Put("z", "end");
+      dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    }
+
+    // Step 2: clear level 1 if necessary.
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(1, nullptr, nullptr);
+    ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(1), 0);
+    ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(2), 1);
+
+    // Step 3: read a bunch of times
+    for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+      ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("missing"));
+    }
+
+    // Step 4: Wait for compaction to finish
+    DelayMilliseconds(1000);
+
+    ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 0);
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, IterEmpty) {
+  Iterator* iter = db_->NewIterator(ReadOptions());
+
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->SeekToLast();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->Seek("foo");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  delete iter;
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, IterSingle) {
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("a", "va"));
+  Iterator* iter = db_->NewIterator(ReadOptions());
+
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->SeekToLast();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+  iter->SeekToLast();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->Seek("");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->Seek("a");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->Seek("b");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  delete iter;
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, IterMulti) {
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("a", "va"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("b", "vb"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("c", "vc"));
+  Iterator* iter = db_->NewIterator(ReadOptions());
+
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->vb");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "c->vc");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->SeekToLast();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "c->vc");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->vb");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+  iter->SeekToLast();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "c->vc");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->Seek("");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Seek("a");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Seek("ax");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->vb");
+  iter->Seek("b");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->vb");
+  iter->Seek("z");
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  // Switch from reverse to forward
+  iter->SeekToLast();
+  iter->Prev();
+  iter->Prev();
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->vb");
+
+  // Switch from forward to reverse
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  iter->Next();
+  iter->Next();
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->vb");
+
+  // Make sure iter stays at snapshot
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("a", "va2"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("a2", "va3"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("b", "vb2"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("c", "vc2"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Delete("b"));
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->vb");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "c->vc");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+  iter->SeekToLast();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "c->vc");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->vb");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  delete iter;
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, IterSmallAndLargeMix) {
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("a", "va"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("b", std::string(100000, 'b')));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("c", "vc"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("d", std::string(100000, 'd')));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("e", std::string(100000, 'e')));
+
+  Iterator* iter = db_->NewIterator(ReadOptions());
+
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->" + std::string(100000, 'b'));
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "c->vc");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "d->" + std::string(100000, 'd'));
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "e->" + std::string(100000, 'e'));
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  iter->SeekToLast();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "e->" + std::string(100000, 'e'));
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "d->" + std::string(100000, 'd'));
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "c->vc");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "b->" + std::string(100000, 'b'));
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+  iter->Prev();
+  ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "(invalid)");
+
+  delete iter;
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, IterMultiWithDelete) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("a", "va"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("b", "vb"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("c", "vc"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Delete("b"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("b"));
+
+    Iterator* iter = db_->NewIterator(ReadOptions());
+    iter->Seek("c");
+    ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "c->vc");
+    iter->Prev();
+    ASSERT_EQ(IterStatus(iter), "a->va");
+    delete iter;
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, Recover) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("baz", "v5"));
+
+    Reopen();
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v5", Get("baz"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("bar", "v2"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v3"));
+
+    Reopen();
+    ASSERT_EQ("v3", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v4"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v4", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("bar"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v5", Get("baz"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, RecoveryWithEmptyLog) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v2"));
+    Reopen();
+    Reopen();
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v3"));
+    Reopen();
+    ASSERT_EQ("v3", Get("foo"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+// Check that writes done during a memtable compaction are recovered
+// if the database is shutdown during the memtable compaction.
+TEST_F(DBTest, RecoverDuringMemtableCompaction) {
+  do {
+    Options options = CurrentOptions();
+    options.env = env_;
+    options.write_buffer_size = 1000000;
+    Reopen(&options);
+
+    // Trigger a long memtable compaction and reopen the database during it
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));  // Goes to 1st log file
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(
+        Put("big1", std::string(10000000, 'x')));  // Fills memtable
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(
+        Put("big2", std::string(1000, 'y')));  // Triggers compaction
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("bar", "v2"));       // Goes to new log file
+
+    Reopen(&options);
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("bar"));
+    ASSERT_EQ(std::string(10000000, 'x'), Get("big1"));
+    ASSERT_EQ(std::string(1000, 'y'), Get("big2"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+static std::string Key(int i) {
+  char buf[100];
+  std::snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "key%06d", i);
+  return std::string(buf);
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, MinorCompactionsHappen) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.write_buffer_size = 10000;
+  Reopen(&options);
+
+  const int N = 500;
+
+  int starting_num_tables = TotalTableFiles();
+  for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(i), Key(i) + std::string(1000, 'v')));
+  }
+  int ending_num_tables = TotalTableFiles();
+  ASSERT_GT(ending_num_tables, starting_num_tables);
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(Key(i) + std::string(1000, 'v'), Get(Key(i)));
+  }
+
+  Reopen();
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(Key(i) + std::string(1000, 'v'), Get(Key(i)));
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, RecoverWithLargeLog) {
+  {
+    Options options = CurrentOptions();
+    Reopen(&options);
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("big1", std::string(200000, '1')));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("big2", std::string(200000, '2')));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("small3", std::string(10, '3')));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("small4", std::string(10, '4')));
+    ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 0);
+  }
+
+  // Make sure that if we re-open with a small write buffer size that
+  // we flush table files in the middle of a large log file.
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.write_buffer_size = 100000;
+  Reopen(&options);
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 3);
+  ASSERT_EQ(std::string(200000, '1'), Get("big1"));
+  ASSERT_EQ(std::string(200000, '2'), Get("big2"));
+  ASSERT_EQ(std::string(10, '3'), Get("small3"));
+  ASSERT_EQ(std::string(10, '4'), Get("small4"));
+  ASSERT_GT(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 1);
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, CompactionsGenerateMultipleFiles) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.write_buffer_size = 100000000;  // Large write buffer
+  Reopen(&options);
+
+  Random rnd(301);
+
+  // Write 8MB (80 values, each 100K)
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 0);
+  std::vector<std::string> values;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 80; i++) {
+    values.push_back(RandomString(&rnd, 100000));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(i), values[i]));
+  }
+
+  // Reopening moves updates to level-0
+  Reopen(&options);
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(0, nullptr, nullptr);
+
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 0);
+  ASSERT_GT(NumTableFilesAtLevel(1), 1);
+  for (int i = 0; i < 80; i++) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(Get(Key(i)), values[i]);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, RepeatedWritesToSameKey) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.env = env_;
+  options.write_buffer_size = 100000;  // Small write buffer
+  Reopen(&options);
+
+  // We must have at most one file per level except for level-0,
+  // which may have up to kL0_StopWritesTrigger files.
+  const int kMaxFiles = config::kNumLevels + config::kL0_StopWritesTrigger;
+
+  Random rnd(301);
+  std::string value = RandomString(&rnd, 2 * options.write_buffer_size);
+  for (int i = 0; i < 5 * kMaxFiles; i++) {
+    Put("key", value);
+    ASSERT_LE(TotalTableFiles(), kMaxFiles);
+    std::fprintf(stderr, "after %d: %d files\n", i + 1, TotalTableFiles());
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, SparseMerge) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.compression = kNoCompression;
+  Reopen(&options);
+
+  FillLevels("A", "Z");
+
+  // Suppose there is:
+  //    small amount of data with prefix A
+  //    large amount of data with prefix B
+  //    small amount of data with prefix C
+  // and that recent updates have made small changes to all three prefixes.
+  // Check that we do not do a compaction that merges all of B in one shot.
+  const std::string value(1000, 'x');
+  Put("A", "va");
+  // Write approximately 100MB of "B" values
+  for (int i = 0; i < 100000; i++) {
+    char key[100];
+    std::snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "B%010d", i);
+    Put(key, value);
+  }
+  Put("C", "vc");
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(0, nullptr, nullptr);
+
+  // Make sparse update
+  Put("A", "va2");
+  Put("B100", "bvalue2");
+  Put("C", "vc2");
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+
+  // Compactions should not cause us to create a situation where
+  // a file overlaps too much data at the next level.
+  ASSERT_LE(dbfull()->TEST_MaxNextLevelOverlappingBytes(), 20 * 1048576);
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(0, nullptr, nullptr);
+  ASSERT_LE(dbfull()->TEST_MaxNextLevelOverlappingBytes(), 20 * 1048576);
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(1, nullptr, nullptr);
+  ASSERT_LE(dbfull()->TEST_MaxNextLevelOverlappingBytes(), 20 * 1048576);
+}
+
+static bool Between(uint64_t val, uint64_t low, uint64_t high) {
+  bool result = (val >= low) && (val <= high);
+  if (!result) {
+    std::fprintf(stderr, "Value %llu is not in range [%llu, %llu]\n",
+                 (unsigned long long)(val), (unsigned long long)(low),
+                 (unsigned long long)(high));
+  }
+  return result;
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, ApproximateSizes) {
+  do {
+    Options options = CurrentOptions();
+    options.write_buffer_size = 100000000;  // Large write buffer
+    options.compression = kNoCompression;
+    DestroyAndReopen();
+
+    ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", "xyz"), 0, 0));
+    Reopen(&options);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", "xyz"), 0, 0));
+
+    // Write 8MB (80 values, each 100K)
+    ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 0);
+    const int N = 80;
+    static const int S1 = 100000;
+    static const int S2 = 105000;  // Allow some expansion from metadata
+    Random rnd(301);
+    for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
+      ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(i), RandomString(&rnd, S1)));
+    }
+
+    // 0 because GetApproximateSizes() does not account for memtable space
+    ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(50)), 0, 0));
+
+    if (options.reuse_logs) {
+      // Recovery will reuse memtable, and GetApproximateSizes() does not
+      // account for memtable usage;
+      Reopen(&options);
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(50)), 0, 0));
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    // Check sizes across recovery by reopening a few times
+    for (int run = 0; run < 3; run++) {
+      Reopen(&options);
+
+      for (int compact_start = 0; compact_start < N; compact_start += 10) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < N; i += 10) {
+          ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(i)), S1 * i, S2 * i));
+          ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(i) + ".suffix"), S1 * (i + 1),
+                              S2 * (i + 1)));
+          ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size(Key(i), Key(i + 10)), S1 * 10, S2 * 10));
+        }
+        ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(50)), S1 * 50, S2 * 50));
+        ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(50) + ".suffix"), S1 * 50, S2 * 50));
+
+        std::string cstart_str = Key(compact_start);
+        std::string cend_str = Key(compact_start + 9);
+        Slice cstart = cstart_str;
+        Slice cend = cend_str;
+        dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(0, &cstart, &cend);
+      }
+
+      ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 0);
+      ASSERT_GT(NumTableFilesAtLevel(1), 0);
+    }
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, ApproximateSizes_MixOfSmallAndLarge) {
+  do {
+    Options options = CurrentOptions();
+    options.compression = kNoCompression;
+    Reopen();
+
+    Random rnd(301);
+    std::string big1 = RandomString(&rnd, 100000);
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(0), RandomString(&rnd, 10000)));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(1), RandomString(&rnd, 10000)));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(2), big1));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(3), RandomString(&rnd, 10000)));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(4), big1));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(5), RandomString(&rnd, 10000)));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(6), RandomString(&rnd, 300000)));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(7), RandomString(&rnd, 10000)));
+
+    if (options.reuse_logs) {
+      // Need to force a memtable compaction since recovery does not do so.
+      ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable());
+    }
+
+    // Check sizes across recovery by reopening a few times
+    for (int run = 0; run < 3; run++) {
+      Reopen(&options);
+
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(0)), 0, 0));
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(1)), 10000, 11000));
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(2)), 20000, 21000));
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(3)), 120000, 121000));
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(4)), 130000, 131000));
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(5)), 230000, 231000));
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(6)), 240000, 241000));
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(7)), 540000, 541000));
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", Key(8)), 550000, 560000));
+
+      ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size(Key(3), Key(5)), 110000, 111000));
+
+      dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(0, nullptr, nullptr);
+    }
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, IteratorPinsRef) {
+  Put("foo", "hello");
+
+  // Get iterator that will yield the current contents of the DB.
+  Iterator* iter = db_->NewIterator(ReadOptions());
+
+  // Write to force compactions
+  Put("foo", "newvalue1");
+  for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(
+        Put(Key(i), Key(i) + std::string(100000, 'v')));  // 100K values
+  }
+  Put("foo", "newvalue2");
+
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+  ASSERT_EQ("foo", iter->key().ToString());
+  ASSERT_EQ("hello", iter->value().ToString());
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!iter->Valid());
+  delete iter;
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, Snapshot) {
+  do {
+    Put("foo", "v1");
+    const Snapshot* s1 = db_->GetSnapshot();
+    Put("foo", "v2");
+    const Snapshot* s2 = db_->GetSnapshot();
+    Put("foo", "v3");
+    const Snapshot* s3 = db_->GetSnapshot();
+
+    Put("foo", "v4");
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo", s1));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("foo", s2));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v3", Get("foo", s3));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v4", Get("foo"));
+
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(s3);
+    ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo", s1));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("foo", s2));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v4", Get("foo"));
+
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(s1);
+    ASSERT_EQ("v2", Get("foo", s2));
+    ASSERT_EQ("v4", Get("foo"));
+
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(s2);
+    ASSERT_EQ("v4", Get("foo"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, HiddenValuesAreRemoved) {
+  do {
+    Random rnd(301);
+    FillLevels("a", "z");
+
+    std::string big = RandomString(&rnd, 50000);
+    Put("foo", big);
+    Put("pastfoo", "v");
+    const Snapshot* snapshot = db_->GetSnapshot();
+    Put("foo", "tiny");
+    Put("pastfoo2", "v2");  // Advance sequence number one more
+
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable());
+    ASSERT_GT(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 0);
+
+    ASSERT_EQ(big, Get("foo", snapshot));
+    ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", "pastfoo"), 50000, 60000));
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snapshot);
+    ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ tiny, " + big + " ]");
+    Slice x("x");
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(0, nullptr, &x);
+    ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ tiny ]");
+    ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(0), 0);
+    ASSERT_GE(NumTableFilesAtLevel(1), 1);
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(1, nullptr, &x);
+    ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ tiny ]");
+
+    ASSERT_TRUE(Between(Size("", "pastfoo"), 0, 1000));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, DeletionMarkers1) {
+  Put("foo", "v1");
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable());
+  const int last = config::kMaxMemCompactLevel;
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(last), 1);  // foo => v1 is now in last level
+
+  // Place a table at level last-1 to prevent merging with preceding mutation
+  Put("a", "begin");
+  Put("z", "end");
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(last), 1);
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(last - 1), 1);
+
+  Delete("foo");
+  Put("foo", "v2");
+  ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ v2, DEL, v1 ]");
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable());  // Moves to level last-2
+  ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ v2, DEL, v1 ]");
+  Slice z("z");
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(last - 2, nullptr, &z);
+  // DEL eliminated, but v1 remains because we aren't compacting that level
+  // (DEL can be eliminated because v2 hides v1).
+  ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ v2, v1 ]");
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(last - 1, nullptr, nullptr);
+  // Merging last-1 w/ last, so we are the base level for "foo", so
+  // DEL is removed.  (as is v1).
+  ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ v2 ]");
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, DeletionMarkers2) {
+  Put("foo", "v1");
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable());
+  const int last = config::kMaxMemCompactLevel;
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(last), 1);  // foo => v1 is now in last level
+
+  // Place a table at level last-1 to prevent merging with preceding mutation
+  Put("a", "begin");
+  Put("z", "end");
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(last), 1);
+  ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(last - 1), 1);
+
+  Delete("foo");
+  ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ DEL, v1 ]");
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable());  // Moves to level last-2
+  ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ DEL, v1 ]");
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(last - 2, nullptr, nullptr);
+  // DEL kept: "last" file overlaps
+  ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ DEL, v1 ]");
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(last - 1, nullptr, nullptr);
+  // Merging last-1 w/ last, so we are the base level for "foo", so
+  // DEL is removed.  (as is v1).
+  ASSERT_EQ(AllEntriesFor("foo"), "[ ]");
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, OverlapInLevel0) {
+  do {
+    ASSERT_EQ(config::kMaxMemCompactLevel, 2) << "Fix test to match config";
+
+    // Fill levels 1 and 2 to disable the pushing of new memtables to levels >
+    // 0.
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("100", "v100"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("999", "v999"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Delete("100"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Delete("999"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_EQ("0,1,1", FilesPerLevel());
+
+    // Make files spanning the following ranges in level-0:
+    //  files[0]  200 .. 900
+    //  files[1]  300 .. 500
+    // Note that files are sorted by smallest key.
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("300", "v300"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("500", "v500"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("200", "v200"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("600", "v600"));
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("900", "v900"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_EQ("2,1,1", FilesPerLevel());
+
+    // Compact away the placeholder files we created initially
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(1, nullptr, nullptr);
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(2, nullptr, nullptr);
+    ASSERT_EQ("2", FilesPerLevel());
+
+    // Do a memtable compaction.  Before bug-fix, the compaction would
+    // not detect the overlap with level-0 files and would incorrectly place
+    // the deletion in a deeper level.
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Delete("600"));
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_EQ("3", FilesPerLevel());
+    ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("600"));
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, L0_CompactionBug_Issue44_a) {
+  Reopen();
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("b", "v"));
+  Reopen();
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Delete("b"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Delete("a"));
+  Reopen();
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Delete("a"));
+  Reopen();
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("a", "v"));
+  Reopen();
+  Reopen();
+  ASSERT_EQ("(a->v)", Contents());
+  DelayMilliseconds(1000);  // Wait for compaction to finish
+  ASSERT_EQ("(a->v)", Contents());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, L0_CompactionBug_Issue44_b) {
+  Reopen();
+  Put("", "");
+  Reopen();
+  Delete("e");
+  Put("", "");
+  Reopen();
+  Put("c", "cv");
+  Reopen();
+  Put("", "");
+  Reopen();
+  Put("", "");
+  DelayMilliseconds(1000);  // Wait for compaction to finish
+  Reopen();
+  Put("d", "dv");
+  Reopen();
+  Put("", "");
+  Reopen();
+  Delete("d");
+  Delete("b");
+  Reopen();
+  ASSERT_EQ("(->)(c->cv)", Contents());
+  DelayMilliseconds(1000);  // Wait for compaction to finish
+  ASSERT_EQ("(->)(c->cv)", Contents());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, Fflush_Issue474) {
+  static const int kNum = 100000;
+  Random rnd(test::RandomSeed());
+  for (int i = 0; i < kNum; i++) {
+    std::fflush(nullptr);
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(RandomKey(&rnd), RandomString(&rnd, 100)));
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, ComparatorCheck) {
+  class NewComparator : public Comparator {
+   public:
+    const char* Name() const override { return "leveldb.NewComparator"; }
+    int Compare(const Slice& a, const Slice& b) const override {
+      return BytewiseComparator()->Compare(a, b);
+    }
+    void FindShortestSeparator(std::string* s, const Slice& l) const override {
+      BytewiseComparator()->FindShortestSeparator(s, l);
+    }
+    void FindShortSuccessor(std::string* key) const override {
+      BytewiseComparator()->FindShortSuccessor(key);
+    }
+  };
+  NewComparator cmp;
+  Options new_options = CurrentOptions();
+  new_options.comparator = &cmp;
+  Status s = TryReopen(&new_options);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!s.ok());
+  ASSERT_TRUE(s.ToString().find("comparator") != std::string::npos)
+      << s.ToString();
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, CustomComparator) {
+  class NumberComparator : public Comparator {
+   public:
+    const char* Name() const override { return "test.NumberComparator"; }
+    int Compare(const Slice& a, const Slice& b) const override {
+      return ToNumber(a) - ToNumber(b);
+    }
+    void FindShortestSeparator(std::string* s, const Slice& l) const override {
+      ToNumber(*s);  // Check format
+      ToNumber(l);   // Check format
+    }
+    void FindShortSuccessor(std::string* key) const override {
+      ToNumber(*key);  // Check format
+    }
+
+   private:
+    static int ToNumber(const Slice& x) {
+      // Check that there are no extra characters.
+      EXPECT_TRUE(x.size() >= 2 && x[0] == '[' && x[x.size() - 1] == ']')
+          << EscapeString(x);
+      int val;
+      char ignored;
+      EXPECT_TRUE(sscanf(x.ToString().c_str(), "[%i]%c", &val, &ignored) == 1)
+          << EscapeString(x);
+      return val;
+    }
+  };
+  NumberComparator cmp;
+  Options new_options = CurrentOptions();
+  new_options.create_if_missing = true;
+  new_options.comparator = &cmp;
+  new_options.filter_policy = nullptr;   // Cannot use bloom filters
+  new_options.write_buffer_size = 1000;  // Compact more often
+  DestroyAndReopen(&new_options);
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("[10]", "ten"));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("[0x14]", "twenty"));
+  for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
+    ASSERT_EQ("ten", Get("[10]"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("ten", Get("[0xa]"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("twenty", Get("[20]"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("twenty", Get("[0x14]"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("[15]"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("[0xf]"));
+    Compact("[0]", "[9999]");
+  }
+
+  for (int run = 0; run < 2; run++) {
+    for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+      char buf[100];
+      std::snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "[%d]", i * 10);
+      ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(buf, buf));
+    }
+    Compact("[0]", "[1000000]");
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, ManualCompaction) {
+  ASSERT_EQ(config::kMaxMemCompactLevel, 2)
+      << "Need to update this test to match kMaxMemCompactLevel";
+
+  MakeTables(3, "p", "q");
+  ASSERT_EQ("1,1,1", FilesPerLevel());
+
+  // Compaction range falls before files
+  Compact("", "c");
+  ASSERT_EQ("1,1,1", FilesPerLevel());
+
+  // Compaction range falls after files
+  Compact("r", "z");
+  ASSERT_EQ("1,1,1", FilesPerLevel());
+
+  // Compaction range overlaps files
+  Compact("p1", "p9");
+  ASSERT_EQ("0,0,1", FilesPerLevel());
+
+  // Populate a different range
+  MakeTables(3, "c", "e");
+  ASSERT_EQ("1,1,2", FilesPerLevel());
+
+  // Compact just the new range
+  Compact("b", "f");
+  ASSERT_EQ("0,0,2", FilesPerLevel());
+
+  // Compact all
+  MakeTables(1, "a", "z");
+  ASSERT_EQ("0,1,2", FilesPerLevel());
+  db_->CompactRange(nullptr, nullptr);
+  ASSERT_EQ("0,0,1", FilesPerLevel());
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, DBOpen_Options) {
+  std::string dbname = testing::TempDir() + "db_options_test";
+  DestroyDB(dbname, Options());
+
+  // Does not exist, and create_if_missing == false: error
+  DB* db = nullptr;
+  Options opts;
+  opts.create_if_missing = false;
+  Status s = DB::Open(opts, dbname, &db);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(strstr(s.ToString().c_str(), "does not exist") != nullptr);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(db == nullptr);
+
+  // Does not exist, and create_if_missing == true: OK
+  opts.create_if_missing = true;
+  s = DB::Open(opts, dbname, &db);
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(s);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(db != nullptr);
+
+  delete db;
+  db = nullptr;
+
+  // Does exist, and error_if_exists == true: error
+  opts.create_if_missing = false;
+  opts.error_if_exists = true;
+  s = DB::Open(opts, dbname, &db);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(strstr(s.ToString().c_str(), "exists") != nullptr);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(db == nullptr);
+
+  // Does exist, and error_if_exists == false: OK
+  opts.create_if_missing = true;
+  opts.error_if_exists = false;
+  s = DB::Open(opts, dbname, &db);
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(s);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(db != nullptr);
+
+  delete db;
+  db = nullptr;
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, DestroyEmptyDir) {
+  std::string dbname = testing::TempDir() + "db_empty_dir";
+  TestEnv env(Env::Default());
+  env.RemoveDir(dbname);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!env.FileExists(dbname));
+
+  Options opts;
+  opts.env = &env;
+
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(env.CreateDir(dbname));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(env.FileExists(dbname));
+  std::vector<std::string> children;
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(env.GetChildren(dbname, &children));
+  // The stock Env's do not filter out '.' and '..' special files.
+  ASSERT_EQ(2, children.size());
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(DestroyDB(dbname, opts));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!env.FileExists(dbname));
+
+  // Should also be destroyed if Env is filtering out dot files.
+  env.SetIgnoreDotFiles(true);
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(env.CreateDir(dbname));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(env.FileExists(dbname));
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(env.GetChildren(dbname, &children));
+  ASSERT_EQ(0, children.size());
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(DestroyDB(dbname, opts));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!env.FileExists(dbname));
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, DestroyOpenDB) {
+  std::string dbname = testing::TempDir() + "open_db_dir";
+  env_->RemoveDir(dbname);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!env_->FileExists(dbname));
+
+  Options opts;
+  opts.create_if_missing = true;
+  DB* db = nullptr;
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(DB::Open(opts, dbname, &db));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(db != nullptr);
+
+  // Must fail to destroy an open db.
+  ASSERT_TRUE(env_->FileExists(dbname));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!DestroyDB(dbname, Options()).ok());
+  ASSERT_TRUE(env_->FileExists(dbname));
+
+  delete db;
+  db = nullptr;
+
+  // Should succeed destroying a closed db.
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(DestroyDB(dbname, Options()));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!env_->FileExists(dbname));
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, Locking) {
+  DB* db2 = nullptr;
+  Status s = DB::Open(CurrentOptions(), dbname_, &db2);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!s.ok()) << "Locking did not prevent re-opening db";
+}
+
+// Check that number of files does not grow when we are out of space
+TEST_F(DBTest, NoSpace) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.env = env_;
+  Reopen(&options);
+
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("foo"));
+  Compact("a", "z");
+  const int num_files = CountFiles();
+  // Force out-of-space errors.
+  env_->no_space_.store(true, std::memory_order_release);
+  for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+    for (int level = 0; level < config::kNumLevels - 1; level++) {
+      dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(level, nullptr, nullptr);
+    }
+  }
+  env_->no_space_.store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+  ASSERT_LT(CountFiles(), num_files + 3);
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, NonWritableFileSystem) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.write_buffer_size = 1000;
+  options.env = env_;
+  Reopen(&options);
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v1"));
+  // Force errors for new files.
+  env_->non_writable_.store(true, std::memory_order_release);
+  std::string big(100000, 'x');
+  int errors = 0;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
+    std::fprintf(stderr, "iter %d; errors %d\n", i, errors);
+    if (!Put("foo", big).ok()) {
+      errors++;
+      DelayMilliseconds(100);
+    }
+  }
+  ASSERT_GT(errors, 0);
+  env_->non_writable_.store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, WriteSyncError) {
+  // Check that log sync errors cause the DB to disallow future writes.
+
+  // (a) Cause log sync calls to fail
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.env = env_;
+  Reopen(&options);
+  env_->data_sync_error_.store(true, std::memory_order_release);
+
+  // (b) Normal write should succeed
+  WriteOptions w;
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(db_->Put(w, "k1", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("k1"));
+
+  // (c) Do a sync write; should fail
+  w.sync = true;
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!db_->Put(w, "k2", "v2").ok());
+  ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("k1"));
+  ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("k2"));
+
+  // (d) make sync behave normally
+  env_->data_sync_error_.store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+
+  // (e) Do a non-sync write; should fail
+  w.sync = false;
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!db_->Put(w, "k3", "v3").ok());
+  ASSERT_EQ("v1", Get("k1"));
+  ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("k2"));
+  ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get("k3"));
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, ManifestWriteError) {
+  // Test for the following problem:
+  // (a) Compaction produces file F
+  // (b) Log record containing F is written to MANIFEST file, but Sync() fails
+  // (c) GC deletes F
+  // (d) After reopening DB, reads fail since deleted F is named in log record
+
+  // We iterate twice.  In the second iteration, everything is the
+  // same except the log record never makes it to the MANIFEST file.
+  for (int iter = 0; iter < 2; iter++) {
+    std::atomic<bool>* error_type = (iter == 0) ? &env_->manifest_sync_error_
+                                                : &env_->manifest_write_error_;
+
+    // Insert foo=>bar mapping
+    Options options = CurrentOptions();
+    options.env = env_;
+    options.create_if_missing = true;
+    options.error_if_exists = false;
+    DestroyAndReopen(&options);
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "bar"));
+    ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+
+    // Memtable compaction (will succeed)
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+    ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+    const int last = config::kMaxMemCompactLevel;
+    ASSERT_EQ(NumTableFilesAtLevel(last), 1);  // foo=>bar is now in last level
+
+    // Merging compaction (will fail)
+    error_type->store(true, std::memory_order_release);
+    dbfull()->TEST_CompactRange(last, nullptr, nullptr);  // Should fail
+    ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+
+    // Recovery: should not lose data
+    error_type->store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+    Reopen(&options);
+    ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, MissingSSTFile) {
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "bar"));
+  ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+
+  // Dump the memtable to disk.
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+  ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+
+  Close();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(DeleteAnSSTFile());
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.paranoid_checks = true;
+  Status s = TryReopen(&options);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!s.ok());
+  ASSERT_TRUE(s.ToString().find("issing") != std::string::npos) << s.ToString();
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, StillReadSST) {
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "bar"));
+  ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+
+  // Dump the memtable to disk.
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+  ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+  Close();
+  ASSERT_GT(RenameLDBToSST(), 0);
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.paranoid_checks = true;
+  Status s = TryReopen(&options);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(s.ok());
+  ASSERT_EQ("bar", Get("foo"));
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, FilesDeletedAfterCompaction) {
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v2"));
+  Compact("a", "z");
+  const int num_files = CountFiles();
+  for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put("foo", "v2"));
+    Compact("a", "z");
+  }
+  ASSERT_EQ(CountFiles(), num_files);
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, BloomFilter) {
+  env_->count_random_reads_ = true;
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.env = env_;
+  options.block_cache = NewLRUCache(0);  // Prevent cache hits
+  options.filter_policy = NewBloomFilterPolicy(10);
+  Reopen(&options);
+
+  // Populate multiple layers
+  const int N = 10000;
+  for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(i), Key(i)));
+  }
+  Compact("a", "z");
+  for (int i = 0; i < N; i += 100) {
+    ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(Put(Key(i), Key(i)));
+  }
+  dbfull()->TEST_CompactMemTable();
+
+  // Prevent auto compactions triggered by seeks
+  env_->delay_data_sync_.store(true, std::memory_order_release);
+
+  // Lookup present keys.  Should rarely read from small sstable.
+  env_->random_read_counter_.Reset();
+  for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(Key(i), Get(Key(i)));
+  }
+  int reads = env_->random_read_counter_.Read();
+  std::fprintf(stderr, "%d present => %d reads\n", N, reads);
+  ASSERT_GE(reads, N);
+  ASSERT_LE(reads, N + 2 * N / 100);
+
+  // Lookup present keys.  Should rarely read from either sstable.
+  env_->random_read_counter_.Reset();
+  for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
+    ASSERT_EQ("NOT_FOUND", Get(Key(i) + ".missing"));
+  }
+  reads = env_->random_read_counter_.Read();
+  std::fprintf(stderr, "%d missing => %d reads\n", N, reads);
+  ASSERT_LE(reads, 3 * N / 100);
+
+  env_->delay_data_sync_.store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+  Close();
+  delete options.block_cache;
+  delete options.filter_policy;
+}
+
+// Multi-threaded test:
+namespace {
+
+static const int kNumThreads = 4;
+static const int kTestSeconds = 10;
+static const int kNumKeys = 1000;
+
+struct MTState {
+  DBTest* test;
+  std::atomic<bool> stop;
+  std::atomic<int> counter[kNumThreads];
+  std::atomic<bool> thread_done[kNumThreads];
+};
+
+struct MTThread {
+  MTState* state;
+  int id;
+};
+
+static void MTThreadBody(void* arg) {
+  MTThread* t = reinterpret_cast<MTThread*>(arg);
+  int id = t->id;
+  DB* db = t->state->test->db_;
+  int counter = 0;
+  std::fprintf(stderr, "... starting thread %d\n", id);
+  Random rnd(1000 + id);
+  std::string value;
+  char valbuf[1500];
+  while (!t->state->stop.load(std::memory_order_acquire)) {
+    t->state->counter[id].store(counter, std::memory_order_release);
+
+    int key = rnd.Uniform(kNumKeys);
+    char keybuf[20];
+    std::snprintf(keybuf, sizeof(keybuf), "%016d", key);
+
+    if (rnd.OneIn(2)) {
+      // Write values of the form <key, my id, counter>.
+      // We add some padding for force compactions.
+      std::snprintf(valbuf, sizeof(valbuf), "%d.%d.%-1000d", key, id,
+                    static_cast<int>(counter));
+      ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(db->Put(WriteOptions(), Slice(keybuf), Slice(valbuf)));
+    } else {
+      // Read a value and verify that it matches the pattern written above.
+      Status s = db->Get(ReadOptions(), Slice(keybuf), &value);
+      if (s.IsNotFound()) {
+        // Key has not yet been written
+      } else {
+        // Check that the writer thread counter is >= the counter in the value
+        ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(s);
+        int k, w, c;
+        ASSERT_EQ(3, sscanf(value.c_str(), "%d.%d.%d", &k, &w, &c)) << value;
+        ASSERT_EQ(k, key);
+        ASSERT_GE(w, 0);
+        ASSERT_LT(w, kNumThreads);
+        ASSERT_LE(c, t->state->counter[w].load(std::memory_order_acquire));
+      }
+    }
+    counter++;
+  }
+  t->state->thread_done[id].store(true, std::memory_order_release);
+  std::fprintf(stderr, "... stopping thread %d after %d ops\n", id, counter);
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, MultiThreaded) {
+  do {
+    // Initialize state
+    MTState mt;
+    mt.test = this;
+    mt.stop.store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+    for (int id = 0; id < kNumThreads; id++) {
+      mt.counter[id].store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+      mt.thread_done[id].store(false, std::memory_order_release);
+    }
+
+    // Start threads
+    MTThread thread[kNumThreads];
+    for (int id = 0; id < kNumThreads; id++) {
+      thread[id].state = &mt;
+      thread[id].id = id;
+      env_->StartThread(MTThreadBody, &thread[id]);
+    }
+
+    // Let them run for a while
+    DelayMilliseconds(kTestSeconds * 1000);
+
+    // Stop the threads and wait for them to finish
+    mt.stop.store(true, std::memory_order_release);
+    for (int id = 0; id < kNumThreads; id++) {
+      while (!mt.thread_done[id].load(std::memory_order_acquire)) {
+        DelayMilliseconds(100);
+      }
+    }
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+namespace {
+typedef std::map<std::string, std::string> KVMap;
+}
+
+class ModelDB : public DB {
+ public:
+  class ModelSnapshot : public Snapshot {
+   public:
+    KVMap map_;
+  };
+
+  explicit ModelDB(const Options& options) : options_(options) {}
+  ~ModelDB() override = default;
+  Status Put(const WriteOptions& o, const Slice& k, const Slice& v) override {
+    return DB::Put(o, k, v);
+  }
+  Status Delete(const WriteOptions& o, const Slice& key) override {
+    return DB::Delete(o, key);
+  }
+  Status Get(const ReadOptions& options, const Slice& key,
+             std::string* value) override {
+    assert(false);  // Not implemented
+    return Status::NotFound(key);
+  }
+  Iterator* NewIterator(const ReadOptions& options) override {
+    if (options.snapshot == nullptr) {
+      KVMap* saved = new KVMap;
+      *saved = map_;
+      return new ModelIter(saved, true);
+    } else {
+      const KVMap* snapshot_state =
+          &(reinterpret_cast<const ModelSnapshot*>(options.snapshot)->map_);
+      return new ModelIter(snapshot_state, false);
+    }
+  }
+  const Snapshot* GetSnapshot() override {
+    ModelSnapshot* snapshot = new ModelSnapshot;
+    snapshot->map_ = map_;
+    return snapshot;
+  }
+
+  void ReleaseSnapshot(const Snapshot* snapshot) override {
+    delete reinterpret_cast<const ModelSnapshot*>(snapshot);
+  }
+  Status Write(const WriteOptions& options, WriteBatch* batch) override {
+    class Handler : public WriteBatch::Handler {
+     public:
+      KVMap* map_;
+      void Put(const Slice& key, const Slice& value) override {
+        (*map_)[key.ToString()] = value.ToString();
+      }
+      void Delete(const Slice& key) override { map_->erase(key.ToString()); }
+    };
+    Handler handler;
+    handler.map_ = &map_;
+    return batch->Iterate(&handler);
+  }
+
+  bool GetProperty(const Slice& property, std::string* value) override {
+    return false;
+  }
+  void GetApproximateSizes(const Range* r, int n, uint64_t* sizes) override {
+    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+      sizes[i] = 0;
+    }
+  }
+  void CompactRange(const Slice* start, const Slice* end) override {}
+
+ private:
+  class ModelIter : public Iterator {
+   public:
+    ModelIter(const KVMap* map, bool owned)
+        : map_(map), owned_(owned), iter_(map_->end()) {}
+    ~ModelIter() override {
+      if (owned_) delete map_;
+    }
+    bool Valid() const override { return iter_ != map_->end(); }
+    void SeekToFirst() override { iter_ = map_->begin(); }
+    void SeekToLast() override {
+      if (map_->empty()) {
+        iter_ = map_->end();
+      } else {
+        iter_ = map_->find(map_->rbegin()->first);
+      }
+    }
+    void Seek(const Slice& k) override {
+      iter_ = map_->lower_bound(k.ToString());
+    }
+    void Next() override { ++iter_; }
+    void Prev() override { --iter_; }
+    Slice key() const override { return iter_->first; }
+    Slice value() const override { return iter_->second; }
+    Status status() const override { return Status::OK(); }
+
+   private:
+    const KVMap* const map_;
+    const bool owned_;  // Do we own map_
+    KVMap::const_iterator iter_;
+  };
+  const Options options_;
+  KVMap map_;
+};
+
+static bool CompareIterators(int step, DB* model, DB* db,
+                             const Snapshot* model_snap,
+                             const Snapshot* db_snap) {
+  ReadOptions options;
+  options.snapshot = model_snap;
+  Iterator* miter = model->NewIterator(options);
+  options.snapshot = db_snap;
+  Iterator* dbiter = db->NewIterator(options);
+  bool ok = true;
+  int count = 0;
+  for (miter->SeekToFirst(), dbiter->SeekToFirst();
+       ok && miter->Valid() && dbiter->Valid(); miter->Next(), dbiter->Next()) {
+    count++;
+    if (miter->key().compare(dbiter->key()) != 0) {
+      std::fprintf(stderr, "step %d: Key mismatch: '%s' vs. '%s'\n", step,
+                   EscapeString(miter->key()).c_str(),
+                   EscapeString(dbiter->key()).c_str());
+      ok = false;
+      break;
+    }
+
+    if (miter->value().compare(dbiter->value()) != 0) {
+      std::fprintf(stderr,
+                   "step %d: Value mismatch for key '%s': '%s' vs. '%s'\n",
+                   step, EscapeString(miter->key()).c_str(),
+                   EscapeString(miter->value()).c_str(),
+                   EscapeString(miter->value()).c_str());
+      ok = false;
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (ok) {
+    if (miter->Valid() != dbiter->Valid()) {
+      std::fprintf(stderr, "step %d: Mismatch at end of iterators: %d vs. %d\n",
+                   step, miter->Valid(), dbiter->Valid());
+      ok = false;
+    }
+  }
+  std::fprintf(stderr, "%d entries compared: ok=%d\n", count, ok);
+  delete miter;
+  delete dbiter;
+  return ok;
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest, Randomized) {
+  Random rnd(test::RandomSeed());
+  do {
+    ModelDB model(CurrentOptions());
+    const int N = 10000;
+    const Snapshot* model_snap = nullptr;
+    const Snapshot* db_snap = nullptr;
+    std::string k, v;
+    for (int step = 0; step < N; step++) {
+      if (step % 100 == 0) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "Step %d of %d\n", step, N);
+      }
+      // TODO(sanjay): Test Get() works
+      int p = rnd.Uniform(100);
+      if (p < 45) {  // Put
+        k = RandomKey(&rnd);
+        v = RandomString(
+            &rnd, rnd.OneIn(20) ? 100 + rnd.Uniform(100) : rnd.Uniform(8));
+        ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(model.Put(WriteOptions(), k, v));
+        ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), k, v));
+
+      } else if (p < 90) {  // Delete
+        k = RandomKey(&rnd);
+        ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(model.Delete(WriteOptions(), k));
+        ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), k));
+
+      } else {  // Multi-element batch
+        WriteBatch b;
+        const int num = rnd.Uniform(8);
+        for (int i = 0; i < num; i++) {
+          if (i == 0 || !rnd.OneIn(10)) {
+            k = RandomKey(&rnd);
+          } else {
+            // Periodically re-use the same key from the previous iter, so
+            // we have multiple entries in the write batch for the same key
+          }
+          if (rnd.OneIn(2)) {
+            v = RandomString(&rnd, rnd.Uniform(10));
+            b.Put(k, v);
+          } else {
+            b.Delete(k);
+          }
+        }
+        ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(model.Write(WriteOptions(), &b));
+        ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &b));
+      }
+
+      if ((step % 100) == 0) {
+        ASSERT_TRUE(CompareIterators(step, &model, db_, nullptr, nullptr));
+        ASSERT_TRUE(CompareIterators(step, &model, db_, model_snap, db_snap));
+        // Save a snapshot from each DB this time that we'll use next
+        // time we compare things, to make sure the current state is
+        // preserved with the snapshot
+        if (model_snap != nullptr) model.ReleaseSnapshot(model_snap);
+        if (db_snap != nullptr) db_->ReleaseSnapshot(db_snap);
+
+        Reopen();
+        ASSERT_TRUE(CompareIterators(step, &model, db_, nullptr, nullptr));
+
+        model_snap = model.GetSnapshot();
+        db_snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+      }
+    }
+    if (model_snap != nullptr) model.ReleaseSnapshot(model_snap);
+    if (db_snap != nullptr) db_->ReleaseSnapshot(db_snap);
+  } while (ChangeOptions());
+}
+
+std::string MakeKey(unsigned int num) {
+  char buf[30];
+  std::snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "%016u", num);
+  return std::string(buf);
+}
+
+static void BM_LogAndApply(benchmark::State& state) {
+  const int num_base_files = state.range(0);
+
+  std::string dbname = testing::TempDir() + "leveldb_test_benchmark";
+  DestroyDB(dbname, Options());
+
+  DB* db = nullptr;
+  Options opts;
+  opts.create_if_missing = true;
+  Status s = DB::Open(opts, dbname, &db);
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(s);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(db != nullptr);
+
+  delete db;
+  db = nullptr;
+
+  Env* env = Env::Default();
+
+  port::Mutex mu;
+  MutexLock l(&mu);
+
+  InternalKeyComparator cmp(BytewiseComparator());
+  Options options;
+  VersionSet vset(dbname, &options, nullptr, &cmp);
+  bool save_manifest;
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(vset.Recover(&save_manifest));
+  VersionEdit vbase;
+  uint64_t fnum = 1;
+  for (int i = 0; i < num_base_files; i++) {
+    InternalKey start(MakeKey(2 * fnum), 1, kTypeValue);
+    InternalKey limit(MakeKey(2 * fnum + 1), 1, kTypeDeletion);
+    vbase.AddFile(2, fnum++, 1 /* file size */, start, limit);
+  }
+  ASSERT_LEVELDB_OK(vset.LogAndApply(&vbase, &mu));
+
+  uint64_t start_micros = env->NowMicros();
+
+  for (auto st : state) {
+    VersionEdit vedit;
+    vedit.RemoveFile(2, fnum);
+    InternalKey start(MakeKey(2 * fnum), 1, kTypeValue);
+    InternalKey limit(MakeKey(2 * fnum + 1), 1, kTypeDeletion);
+    vedit.AddFile(2, fnum++, 1 /* file size */, start, limit);
+    vset.LogAndApply(&vedit, &mu);
+  }
+  uint64_t stop_micros = env->NowMicros();
+  unsigned int us = stop_micros - start_micros;
+  char buf[16];
+  std::snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "%d", num_base_files);
+  std::fprintf(stderr,
+               "BM_LogAndApply/%-6s   %8" PRIu64
+               " iters : %9u us (%7.0f us / iter)\n",
+               buf, state.iterations(), us, ((float)us) / state.iterations());
+}
+
+BENCHMARK(BM_LogAndApply)->Arg(1)->Arg(100)->Arg(10000)->Arg(100000);
+}  // namespace leveldb
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv) {
+  testing::InitGoogleTest(&argc, argv);
+  benchmark::RunSpecifiedBenchmarks();
+  return RUN_ALL_TESTS();
+}