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+---
+name: architecture-patterns
+description: Implement proven backend architecture patterns including Clean Architecture, Hexagonal Architecture, and Domain-Driven Design. Use this skill when designing clean architecture for a new microservice, when refactoring a monolith to use bounded contexts, when implementing hexagonal or onion architecture patterns, or when debugging dependency cycles between application layers.
+---
+
+# Architecture Patterns
+
+Master proven backend architecture patterns including Clean Architecture, Hexagonal Architecture, and Domain-Driven Design to build maintainable, testable, and scalable systems.
+
+**Given:** a service boundary or module to architect.
+**Produces:** layered structure with clear dependency rules, interface definitions, and test boundaries.
+
+## When to Use This Skill
+
+- Designing new backend services or microservices from scratch
+- Refactoring monolithic applications where business logic is entangled with ORM models or HTTP concerns
+- Establishing bounded contexts before splitting a system into services
+- Debugging dependency cycles where infrastructure code bleeds into the domain layer
+- Creating testable codebases where use-case tests do not require a running database
+- Implementing domain-driven design tactical patterns (aggregates, value objects, domain events)
+
+## Core Concepts
+
+### 1. Clean Architecture (Uncle Bob)
+
+**Layers (dependency flows inward):**
+
+- **Entities**: Core business models, no framework imports
+- **Use Cases**: Application business rules, orchestrate entities
+- **Interface Adapters**: Controllers, presenters, gateways — translate between use cases and external formats
+- **Frameworks & Drivers**: UI, database, external services — all at the outermost ring
+
+**Key Principles:**
+
+- Dependencies point inward only; inner layers know nothing about outer layers
+- Business logic is independent of frameworks, databases, and delivery mechanisms
+- Every layer boundary is crossed via an abstract interface
+- Testable without UI, database, or external services
+
+### 2. Hexagonal Architecture (Ports and Adapters)
+
+**Components:**
+
+- **Domain Core**: Business logic lives here, framework-free
+- **Ports**: Abstract interfaces that define how the core interacts with the outside world (driving and driven)
+- **Adapters**: Concrete implementations of ports (PostgreSQL adapter, Stripe adapter, REST adapter)
+
+**Benefits:**
+
+- Swap implementations without touching the core (e.g., replace PostgreSQL with DynamoDB)
+- Use in-memory adapters in tests — no Docker required
+- Technology decisions deferred to the edges
+
+### 3. Domain-Driven Design (DDD)
+
+**Strategic Patterns:**
+
+- **Bounded Contexts**: Isolate a coherent model for one subdomain; avoid sharing a single model across the whole system
+- **Context Mapping**: Define how contexts relate (Anti-Corruption Layer, Shared Kernel, Open Host Service)
+- **Ubiquitous Language**: Every term in code matches the term used by domain experts
+
+**Tactical Patterns:**
+
+- **Entities**: Objects with stable identity that change over time
+- **Value Objects**: Immutable objects identified by their attributes (Email, Money, Address)
+- **Aggregates**: Consistency boundaries; only the root is accessible from outside
+- **Repositories**: Persist and reconstitute aggregates; abstract over the storage mechanism
+- **Domain Events**: Capture things that happened inside the domain; used for cross-aggregate coordination
+
+## Clean Architecture — Directory Structure
+
+```
+app/
+├── domain/           # Entities, value objects, interfaces
+│   ├── entities/
+│   │   ├── user.py
+│   │   └── order.py
+│   ├── value_objects/
+│   │   ├── email.py
+│   │   └── money.py
+│   └── interfaces/   # Abstract ports (no implementations)
+│       ├── user_repository.py
+│       └── payment_gateway.py
+├── use_cases/        # Application business rules
+│   ├── create_user.py
+│   ├── process_order.py
+│   └── send_notification.py
+├── adapters/         # Concrete implementations
+│   ├── repositories/
+│   │   ├── postgres_user_repository.py
+│   │   └── redis_cache_repository.py
+│   ├── controllers/
+│   │   └── user_controller.py
+│   └── gateways/
+│       ├── stripe_payment_gateway.py
+│       └── sendgrid_email_gateway.py
+└── infrastructure/   # Framework wiring, config, DI container
+    ├── database.py
+    ├── config.py
+    └── logging.py
+```
+
+**Dependency rule in one sentence:** every `import` statement in `domain/` and `use_cases/` must point only toward `domain/`; nothing in those layers may import from `adapters/` or `infrastructure/`.
+
+## Clean Architecture — Core Implementation
+
+```python
+# domain/entities/user.py
+from dataclasses import dataclass
+from datetime import datetime
+
+@dataclass
+class User:
+    """Core user entity — no framework dependencies."""
+    id: str
+    email: str
+    name: str
+    created_at: datetime
+    is_active: bool = True
+
+    def deactivate(self):
+        self.is_active = False
+
+    def can_place_order(self) -> bool:
+        return self.is_active
+
+
+# domain/interfaces/user_repository.py
+from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
+from typing import Optional
+from domain.entities.user import User
+
+class IUserRepository(ABC):
+    """Port: defines contract, no implementation details."""
+
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def find_by_id(self, user_id: str) -> Optional[User]: ...
+
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def find_by_email(self, email: str) -> Optional[User]: ...
+
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def save(self, user: User) -> User: ...
+
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def delete(self, user_id: str) -> bool: ...
+
+
+# use_cases/create_user.py
+from dataclasses import dataclass
+from datetime import datetime
+from typing import Optional
+import uuid
+from domain.entities.user import User
+from domain.interfaces.user_repository import IUserRepository
+
+@dataclass
+class CreateUserRequest:
+    email: str
+    name: str
+
+@dataclass
+class CreateUserResponse:
+    user: Optional[User]
+    success: bool
+    error: Optional[str] = None
+
+class CreateUserUseCase:
+    """Use case: orchestrates business logic, no HTTP or DB details."""
+
+    def __init__(self, user_repository: IUserRepository):
+        self.user_repository = user_repository
+
+    async def execute(self, request: CreateUserRequest) -> CreateUserResponse:
+        existing = await self.user_repository.find_by_email(request.email)
+        if existing:
+            return CreateUserResponse(user=None, success=False, error="Email already exists")
+
+        user = User(
+            id=str(uuid.uuid4()),
+            email=request.email,
+            name=request.name,
+            created_at=datetime.now(),
+        )
+        saved_user = await self.user_repository.save(user)
+        return CreateUserResponse(user=saved_user, success=True)
+
+
+# adapters/repositories/postgres_user_repository.py
+from domain.interfaces.user_repository import IUserRepository
+from domain.entities.user import User
+from typing import Optional
+import asyncpg
+
+class PostgresUserRepository(IUserRepository):
+    """Adapter: PostgreSQL implementation of the user port."""
+
+    def __init__(self, pool: asyncpg.Pool):
+        self.pool = pool
+
+    async def find_by_id(self, user_id: str) -> Optional[User]:
+        async with self.pool.acquire() as conn:
+            row = await conn.fetchrow("SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = $1", user_id)
+            return self._to_entity(row) if row else None
+
+    async def find_by_email(self, email: str) -> Optional[User]:
+        async with self.pool.acquire() as conn:
+            row = await conn.fetchrow("SELECT * FROM users WHERE email = $1", email)
+            return self._to_entity(row) if row else None
+
+    async def save(self, user: User) -> User:
+        async with self.pool.acquire() as conn:
+            await conn.execute(
+                """
+                INSERT INTO users (id, email, name, created_at, is_active)
+                VALUES ($1, $2, $3, $4, $5)
+                ON CONFLICT (id) DO UPDATE
+                SET email = $2, name = $3, is_active = $5
+                """,
+                user.id, user.email, user.name, user.created_at, user.is_active,
+            )
+        return user
+
+    async def delete(self, user_id: str) -> bool:
+        async with self.pool.acquire() as conn:
+            result = await conn.execute("DELETE FROM users WHERE id = $1", user_id)
+            return result == "DELETE 1"
+
+    def _to_entity(self, row) -> User:
+        return User(
+            id=row["id"], email=row["email"], name=row["name"],
+            created_at=row["created_at"], is_active=row["is_active"],
+        )
+
+
+# adapters/controllers/user_controller.py
+from fastapi import APIRouter, Depends, HTTPException
+from pydantic import BaseModel
+from use_cases.create_user import CreateUserUseCase, CreateUserRequest
+
+router = APIRouter()
+
+class CreateUserDTO(BaseModel):
+    email: str
+    name: str
+
+@router.post("/users")
+async def create_user(
+    dto: CreateUserDTO,
+    use_case: CreateUserUseCase = Depends(get_create_user_use_case),
+):
+    """Controller handles HTTP only — no business logic lives here."""
+    response = await use_case.execute(CreateUserRequest(email=dto.email, name=dto.name))
+    if not response.success:
+        raise HTTPException(status_code=400, detail=response.error)
+    return {"user": response.user}
+```
+
+## Hexagonal Architecture — Ports and Adapters
+
+```python
+# Core domain service — no infrastructure dependencies
+class OrderService:
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        order_repository: OrderRepositoryPort,
+        payment_gateway: PaymentGatewayPort,
+        notification_service: NotificationPort,
+    ):
+        self.orders = order_repository
+        self.payments = payment_gateway
+        self.notifications = notification_service
+
+    async def place_order(self, order: Order) -> OrderResult:
+        if not order.is_valid():
+            return OrderResult(success=False, error="Invalid order")
+
+        payment = await self.payments.charge(amount=order.total, customer=order.customer_id)
+        if not payment.success:
+            return OrderResult(success=False, error="Payment failed")
+
+        order.mark_as_paid()
+        saved_order = await self.orders.save(order)
+        await self.notifications.send(
+            to=order.customer_email,
+            subject="Order confirmed",
+            body=f"Order {order.id} confirmed",
+        )
+        return OrderResult(success=True, order=saved_order)
+
+
+# Ports (driving and driven interfaces)
+class OrderRepositoryPort(ABC):
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def save(self, order: Order) -> Order: ...
+
+class PaymentGatewayPort(ABC):
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def charge(self, amount: Money, customer: str) -> PaymentResult: ...
+
+class NotificationPort(ABC):
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def send(self, to: str, subject: str, body: str): ...
+
+
+# Production adapter: Stripe
+class StripePaymentAdapter(PaymentGatewayPort):
+    def __init__(self, api_key: str):
+        import stripe
+        stripe.api_key = api_key
+        self._stripe = stripe
+
+    async def charge(self, amount: Money, customer: str) -> PaymentResult:
+        try:
+            charge = self._stripe.Charge.create(
+                amount=amount.cents, currency=amount.currency, customer=customer
+            )
+            return PaymentResult(success=True, transaction_id=charge.id)
+        except self._stripe.error.CardError as e:
+            return PaymentResult(success=False, error=str(e))
+
+
+# Test adapter: no external dependencies
+class MockPaymentAdapter(PaymentGatewayPort):
+    async def charge(self, amount: Money, customer: str) -> PaymentResult:
+        return PaymentResult(success=True, transaction_id="mock-txn-123")
+```
+
+## DDD — Value Objects and Aggregates
+
+```python
+# Value Objects: immutable, validated at construction
+from dataclasses import dataclass
+
+@dataclass(frozen=True)
+class Email:
+    value: str
+
+    def __post_init__(self):
+        if "@" not in self.value or "." not in self.value.split("@")[-1]:
+            raise ValueError(f"Invalid email: {self.value}")
+
+@dataclass(frozen=True)
+class Money:
+    amount: int   # cents
+    currency: str
+
+    def __post_init__(self):
+        if self.amount < 0:
+            raise ValueError("Money amount cannot be negative")
+        if self.currency not in {"USD", "EUR", "GBP"}:
+            raise ValueError(f"Unsupported currency: {self.currency}")
+
+    def add(self, other: "Money") -> "Money":
+        if self.currency != other.currency:
+            raise ValueError("Currency mismatch")
+        return Money(self.amount + other.amount, self.currency)
+
+
+# Aggregate root: enforces all invariants for its cluster of entities
+class Order:
+    def __init__(self, id: str, customer_id: str):
+        self.id = id
+        self.customer_id = customer_id
+        self.items: list[OrderItem] = []
+        self.status = OrderStatus.PENDING
+        self._events: list[DomainEvent] = []
+
+    def add_item(self, product: Product, quantity: int):
+        if self.status != OrderStatus.PENDING:
+            raise ValueError("Cannot modify a submitted order")
+        item = OrderItem(product=product, quantity=quantity)
+        self.items.append(item)
+        self._events.append(ItemAddedEvent(order_id=self.id, item=item))
+
+    @property
+    def total(self) -> Money:
+        totals = [item.subtotal() for item in self.items]
+        return sum(totals[1:], totals[0]) if totals else Money(0, "USD")
+
+    def submit(self):
+        if not self.items:
+            raise ValueError("Cannot submit an empty order")
+        if self.status != OrderStatus.PENDING:
+            raise ValueError("Order already submitted")
+        self.status = OrderStatus.SUBMITTED
+        self._events.append(OrderSubmittedEvent(order_id=self.id))
+
+    def pop_events(self) -> list[DomainEvent]:
+        events, self._events = self._events, []
+        return events
+
+
+# Repository: persist and reconstitute aggregates
+class OrderRepository(ABC):
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def find_by_id(self, order_id: str) -> Optional[Order]: ...
+
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def save(self, order: Order) -> None: ...
+    # Implementations persist events via pop_events() after writing state
+```
+
+## Testing — In-Memory Adapters
+
+The hallmark of correctly applied Clean Architecture is that every use case can be exercised in a plain unit test with no real database, no Docker, and no network:
+
+```python
+# tests/unit/test_create_user.py
+import asyncio
+from typing import Dict, Optional
+from domain.entities.user import User
+from domain.interfaces.user_repository import IUserRepository
+from use_cases.create_user import CreateUserUseCase, CreateUserRequest
+
+
+class InMemoryUserRepository(IUserRepository):
+    def __init__(self):
+        self._store: Dict[str, User] = {}
+
+    async def find_by_id(self, user_id: str) -> Optional[User]:
+        return self._store.get(user_id)
+
+    async def find_by_email(self, email: str) -> Optional[User]:
+        return next((u for u in self._store.values() if u.email == email), None)
+
+    async def save(self, user: User) -> User:
+        self._store[user.id] = user
+        return user
+
+    async def delete(self, user_id: str) -> bool:
+        return self._store.pop(user_id, None) is not None
+
+
+async def test_create_user_succeeds():
+    repo = InMemoryUserRepository()
+    use_case = CreateUserUseCase(user_repository=repo)
+
+    response = await use_case.execute(CreateUserRequest(email="alice@example.com", name="Alice"))
+
+    assert response.success
+    assert response.user.email == "alice@example.com"
+    assert response.user.id is not None
+
+
+async def test_duplicate_email_rejected():
+    repo = InMemoryUserRepository()
+    use_case = CreateUserUseCase(user_repository=repo)
+
+    await use_case.execute(CreateUserRequest(email="alice@example.com", name="Alice"))
+    response = await use_case.execute(CreateUserRequest(email="alice@example.com", name="Alice2"))
+
+    assert not response.success
+    assert "already exists" in response.error
+```
+
+## Troubleshooting
+
+### Use case tests require a running database
+
+Business logic has leaked into the infrastructure layer. Move all database calls behind an `IRepository` interface and inject an in-memory implementation in tests (see Testing section above). The use case constructor must accept the abstract port, not the concrete class.
+
+### Circular imports between layers
+
+A common symptom is `ImportError: cannot import name X` between `use_cases` and `adapters`. This happens when a use case imports a concrete adapter class instead of the abstract port. Enforce the rule: `use_cases/` imports only from `domain/` (entities and interfaces). It must never import from `adapters/` or `infrastructure/`.
+
+### Framework decorators appearing in domain entities
+
+If SQLAlchemy `Column()` or Pydantic `Field()` annotations appear on domain entities, the entity is no longer pure. Create a separate ORM model in `adapters/repositories/` and map to/from the domain entity in the repository's `_to_entity()` method.
+
+### All logic ending up in controllers
+
+When the controller grows beyond HTTP parsing and response formatting, extract the logic into a use case class. A controller method should do three things only: parse the request, call a use case, map the response.
+
+### Value objects raising errors too late
+
+Validate invariants in `__post_init__` (Python) or the constructor so an invalid `Email` or `Money` cannot be constructed at all. This surfaces bad data at the boundary, not deep inside business logic.
+
+### Context bleed across bounded contexts
+
+If the `Order` context is importing `User` entities from the `Identity` context, introduce an Anti-Corruption Layer. The `Order` context should hold its own lightweight `CustomerId` value object and only call the `Identity` context through an explicit interface.
+
+## Advanced Patterns
+
+For detailed DDD bounded context mapping, full multi-service project trees, Anti-Corruption Layer implementations, and Onion Architecture comparisons, see:
+
+- [`references/advanced-patterns.md`](references/advanced-patterns.md)
+
+## Related Skills
+
+- `microservices-patterns` — Apply these architecture patterns when decomposing a monolith into services
+- `cqrs-implementation` — Use Clean Architecture as the structural foundation for CQRS command/query separation
+- `saga-orchestration` — Sagas require well-defined aggregate boundaries, which DDD tactical patterns provide
+- `event-store-design` — Domain events produced by aggregates feed directly into an event store