mathjs-min 11.7.2

package/lib/esm/function/algebra/simplify.js

@@ -0,0 +1,1254 @@
+import { isParenthesisNode } from '../../utils/is.js';
+import { isConstantNode, isVariableNode, isNumericNode, isConstantExpression } from './simplify/wildcards.js';
+import { factory } from '../../utils/factory.js';
+import { createUtil } from './simplify/util.js';
+import { hasOwnProperty } from '../../utils/object.js';
+import { createEmptyMap, createMap } from '../../utils/map.js';
+var name = 'simplify';
+var dependencies = ['config', 'typed', 'parse', 'add', 'subtract', 'multiply', 'divide', 'pow', 'isZero', 'equal', 'resolve', 'simplifyConstant', 'simplifyCore', '?fraction', '?bignumber', 'mathWithTransform', 'matrix', 'AccessorNode', 'ArrayNode', 'ConstantNode', 'FunctionNode', 'IndexNode', 'ObjectNode', 'OperatorNode', 'ParenthesisNode', 'SymbolNode'];
+export var createSimplify = /* #__PURE__ */factory(name, dependencies, _ref => {
+  var {
+    config,
+    typed,
+    parse,
+    add,
+    subtract,
+    multiply,
+    divide,
+    pow,
+    isZero,
+    equal,
+    resolve,
+    simplifyConstant,
+    simplifyCore,
+    fraction,
+    bignumber,
+    mathWithTransform,
+    matrix,
+    AccessorNode,
+    ArrayNode,
+    ConstantNode,
+    FunctionNode,
+    IndexNode,
+    ObjectNode,
+    OperatorNode,
+    ParenthesisNode,
+    SymbolNode
+  } = _ref;
+  var {
+    hasProperty,
+    isCommutative,
+    isAssociative,
+    mergeContext,
+    flatten,
+    unflattenr,
+    unflattenl,
+    createMakeNodeFunction,
+    defaultContext,
+    realContext,
+    positiveContext
+  } = createUtil({
+    FunctionNode,
+    OperatorNode,
+    SymbolNode
+  });
+
+  /**
+   * Simplify an expression tree.
+   *
+   * A list of rules are applied to an expression, repeating over the list until
+   * no further changes are made.
+   * It's possible to pass a custom set of rules to the function as second
+   * argument. A rule can be specified as an object, string, or function:
+   *
+   *     const rules = [
+   *       { l: 'n1*n3 + n2*n3', r: '(n1+n2)*n3' },
+   *       'n1*n3 + n2*n3 -> (n1+n2)*n3',
+   *       function (node) {
+   *         // ... return a new node or return the node unchanged
+   *         return node
+   *       }
+   *     ]
+   *
+   * String and object rules consist of a left and right pattern. The left is
+   * used to match against the expression and the right determines what matches
+   * are replaced with. The main difference between a pattern and a normal
+   * expression is that variables starting with the following characters are
+   * interpreted as wildcards:
+   *
+   * - 'n' - Matches any node [Node]
+   * - 'c' - Matches a constant literal (5 or 3.2) [ConstantNode]
+   * - 'cl' - Matches a constant literal; same as c [ConstantNode]
+   * - 'cd' - Matches a decimal literal (5 or -3.2) [ConstantNode or unaryMinus wrapping a ConstantNode]
+   * - 'ce' - Matches a constant expression (-5 or √3) [Expressions consisting of only ConstantNodes, functions, and operators]
+   * - 'v' - Matches a variable; anything not matched by c (-5 or x) [Node that is not a ConstantNode]
+   * - 'vl' - Matches a variable literal (x or y) [SymbolNode]
+   * - 'vd' - Matches a non-decimal expression; anything not matched by cd (x or √3) [Node that is not a ConstantNode or unaryMinus that is wrapping a ConstantNode]
+   * - 've' - Matches a variable expression; anything not matched by ce (x or 2x) [Expressions that contain a SymbolNode or other non-constant term]
+   *
+   * The default list of rules is exposed on the function as `simplify.rules`
+   * and can be used as a basis to built a set of custom rules. Note that since
+   * the `simplifyCore` function is in the default list of rules, by default
+   * simplify will convert any function calls in the expression that have
+   * operator equivalents to their operator forms.
+   *
+   * To specify a rule as a string, separate the left and right pattern by '->'
+   * When specifying a rule as an object, the following keys are meaningful:
+   * - l - the left pattern
+   * - r - the right pattern
+   * - s - in lieu of l and r, the string form that is broken at -> to give them
+   * - repeat - whether to repeat this rule until the expression stabilizes
+   * - assuming - gives a context object, as in the 'context' option to
+   *     simplify. Every property in the context object must match the current
+   *     context in order, or else the rule will not be applied.
+   * - imposeContext - gives a context object, as in the 'context' option to
+   *     simplify. Any settings specified will override the incoming context
+   *     for all matches of this rule.
+   *
+   * For more details on the theory, see:
+   *
+   * - [Strategies for simplifying math expressions (Stackoverflow)](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/7540227/strategies-for-simplifying-math-expressions)
+   * - [Symbolic computation - Simplification (Wikipedia)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_computation#Simplification)
+   *
+   *  An optional `options` argument can be passed as last argument of `simplify`.
+   *  Currently available options (defaults in parentheses):
+   *  - `consoleDebug` (false): whether to write the expression being simplified
+   *    and any changes to it, along with the rule responsible, to console
+   *  - `context` (simplify.defaultContext): an object giving properties of
+   *    each operator, which determine what simplifications are allowed. The
+   *    currently meaningful properties are commutative, associative,
+   *    total (whether the operation is defined for all arguments), and
+   *    trivial (whether the operation applied to a single argument leaves
+   *    that argument unchanged). The default context is very permissive and
+   *    allows almost all simplifications. Only properties differing from
+   *    the default need to be specified; the default context is used as a
+   *    fallback. Additional contexts `simplify.realContext` and
+   *    `simplify.positiveContext` are supplied to cause simplify to perform
+   *    just simplifications guaranteed to preserve all values of the expression
+   *    assuming all variables and subexpressions are real numbers or
+   *    positive real numbers, respectively. (Note that these are in some cases
+   *    more restrictive than the default context; for example, the default
+   *    context will allow `x/x` to simplify to 1, whereas
+   *    `simplify.realContext` will not, as `0/0` is not equal to 1.)
+   *  - `exactFractions` (true): whether to try to convert all constants to
+   *    exact rational numbers.
+   *  - `fractionsLimit` (10000): when `exactFractions` is true, constants will
+   *    be expressed as fractions only when both numerator and denominator
+   *    are smaller than `fractionsLimit`.
+   *
+   * Syntax:
+   *
+   *     simplify(expr)
+   *     simplify(expr, rules)
+   *     simplify(expr, rules)
+   *     simplify(expr, rules, scope)
+   *     simplify(expr, rules, scope, options)
+   *     simplify(expr, scope)
+   *     simplify(expr, scope, options)
+   *
+   * Examples:
+   *
+   *     math.simplify('2 * 1 * x ^ (2 - 1)')      // Node "2 * x"
+   *     math.simplify('2 * 3 * x', {x: 4})        // Node "24"
+   *     const f = math.parse('2 * 1 * x ^ (2 - 1)')
+   *     math.simplify(f)                          // Node "2 * x"
+   *     math.simplify('0.4 * x', {}, {exactFractions: true})  // Node "x * 2 / 5"
+   *     math.simplify('0.4 * x', {}, {exactFractions: false}) // Node "0.4 * x"
+   *
+   * See also:
+   *
+   *     simplifyCore, derivative, evaluate, parse, rationalize, resolve
+   *
+   * @param {Node | string} expr
+   *            The expression to be simplified
+   * @param {SimplifyRule[]} [rules]
+   *            Optional list with custom rules
+   * @param {Object} [scope] Optional scope with variables
+   * @param {SimplifyOptions} [options] Optional configuration settings
+   * @return {Node} Returns the simplified form of `expr`
+   */
+  typed.addConversion({
+    from: 'Object',
+    to: 'Map',
+    convert: createMap
+  });
+  var simplify = typed('simplify', {
+    Node: _simplify,
+    'Node, Map': (expr, scope) => _simplify(expr, false, scope),
+    'Node, Map, Object': (expr, scope, options) => _simplify(expr, false, scope, options),
+    'Node, Array': _simplify,
+    'Node, Array, Map': _simplify,
+    'Node, Array, Map, Object': _simplify
+  });
+  typed.removeConversion({
+    from: 'Object',
+    to: 'Map',
+    convert: createMap
+  });
+  simplify.defaultContext = defaultContext;
+  simplify.realContext = realContext;
+  simplify.positiveContext = positiveContext;
+  function removeParens(node) {
+    return node.transform(function (node, path, parent) {
+      return isParenthesisNode(node) ? removeParens(node.content) : node;
+    });
+  }
+
+  // All constants that are allowed in rules
+  var SUPPORTED_CONSTANTS = {
+    true: true,
+    false: true,
+    e: true,
+    i: true,
+    Infinity: true,
+    LN2: true,
+    LN10: true,
+    LOG2E: true,
+    LOG10E: true,
+    NaN: true,
+    phi: true,
+    pi: true,
+    SQRT1_2: true,
+    SQRT2: true,
+    tau: true
+    // null: false,
+    // undefined: false,
+    // version: false,
+  };
+
+  // Array of strings, used to build the ruleSet.
+  // Each l (left side) and r (right side) are parsed by
+  // the expression parser into a node tree.
+  // Left hand sides are matched to subtrees within the
+  // expression to be parsed and replaced with the right
+  // hand side.
+  // TODO: Add support for constraints on constants (either in the form of a '=' expression or a callback [callback allows things like comparing symbols alphabetically])
+  // To evaluate lhs constants for rhs constants, use: { l: 'c1+c2', r: 'c3', evaluate: 'c3 = c1 + c2' }. Multiple assignments are separated by ';' in block format.
+  // It is possible to get into an infinite loop with conflicting rules
+  simplify.rules = [simplifyCore,
+  // { l: 'n+0', r: 'n' },     // simplifyCore
+  // { l: 'n^0', r: '1' },     // simplifyCore
+  // { l: '0*n', r: '0' },     // simplifyCore
+  // { l: 'n/n', r: '1'},      // simplifyCore
+  // { l: 'n^1', r: 'n' },     // simplifyCore
+  // { l: '+n1', r:'n1' },     // simplifyCore
+  // { l: 'n--n1', r:'n+n1' }, // simplifyCore
+  {
+    l: 'log(e)',
+    r: '1'
+  },
+  // temporary rules
+  // Note initially we tend constants to the right because like-term
+  // collection prefers the left, and we would rather collect nonconstants
+  {
+    s: 'n-n1 -> n+-n1',
+    // temporarily replace 'subtract' so we can further flatten the 'add' operator
+    assuming: {
+      subtract: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'n-n -> 0',
+    // partial alternative when we can't always subtract
+    assuming: {
+      subtract: {
+        total: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: '-(cl*v) -> v * (-cl)',
+    // make non-constant terms positive
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: true
+      },
+      subtract: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: '-(cl*v) -> (-cl) * v',
+    // non-commutative version, part 1
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      },
+      subtract: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: '-(v*cl) -> v * (-cl)',
+    // non-commutative version, part 2
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      },
+      subtract: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    l: '-(n1/n2)',
+    r: '-n1/n2'
+  }, {
+    l: '-v',
+    r: 'v * (-1)'
+  },
+  // finish making non-constant terms positive
+  {
+    l: '(n1 + n2)*(-1)',
+    r: 'n1*(-1) + n2*(-1)',
+    repeat: true
+  },
+  // expand negations to achieve as much sign cancellation as possible
+  {
+    l: 'n/n1^n2',
+    r: 'n*n1^-n2'
+  },
+  // temporarily replace 'divide' so we can further flatten the 'multiply' operator
+  {
+    l: 'n/n1',
+    r: 'n*n1^-1'
+  }, {
+    s: '(n1*n2)^n3 -> n1^n3 * n2^n3',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: '(n1*n2)^(-1) -> n2^(-1) * n1^(-1)',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  },
+  // expand nested exponentiation
+  {
+    s: '(n ^ n1) ^ n2 -> n ^ (n1 * n2)',
+    assuming: {
+      divide: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    } // 1/(1/n) = n needs 1/n to exist
+  },
+  // collect like factors; into a sum, only do this for nonconstants
+  {
+    l: ' vd   * ( vd   * n1 + n2)',
+    r: 'vd^2       * n1 +  vd   * n2'
+  }, {
+    s: ' vd   * (vd^n4 * n1 + n2)   ->  vd^(1+n4)  * n1 +  vd   * n2',
+    assuming: {
+      divide: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    } // v*1/v = v^(1+-1) needs 1/v
+  }, {
+    s: 'vd^n3 * ( vd   * n1 + n2)   ->  vd^(n3+1)  * n1 + vd^n3 * n2',
+    assuming: {
+      divide: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'vd^n3 * (vd^n4 * n1 + n2)   ->  vd^(n3+n4) * n1 + vd^n3 * n2',
+    assuming: {
+      divide: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    l: 'n*n',
+    r: 'n^2'
+  }, {
+    s: 'n * n^n1 -> n^(n1+1)',
+    assuming: {
+      divide: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    } // n*1/n = n^(-1+1) needs 1/n
+  }, {
+    s: 'n^n1 * n^n2 -> n^(n1+n2)',
+    assuming: {
+      divide: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    } // ditto for n^2*1/n^2
+  },
+  // Unfortunately, to deal with more complicated cancellations, it
+  // becomes necessary to simplify constants twice per pass. It's not
+  // terribly expensive compared to matching rules, so this should not
+  // pose a performance problem.
+  simplifyConstant,
+  // First: before collecting like terms
+
+  // collect like terms
+  {
+    s: 'n+n -> 2*n',
+    assuming: {
+      add: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    } // 2 = 1 + 1 needs to exist
+  }, {
+    l: 'n+-n',
+    r: '0'
+  }, {
+    l: 'vd*n + vd',
+    r: 'vd*(n+1)'
+  },
+  // NOTE: leftmost position is special:
+  {
+    l: 'n3*n1 + n3*n2',
+    r: 'n3*(n1+n2)'
+  },
+  // All sub-monomials tried there.
+  {
+    l: 'n3^(-n4)*n1 +   n3  * n2',
+    r: 'n3^(-n4)*(n1 + n3^(n4+1) *n2)'
+  }, {
+    l: 'n3^(-n4)*n1 + n3^n5 * n2',
+    r: 'n3^(-n4)*(n1 + n3^(n4+n5)*n2)'
+  },
+  // noncommutative additional cases (term collection & factoring)
+  {
+    s: 'n*vd + vd -> (n+1)*vd',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'vd + n*vd -> (1+n)*vd',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'n1*n3 + n2*n3 -> (n1+n2)*n3',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'n^n1 * n -> n^(n1+1)',
+    assuming: {
+      divide: {
+        total: true
+      },
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'n1*n3^(-n4) + n2 * n3    -> (n1 + n2*n3^(n4 +  1))*n3^(-n4)',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'n1*n3^(-n4) + n2 * n3^n5 -> (n1 + n2*n3^(n4 + n5))*n3^(-n4)',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    l: 'n*cd + cd',
+    r: '(n+1)*cd'
+  }, {
+    s: 'cd*n + cd -> cd*(n+1)',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'cd + cd*n -> cd*(1+n)',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, simplifyConstant,
+  // Second: before returning expressions to "standard form"
+
+  // make factors positive (and undo 'make non-constant terms positive')
+  {
+    s: '(-n)*n1 -> -(n*n1)',
+    assuming: {
+      subtract: {
+        total: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'n1*(-n) -> -(n1*n)',
+    // in case * non-commutative
+    assuming: {
+      subtract: {
+        total: true
+      },
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  },
+  // final ordering of constants
+  {
+    s: 'ce+ve -> ve+ce',
+    assuming: {
+      add: {
+        commutative: true
+      }
+    },
+    imposeContext: {
+      add: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'vd*cd -> cd*vd',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: true
+      }
+    },
+    imposeContext: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: false
+      }
+    }
+  },
+  // undo temporary rules
+  // { l: '(-1) * n', r: '-n' }, // #811 added test which proved this is redundant
+  {
+    l: 'n+-n1',
+    r: 'n-n1'
+  },
+  // undo replace 'subtract'
+  {
+    s: 'n*(n1^-1) -> n/n1',
+    // undo replace 'divide'; for * commutative
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: true
+      }
+    } // o.w. / not conventional
+  }, {
+    s: 'n*n1^-n2 -> n/n1^n2',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: true
+      }
+    } // o.w. / not conventional
+  }, {
+    s: 'n^-1 -> 1/n',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: true
+      }
+    } // o.w. / not conventional
+  }, {
+    l: 'n^1',
+    r: 'n'
+  },
+  // can be produced by power cancellation
+  {
+    s: 'n*(n1/n2) -> (n*n1)/n2',
+    // '*' before '/'
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        associative: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'n-(n1+n2) -> n-n1-n2',
+    // '-' before '+'
+    assuming: {
+      addition: {
+        associative: true,
+        commutative: true
+      }
+    }
+  },
+  // { l: '(n1/n2)/n3', r: 'n1/(n2*n3)' },
+  // { l: '(n*n1)/(n*n2)', r: 'n1/n2' },
+
+  // simplifyConstant can leave an extra factor of 1, which can always
+  // be eliminated, since the identity always commutes
+  {
+    l: '1*n',
+    r: 'n',
+    imposeContext: {
+      multiply: {
+        commutative: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    s: 'n1/(n2/n3) -> (n1*n3)/n2',
+    assuming: {
+      multiply: {
+        associative: true
+      }
+    }
+  }, {
+    l: 'n1/(-n2)',
+    r: '-n1/n2'
+  }];
+
+  /**
+   * Takes any rule object as allowed by the specification in simplify
+   * and puts it in a standard form used by applyRule
+   */
+  function _canonicalizeRule(ruleObject, context) {
+    var newRule = {};
+    if (ruleObject.s) {
+      var lr = ruleObject.s.split('->');
+      if (lr.length === 2) {
+        newRule.l = lr[0];
+        newRule.r = lr[1];
+      } else {
+        throw SyntaxError('Could not parse rule: ' + ruleObject.s);
+      }
+    } else {
+      newRule.l = ruleObject.l;
+      newRule.r = ruleObject.r;
+    }
+    newRule.l = removeParens(parse(newRule.l));
+    newRule.r = removeParens(parse(newRule.r));
+    for (var prop of ['imposeContext', 'repeat', 'assuming']) {
+      if (prop in ruleObject) {
+        newRule[prop] = ruleObject[prop];
+      }
+    }
+    if (ruleObject.evaluate) {
+      newRule.evaluate = parse(ruleObject.evaluate);
+    }
+    if (isAssociative(newRule.l, context)) {
+      var nonCommutative = !isCommutative(newRule.l, context);
+      var leftExpandsym;
+      // Gen. the LHS placeholder used in this NC-context specific expansion rules
+      if (nonCommutative) leftExpandsym = _getExpandPlaceholderSymbol();
+      var makeNode = createMakeNodeFunction(newRule.l);
+      var expandsym = _getExpandPlaceholderSymbol();
+      newRule.expanded = {};
+      newRule.expanded.l = makeNode([newRule.l, expandsym]);
+      // Push the expandsym into the deepest possible branch.
+      // This helps to match the newRule against nodes returned from getSplits() later on.
+      flatten(newRule.expanded.l, context);
+      unflattenr(newRule.expanded.l, context);
+      newRule.expanded.r = makeNode([newRule.r, expandsym]);
+
+      // In and for a non-commutative context, attempting with yet additional expansion rules makes
+      // way for more matches cases of multi-arg expressions; such that associative rules (such as
+      // 'n*n -> n^2') can be applied to exprs. such as 'a * b * b' and 'a * b * b * a'.
+      if (nonCommutative) {
+        // 'Non-commutative' 1: LHS (placeholder) only
+        newRule.expandedNC1 = {};
+        newRule.expandedNC1.l = makeNode([leftExpandsym, newRule.l]);
+        newRule.expandedNC1.r = makeNode([leftExpandsym, newRule.r]);
+        // 'Non-commutative' 2: farmost LHS and RHS placeholders
+        newRule.expandedNC2 = {};
+        newRule.expandedNC2.l = makeNode([leftExpandsym, newRule.expanded.l]);
+        newRule.expandedNC2.r = makeNode([leftExpandsym, newRule.expanded.r]);
+      }
+    }
+    return newRule;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Parse the string array of rules into nodes
+   *
+   * Example syntax for rules:
+   *
+   * Position constants to the left in a product:
+   * { l: 'n1 * c1', r: 'c1 * n1' }
+   * n1 is any Node, and c1 is a ConstantNode.
+   *
+   * Apply difference of squares formula:
+   * { l: '(n1 - n2) * (n1 + n2)', r: 'n1^2 - n2^2' }
+   * n1, n2 mean any Node.
+   *
+   * Short hand notation:
+   * 'n1 * c1 -> c1 * n1'
+   */
+  function _buildRules(rules, context) {
+    // Array of rules to be used to simplify expressions
+    var ruleSet = [];
+    for (var i = 0; i < rules.length; i++) {
+      var rule = rules[i];
+      var newRule = void 0;
+      var ruleType = typeof rule;
+      switch (ruleType) {
+        case 'string':
+          rule = {
+            s: rule
+          };
+        /* falls through */
+        case 'object':
+          newRule = _canonicalizeRule(rule, context);
+          break;
+        case 'function':
+          newRule = rule;
+          break;
+        default:
+          throw TypeError('Unsupported type of rule: ' + ruleType);
+      }
+      // console.log('Adding rule: ' + rules[i])
+      // console.log(newRule)
+      ruleSet.push(newRule);
+    }
+    return ruleSet;
+  }
+  var _lastsym = 0;
+  function _getExpandPlaceholderSymbol() {
+    return new SymbolNode('_p' + _lastsym++);
+  }
+  function _simplify(expr, rules) {
+    var scope = arguments.length > 2 && arguments[2] !== undefined ? arguments[2] : createEmptyMap();
+    var options = arguments.length > 3 && arguments[3] !== undefined ? arguments[3] : {};
+    var debug = options.consoleDebug;
+    rules = _buildRules(rules || simplify.rules, options.context);
+    var res = resolve(expr, scope);
+    res = removeParens(res);
+    var visited = {};
+    var str = res.toString({
+      parenthesis: 'all'
+    });
+    while (!visited[str]) {
+      visited[str] = true;
+      _lastsym = 0; // counter for placeholder symbols
+      var laststr = str;
+      if (debug) console.log('Working on: ', str);
+      for (var i = 0; i < rules.length; i++) {
+        var rulestr = '';
+        if (typeof rules[i] === 'function') {
+          res = rules[i](res, options);
+          if (debug) rulestr = rules[i].name;
+        } else {
+          flatten(res, options.context);
+          res = applyRule(res, rules[i], options.context);
+          if (debug) {
+            rulestr = "".concat(rules[i].l.toString(), " -> ").concat(rules[i].r.toString());
+          }
+        }
+        if (debug) {
+          var newstr = res.toString({
+            parenthesis: 'all'
+          });
+          if (newstr !== laststr) {
+            console.log('Applying', rulestr, 'produced', newstr);
+            laststr = newstr;
+          }
+        }
+        /* Use left-heavy binary tree internally,
+         * since custom rule functions may expect it
+         */
+        unflattenl(res, options.context);
+      }
+      str = res.toString({
+        parenthesis: 'all'
+      });
+    }
+    return res;
+  }
+  function mapRule(nodes, rule, context) {
+    var resNodes = nodes;
+    if (nodes) {
+      for (var i = 0; i < nodes.length; ++i) {
+        var newNode = applyRule(nodes[i], rule, context);
+        if (newNode !== nodes[i]) {
+          if (resNodes === nodes) {
+            resNodes = nodes.slice();
+          }
+          resNodes[i] = newNode;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    return resNodes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns a simplfied form of node, or the original node if no simplification was possible.
+   *
+   * @param  {ConstantNode | SymbolNode | ParenthesisNode | FunctionNode | OperatorNode} node
+   * @param  {Object | Function} rule
+   * @param  {Object} context -- information about assumed properties of operators
+   * @return {ConstantNode | SymbolNode | ParenthesisNode | FunctionNode | OperatorNode} The simplified form of `expr`, or the original node if no simplification was possible.
+   */
+  function applyRule(node, rule, context) {
+    //    console.log('Entering applyRule("', rule.l.toString({parenthesis:'all'}), '->', rule.r.toString({parenthesis:'all'}), '",', node.toString({parenthesis:'all'}),')')
+
+    // check that the assumptions for this rule are satisfied by the current
+    // context:
+    if (rule.assuming) {
+      for (var symbol in rule.assuming) {
+        for (var property in rule.assuming[symbol]) {
+          if (hasProperty(symbol, property, context) !== rule.assuming[symbol][property]) {
+            return node;
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    var mergedContext = mergeContext(rule.imposeContext, context);
+
+    // Do not clone node unless we find a match
+    var res = node;
+
+    // First replace our child nodes with their simplified versions
+    // If a child could not be simplified, applying the rule to it
+    // will have no effect since the node is returned unchanged
+    if (res instanceof OperatorNode || res instanceof FunctionNode) {
+      var newArgs = mapRule(res.args, rule, context);
+      if (newArgs !== res.args) {
+        res = res.clone();
+        res.args = newArgs;
+      }
+    } else if (res instanceof ParenthesisNode) {
+      if (res.content) {
+        var newContent = applyRule(res.content, rule, context);
+        if (newContent !== res.content) {
+          res = new ParenthesisNode(newContent);
+        }
+      }
+    } else if (res instanceof ArrayNode) {
+      var newItems = mapRule(res.items, rule, context);
+      if (newItems !== res.items) {
+        res = new ArrayNode(newItems);
+      }
+    } else if (res instanceof AccessorNode) {
+      var newObj = res.object;
+      if (res.object) {
+        newObj = applyRule(res.object, rule, context);
+      }
+      var newIndex = res.index;
+      if (res.index) {
+        newIndex = applyRule(res.index, rule, context);
+      }
+      if (newObj !== res.object || newIndex !== res.index) {
+        res = new AccessorNode(newObj, newIndex);
+      }
+    } else if (res instanceof IndexNode) {
+      var newDims = mapRule(res.dimensions, rule, context);
+      if (newDims !== res.dimensions) {
+        res = new IndexNode(newDims);
+      }
+    } else if (res instanceof ObjectNode) {
+      var changed = false;
+      var newProps = {};
+      for (var prop in res.properties) {
+        newProps[prop] = applyRule(res.properties[prop], rule, context);
+        if (newProps[prop] !== res.properties[prop]) {
+          changed = true;
+        }
+      }
+      if (changed) {
+        res = new ObjectNode(newProps);
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Try to match a rule against this node
+    var repl = rule.r;
+    var matches = _ruleMatch(rule.l, res, mergedContext)[0];
+
+    // If the rule is associative operator, we can try matching it while allowing additional terms.
+    // This allows us to match rules like 'n+n' to the expression '(1+x)+x' or even 'x+1+x' if the operator is commutative.
+    if (!matches && rule.expanded) {
+      repl = rule.expanded.r;
+      matches = _ruleMatch(rule.expanded.l, res, mergedContext)[0];
+    }
+    // Additional, non-commutative context expansion-rules
+    if (!matches && rule.expandedNC1) {
+      repl = rule.expandedNC1.r;
+      matches = _ruleMatch(rule.expandedNC1.l, res, mergedContext)[0];
+      if (!matches) {
+        // Existence of NC1 implies NC2
+        repl = rule.expandedNC2.r;
+        matches = _ruleMatch(rule.expandedNC2.l, res, mergedContext)[0];
+      }
+    }
+    if (matches) {
+      // const before = res.toString({parenthesis: 'all'})
+
+      // Create a new node by cloning the rhs of the matched rule
+      // we keep any implicit multiplication state if relevant
+      var implicit = res.implicit;
+      res = repl.clone();
+      if (implicit && 'implicit' in repl) {
+        res.implicit = true;
+      }
+
+      // Replace placeholders with their respective nodes without traversing deeper into the replaced nodes
+      res = res.transform(function (node) {
+        if (node.isSymbolNode && hasOwnProperty(matches.placeholders, node.name)) {
+          return matches.placeholders[node.name].clone();
+        } else {
+          return node;
+        }
+      });
+
+      // const after = res.toString({parenthesis: 'all'})
+      // console.log('Simplified ' + before + ' to ' + after)
+    }
+
+    if (rule.repeat && res !== node) {
+      res = applyRule(res, rule, context);
+    }
+    return res;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get (binary) combinations of a flattened binary node
+   * e.g. +(node1, node2, node3) -> [
+   *        +(node1,  +(node2, node3)),
+   *        +(node2,  +(node1, node3)),
+   *        +(node3,  +(node1, node2))]
+   *
+   */
+  function getSplits(node, context) {
+    var res = [];
+    var right, rightArgs;
+    var makeNode = createMakeNodeFunction(node);
+    if (isCommutative(node, context)) {
+      for (var i = 0; i < node.args.length; i++) {
+        rightArgs = node.args.slice(0);
+        rightArgs.splice(i, 1);
+        right = rightArgs.length === 1 ? rightArgs[0] : makeNode(rightArgs);
+        res.push(makeNode([node.args[i], right]));
+      }
+    } else {
+      // Keep order, but try all parenthesizations
+      for (var _i = 1; _i < node.args.length; _i++) {
+        var left = node.args[0];
+        if (_i > 1) {
+          left = makeNode(node.args.slice(0, _i));
+        }
+        rightArgs = node.args.slice(_i);
+        right = rightArgs.length === 1 ? rightArgs[0] : makeNode(rightArgs);
+        res.push(makeNode([left, right]));
+      }
+    }
+    return res;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the set union of two match-placeholders or null if there is a conflict.
+   */
+  function mergeMatch(match1, match2) {
+    var res = {
+      placeholders: {}
+    };
+
+    // Some matches may not have placeholders; this is OK
+    if (!match1.placeholders && !match2.placeholders) {
+      return res;
+    } else if (!match1.placeholders) {
+      return match2;
+    } else if (!match2.placeholders) {
+      return match1;
+    }
+
+    // Placeholders with the same key must match exactly
+    for (var key in match1.placeholders) {
+      if (hasOwnProperty(match1.placeholders, key)) {
+        res.placeholders[key] = match1.placeholders[key];
+        if (hasOwnProperty(match2.placeholders, key)) {
+          if (!_exactMatch(match1.placeholders[key], match2.placeholders[key])) {
+            return null;
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    for (var _key in match2.placeholders) {
+      if (hasOwnProperty(match2.placeholders, _key)) {
+        res.placeholders[_key] = match2.placeholders[_key];
+      }
+    }
+    return res;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Combine two lists of matches by applying mergeMatch to the cartesian product of two lists of matches.
+   * Each list represents matches found in one child of a node.
+   */
+  function combineChildMatches(list1, list2) {
+    var res = [];
+    if (list1.length === 0 || list2.length === 0) {
+      return res;
+    }
+    var merged;
+    for (var i1 = 0; i1 < list1.length; i1++) {
+      for (var i2 = 0; i2 < list2.length; i2++) {
+        merged = mergeMatch(list1[i1], list2[i2]);
+        if (merged) {
+          res.push(merged);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    return res;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Combine multiple lists of matches by applying mergeMatch to the cartesian product of two lists of matches.
+   * Each list represents matches found in one child of a node.
+   * Returns a list of unique matches.
+   */
+  function mergeChildMatches(childMatches) {
+    if (childMatches.length === 0) {
+      return childMatches;
+    }
+    var sets = childMatches.reduce(combineChildMatches);
+    var uniqueSets = [];
+    var unique = {};
+    for (var i = 0; i < sets.length; i++) {
+      var s = JSON.stringify(sets[i]);
+      if (!unique[s]) {
+        unique[s] = true;
+        uniqueSets.push(sets[i]);
+      }
+    }
+    return uniqueSets;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Determines whether node matches rule.
+   *
+   * @param {ConstantNode | SymbolNode | ParenthesisNode | FunctionNode | OperatorNode} rule
+   * @param {ConstantNode | SymbolNode | ParenthesisNode | FunctionNode | OperatorNode} node
+   * @param {Object} context -- provides assumed properties of operators
+   * @param {Boolean} isSplit -- whether we are in process of splitting an
+   *                    n-ary operator node into possible binary combinations.
+   *                    Defaults to false.
+   * @return {Object} Information about the match, if it exists.
+   */
+  function _ruleMatch(rule, node, context, isSplit) {
+    //    console.log('Entering _ruleMatch(' + JSON.stringify(rule) + ', ' + JSON.stringify(node) + ')')
+    //    console.log('rule = ' + rule)
+    //    console.log('node = ' + node)
+
+    //    console.log('Entering _ruleMatch(', rule.toString({parenthesis:'all'}), ', ', node.toString({parenthesis:'all'}), ', ', context, ')')
+    var res = [{
+      placeholders: {}
+    }];
+    if (rule instanceof OperatorNode && node instanceof OperatorNode || rule instanceof FunctionNode && node instanceof FunctionNode) {
+      // If the rule is an OperatorNode or a FunctionNode, then node must match exactly
+      if (rule instanceof OperatorNode) {
+        if (rule.op !== node.op || rule.fn !== node.fn) {
+          return [];
+        }
+      } else if (rule instanceof FunctionNode) {
+        if (rule.name !== node.name) {
+          return [];
+        }
+      }
+
+      // rule and node match. Search the children of rule and node.
+      if (node.args.length === 1 && rule.args.length === 1 || !isAssociative(node, context) && node.args.length === rule.args.length || isSplit) {
+        // Expect non-associative operators to match exactly,
+        // except in any order if operator is commutative
+        var childMatches = [];
+        for (var i = 0; i < rule.args.length; i++) {
+          var childMatch = _ruleMatch(rule.args[i], node.args[i], context);
+          if (childMatch.length === 0) {
+            // Child did not match, so stop searching immediately
+            break;
+          }
+          // The child matched, so add the information returned from the child to our result
+          childMatches.push(childMatch);
+        }
+        if (childMatches.length !== rule.args.length) {
+          if (!isCommutative(node, context) ||
+          // exact match in order needed
+          rule.args.length === 1) {
+            // nothing to commute
+            return [];
+          }
+          if (rule.args.length > 2) {
+            /* Need to generate all permutations and try them.
+             * It's a bit complicated, and unlikely to come up since there
+             * are very few ternary or higher operators. So punt for now.
+             */
+            throw new Error('permuting >2 commutative non-associative rule arguments not yet implemented');
+          }
+          /* Exactly two arguments, try them reversed */
+          var leftMatch = _ruleMatch(rule.args[0], node.args[1], context);
+          if (leftMatch.length === 0) {
+            return [];
+          }
+          var rightMatch = _ruleMatch(rule.args[1], node.args[0], context);
+          if (rightMatch.length === 0) {
+            return [];
+          }
+          childMatches = [leftMatch, rightMatch];
+        }
+        res = mergeChildMatches(childMatches);
+      } else if (node.args.length >= 2 && rule.args.length === 2) {
+        // node is flattened, rule is not
+        // Associative operators/functions can be split in different ways so we check if the rule
+        // matches for each of them and return their union.
+        var splits = getSplits(node, context);
+        var splitMatches = [];
+        for (var _i2 = 0; _i2 < splits.length; _i2++) {
+          var matchSet = _ruleMatch(rule, splits[_i2], context, true); // recursing at the same tree depth here
+          splitMatches = splitMatches.concat(matchSet);
+        }
+        return splitMatches;
+      } else if (rule.args.length > 2) {
+        throw Error('Unexpected non-binary associative function: ' + rule.toString());
+      } else {
+        // Incorrect number of arguments in rule and node, so no match
+        return [];
+      }
+    } else if (rule instanceof SymbolNode) {
+      // If the rule is a SymbolNode, then it carries a special meaning
+      // according to the first one or two characters of the symbol node name.
+      // These meanings are expalined in the documentation for simplify()
+      if (rule.name.length === 0) {
+        throw new Error('Symbol in rule has 0 length...!?');
+      }
+      if (SUPPORTED_CONSTANTS[rule.name]) {
+        // built-in constant must match exactly
+        if (rule.name !== node.name) {
+          return [];
+        }
+      } else {
+        // wildcards are composed of up to two alphabetic or underscore characters
+        switch (rule.name[1] >= 'a' && rule.name[1] <= 'z' ? rule.name.substring(0, 2) : rule.name[0]) {
+          case 'n':
+          case '_p':
+            // rule matches _anything_, so assign this node to the rule.name placeholder
+            // Assign node to the rule.name placeholder.
+            // Our parent will check for matches among placeholders.
+            res[0].placeholders[rule.name] = node;
+            break;
+          case 'c':
+          case 'cl':
+            // rule matches a ConstantNode
+            if (isConstantNode(node)) {
+              res[0].placeholders[rule.name] = node;
+            } else {
+              // mis-match: rule does not encompass current node
+              return [];
+            }
+            break;
+          case 'v':
+            // rule matches anything other than a ConstantNode
+            if (!isConstantNode(node)) {
+              res[0].placeholders[rule.name] = node;
+            } else {
+              // mis-match: rule does not encompass current node
+              return [];
+            }
+            break;
+          case 'vl':
+            // rule matches VariableNode
+            if (isVariableNode(node)) {
+              res[0].placeholders[rule.name] = node;
+            } else {
+              // mis-match: rule does not encompass current node
+              return [];
+            }
+            break;
+          case 'cd':
+            // rule matches a ConstantNode or unaryMinus-wrapped ConstantNode
+            if (isNumericNode(node)) {
+              res[0].placeholders[rule.name] = node;
+            } else {
+              // mis-match: rule does not encompass current node
+              return [];
+            }
+            break;
+          case 'vd':
+            // rule matches anything other than a ConstantNode or unaryMinus-wrapped ConstantNode
+            if (!isNumericNode(node)) {
+              res[0].placeholders[rule.name] = node;
+            } else {
+              // mis-match: rule does not encompass current node
+              return [];
+            }
+            break;
+          case 'ce':
+            // rule matches expressions that have a constant value
+            if (isConstantExpression(node)) {
+              res[0].placeholders[rule.name] = node;
+            } else {
+              // mis-match: rule does not encompass current node
+              return [];
+            }
+            break;
+          case 've':
+            // rule matches expressions that do not have a constant value
+            if (!isConstantExpression(node)) {
+              res[0].placeholders[rule.name] = node;
+            } else {
+              // mis-match: rule does not encompass current node
+              return [];
+            }
+            break;
+          default:
+            throw new Error('Invalid symbol in rule: ' + rule.name);
+        }
+      }
+    } else if (rule instanceof ConstantNode) {
+      // Literal constant must match exactly
+      if (!equal(rule.value, node.value)) {
+        return [];
+      }
+    } else {
+      // Some other node was encountered which we aren't prepared for, so no match
+      return [];
+    }
+
+    // It's a match!
+
+    // console.log('_ruleMatch(' + rule.toString() + ', ' + node.toString() + ') found a match')
+    return res;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Determines whether p and q (and all their children nodes) are identical.
+   *
+   * @param {ConstantNode | SymbolNode | ParenthesisNode | FunctionNode | OperatorNode} p
+   * @param {ConstantNode | SymbolNode | ParenthesisNode | FunctionNode | OperatorNode} q
+   * @return {Object} Information about the match, if it exists.
+   */
+  function _exactMatch(p, q) {
+    if (p instanceof ConstantNode && q instanceof ConstantNode) {
+      if (!equal(p.value, q.value)) {
+        return false;
+      }
+    } else if (p instanceof SymbolNode && q instanceof SymbolNode) {
+      if (p.name !== q.name) {
+        return false;
+      }
+    } else if (p instanceof OperatorNode && q instanceof OperatorNode || p instanceof FunctionNode && q instanceof FunctionNode) {
+      if (p instanceof OperatorNode) {
+        if (p.op !== q.op || p.fn !== q.fn) {
+          return false;
+        }
+      } else if (p instanceof FunctionNode) {
+        if (p.name !== q.name) {
+          return false;
+        }
+      }
+      if (p.args.length !== q.args.length) {
+        return false;
+      }
+      for (var i = 0; i < p.args.length; i++) {
+        if (!_exactMatch(p.args[i], q.args[i])) {
+          return false;
+        }
+      }
+    } else {
+      return false;
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+  return simplify;
+});