@nxtedition/rocksdb 15.1.5 → 15.2.0

package/deps/abseil-cpp/absl/strings/cord_test.cc

@@ -0,0 +1,3421 @@
+// Copyright 2020 The Abseil Authors.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//      https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#include "absl/strings/cord.h"
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <array>
+#include <cassert>
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstring>
+#include <iostream>
+#include <iterator>
+#include <limits>
+#include <random>
+#include <set>
+#include <sstream>
+#include <string>
+#include <type_traits>
+#include <utility>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "gmock/gmock.h"
+#include "gtest/gtest.h"
+#include "absl/base/attributes.h"
+#include "absl/base/config.h"
+#include "absl/base/internal/endian.h"
+#include "absl/base/macros.h"
+#include "absl/base/no_destructor.h"
+#include "absl/base/options.h"
+#include "absl/container/fixed_array.h"
+#include "absl/functional/function_ref.h"
+#include "absl/hash/hash.h"
+#include "absl/hash/hash_testing.h"
+#include "absl/log/check.h"
+#include "absl/log/log.h"
+#include "absl/random/random.h"
+#include "absl/strings/cord_buffer.h"
+#include "absl/strings/cord_test_helpers.h"
+#include "absl/strings/cordz_test_helpers.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_internal.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_crc.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_flat.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cordz_statistics.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cordz_update_tracker.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/string_constant.h"
+#include "absl/strings/match.h"
+#include "absl/strings/str_cat.h"
+#include "absl/strings/str_format.h"
+#include "absl/strings/string_view.h"
+#include "absl/types/compare.h"
+#include "absl/types/optional.h"
+
+// convenience local constants
+static constexpr auto FLAT = absl::cord_internal::FLAT;
+static constexpr auto MAX_FLAT_TAG = absl::cord_internal::MAX_FLAT_TAG;
+
+typedef std::mt19937_64 RandomEngine;
+
+using absl::cord_internal::CordRep;
+using absl::cord_internal::CordRepBtree;
+using absl::cord_internal::CordRepConcat;
+using absl::cord_internal::CordRepCrc;
+using absl::cord_internal::CordRepExternal;
+using absl::cord_internal::CordRepFlat;
+using absl::cord_internal::CordRepSubstring;
+using absl::cord_internal::CordzUpdateTracker;
+using absl::cord_internal::kFlatOverhead;
+using absl::cord_internal::kMaxFlatLength;
+using ::testing::ElementsAre;
+using ::testing::Le;
+
+static std::string RandomLowercaseString(RandomEngine* rng);
+static std::string RandomLowercaseString(RandomEngine* rng, size_t length);
+
+static int GetUniformRandomUpTo(RandomEngine* rng, int upper_bound) {
+  if (upper_bound > 0) {
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> uniform(0, upper_bound - 1);
+    return uniform(*rng);
+  } else {
+    return 0;
+  }
+}
+
+static size_t GetUniformRandomUpTo(RandomEngine* rng, size_t upper_bound) {
+  if (upper_bound > 0) {
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t> uniform(0, upper_bound - 1);
+    return uniform(*rng);
+  } else {
+    return 0;
+  }
+}
+
+static int32_t GenerateSkewedRandom(RandomEngine* rng, int max_log) {
+  const uint32_t base = (*rng)() % (max_log + 1);
+  const uint32_t mask = ((base < 32) ? (1u << base) : 0u) - 1u;
+  return (*rng)() & mask;
+}
+
+static std::string RandomLowercaseString(RandomEngine* rng) {
+  int length;
+  std::bernoulli_distribution one_in_1k(0.001);
+  std::bernoulli_distribution one_in_10k(0.0001);
+  // With low probability, make a large fragment
+  if (one_in_10k(*rng)) {
+    length = GetUniformRandomUpTo(rng, 1048576);
+  } else if (one_in_1k(*rng)) {
+    length = GetUniformRandomUpTo(rng, 10000);
+  } else {
+    length = GenerateSkewedRandom(rng, 10);
+  }
+  return RandomLowercaseString(rng, length);
+}
+
+static std::string RandomLowercaseString(RandomEngine* rng, size_t length) {
+  std::string result(length, '\0');
+  std::uniform_int_distribution<int> chars('a', 'z');
+  std::generate(result.begin(), result.end(),
+                [&]() { return static_cast<char>(chars(*rng)); });
+  return result;
+}
+
+static void DoNothing(absl::string_view /* data */, void* /* arg */) {}
+
+static void DeleteExternalString(absl::string_view data, void* arg) {
+  std::string* s = reinterpret_cast<std::string*>(arg);
+  EXPECT_EQ(data, *s);
+  delete s;
+}
+
+// Add "s" to *dst via `MakeCordFromExternal`
+static void AddExternalMemory(absl::string_view s, absl::Cord* dst) {
+  std::string* str = new std::string(s.data(), s.size());
+  dst->Append(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(*str, [str](absl::string_view data) {
+    DeleteExternalString(data, str);
+  }));
+}
+
+static void DumpGrowth() {
+  absl::Cord str;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+    char c = 'a' + i % 26;
+    str.Append(absl::string_view(&c, 1));
+  }
+}
+
+// Make a Cord with some number of fragments.  Return the size (in bytes)
+// of the smallest fragment.
+static size_t AppendWithFragments(const std::string& s, RandomEngine* rng,
+                                  absl::Cord* cord) {
+  size_t j = 0;
+  const size_t max_size = s.size() / 5;  // Make approx. 10 fragments
+  size_t min_size = max_size;            // size of smallest fragment
+  while (j < s.size()) {
+    size_t N = 1 + GetUniformRandomUpTo(rng, max_size);
+    if (N > (s.size() - j)) {
+      N = s.size() - j;
+    }
+    if (N < min_size) {
+      min_size = N;
+    }
+
+    std::bernoulli_distribution coin_flip(0.5);
+    if (coin_flip(*rng)) {
+      // Grow by adding an external-memory.
+      AddExternalMemory(absl::string_view(s.data() + j, N), cord);
+    } else {
+      cord->Append(absl::string_view(s.data() + j, N));
+    }
+    j += N;
+  }
+  return min_size;
+}
+
+// Add an external memory that contains the specified std::string to cord
+static void AddNewStringBlock(const std::string& str, absl::Cord* dst) {
+  char* data = new char[str.size()];
+  memcpy(data, str.data(), str.size());
+  dst->Append(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+      absl::string_view(data, str.size()),
+      [](absl::string_view s) { delete[] s.data(); }));
+}
+
+// Make a Cord out of many different types of nodes.
+static absl::Cord MakeComposite() {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  cord.Append("the");
+  AddExternalMemory(" quick brown", &cord);
+  AddExternalMemory(" fox jumped", &cord);
+
+  absl::Cord full(" over");
+  AddExternalMemory(" the lazy", &full);
+  AddNewStringBlock(" dog slept the whole day away", &full);
+  absl::Cord substring = full.Subcord(0, 18);
+
+  // Make substring long enough to defeat the copying fast path in Append.
+  substring.Append(std::string(1000, '.'));
+  cord.Append(substring);
+  cord = cord.Subcord(0, cord.size() - 998);  // Remove most of extra junk
+
+  return cord;
+}
+
+namespace absl {
+ABSL_NAMESPACE_BEGIN
+
+class CordTestPeer {
+ public:
+  static void ForEachChunk(
+      const Cord& c, absl::FunctionRef<void(absl::string_view)> callback) {
+    c.ForEachChunk(callback);
+  }
+
+  static bool IsTree(const Cord& c) { return c.contents_.is_tree(); }
+  static CordRep* Tree(const Cord& c) { return c.contents_.tree(); }
+
+  static cord_internal::CordzInfo* GetCordzInfo(const Cord& c) {
+    return c.contents_.cordz_info();
+  }
+
+  static Cord MakeSubstring(Cord src, size_t offset, size_t length) {
+    CHECK(src.contents_.is_tree()) << "Can not be inlined";
+    CHECK(!src.ExpectedChecksum().has_value()) << "Can not be hardened";
+    Cord cord;
+    auto* tree = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(src.contents_.tree());
+    auto* rep = CordRepSubstring::Create(CordRep::Ref(tree), offset, length);
+    cord.contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kSubCord);
+    return cord;
+  }
+};
+
+ABSL_NAMESPACE_END
+}  // namespace absl
+
+
+
+// The CordTest fixture runs all tests with and without expected CRCs being set
+// on the subject Cords.
+class CordTest : public testing::TestWithParam<bool /*useCrc*/> {
+ public:
+  // Returns true if test is running with Crc enabled.
+  bool UseCrc() const { return GetParam(); }
+  void MaybeHarden(absl::Cord& c) {
+    if (UseCrc()) {
+      c.SetExpectedChecksum(1);
+    }
+  }
+  absl::Cord MaybeHardened(absl::Cord c) {
+    MaybeHarden(c);
+    return c;
+  }
+
+  // Returns human readable string representation of the test parameter.
+  static std::string ToString(testing::TestParamInfo<bool> useCrc) {
+    if (useCrc.param) {
+      return "BtreeHardened";
+    } else {
+      return "Btree";
+    }
+  }
+};
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(WithParam, CordTest, testing::Bool(),
+                         CordTest::ToString);
+
+TEST(CordRepFlat, AllFlatCapacities) {
+  // Explicitly and redundantly assert built-in min/max limits
+  static_assert(absl::cord_internal::kFlatOverhead < 32, "");
+  static_assert(absl::cord_internal::kMinFlatSize == 32, "");
+  static_assert(absl::cord_internal::kMaxLargeFlatSize == 256 << 10, "");
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::TagToAllocatedSize(FLAT), 32);
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::TagToAllocatedSize(MAX_FLAT_TAG), 256 << 10);
+
+  // Verify all tags to map perfectly back and forth, and
+  // that sizes are monotonically increasing.
+  size_t last_size = 0;
+  for (int tag = FLAT; tag <= MAX_FLAT_TAG; ++tag) {
+    size_t size = absl::cord_internal::TagToAllocatedSize(tag);
+    ASSERT_GT(size, last_size);
+    ASSERT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::TagToAllocatedSize(tag), size);
+    last_size = size;
+  }
+
+  // All flat size from 32 - 512 are 8 byte granularity
+  for (size_t size = 32; size <= 512; size += 8) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::RoundUpForTag(size), size);
+    uint8_t tag = absl::cord_internal::AllocatedSizeToTag(size);
+    ASSERT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::TagToAllocatedSize(tag), size);
+  }
+
+  // All flat sizes from 512 - 8192 are 64 byte granularity
+  for (size_t size = 512; size <= 8192; size += 64) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::RoundUpForTag(size), size);
+    uint8_t tag = absl::cord_internal::AllocatedSizeToTag(size);
+    ASSERT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::TagToAllocatedSize(tag), size);
+  }
+
+  // All flat sizes from 8KB to 256KB are 4KB granularity
+  for (size_t size = 8192; size <= 256 * 1024; size += 4 * 1024) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::RoundUpForTag(size), size);
+    uint8_t tag = absl::cord_internal::AllocatedSizeToTag(size);
+    ASSERT_EQ(absl::cord_internal::TagToAllocatedSize(tag), size);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST(CordRepFlat, MaxFlatSize) {
+  CordRepFlat* flat = CordRepFlat::New(kMaxFlatLength);
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat->Capacity(), kMaxFlatLength);
+  CordRep::Unref(flat);
+
+  flat = CordRepFlat::New(kMaxFlatLength * 4);
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat->Capacity(), kMaxFlatLength);
+  CordRep::Unref(flat);
+}
+
+TEST(CordRepFlat, MaxLargeFlatSize) {
+  const size_t size = 256 * 1024 - kFlatOverhead;
+  CordRepFlat* flat = CordRepFlat::New(CordRepFlat::Large(), size);
+  EXPECT_GE(flat->Capacity(), size);
+  CordRep::Unref(flat);
+}
+
+TEST(CordRepFlat, AllFlatSizes) {
+  const size_t kMaxSize = 256 * 1024;
+  for (size_t size = 32; size <= kMaxSize; size *=2) {
+    const size_t length = size - kFlatOverhead - 1;
+    CordRepFlat* flat = CordRepFlat::New(CordRepFlat::Large(), length);
+    EXPECT_GE(flat->Capacity(), length);
+    memset(flat->Data(), 0xCD, flat->Capacity());
+    CordRep::Unref(flat);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AllFlatSizes) {
+  using absl::strings_internal::CordTestAccess;
+
+  for (size_t s = 0; s < CordTestAccess::MaxFlatLength(); s++) {
+    // Make a string of length s.
+    std::string src;
+    while (src.size() < s) {
+      src.push_back('a' + (src.size() % 26));
+    }
+
+    absl::Cord dst(src);
+    MaybeHarden(dst);
+    EXPECT_EQ(std::string(dst), src) << s;
+  }
+}
+
+// We create a Cord at least 128GB in size using the fact that Cords can
+// internally reference-count; thus the Cord is enormous without actually
+// consuming very much memory.
+TEST_P(CordTest, GigabyteCordFromExternal) {
+  const size_t one_gig = 1024U * 1024U * 1024U;
+  size_t max_size = 2 * one_gig;
+  if (sizeof(max_size) > 4) max_size = 128 * one_gig;
+
+  size_t length = 128 * 1024;
+  char* data = new char[length];
+  absl::Cord from = absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+      absl::string_view(data, length),
+      [](absl::string_view sv) { delete[] sv.data(); });
+
+  // This loop may seem odd due to its combination of exponential doubling of
+  // size and incremental size increases.  We do it incrementally to be sure the
+  // Cord will need rebalancing and will exercise code that, in the past, has
+  // caused crashes in production.  We grow exponentially so that the code will
+  // execute in a reasonable amount of time.
+  absl::Cord c;
+  c.Append(from);
+  while (c.size() < max_size) {
+    c.Append(c);
+    c.Append(from);
+    c.Append(from);
+    c.Append(from);
+    c.Append(from);
+    MaybeHarden(c);
+  }
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < 1024; ++i) {
+    c.Append(from);
+  }
+  LOG(INFO) << "Made a Cord with " << c.size() << " bytes!";
+  // Note: on a 32-bit build, this comes out to   2,818,048,000 bytes.
+  // Note: on a 64-bit build, this comes out to 171,932,385,280 bytes.
+}
+
+static absl::Cord MakeExternalCord(int size) {
+  char* buffer = new char[size];
+  memset(buffer, 'x', size);
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  cord.Append(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+      absl::string_view(buffer, size),
+      [](absl::string_view s) { delete[] s.data(); }));
+  return cord;
+}
+
+// Extern to fool clang that this is not constant. Needed to suppress
+// a warning of unsafe code we want to test.
+extern bool my_unique_true_boolean;
+bool my_unique_true_boolean = true;
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Assignment) {
+  absl::Cord x(absl::string_view("hi there"));
+  absl::Cord y(x);
+  MaybeHarden(y);
+  ASSERT_EQ(x.ExpectedChecksum(), absl::nullopt);
+  ASSERT_EQ(std::string(x), "hi there");
+  ASSERT_EQ(std::string(y), "hi there");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x == y);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x <= y);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(y <= x);
+
+  x = absl::string_view("foo");
+  ASSERT_EQ(std::string(x), "foo");
+  ASSERT_EQ(std::string(y), "hi there");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x < y);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(y > x);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x != y);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x <= y);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(y >= x);
+
+  x = "foo";
+  ASSERT_EQ(x, "foo");
+
+  // Test that going from inline rep to tree we don't leak memory.
+  std::vector<std::pair<absl::string_view, absl::string_view>>
+      test_string_pairs = {{"hi there", "foo"},
+                           {"loooooong coooooord", "short cord"},
+                           {"short cord", "loooooong coooooord"},
+                           {"loooooong coooooord1", "loooooong coooooord2"}};
+  for (std::pair<absl::string_view, absl::string_view> test_strings :
+       test_string_pairs) {
+    absl::Cord tmp(test_strings.first);
+    absl::Cord z(std::move(tmp));
+    ASSERT_EQ(std::string(z), test_strings.first);
+    tmp = test_strings.second;
+    z = std::move(tmp);
+    ASSERT_EQ(std::string(z), test_strings.second);
+  }
+  {
+    // Test that self-move assignment doesn't crash/leak.
+    // Do not write such code!
+    absl::Cord my_small_cord("foo");
+    absl::Cord my_big_cord("loooooong coooooord");
+    // Bypass clang's warning on self move-assignment.
+    absl::Cord* my_small_alias =
+        my_unique_true_boolean ? &my_small_cord : &my_big_cord;
+    absl::Cord* my_big_alias =
+        !my_unique_true_boolean ? &my_small_cord : &my_big_cord;
+
+    *my_small_alias = std::move(my_small_cord);
+    *my_big_alias = std::move(my_big_cord);
+    // my_small_cord and my_big_cord are in an unspecified but valid
+    // state, and will be correctly destroyed here.
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, StartsEndsWith) {
+  absl::Cord x(absl::string_view("abcde"));
+  MaybeHarden(x);
+  absl::Cord empty("");
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.StartsWith(absl::Cord("abcde")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.StartsWith(absl::Cord("abc")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.StartsWith(absl::Cord("")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(empty.StartsWith(absl::Cord("")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.EndsWith(absl::Cord("abcde")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.EndsWith(absl::Cord("cde")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.EndsWith(absl::Cord("")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(empty.EndsWith(absl::Cord("")));
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!x.StartsWith(absl::Cord("xyz")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!empty.StartsWith(absl::Cord("xyz")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!x.EndsWith(absl::Cord("xyz")));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!empty.EndsWith(absl::Cord("xyz")));
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.StartsWith("abcde"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.StartsWith("abc"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.StartsWith(""));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(empty.StartsWith(""));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.EndsWith("abcde"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.EndsWith("cde"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(x.EndsWith(""));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(empty.EndsWith(""));
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!x.StartsWith("xyz"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!empty.StartsWith("xyz"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!x.EndsWith("xyz"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(!empty.EndsWith("xyz"));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Contains) {
+  auto flat_haystack = absl::Cord("this is a flat cord");
+  auto fragmented_haystack = absl::MakeFragmentedCord(
+      {"this", " ", "is", " ", "a", " ", "fragmented", " ", "cord"});
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(flat_haystack.Contains(""));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(fragmented_haystack.Contains(""));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(flat_haystack.Contains(absl::Cord("")));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(fragmented_haystack.Contains(absl::Cord("")));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(absl::Cord("").Contains(""));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(absl::Cord("").Contains(absl::Cord("")));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(absl::Cord("").Contains(flat_haystack));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(absl::Cord("").Contains(fragmented_haystack));
+
+  EXPECT_FALSE(flat_haystack.Contains("z"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(fragmented_haystack.Contains("z"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(flat_haystack.Contains(absl::Cord("z")));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(fragmented_haystack.Contains(absl::Cord("z")));
+
+  EXPECT_FALSE(flat_haystack.Contains("is an"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(fragmented_haystack.Contains("is an"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(flat_haystack.Contains(absl::Cord("is an")));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(fragmented_haystack.Contains(absl::Cord("is an")));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(
+      flat_haystack.Contains(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"is", " ", "an"})));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(fragmented_haystack.Contains(
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"is", " ", "an"})));
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(flat_haystack.Contains("is a"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(fragmented_haystack.Contains("is a"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(flat_haystack.Contains(absl::Cord("is a")));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(fragmented_haystack.Contains(absl::Cord("is a")));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(
+      flat_haystack.Contains(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"is", " ", "a"})));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(
+      fragmented_haystack.Contains(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"is", " ", "a"})));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Find) {
+  auto flat_haystack = absl::Cord("this is a flat cord");
+  auto fragmented_haystack = absl::MakeFragmentedCord(
+      {"this", " ", "is", " ", "a", " ", "fragmented", " ", "cord"});
+  auto empty_haystack = absl::Cord("");
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find(""), flat_haystack.char_begin());
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented_haystack.Find(""), fragmented_haystack.char_begin());
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("")), flat_haystack.char_begin());
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("")),
+            fragmented_haystack.char_begin());
+  EXPECT_EQ(empty_haystack.Find(""), empty_haystack.char_begin());
+  EXPECT_EQ(empty_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("")), empty_haystack.char_begin());
+  EXPECT_EQ(empty_haystack.Find(flat_haystack), empty_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(empty_haystack.Find(fragmented_haystack),
+            empty_haystack.char_end());
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find("z"), flat_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented_haystack.Find("z"), fragmented_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("z")), flat_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("z")),
+            fragmented_haystack.char_end());
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find("is an"), flat_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented_haystack.Find("is an"), fragmented_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("is an")), flat_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("is an")),
+            fragmented_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"is", " ", "an"})),
+            flat_haystack.char_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ(
+      fragmented_haystack.Find(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"is", " ", "an"})),
+      fragmented_haystack.char_end());
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find("is a"),
+            std::next(flat_haystack.char_begin(), 5));
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented_haystack.Find("is a"),
+            std::next(fragmented_haystack.char_begin(), 5));
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("is a")),
+            std::next(flat_haystack.char_begin(), 5));
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented_haystack.Find(absl::Cord("is a")),
+            std::next(fragmented_haystack.char_begin(), 5));
+  EXPECT_EQ(flat_haystack.Find(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"is", " ", "a"})),
+            std::next(flat_haystack.char_begin(), 5));
+  EXPECT_EQ(
+      fragmented_haystack.Find(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"is", " ", "a"})),
+      std::next(fragmented_haystack.char_begin(), 5));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Subcord) {
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  const std::string s = RandomLowercaseString(&rng, 1024);
+
+  absl::Cord a;
+  AppendWithFragments(s, &rng, &a);
+  MaybeHarden(a);
+  ASSERT_EQ(s, std::string(a));
+
+  // Check subcords of a, from a variety of interesting points.
+  std::set<size_t> positions;
+  for (int i = 0; i <= 32; ++i) {
+    positions.insert(i);
+    positions.insert(i * 32 - 1);
+    positions.insert(i * 32);
+    positions.insert(i * 32 + 1);
+    positions.insert(a.size() - i);
+  }
+  positions.insert(237);
+  positions.insert(732);
+  for (size_t pos : positions) {
+    if (pos > a.size()) continue;
+    for (size_t end_pos : positions) {
+      if (end_pos < pos || end_pos > a.size()) continue;
+      absl::Cord sa = a.Subcord(pos, end_pos - pos);
+      ASSERT_EQ(absl::string_view(s).substr(pos, end_pos - pos),
+                std::string(sa))
+          << a;
+      if (pos != 0 || end_pos != a.size()) {
+        ASSERT_EQ(sa.ExpectedChecksum(), absl::nullopt);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Do the same thing for an inline cord.
+  const std::string sh = "short";
+  absl::Cord c(sh);
+  for (size_t pos = 0; pos <= sh.size(); ++pos) {
+    for (size_t n = 0; n <= sh.size() - pos; ++n) {
+      absl::Cord sc = c.Subcord(pos, n);
+      ASSERT_EQ(sh.substr(pos, n), std::string(sc)) << c;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Check subcords of subcords.
+  absl::Cord sa = a.Subcord(0, a.size());
+  std::string ss = s.substr(0, s.size());
+  while (sa.size() > 1) {
+    sa = sa.Subcord(1, sa.size() - 2);
+    ss = ss.substr(1, ss.size() - 2);
+    ASSERT_EQ(ss, std::string(sa)) << a;
+    if (HasFailure()) break;  // halt cascade
+  }
+
+  // It is OK to ask for too much.
+  sa = a.Subcord(0, a.size() + 1);
+  EXPECT_EQ(s, std::string(sa));
+
+  // It is OK to ask for something beyond the end.
+  sa = a.Subcord(a.size() + 1, 0);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(sa.empty());
+  sa = a.Subcord(a.size() + 1, 1);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(sa.empty());
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Swap) {
+  absl::string_view a("Dexter");
+  absl::string_view b("Mandark");
+  absl::Cord x(a);
+  absl::Cord y(b);
+  MaybeHarden(x);
+  swap(x, y);
+  if (UseCrc()) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(x.ExpectedChecksum(), absl::nullopt);
+    ASSERT_EQ(y.ExpectedChecksum(), 1);
+  }
+  ASSERT_EQ(x, absl::Cord(b));
+  ASSERT_EQ(y, absl::Cord(a));
+  x.swap(y);
+  if (UseCrc()) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(x.ExpectedChecksum(), 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(y.ExpectedChecksum(), absl::nullopt);
+  }
+  ASSERT_EQ(x, absl::Cord(a));
+  ASSERT_EQ(y, absl::Cord(b));
+}
+
+static void VerifyCopyToString(const absl::Cord& cord) {
+  std::string initially_empty;
+  absl::CopyCordToString(cord, &initially_empty);
+  EXPECT_EQ(initially_empty, cord);
+
+  constexpr size_t kInitialLength = 1024;
+  std::string has_initial_contents(kInitialLength, 'x');
+  const char* address_before_copy = has_initial_contents.data();
+  absl::CopyCordToString(cord, &has_initial_contents);
+  EXPECT_EQ(has_initial_contents, cord);
+
+  if (cord.size() <= kInitialLength) {
+    EXPECT_EQ(has_initial_contents.data(), address_before_copy)
+        << "CopyCordToString allocated new string storage; "
+           "has_initial_contents = \""
+        << has_initial_contents << "\"";
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CopyToString) {
+  VerifyCopyToString(absl::Cord());  // empty cords cannot carry CRCs
+  VerifyCopyToString(MaybeHardened(absl::Cord("small cord")));
+  VerifyCopyToString(MaybeHardened(
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"fragmented ", "cord ", "to ", "test ",
+                                "copying ", "to ", "a ", "string."})));
+}
+
+static void VerifyAppendCordToString(const absl::Cord& cord) {
+  std::string initially_empty;
+  absl::AppendCordToString(cord, &initially_empty);
+  EXPECT_EQ(initially_empty, cord);
+
+  const absl::string_view kInitialContents = "initial contents.";
+  std::string expected_after_append =
+      absl::StrCat(kInitialContents, std::string(cord));
+
+  std::string no_reserve(kInitialContents);
+  absl::AppendCordToString(cord, &no_reserve);
+  EXPECT_EQ(no_reserve, expected_after_append);
+
+  std::string has_reserved_capacity(kInitialContents);
+  has_reserved_capacity.reserve(has_reserved_capacity.size() + cord.size());
+  const char* address_before_copy = has_reserved_capacity.data();
+  absl::AppendCordToString(cord, &has_reserved_capacity);
+  EXPECT_EQ(has_reserved_capacity, expected_after_append);
+  EXPECT_EQ(has_reserved_capacity.data(), address_before_copy)
+      << "AppendCordToString allocated new string storage; "
+         "has_reserved_capacity = \""
+      << has_reserved_capacity << "\"";
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AppendToString) {
+  VerifyAppendCordToString(absl::Cord());  // empty cords cannot carry CRCs
+  VerifyAppendCordToString(MaybeHardened(absl::Cord("small cord")));
+  VerifyAppendCordToString(MaybeHardened(
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"fragmented ", "cord ", "to ", "test ",
+                                "appending ", "to ", "a ", "string."})));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AppendEmptyBuffer) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  cord.Append(absl::CordBuffer());
+  cord.Append(absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(2000));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AppendEmptyBufferToFlat) {
+  absl::Cord cord(std::string(2000, 'x'));
+  cord.Append(absl::CordBuffer());
+  cord.Append(absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(2000));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AppendEmptyBufferToTree) {
+  absl::Cord cord(std::string(2000, 'x'));
+  cord.Append(std::string(2000, 'y'));
+  cord.Append(absl::CordBuffer());
+  cord.Append(absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(2000));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AppendSmallBuffer) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(3);
+  ASSERT_THAT(buffer.capacity(), Le(15));
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "Abc", 3);
+  buffer.SetLength(3);
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);    // NOLINT
+  EXPECT_GT(buffer.capacity(), 0);  // NOLINT
+
+  buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(3);
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "defgh", 5);
+  buffer.SetLength(5);
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);    // NOLINT
+  EXPECT_GT(buffer.capacity(), 0);  // NOLINT
+
+  EXPECT_THAT(cord.Chunks(), ElementsAre("Abcdefgh"));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AppendAndPrependBufferArePrecise) {
+  // Create a cord large enough to force 40KB flats.
+  std::string test_data(absl::cord_internal::kMaxFlatLength * 10, 'x');
+  absl::Cord cord1(test_data);
+  absl::Cord cord2(test_data);
+  const size_t size1 = cord1.EstimatedMemoryUsage();
+  const size_t size2 = cord2.EstimatedMemoryUsage();
+
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(3);
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "Abc", 3);
+  buffer.SetLength(3);
+  cord1.Append(std::move(buffer));
+
+  buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(3);
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "Abc", 3);
+  buffer.SetLength(3);
+  cord2.Prepend(std::move(buffer));
+
+#ifndef NDEBUG
+  // Allow 32 bytes new CordRepFlat, and 128 bytes for 'glue nodes'
+  constexpr size_t kMaxDelta = 128 + 32;
+#else
+  // Allow 256 bytes extra for 'allocation debug overhead'
+  constexpr size_t kMaxDelta = 128 + 32 + 256;
+#endif
+
+  EXPECT_LE(cord1.EstimatedMemoryUsage() - size1, kMaxDelta);
+  EXPECT_LE(cord2.EstimatedMemoryUsage() - size2, kMaxDelta);
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord1, absl::StrCat(test_data, "Abc"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord2, absl::StrCat("Abc", test_data));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, PrependSmallBuffer) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(3);
+  ASSERT_THAT(buffer.capacity(), Le(15));
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "Abc", 3);
+  buffer.SetLength(3);
+  cord.Prepend(std::move(buffer));
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);    // NOLINT
+  EXPECT_GT(buffer.capacity(), 0);  // NOLINT
+
+  buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(3);
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "defgh", 5);
+  buffer.SetLength(5);
+  cord.Prepend(std::move(buffer));
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);    // NOLINT
+  EXPECT_GT(buffer.capacity(), 0);  // NOLINT
+
+  EXPECT_THAT(cord.Chunks(), ElementsAre("defghAbc"));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AppendLargeBuffer) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+
+  std::string s1(700, '1');
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(s1.size());
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), s1.data(), s1.size());
+  buffer.SetLength(s1.size());
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);    // NOLINT
+  EXPECT_GT(buffer.capacity(), 0);  // NOLINT
+
+  std::string s2(1000, '2');
+  buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(s2.size());
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), s2.data(), s2.size());
+  buffer.SetLength(s2.size());
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);    // NOLINT
+  EXPECT_GT(buffer.capacity(), 0);  // NOLINT
+
+  EXPECT_THAT(cord.Chunks(), ElementsAre(s1, s2));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, PrependLargeBuffer) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+
+  std::string s1(700, '1');
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(s1.size());
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), s1.data(), s1.size());
+  buffer.SetLength(s1.size());
+  cord.Prepend(std::move(buffer));
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);    // NOLINT
+  EXPECT_GT(buffer.capacity(), 0);  // NOLINT
+
+  std::string s2(1000, '2');
+  buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(s2.size());
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), s2.data(), s2.size());
+  buffer.SetLength(s2.size());
+  cord.Prepend(std::move(buffer));
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);    // NOLINT
+  EXPECT_GT(buffer.capacity(), 0);  // NOLINT
+
+  EXPECT_THAT(cord.Chunks(), ElementsAre(s2, s1));
+}
+
+class CordAppendBufferTest : public testing::TestWithParam<bool> {
+ public:
+  size_t is_default() const { return GetParam(); }
+
+  // Returns human readable string representation of the test parameter.
+  static std::string ToString(testing::TestParamInfo<bool> param) {
+    return param.param ? "DefaultLimit" : "CustomLimit";
+  }
+
+  size_t limit() const {
+    return is_default() ? absl::CordBuffer::kDefaultLimit
+                        : absl::CordBuffer::kCustomLimit;
+  }
+
+  size_t maximum_payload() const {
+    return is_default() ? absl::CordBuffer::MaximumPayload()
+                        : absl::CordBuffer::MaximumPayload(limit());
+  }
+
+  absl::CordBuffer GetAppendBuffer(absl::Cord& cord, size_t capacity,
+                                   size_t min_capacity = 16) {
+    return is_default()
+               ? cord.GetAppendBuffer(capacity, min_capacity)
+               : cord.GetCustomAppendBuffer(limit(), capacity, min_capacity);
+  }
+};
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(WithParam, CordAppendBufferTest, testing::Bool(),
+                         CordAppendBufferTest::ToString);
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnEmptyCord) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, 1000);
+  EXPECT_GE(buffer.capacity(), 1000);
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnInlinedCord) {
+  static constexpr int kInlinedSize = sizeof(absl::CordBuffer) - 1;
+  for (int size : {6, kInlinedSize - 3, kInlinedSize - 2, 1000}) {
+    absl::Cord cord("Abc");
+    absl::CordBuffer buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, size, 1);
+    EXPECT_GE(buffer.capacity(), 3 + size);
+    EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 3);
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::string_view(buffer.data(), buffer.length()), "Abc");
+    EXPECT_TRUE(cord.empty());
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnInlinedCordCapacityCloseToMax) {
+  // Cover the use case where we have a non empty inlined cord with some size
+  // 'n', and ask for something like 'uint64_max - k', assuming internal logic
+  // could overflow on 'uint64_max - k + size', and return a valid, but
+  // inefficiently smaller buffer if it would provide is the max allowed size.
+  for (size_t dist_from_max = 0; dist_from_max <= 4; ++dist_from_max) {
+    absl::Cord cord("Abc");
+    size_t size = std::numeric_limits<size_t>::max() - dist_from_max;
+    absl::CordBuffer buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, size, 1);
+    EXPECT_GE(buffer.capacity(), maximum_payload());
+    EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 3);
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::string_view(buffer.data(), buffer.length()), "Abc");
+    EXPECT_TRUE(cord.empty());
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnFlat) {
+  // Create a cord with a single flat and extra capacity
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(500);
+  const size_t expected_capacity = buffer.capacity();
+  buffer.SetLength(3);
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "Abc", 3);
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+
+  buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, 6);
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.capacity(), expected_capacity);
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::string_view(buffer.data(), buffer.length()), "Abc");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(cord.empty());
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnFlatWithoutMinCapacity) {
+  // Create a cord with a single flat and extra capacity
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(500);
+  buffer.SetLength(30);
+  memset(buffer.data(), 'x', 30);
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+
+  buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, 1000, 900);
+  EXPECT_GE(buffer.capacity(), 1000);
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord, std::string(30, 'x'));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnTree) {
+  RandomEngine rng;
+  for (int num_flats : {2, 3, 100}) {
+    // Create a cord with `num_flats` flats and extra capacity
+    absl::Cord cord;
+    std::string prefix;
+    std::string last;
+    for (int i = 0; i < num_flats - 1; ++i) {
+      prefix += last;
+      last = RandomLowercaseString(&rng, 10);
+      absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(500);
+      buffer.SetLength(10);
+      memcpy(buffer.data(), last.data(), 10);
+      cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+    }
+    absl::CordBuffer buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, 6);
+    EXPECT_GE(buffer.capacity(), 500);
+    EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 10);
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::string_view(buffer.data(), buffer.length()), last);
+    EXPECT_EQ(cord, prefix);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnTreeWithoutMinCapacity) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 2; ++i) {
+    absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(500);
+    buffer.SetLength(3);
+    memcpy(buffer.data(), i ? "def" : "Abc", 3);
+    cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+  }
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, 1000, 900);
+  EXPECT_GE(buffer.capacity(), 1000);
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord, "Abcdef");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnSubstring) {
+  // Create a large cord with a single flat and some extra capacity
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(500);
+  buffer.SetLength(450);
+  memset(buffer.data(), 'x', 450);
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+  cord.RemovePrefix(1);
+
+  // Deny on substring
+  buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, 6);
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord, std::string(449, 'x'));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordAppendBufferTest, GetAppendBufferOnSharedCord) {
+  // Create a shared cord with a single flat and extra capacity
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  absl::CordBuffer buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(500);
+  buffer.SetLength(3);
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "Abc", 3);
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+  absl::Cord shared_cord = cord;
+
+  // Deny on flat
+  buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, 6);
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord, "Abc");
+
+  buffer = absl::CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(500);
+  buffer.SetLength(3);
+  memcpy(buffer.data(), "def", 3);
+  cord.Append(std::move(buffer));
+  shared_cord = cord;
+
+  // Deny on tree
+  buffer = GetAppendBuffer(cord, 6);
+  EXPECT_EQ(buffer.length(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord, "Abcdef");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, TryFlatEmpty) {
+  absl::Cord c;
+  EXPECT_EQ(c.TryFlat(), "");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, TryFlatFlat) {
+  absl::Cord c("hello");
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c.TryFlat(), "hello");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, TryFlatSubstrInlined) {
+  absl::Cord c("hello");
+  c.RemovePrefix(1);
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c.TryFlat(), "ello");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, TryFlatSubstrFlat) {
+  absl::Cord c("longer than 15 bytes");
+  absl::Cord sub = absl::CordTestPeer::MakeSubstring(c, 1, c.size() - 1);
+  MaybeHarden(sub);
+  EXPECT_EQ(sub.TryFlat(), "onger than 15 bytes");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, TryFlatConcat) {
+  absl::Cord c = absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"hel", "lo"});
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c.TryFlat(), absl::nullopt);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, TryFlatExternal) {
+  absl::Cord c = absl::MakeCordFromExternal("hell", [](absl::string_view) {});
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c.TryFlat(), "hell");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, TryFlatSubstrExternal) {
+  absl::Cord c = absl::MakeCordFromExternal("hell", [](absl::string_view) {});
+  absl::Cord sub = absl::CordTestPeer::MakeSubstring(c, 1, c.size() - 1);
+  MaybeHarden(sub);
+  EXPECT_EQ(sub.TryFlat(), "ell");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, TryFlatCommonlyAssumedInvariants) {
+  // The behavior tested below is not part of the API contract of Cord, but it's
+  // something we intend to be true in our current implementation.  This test
+  // exists to detect and prevent accidental breakage of the implementation.
+  absl::string_view fragments[] = {"A fragmented test",
+                                   " cord",
+                                   " to test subcords",
+                                   " of ",
+                                   "a",
+                                   " cord for",
+                                   " each chunk "
+                                   "returned by the ",
+                                   "iterator"};
+  absl::Cord c = absl::MakeFragmentedCord(fragments);
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  int fragment = 0;
+  int offset = 0;
+  absl::Cord::CharIterator itc = c.char_begin();
+  for (absl::string_view sv : c.Chunks()) {
+    absl::string_view expected = fragments[fragment];
+    absl::Cord subcord1 = c.Subcord(offset, sv.length());
+    absl::Cord subcord2 = absl::Cord::AdvanceAndRead(&itc, sv.size());
+    EXPECT_EQ(subcord1.TryFlat(), expected);
+    EXPECT_EQ(subcord2.TryFlat(), expected);
+    ++fragment;
+    offset += sv.length();
+  }
+}
+
+static bool IsFlat(const absl::Cord& c) {
+  return c.chunk_begin() == c.chunk_end() || ++c.chunk_begin() == c.chunk_end();
+}
+
+static void VerifyFlatten(absl::Cord c) {
+  std::string old_contents(c);
+  absl::string_view old_flat;
+  bool already_flat_and_non_empty = IsFlat(c) && !c.empty();
+  if (already_flat_and_non_empty) {
+    old_flat = *c.chunk_begin();
+  }
+  absl::string_view new_flat = c.Flatten();
+
+  // Verify that the contents of the flattened Cord are correct.
+  EXPECT_EQ(new_flat, old_contents);
+  EXPECT_EQ(std::string(c), old_contents);
+
+  // If the Cord contained data and was already flat, verify that the data
+  // wasn't copied.
+  if (already_flat_and_non_empty) {
+    EXPECT_EQ(old_flat.data(), new_flat.data())
+        << "Allocated new memory even though the Cord was already flat.";
+  }
+
+  // Verify that the flattened Cord is in fact flat.
+  EXPECT_TRUE(IsFlat(c));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Flatten) {
+  VerifyFlatten(absl::Cord());
+  VerifyFlatten(MaybeHardened(absl::Cord("small cord")));
+  VerifyFlatten(
+      MaybeHardened(absl::Cord("larger than small buffer optimization")));
+  VerifyFlatten(MaybeHardened(
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"small ", "fragmented ", "cord"})));
+
+  // Test with a cord that is longer than the largest flat buffer
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  VerifyFlatten(MaybeHardened(absl::Cord(RandomLowercaseString(&rng, 8192))));
+}
+
+// Test data
+namespace {
+class TestData {
+ private:
+  std::vector<std::string> data_;
+
+  // Return a std::string of the specified length.
+  static std::string MakeString(int length) {
+    std::string result;
+    char buf[30];
+    snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "(%d)", length);
+    while (result.size() < length) {
+      result += buf;
+    }
+    result.resize(length);
+    return result;
+  }
+
+ public:
+  TestData() {
+    // short strings increasing in length by one
+    for (int i = 0; i < 30; i++) {
+      data_.push_back(MakeString(i));
+    }
+
+    // strings around half kMaxFlatLength
+    static const int kMaxFlatLength = 4096 - 9;
+    static const int kHalf = kMaxFlatLength / 2;
+
+    for (int i = -10; i <= +10; i++) {
+      data_.push_back(MakeString(kHalf + i));
+    }
+
+    for (int i = -10; i <= +10; i++) {
+      data_.push_back(MakeString(kMaxFlatLength + i));
+    }
+  }
+
+  size_t size() const { return data_.size(); }
+  const std::string& data(size_t i) const { return data_[i]; }
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, MultipleLengths) {
+  TestData d;
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < d.size(); i++) {
+    std::string a = d.data(i);
+
+    {  // Construct from Cord
+      absl::Cord tmp(a);
+      absl::Cord x(tmp);
+      MaybeHarden(x);
+      EXPECT_EQ(a, std::string(x)) << "'" << a << "'";
+    }
+
+    {  // Construct from absl::string_view
+      absl::Cord x(a);
+      MaybeHarden(x);
+      EXPECT_EQ(a, std::string(x)) << "'" << a << "'";
+    }
+
+    {  // Append cord to self
+      absl::Cord self(a);
+      MaybeHarden(self);
+      self.Append(self);
+      EXPECT_EQ(a + a, std::string(self)) << "'" << a << "' + '" << a << "'";
+    }
+
+    {  // Prepend cord to self
+      absl::Cord self(a);
+      MaybeHarden(self);
+      self.Prepend(self);
+      EXPECT_EQ(a + a, std::string(self)) << "'" << a << "' + '" << a << "'";
+    }
+
+    // Try to append/prepend others
+    for (size_t j = 0; j < d.size(); j++) {
+      std::string b = d.data(j);
+
+      {  // CopyFrom Cord
+        absl::Cord x(a);
+        absl::Cord y(b);
+        MaybeHarden(x);
+        x = y;
+        EXPECT_EQ(b, std::string(x)) << "'" << a << "' + '" << b << "'";
+      }
+
+      {  // CopyFrom absl::string_view
+        absl::Cord x(a);
+        MaybeHarden(x);
+        x = b;
+        EXPECT_EQ(b, std::string(x)) << "'" << a << "' + '" << b << "'";
+      }
+
+      {  // Cord::Append(Cord)
+        absl::Cord x(a);
+        absl::Cord y(b);
+        MaybeHarden(x);
+        x.Append(y);
+        EXPECT_EQ(a + b, std::string(x)) << "'" << a << "' + '" << b << "'";
+      }
+
+      {  // Cord::Append(absl::string_view)
+        absl::Cord x(a);
+        MaybeHarden(x);
+        x.Append(b);
+        EXPECT_EQ(a + b, std::string(x)) << "'" << a << "' + '" << b << "'";
+      }
+
+      {  // Cord::Prepend(Cord)
+        absl::Cord x(a);
+        absl::Cord y(b);
+        MaybeHarden(x);
+        x.Prepend(y);
+        EXPECT_EQ(b + a, std::string(x)) << "'" << b << "' + '" << a << "'";
+      }
+
+      {  // Cord::Prepend(absl::string_view)
+        absl::Cord x(a);
+        MaybeHarden(x);
+        x.Prepend(b);
+        EXPECT_EQ(b + a, std::string(x)) << "'" << b << "' + '" << a << "'";
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+namespace {
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, RemoveSuffixWithExternalOrSubstring) {
+  absl::Cord cord = absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+      "foo bar baz", [](absl::string_view s) { DoNothing(s, nullptr); });
+  EXPECT_EQ("foo bar baz", std::string(cord));
+
+  MaybeHarden(cord);
+
+  // This RemoveSuffix() will wrap the EXTERNAL node in a SUBSTRING node.
+  cord.RemoveSuffix(4);
+  EXPECT_EQ("foo bar", std::string(cord));
+
+  MaybeHarden(cord);
+
+  // This RemoveSuffix() will adjust the SUBSTRING node in-place.
+  cord.RemoveSuffix(4);
+  EXPECT_EQ("foo", std::string(cord));
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, RemoveSuffixMakesZeroLengthNode) {
+  absl::Cord c;
+  c.Append(absl::Cord(std::string(100, 'x')));
+  absl::Cord other_ref = c;  // Prevent inplace appends
+  EXPECT_THAT(other_ref, testing::Eq(c));
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  c.Append(absl::Cord(std::string(200, 'y')));
+  c.RemoveSuffix(200);
+  EXPECT_EQ(std::string(100, 'x'), std::string(c));
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+// CordSpliceTest contributed by hendrie.
+namespace {
+
+// Create a cord with an external memory block filled with 'z'
+absl::Cord CordWithZedBlock(size_t size) {
+  char* data = new char[size];
+  if (size > 0) {
+    memset(data, 'z', size);
+  }
+  absl::Cord cord = absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+      absl::string_view(data, size),
+      [](absl::string_view s) { delete[] s.data(); });
+  return cord;
+}
+
+// Establish that ZedBlock does what we think it does.
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordSpliceTestZedBlock) {
+  absl::Cord blob = CordWithZedBlock(10);
+  MaybeHarden(blob);
+  EXPECT_EQ(10, blob.size());
+  std::string s;
+  absl::CopyCordToString(blob, &s);
+  EXPECT_EQ("zzzzzzzzzz", s);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordSpliceTestZedBlock0) {
+  absl::Cord blob = CordWithZedBlock(0);
+  MaybeHarden(blob);
+  EXPECT_EQ(0, blob.size());
+  std::string s;
+  absl::CopyCordToString(blob, &s);
+  EXPECT_EQ("", s);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordSpliceTestZedBlockSuffix1) {
+  absl::Cord blob = CordWithZedBlock(10);
+  MaybeHarden(blob);
+  EXPECT_EQ(10, blob.size());
+  absl::Cord suffix(blob);
+  suffix.RemovePrefix(9);
+  EXPECT_EQ(1, suffix.size());
+  std::string s;
+  absl::CopyCordToString(suffix, &s);
+  EXPECT_EQ("z", s);
+}
+
+// Remove all of a prefix block
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordSpliceTestZedBlockSuffix0) {
+  absl::Cord blob = CordWithZedBlock(10);
+  MaybeHarden(blob);
+  EXPECT_EQ(10, blob.size());
+  absl::Cord suffix(blob);
+  suffix.RemovePrefix(10);
+  EXPECT_EQ(0, suffix.size());
+  std::string s;
+  absl::CopyCordToString(suffix, &s);
+  EXPECT_EQ("", s);
+}
+
+absl::Cord BigCord(size_t len, char v) {
+  std::string s(len, v);
+  return absl::Cord(s);
+}
+
+// Splice block into cord.
+absl::Cord SpliceCord(const absl::Cord& blob, int64_t offset,
+                      const absl::Cord& block) {
+  CHECK_GE(offset, 0);
+  CHECK_LE(static_cast<size_t>(offset) + block.size(), blob.size());
+  absl::Cord result(blob);
+  result.RemoveSuffix(blob.size() - offset);
+  result.Append(block);
+  absl::Cord suffix(blob);
+  suffix.RemovePrefix(offset + block.size());
+  result.Append(suffix);
+  CHECK_EQ(blob.size(), result.size());
+  return result;
+}
+
+// Taking an empty suffix of a block breaks appending.
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordSpliceTestRemoveEntireBlock1) {
+  absl::Cord zero = CordWithZedBlock(10);
+  MaybeHarden(zero);
+  absl::Cord suffix(zero);
+  suffix.RemovePrefix(10);
+  absl::Cord result;
+  result.Append(suffix);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordSpliceTestRemoveEntireBlock2) {
+  absl::Cord zero = CordWithZedBlock(10);
+  MaybeHarden(zero);
+  absl::Cord prefix(zero);
+  prefix.RemoveSuffix(10);
+  absl::Cord suffix(zero);
+  suffix.RemovePrefix(10);
+  absl::Cord result(prefix);
+  result.Append(suffix);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordSpliceTestRemoveEntireBlock3) {
+  absl::Cord blob = CordWithZedBlock(10);
+  absl::Cord block = BigCord(10, 'b');
+  MaybeHarden(blob);
+  MaybeHarden(block);
+  blob = SpliceCord(blob, 0, block);
+}
+
+struct CordCompareTestCase {
+  template <typename LHS, typename RHS>
+  CordCompareTestCase(const LHS& lhs, const RHS& rhs, bool use_crc)
+      : lhs_cord(lhs), rhs_cord(rhs) {
+    if (use_crc) {
+      lhs_cord.SetExpectedChecksum(1);
+    }
+  }
+
+  absl::Cord lhs_cord;
+  absl::Cord rhs_cord;
+};
+
+const auto sign = [](int x) { return x == 0 ? 0 : (x > 0 ? 1 : -1); };
+
+void VerifyComparison(const CordCompareTestCase& test_case) {
+  std::string lhs_string(test_case.lhs_cord);
+  std::string rhs_string(test_case.rhs_cord);
+  int expected = sign(lhs_string.compare(rhs_string));
+  EXPECT_EQ(expected, test_case.lhs_cord.Compare(test_case.rhs_cord))
+      << "LHS=" << lhs_string << "; RHS=" << rhs_string;
+  EXPECT_EQ(expected, test_case.lhs_cord.Compare(rhs_string))
+      << "LHS=" << lhs_string << "; RHS=" << rhs_string;
+  EXPECT_EQ(-expected, test_case.rhs_cord.Compare(test_case.lhs_cord))
+      << "LHS=" << rhs_string << "; RHS=" << lhs_string;
+  EXPECT_EQ(-expected, test_case.rhs_cord.Compare(lhs_string))
+      << "LHS=" << rhs_string << "; RHS=" << lhs_string;
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Compare) {
+  absl::Cord subcord("aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDD");
+  subcord = subcord.Subcord(3, 10);
+
+  absl::Cord tmp("aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa");
+  tmp.Append("BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB");
+  absl::Cord concat = absl::Cord("cccccccccccccccc");
+  concat.Append("DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD");
+  concat.Prepend(tmp);
+
+  absl::Cord concat2("aaaaaaaaaaaaa");
+  concat2.Append("aaaBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBccccc");
+  concat2.Append("cccccccccccDDDDDDDDDDDDDD");
+  concat2.Append("DD");
+
+  const bool use_crc = UseCrc();
+
+  std::vector<CordCompareTestCase> test_cases = {{
+      // Inline cords
+      {"abcdef", "abcdef", use_crc},
+      {"abcdef", "abcdee", use_crc},
+      {"abcdef", "abcdeg", use_crc},
+      {"bbcdef", "abcdef", use_crc},
+      {"bbcdef", "abcdeg", use_crc},
+      {"abcdefa", "abcdef", use_crc},
+      {"abcdef", "abcdefa", use_crc},
+
+      // Small flat cords
+      {"aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDD", "aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDD", use_crc},
+      {"aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDD", "aaaaaBBBBBxccccDDDDD", use_crc},
+      {"aaaaaBBBBBcxcccDDDDD", "aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDD", use_crc},
+      {"aaaaaBBBBBxccccDDDDD", "aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDX", use_crc},
+      {"aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDDa", "aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDD", use_crc},
+      {"aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDD", "aaaaaBBBBBcccccDDDDDa", use_crc},
+
+      // Subcords
+      {subcord, subcord, use_crc},
+      {subcord, "aaBBBBBccc", use_crc},
+      {subcord, "aaBBBBBccd", use_crc},
+      {subcord, "aaBBBBBccb", use_crc},
+      {subcord, "aaBBBBBxcb", use_crc},
+      {subcord, "aaBBBBBccca", use_crc},
+      {subcord, "aaBBBBBcc", use_crc},
+
+      // Concats
+      {concat, concat, use_crc},
+      {concat,
+       "aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBccccccccccccccccDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD",
+       use_crc},
+      {concat,
+       "aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBcccccccccccccccxDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD",
+       use_crc},
+      {concat,
+       "aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBacccccccccccccccDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD",
+       use_crc},
+      {concat,
+       "aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBccccccccccccccccDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD",
+       use_crc},
+      {concat,
+       "aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBccccccccccccccccDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDe",
+       use_crc},
+
+      {concat, concat2, use_crc},
+  }};
+
+  for (const auto& tc : test_cases) {
+    VerifyComparison(tc);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CompareAfterAssign) {
+  absl::Cord a("aaaaaa1111111");
+  absl::Cord b("aaaaaa2222222");
+  MaybeHarden(a);
+  a = "cccccc";
+  b = "cccccc";
+  EXPECT_EQ(a, b);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(a < b);
+
+  a = "aaaa";
+  b = "bbbbb";
+  a = "";
+  b = "";
+  EXPECT_EQ(a, b);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(a < b);
+}
+
+// Test CompareTo() and ComparePrefix() against string and substring
+// comparison methods from basic_string.
+static void TestCompare(const absl::Cord& c, const absl::Cord& d,
+                        RandomEngine* rng) {
+  // char_traits<char>::lt is guaranteed to do an unsigned comparison:
+  // https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/string/char_traits/cmp. We also expect
+  // Cord comparisons to be based on unsigned byte comparisons regardless of
+  // whether char is signed.
+  int expected = sign(std::string(c).compare(std::string(d)));
+  EXPECT_EQ(expected, sign(c.Compare(d))) << c << ", " << d;
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CompareComparisonIsUnsigned) {
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  std::uniform_int_distribution<uint32_t> uniform_uint8(0, 255);
+  char x = static_cast<char>(uniform_uint8(rng));
+  TestCompare(
+      absl::Cord(std::string(GetUniformRandomUpTo(&rng, 100), x)),
+      absl::Cord(std::string(GetUniformRandomUpTo(&rng, 100), x ^ 0x80)), &rng);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CompareRandomComparisons) {
+  const int kIters = 5000;
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+
+  int n = GetUniformRandomUpTo(&rng, 5000);
+  absl::Cord a[] = {MakeExternalCord(n),
+                    absl::Cord("ant"),
+                    absl::Cord("elephant"),
+                    absl::Cord("giraffe"),
+                    absl::Cord(std::string(GetUniformRandomUpTo(&rng, 100),
+                                           GetUniformRandomUpTo(&rng, 100))),
+                    absl::Cord(""),
+                    absl::Cord("x"),
+                    absl::Cord("A"),
+                    absl::Cord("B"),
+                    absl::Cord("C")};
+  for (int i = 0; i < kIters; i++) {
+    absl::Cord c, d;
+    for (int j = 0; j < (i % 7) + 1; j++) {
+      c.Append(a[GetUniformRandomUpTo(&rng, ABSL_ARRAYSIZE(a))]);
+      d.Append(a[GetUniformRandomUpTo(&rng, ABSL_ARRAYSIZE(a))]);
+    }
+    std::bernoulli_distribution coin_flip(0.5);
+    MaybeHarden(c);
+    MaybeHarden(d);
+    TestCompare(coin_flip(rng) ? c : absl::Cord(std::string(c)),
+                coin_flip(rng) ? d : absl::Cord(std::string(d)), &rng);
+  }
+}
+
+template <typename T1, typename T2>
+void CompareOperators() {
+  const T1 a("a");
+  const T2 b("b");
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(a == a);
+  // For pointer type (i.e. `const char*`), operator== compares the address
+  // instead of the string, so `a == const char*("a")` isn't necessarily true.
+  EXPECT_TRUE(std::is_pointer<T1>::value || a == T1("a"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(std::is_pointer<T2>::value || a == T2("a"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(a == b);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(a != b);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(a != a);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(a < b);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(b < a);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(b > a);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(a > b);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(a >= a);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(b >= a);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(a >= b);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(a <= a);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(a <= b);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(b <= a);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_Cord_Cord) {
+  CompareOperators<absl::Cord, absl::Cord>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_Cord_StringPiece) {
+  CompareOperators<absl::Cord, absl::string_view>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_StringPiece_Cord) {
+  CompareOperators<absl::string_view, absl::Cord>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_Cord_string) {
+  CompareOperators<absl::Cord, std::string>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_string_Cord) {
+  CompareOperators<std::string, absl::Cord>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_stdstring_Cord) {
+  CompareOperators<std::string, absl::Cord>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_Cord_stdstring) {
+  CompareOperators<absl::Cord, std::string>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_charstar_Cord) {
+  CompareOperators<const char*, absl::Cord>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ComparisonOperators_Cord_charstar) {
+  CompareOperators<absl::Cord, const char*>();
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalReleaserInvoked) {
+  // Empty external memory means the releaser should be called immediately.
+  {
+    bool invoked = false;
+    auto releaser = [&invoked](absl::string_view) { invoked = true; };
+    {
+      auto c = absl::MakeCordFromExternal("", releaser);
+      EXPECT_THAT(c, testing::Eq(""));
+      EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // If the size of the data is small enough, a future constructor
+  // implementation may copy the bytes and immediately invoke the releaser
+  // instead of creating an external node. We make a large dummy std::string to
+  // make this test independent of such an optimization.
+  std::string large_dummy(2048, 'c');
+  {
+    bool invoked = false;
+    auto releaser = [&invoked](absl::string_view) { invoked = true; };
+    {
+      auto c = absl::MakeCordFromExternal(large_dummy, releaser);
+      EXPECT_THAT(c, testing::Eq(large_dummy));
+      EXPECT_FALSE(invoked);
+    }
+    EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+  }
+
+  {
+    bool invoked = false;
+    auto releaser = [&invoked](absl::string_view) { invoked = true; };
+    {
+      absl::Cord copy;
+      {
+        auto c = absl::MakeCordFromExternal(large_dummy, releaser);
+        copy = c;
+        EXPECT_FALSE(invoked);
+      }
+      EXPECT_FALSE(invoked);
+    }
+    EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalCompareContents) {
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+
+  for (int length = 1; length <= 2048; length *= 2) {
+    std::string data = RandomLowercaseString(&rng, length);
+    auto* external = new std::string(data);
+    auto cord =
+        absl::MakeCordFromExternal(*external, [external](absl::string_view sv) {
+          EXPECT_EQ(external->data(), sv.data());
+          EXPECT_EQ(external->size(), sv.size());
+          delete external;
+        });
+    MaybeHarden(cord);
+    EXPECT_EQ(data, cord);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalLargeReleaser) {
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  constexpr size_t kLength = 256;
+  std::string data = RandomLowercaseString(&rng, kLength);
+  std::array<char, kLength> data_array;
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < kLength; ++i) data_array[i] = data[i];
+  bool invoked = false;
+  auto releaser = [data_array, &invoked](absl::string_view data) {
+    EXPECT_EQ(data, absl::string_view(data_array.data(), data_array.size()));
+    invoked = true;
+  };
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(data, releaser));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalFunctionPointerReleaser) {
+  static absl::string_view data("hello world");
+  static bool invoked;
+  auto* releaser =
+      static_cast<void (*)(absl::string_view)>([](absl::string_view sv) {
+        EXPECT_EQ(data, sv);
+        invoked = true;
+      });
+  invoked = false;
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(data, releaser));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+
+  invoked = false;
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(data, *releaser));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalMoveOnlyReleaser) {
+  struct Releaser {
+    explicit Releaser(bool* invoked) : invoked(invoked) {}
+    Releaser(Releaser&& other) noexcept : invoked(other.invoked) {}
+    void operator()(absl::string_view) const { *invoked = true; }
+
+    bool* invoked;
+  };
+
+  bool invoked = false;
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal("dummy", Releaser(&invoked)));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalNoArgLambda) {
+  bool invoked = false;
+  (void)MaybeHardened(
+      absl::MakeCordFromExternal("dummy", [&invoked]() { invoked = true; }));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalStringViewArgLambda) {
+  bool invoked = false;
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+      "dummy", [&invoked](absl::string_view) { invoked = true; }));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(invoked);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalNonTrivialReleaserDestructor) {
+  struct Releaser {
+    explicit Releaser(bool* destroyed) : destroyed(destroyed) {}
+    ~Releaser() { *destroyed = true; }
+    void operator()(absl::string_view) const {}
+
+    bool* destroyed;
+  };
+
+  bool destroyed = false;
+  Releaser releaser(&destroyed);
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal("dummy", releaser));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(destroyed);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ConstructFromExternalReferenceQualifierOverloads) {
+  enum InvokedAs { kMissing, kLValue, kRValue };
+  enum CopiedAs { kNone, kMove, kCopy };
+  struct Tracker {
+    CopiedAs copied_as = kNone;
+    InvokedAs invoked_as = kMissing;
+
+    void Record(InvokedAs rhs) {
+      ASSERT_EQ(invoked_as, kMissing);
+      invoked_as = rhs;
+    }
+
+    void Record(CopiedAs rhs) {
+      if (copied_as == kNone || rhs == kCopy) copied_as = rhs;
+    }
+  } tracker;
+
+  class Releaser {
+   public:
+    explicit Releaser(Tracker* tracker) : tr_(tracker) { *tracker = Tracker(); }
+    Releaser(Releaser&& rhs) : tr_(rhs.tr_) { tr_->Record(kMove); }
+    Releaser(const Releaser& rhs) : tr_(rhs.tr_) { tr_->Record(kCopy); }
+
+    void operator()(absl::string_view) & { tr_->Record(kLValue); }
+    void operator()(absl::string_view) && { tr_->Record(kRValue); }
+
+   private:
+    Tracker* tr_;
+  };
+
+  const Releaser releaser1(&tracker);
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal("", releaser1));
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.copied_as, kCopy);
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.invoked_as, kRValue);
+
+  const Releaser releaser2(&tracker);
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal("", releaser2));
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.copied_as, kCopy);
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.invoked_as, kRValue);
+
+  Releaser releaser3(&tracker);
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal("", std::move(releaser3)));
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.copied_as, kMove);
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.invoked_as, kRValue);
+
+  Releaser releaser4(&tracker);
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal("dummy", releaser4));
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.copied_as, kCopy);
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.invoked_as, kRValue);
+
+  const Releaser releaser5(&tracker);
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal("dummy", releaser5));
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.copied_as, kCopy);
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.invoked_as, kRValue);
+
+  Releaser releaser6(&tracker);
+  (void)MaybeHardened(absl::MakeCordFromExternal("foo", std::move(releaser6)));
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.copied_as, kMove);
+  EXPECT_EQ(tracker.invoked_as, kRValue);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ExternalMemoryBasicUsage) {
+  static const char* strings[] = {"", "hello", "there"};
+  for (const char* str : strings) {
+    absl::Cord dst("(prefix)");
+    MaybeHarden(dst);
+    AddExternalMemory(str, &dst);
+    MaybeHarden(dst);
+    dst.Append("(suffix)");
+    EXPECT_EQ((std::string("(prefix)") + str + std::string("(suffix)")),
+              std::string(dst));
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ExternalMemoryRemovePrefixSuffix) {
+  // Exhaustively try all sub-strings.
+  absl::Cord cord = MakeComposite();
+  std::string s = std::string(cord);
+  for (int offset = 0; offset <= s.size(); offset++) {
+    for (int length = 0; length <= s.size() - offset; length++) {
+      absl::Cord result(cord);
+      MaybeHarden(result);
+      result.RemovePrefix(offset);
+      MaybeHarden(result);
+      result.RemoveSuffix(result.size() - length);
+      EXPECT_EQ(s.substr(offset, length), std::string(result))
+          << offset << " " << length;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ExternalMemoryGet) {
+  absl::Cord cord("hello");
+  AddExternalMemory(" world!", &cord);
+  MaybeHarden(cord);
+  AddExternalMemory(" how are ", &cord);
+  cord.Append(" you?");
+  MaybeHarden(cord);
+  std::string s = std::string(cord);
+  for (int i = 0; i < s.size(); i++) {
+    EXPECT_EQ(s[i], cord[i]);
+  }
+}
+
+// CordMemoryUsage tests verify the correctness of the EstimatedMemoryUsage()
+// We use whiteboxed expectations based on our knowledge of the layout and size
+// of empty and inlined cords, and flat nodes.
+
+constexpr auto kFairShare = absl::CordMemoryAccounting::kFairShare;
+constexpr auto kTotalMorePrecise =
+    absl::CordMemoryAccounting::kTotalMorePrecise;
+
+// Creates a cord of `n` `c` values, making sure no string stealing occurs.
+absl::Cord MakeCord(size_t n, char c) {
+  const std::string s(n, c);
+  return absl::Cord(s);
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageEmpty) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  EXPECT_EQ(sizeof(absl::Cord), cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage());
+  EXPECT_EQ(sizeof(absl::Cord), cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare));
+  EXPECT_EQ(sizeof(absl::Cord), cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise));
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageInlined) {
+  absl::Cord a("hello");
+  EXPECT_EQ(a.EstimatedMemoryUsage(), sizeof(absl::Cord));
+  EXPECT_EQ(a.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare), sizeof(absl::Cord));
+  EXPECT_EQ(a.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise), sizeof(absl::Cord));
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageExternalMemory) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  AddExternalMemory(std::string(1000, 'x'), &cord);
+  const size_t expected =
+      sizeof(absl::Cord) + 1000 + sizeof(CordRepExternal) + sizeof(intptr_t);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(), expected);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare), expected);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise), expected);
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageFlat) {
+  absl::Cord cord = MakeCord(1000, 'a');
+  const size_t flat_size =
+      absl::CordTestPeer::Tree(cord)->flat()->AllocatedSize();
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(), sizeof(absl::Cord) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + flat_size);
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageSubStringSharedFlat) {
+  absl::Cord flat = MakeCord(2000, 'a');
+  const size_t flat_size =
+      absl::CordTestPeer::Tree(flat)->flat()->AllocatedSize();
+  absl::Cord cord = flat.Subcord(500, 1000);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepSubstring) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepSubstring) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepSubstring) + flat_size / 2);
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageFlatShared) {
+  absl::Cord shared = MakeCord(1000, 'a');
+  absl::Cord cord(shared);
+  const size_t flat_size =
+      absl::CordTestPeer::Tree(cord)->flat()->AllocatedSize();
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(), sizeof(absl::Cord) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + flat_size / 2);
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageFlatHardenedAndShared) {
+  absl::Cord shared = MakeCord(1000, 'a');
+  absl::Cord cord(shared);
+  const size_t flat_size =
+      absl::CordTestPeer::Tree(cord)->flat()->AllocatedSize();
+  cord.SetExpectedChecksum(1);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepCrc) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepCrc) + flat_size / 2);
+
+  absl::Cord cord2(cord);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord2.EstimatedMemoryUsage(),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepCrc) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord2.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepCrc) + flat_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord2.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + (sizeof(CordRepCrc) + flat_size / 2) / 2);
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageBTree) {
+  absl::Cord cord1;
+  size_t flats1_size = 0;
+  absl::Cord flats1[4] = {MakeCord(1000, 'a'), MakeCord(1100, 'a'),
+                          MakeCord(1200, 'a'), MakeCord(1300, 'a')};
+  for (absl::Cord flat : flats1) {
+    flats1_size += absl::CordTestPeer::Tree(flat)->flat()->AllocatedSize();
+    cord1.Append(std::move(flat));
+  }
+
+  // Make sure the created cord is a BTREE tree. Under some builds such as
+  // windows DLL, we may have ODR like effects on the flag, meaning the DLL
+  // code will run with the picked up default.
+  if (!absl::CordTestPeer::Tree(cord1)->IsBtree()) {
+    LOG(WARNING) << "Cord library code not respecting btree flag";
+    return;
+  }
+
+  size_t rep1_size = sizeof(CordRepBtree) + flats1_size;
+  size_t rep1_shared_size = sizeof(CordRepBtree) + flats1_size / 2;
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord1.EstimatedMemoryUsage(), sizeof(absl::Cord) + rep1_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord1.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + rep1_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord1.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + rep1_shared_size);
+
+  absl::Cord cord2;
+  size_t flats2_size = 0;
+  absl::Cord flats2[4] = {MakeCord(600, 'a'), MakeCord(700, 'a'),
+                          MakeCord(800, 'a'), MakeCord(900, 'a')};
+  for (absl::Cord& flat : flats2) {
+    flats2_size += absl::CordTestPeer::Tree(flat)->flat()->AllocatedSize();
+    cord2.Append(std::move(flat));
+  }
+  size_t rep2_size = sizeof(CordRepBtree) + flats2_size;
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord2.EstimatedMemoryUsage(), sizeof(absl::Cord) + rep2_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord2.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + rep2_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord2.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + rep2_size);
+
+  absl::Cord cord(cord1);
+  cord.Append(std::move(cord2));
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepBtree) + rep1_size + rep2_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepBtree) + rep1_size + rep2_size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kFairShare),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) + sizeof(CordRepBtree) + rep1_shared_size / 2 +
+                rep2_size);
+}
+
+TEST(CordTest, TestHashFragmentation) {
+  // Make sure we hit these boundary cases precisely.
+  EXPECT_EQ(1024, absl::hash_internal::PiecewiseChunkSize());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(absl::VerifyTypeImplementsAbslHashCorrectly({
+      absl::Cord(),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(600, 'a'), std::string(600, 'a')}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(1200, 'a')}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(900, 'b'), std::string(900, 'b')}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(1800, 'b')}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord(
+          {std::string(2000, 'c'), std::string(2000, 'c')}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(4000, 'c')}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(1024, 'd')}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(1023, 'd'), "d"}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(1025, 'e')}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(1024, 'e'), "e"}),
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({std::string(1023, 'e'), "e", "e"}),
+  }));
+}
+
+// Regtest for a change that had to be rolled back because it expanded out
+// of the InlineRep too soon, which was observable through MemoryUsage().
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageInlineRep) {
+  constexpr size_t kMaxInline = 15;  // Cord::InlineRep::N
+  const std::string small_string(kMaxInline, 'x');
+  absl::Cord c1(small_string);
+
+  absl::Cord c2;
+  c2.Append(small_string);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1, c2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1.EstimatedMemoryUsage(), c2.EstimatedMemoryUsage());
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageTotalMorePreciseMode) {
+  constexpr size_t kChunkSize = 2000;
+  std::string tmp_str(kChunkSize, 'x');
+  const absl::Cord flat(std::move(tmp_str));
+
+  // Construct `fragmented` with two references into the same
+  // underlying buffer shared with `flat`:
+  absl::Cord fragmented(flat);
+  fragmented.Append(flat);
+
+  // Memory usage of `flat`, minus the top-level Cord object:
+  const size_t flat_internal_usage =
+      flat.EstimatedMemoryUsage() - sizeof(absl::Cord);
+
+  // `fragmented` holds a Cord and a CordRepBtree. That tree points to two
+  // copies of flat's internals, which we expect to dedup:
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) +
+            sizeof(CordRepBtree) +
+            flat_internal_usage);
+
+  // This is a case where kTotal produces an overestimate:
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented.EstimatedMemoryUsage(),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) +
+            sizeof(CordRepBtree) +
+            2 * flat_internal_usage);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordMemoryUsageTotalMorePreciseModeWithSubstring) {
+  constexpr size_t kChunkSize = 2000;
+  std::string tmp_str(kChunkSize, 'x');
+  const absl::Cord flat(std::move(tmp_str));
+
+  // Construct `fragmented` with two references into the same
+  // underlying buffer shared with `flat`.
+  //
+  // This time, each reference is through a Subcord():
+  absl::Cord fragmented;
+  fragmented.Append(flat.Subcord(1, kChunkSize - 2));
+  fragmented.Append(flat.Subcord(1, kChunkSize - 2));
+
+  // Memory usage of `flat`, minus the top-level Cord object:
+  const size_t flat_internal_usage =
+      flat.EstimatedMemoryUsage() - sizeof(absl::Cord);
+
+  // `fragmented` holds a Cord and a CordRepBtree. That tree points to two
+  // CordRepSubstrings, each pointing at flat's internals.
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented.EstimatedMemoryUsage(kTotalMorePrecise),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) +
+            sizeof(CordRepBtree) +
+            2 * sizeof(CordRepSubstring) +
+            flat_internal_usage);
+
+  // This is a case where kTotal produces an overestimate:
+  EXPECT_EQ(fragmented.EstimatedMemoryUsage(),
+            sizeof(absl::Cord) +
+            sizeof(CordRepBtree) +
+            2 * sizeof(CordRepSubstring) +
+            2 * flat_internal_usage);
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+// Regtest for 7510292 (fix a bug introduced by 7465150)
+TEST_P(CordTest, Concat_Append) {
+  // Create a rep of type CONCAT
+  absl::Cord s1("foobarbarbarbarbar");
+  MaybeHarden(s1);
+  s1.Append("abcdefgabcdefgabcdefgabcdefgabcdefgabcdefgabcdefg");
+  size_t size = s1.size();
+
+  // Create a copy of s1 and append to it.
+  absl::Cord s2 = s1;
+  MaybeHarden(s2);
+  s2.Append("x");
+
+  // 7465150 modifies s1 when it shouldn't.
+  EXPECT_EQ(s1.size(), size);
+  EXPECT_EQ(s2.size(), size + 1);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, DiabolicalGrowth) {
+  // This test exercises a diabolical Append(<one char>) on a cord, making the
+  // cord shared before each Append call resulting in a terribly fragmented
+  // resulting cord.
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  const std::string expected = RandomLowercaseString(&rng, 5000);
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  for (char c : expected) {
+    absl::Cord shared(cord);
+    EXPECT_THAT(cord, testing::Eq(shared));
+    cord.Append(absl::string_view(&c, 1));
+    MaybeHarden(cord);
+  }
+  std::string value;
+  absl::CopyCordToString(cord, &value);
+  EXPECT_EQ(value, expected);
+  LOG(INFO) << "Diabolical size allocated = " << cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage();
+}
+
+// The following tests check support for >4GB cords in 64-bit binaries, and
+// 2GB-4GB cords in 32-bit binaries.  This function returns the large cord size
+// that's appropriate for the binary.
+
+// Construct a huge cord with the specified valid prefix.
+static absl::Cord MakeHuge(absl::string_view prefix) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  if (sizeof(size_t) > 4) {
+    // In 64-bit binaries, test 64-bit Cord support.
+    const size_t size =
+        static_cast<size_t>(std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max()) + 314;
+    cord.Append(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+        absl::string_view(prefix.data(), size),
+        [](absl::string_view s) { DoNothing(s, nullptr); }));
+  } else {
+    // Cords are limited to 32-bit lengths in 32-bit binaries.  The following
+    // tests check for use of "signed int" to represent Cord length/offset.
+    // However absl::string_view does not allow lengths >= (1u<<31), so we need
+    // to append in two parts;
+    const size_t s1 = (1u << 31) - 1;
+    // For shorter cord, `Append` copies the data rather than allocating a new
+    // node. The threshold is currently set to 511, so `s2` needs to be bigger
+    // to not trigger the copy.
+    const size_t s2 = 600;
+    cord.Append(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+        absl::string_view(prefix.data(), s1),
+        [](absl::string_view s) { DoNothing(s, nullptr); }));
+    cord.Append(absl::MakeCordFromExternal(
+        absl::string_view("", s2),
+        [](absl::string_view s) { DoNothing(s, nullptr); }));
+  }
+  return cord;
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, HugeCord) {
+  absl::Cord cord = MakeHuge("huge cord");
+  MaybeHarden(cord);
+
+  const size_t acceptable_delta =
+      100 + (UseCrc() ? sizeof(absl::cord_internal::CordRepCrc) : 0);
+  EXPECT_LE(cord.size(), cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage());
+  EXPECT_GE(cord.size() + acceptable_delta, cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage());
+}
+
+// Tests that Append() works ok when handed a self reference
+TEST_P(CordTest, AppendSelf) {
+  // Test the empty case.
+  absl::Cord empty;
+  MaybeHarden(empty);
+  empty.Append(empty);
+  ASSERT_EQ(empty, "");
+
+  // We run the test until data is ~16K
+  // This guarantees it covers small, medium and large data.
+  std::string control_data = "Abc";
+  absl::Cord data(control_data);
+  while (control_data.length() < 0x4000) {
+    MaybeHarden(data);
+    data.Append(data);
+    control_data.append(control_data);
+    ASSERT_EQ(control_data, data);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, MakeFragmentedCordFromInitializerList) {
+  absl::Cord fragmented =
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"A ", "fragmented ", "Cord"});
+
+  MaybeHarden(fragmented);
+
+  EXPECT_EQ("A fragmented Cord", fragmented);
+
+  auto chunk_it = fragmented.chunk_begin();
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(chunk_it != fragmented.chunk_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ("A ", *chunk_it);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(++chunk_it != fragmented.chunk_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ("fragmented ", *chunk_it);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(++chunk_it != fragmented.chunk_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ("Cord", *chunk_it);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(++chunk_it == fragmented.chunk_end());
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, MakeFragmentedCordFromVector) {
+  std::vector<absl::string_view> chunks = {"A ", "fragmented ", "Cord"};
+  absl::Cord fragmented = absl::MakeFragmentedCord(chunks);
+
+  MaybeHarden(fragmented);
+
+  EXPECT_EQ("A fragmented Cord", fragmented);
+
+  auto chunk_it = fragmented.chunk_begin();
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(chunk_it != fragmented.chunk_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ("A ", *chunk_it);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(++chunk_it != fragmented.chunk_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ("fragmented ", *chunk_it);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(++chunk_it != fragmented.chunk_end());
+  EXPECT_EQ("Cord", *chunk_it);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(++chunk_it == fragmented.chunk_end());
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordChunkIteratorTraits) {
+  static_assert(std::is_copy_constructible<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::value,
+                "");
+  static_assert(std::is_copy_assignable<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::value, "");
+
+  // Move semantics to satisfy swappable via std::swap
+  static_assert(std::is_move_constructible<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::value,
+                "");
+  static_assert(std::is_move_assignable<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::value, "");
+
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<
+          std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::iterator_category,
+          std::input_iterator_tag>::value,
+      "");
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::value_type,
+                   absl::string_view>::value,
+      "");
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<
+          std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::difference_type,
+          ptrdiff_t>::value,
+      "");
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::pointer,
+                   const absl::string_view*>::value,
+      "");
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::ChunkIterator>::reference,
+                   absl::string_view>::value,
+      "");
+}
+
+static void VerifyChunkIterator(const absl::Cord& cord,
+                                size_t expected_chunks) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.chunk_begin() == cord.chunk_end(), cord.empty()) << cord;
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.chunk_begin() != cord.chunk_end(), !cord.empty());
+
+  absl::Cord::ChunkRange range = cord.Chunks();
+  EXPECT_EQ(range.begin() == range.end(), cord.empty());
+  EXPECT_EQ(range.begin() != range.end(), !cord.empty());
+
+  std::string content(cord);
+  size_t pos = 0;
+  auto pre_iter = cord.chunk_begin(), post_iter = cord.chunk_begin();
+  size_t n_chunks = 0;
+  while (pre_iter != cord.chunk_end() && post_iter != cord.chunk_end()) {
+    EXPECT_FALSE(pre_iter == cord.chunk_end());   // NOLINT: explicitly test ==
+    EXPECT_FALSE(post_iter == cord.chunk_end());  // NOLINT
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(pre_iter, post_iter);
+    EXPECT_EQ(*pre_iter, *post_iter);
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(pre_iter->data(), (*pre_iter).data());
+    EXPECT_EQ(pre_iter->size(), (*pre_iter).size());
+
+    absl::string_view chunk = *pre_iter;
+    EXPECT_FALSE(chunk.empty());
+    EXPECT_LE(pos + chunk.size(), content.size());
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::string_view(content.c_str() + pos, chunk.size()), chunk);
+
+    int n_equal_iterators = 0;
+    for (absl::Cord::ChunkIterator it = range.begin(); it != range.end();
+         ++it) {
+      n_equal_iterators += static_cast<int>(it == pre_iter);
+    }
+    EXPECT_EQ(n_equal_iterators, 1);
+
+    ++pre_iter;
+    EXPECT_EQ(*post_iter++, chunk);
+
+    pos += chunk.size();
+    ++n_chunks;
+  }
+  EXPECT_EQ(expected_chunks, n_chunks);
+  EXPECT_EQ(pos, content.size());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(pre_iter == cord.chunk_end());   // NOLINT: explicitly test ==
+  EXPECT_TRUE(post_iter == cord.chunk_end());  // NOLINT
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CordChunkIteratorOperations) {
+  absl::Cord empty_cord;
+  VerifyChunkIterator(empty_cord, 0);
+
+  absl::Cord small_buffer_cord("small cord");
+  MaybeHarden(small_buffer_cord);
+  VerifyChunkIterator(small_buffer_cord, 1);
+
+  absl::Cord flat_node_cord("larger than small buffer optimization");
+  MaybeHarden(flat_node_cord);
+  VerifyChunkIterator(flat_node_cord, 1);
+
+  VerifyChunkIterator(MaybeHardened(absl::MakeFragmentedCord(
+                          {"a ", "small ", "fragmented ", "cord ", "for ",
+                           "testing ", "chunk ", "iterations."})),
+                      8);
+
+  absl::Cord reused_nodes_cord(std::string(40, 'c'));
+  reused_nodes_cord.Prepend(absl::Cord(std::string(40, 'b')));
+  MaybeHarden(reused_nodes_cord);
+  reused_nodes_cord.Prepend(absl::Cord(std::string(40, 'a')));
+  size_t expected_chunks = 3;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 8; ++i) {
+    reused_nodes_cord.Prepend(reused_nodes_cord);
+    MaybeHarden(reused_nodes_cord);
+    expected_chunks *= 2;
+    VerifyChunkIterator(reused_nodes_cord, expected_chunks);
+  }
+
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  absl::Cord flat_cord(RandomLowercaseString(&rng, 256));
+  absl::Cord subcords;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 128; ++i) subcords.Prepend(flat_cord.Subcord(i, 128));
+  VerifyChunkIterator(subcords, 128);
+}
+
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AdvanceAndReadOnDataEdge) {
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  const std::string data = RandomLowercaseString(&rng, 2000);
+  for (bool as_flat : {true, false}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(as_flat ? "Flat" : "External");
+
+    absl::Cord cord =
+        as_flat ? absl::Cord(data)
+                : absl::MakeCordFromExternal(data, [](absl::string_view) {});
+    auto it = cord.Chars().begin();
+#if !defined(NDEBUG) || ABSL_OPTION_HARDENED
+    EXPECT_DEATH_IF_SUPPORTED(cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 2001), ".*");
+#endif
+
+    it = cord.Chars().begin();
+    absl::Cord frag = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 2000);
+    EXPECT_EQ(frag, data);
+    EXPECT_TRUE(it == cord.Chars().end());
+
+    it = cord.Chars().begin();
+    frag = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 200);
+    EXPECT_EQ(frag, data.substr(0, 200));
+    EXPECT_FALSE(it == cord.Chars().end());
+
+    frag = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 1500);
+    EXPECT_EQ(frag, data.substr(200, 1500));
+    EXPECT_FALSE(it == cord.Chars().end());
+
+    frag = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 300);
+    EXPECT_EQ(frag, data.substr(1700, 300));
+    EXPECT_TRUE(it == cord.Chars().end());
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AdvanceAndReadOnSubstringDataEdge) {
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  const std::string data = RandomLowercaseString(&rng, 2500);
+  for (bool as_flat : {true, false}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(as_flat ? "Flat" : "External");
+
+    absl::Cord cord =
+        as_flat ? absl::Cord(data)
+                : absl::MakeCordFromExternal(data, [](absl::string_view) {});
+    cord = cord.Subcord(200, 2000);
+    const std::string substr = data.substr(200, 2000);
+
+    auto it = cord.Chars().begin();
+#if !defined(NDEBUG) || ABSL_OPTION_HARDENED
+    EXPECT_DEATH_IF_SUPPORTED(cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 2001), ".*");
+#endif
+
+    it = cord.Chars().begin();
+    absl::Cord frag = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 2000);
+    EXPECT_EQ(frag, substr);
+    EXPECT_TRUE(it == cord.Chars().end());
+
+    it = cord.Chars().begin();
+    frag = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 200);
+    EXPECT_EQ(frag, substr.substr(0, 200));
+    EXPECT_FALSE(it == cord.Chars().end());
+
+    frag = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 1500);
+    EXPECT_EQ(frag, substr.substr(200, 1500));
+    EXPECT_FALSE(it == cord.Chars().end());
+
+    frag = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, 300);
+    EXPECT_EQ(frag, substr.substr(1700, 300));
+    EXPECT_TRUE(it == cord.Chars().end());
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CharIteratorTraits) {
+  static_assert(std::is_copy_constructible<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::value,
+                "");
+  static_assert(std::is_copy_assignable<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::value, "");
+
+  // Move semantics to satisfy swappable via std::swap
+  static_assert(std::is_move_constructible<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::value,
+                "");
+  static_assert(std::is_move_assignable<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::value, "");
+
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<
+          std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::iterator_category,
+          std::input_iterator_tag>::value,
+      "");
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::value_type,
+                   char>::value,
+      "");
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<
+          std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::difference_type,
+          ptrdiff_t>::value,
+      "");
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::pointer,
+                   const char*>::value,
+      "");
+  static_assert(
+      std::is_same<std::iterator_traits<absl::Cord::CharIterator>::reference,
+                   const char&>::value,
+      "");
+}
+
+static void VerifyCharIterator(const absl::Cord& cord) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.char_begin() == cord.char_end(), cord.empty());
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord.char_begin() != cord.char_end(), !cord.empty());
+
+  absl::Cord::CharRange range = cord.Chars();
+  EXPECT_EQ(range.begin() == range.end(), cord.empty());
+  EXPECT_EQ(range.begin() != range.end(), !cord.empty());
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(range.begin(), range.end()),
+            static_cast<ptrdiff_t>(cord.size()));
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(range.end(), range.begin()),
+            -static_cast<ptrdiff_t>(cord.size()));
+
+  size_t i = 0;
+  absl::Cord::CharIterator pre_iter = cord.char_begin();
+  absl::Cord::CharIterator post_iter = cord.char_begin();
+  std::string content(cord);
+  while (pre_iter != cord.char_end() && post_iter != cord.char_end()) {
+    EXPECT_FALSE(pre_iter == cord.char_end());   // NOLINT: explicitly test ==
+    EXPECT_FALSE(post_iter == cord.char_end());  // NOLINT
+
+    EXPECT_LT(i, cord.size());
+    EXPECT_EQ(content[i], *pre_iter);
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(pre_iter, post_iter);
+    EXPECT_EQ(*pre_iter, *post_iter);
+    EXPECT_EQ(&*pre_iter, &*post_iter);
+
+    const char* character_address = &*pre_iter;
+    absl::Cord::CharIterator copy = pre_iter;
+    ++copy;
+    EXPECT_EQ(character_address, &*pre_iter);
+
+    int n_equal_iterators = 0;
+    for (absl::Cord::CharIterator it = range.begin(); it != range.end(); ++it) {
+      n_equal_iterators += static_cast<int>(it == pre_iter);
+    }
+    EXPECT_EQ(n_equal_iterators, 1);
+
+    absl::Cord::CharIterator advance_iter = range.begin();
+    absl::Cord::Advance(&advance_iter, i);
+    EXPECT_EQ(pre_iter, advance_iter);
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(range.begin(), advance_iter),
+              static_cast<ptrdiff_t>(i));
+
+    advance_iter = range.begin();
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::AdvanceAndRead(&advance_iter, i), cord.Subcord(0, i));
+    EXPECT_EQ(pre_iter, advance_iter);
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(range.begin(), advance_iter),
+              static_cast<ptrdiff_t>(i));
+
+    advance_iter = pre_iter;
+    absl::Cord::Advance(&advance_iter, cord.size() - i);
+    EXPECT_EQ(range.end(), advance_iter);
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(range.begin(), advance_iter),
+              static_cast<ptrdiff_t>(cord.size()));
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(advance_iter, range.end()), 0);
+
+    advance_iter = pre_iter;
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::AdvanceAndRead(&advance_iter, cord.size() - i),
+              cord.Subcord(i, cord.size() - i));
+    EXPECT_EQ(range.end(), advance_iter);
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(range.begin(), advance_iter),
+              static_cast<ptrdiff_t>(cord.size()));
+    EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(advance_iter, range.end()), 0);
+
+    ++i;
+    ++pre_iter;
+    post_iter++;
+  }
+  EXPECT_EQ(i, cord.size());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(pre_iter == cord.char_end());   // NOLINT: explicitly test ==
+  EXPECT_TRUE(post_iter == cord.char_end());  // NOLINT
+
+  absl::Cord::CharIterator zero_advanced_end = cord.char_end();
+  absl::Cord::Advance(&zero_advanced_end, 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(zero_advanced_end, cord.char_end());
+
+  absl::Cord::CharIterator it = cord.char_begin();
+  for (absl::string_view chunk : cord.Chunks()) {
+    while (!chunk.empty()) {
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::ChunkRemaining(it), chunk);
+      chunk.remove_prefix(1);
+      ++it;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CharIteratorOperations) {
+  absl::Cord empty_cord;
+  VerifyCharIterator(empty_cord);
+
+  absl::Cord small_buffer_cord("small cord");
+  MaybeHarden(small_buffer_cord);
+  VerifyCharIterator(small_buffer_cord);
+
+  absl::Cord flat_node_cord("larger than small buffer optimization");
+  MaybeHarden(flat_node_cord);
+  VerifyCharIterator(flat_node_cord);
+
+  VerifyCharIterator(MaybeHardened(
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"a ", "small ", "fragmented ", "cord ", "for ",
+                                "testing ", "character ", "iteration."})));
+
+  absl::Cord reused_nodes_cord("ghi");
+  reused_nodes_cord.Prepend(absl::Cord("def"));
+  reused_nodes_cord.Prepend(absl::Cord("abc"));
+  for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+    reused_nodes_cord.Prepend(reused_nodes_cord);
+    MaybeHarden(reused_nodes_cord);
+    VerifyCharIterator(reused_nodes_cord);
+  }
+
+  RandomEngine rng(GTEST_FLAG_GET(random_seed));
+  absl::Cord flat_cord(RandomLowercaseString(&rng, 256));
+  absl::Cord subcords;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+    subcords.Prepend(flat_cord.Subcord(16 * i, 128));
+    MaybeHarden(subcords);
+  }
+  VerifyCharIterator(subcords);
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, CharIteratorAdvanceAndRead) {
+  // Create a Cord holding 6 flats of 2500 bytes each, and then iterate over it
+  // reading 150, 1500, 2500 and 3000 bytes. This will result in all possible
+  // partial, full and straddled read combinations including reads below
+  // kMaxBytesToCopy. b/197776822 surfaced a bug for a specific partial, small
+  // read 'at end' on Cord which caused a failure on attempting to read past the
+  // end in CordRepBtreeReader which was not covered by any existing test.
+  constexpr int kBlocks = 6;
+  constexpr size_t kBlockSize = 2500;
+  constexpr size_t kChunkSize1 = 1500;
+  constexpr size_t kChunkSize2 = 2500;
+  constexpr size_t kChunkSize3 = 3000;
+  constexpr size_t kChunkSize4 = 150;
+  RandomEngine rng;
+  std::string data = RandomLowercaseString(&rng, kBlocks * kBlockSize);
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  for (int i = 0; i < kBlocks; ++i) {
+    const std::string block = data.substr(i * kBlockSize, kBlockSize);
+    cord.Append(absl::Cord(block));
+  }
+
+  MaybeHarden(cord);
+
+
+  for (size_t chunk_size :
+       {kChunkSize1, kChunkSize2, kChunkSize3, kChunkSize4}) {
+    absl::Cord::CharIterator it = cord.char_begin();
+    size_t it_remaining = cord.size();
+    size_t it_advanced = 0;
+    size_t offset = 0;
+    while (offset < data.length()) {
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(it, cord.char_end()), it_remaining);
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(cord.char_begin(), it), it_advanced);
+      const size_t n = std::min<size_t>(data.length() - offset, chunk_size);
+      absl::Cord chunk = cord.AdvanceAndRead(&it, n);
+      ASSERT_EQ(chunk.size(), n);
+      ASSERT_EQ(chunk.Compare(data.substr(offset, n)), 0);
+      offset += n;
+      it_remaining -= n;
+      it_advanced += n;
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(it, cord.char_end()), it_remaining);
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::Distance(cord.char_begin(), it), it_advanced);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, StreamingOutput) {
+  absl::Cord c =
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"A ", "small ", "fragmented ", "Cord", "."});
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  std::stringstream output;
+  output << c;
+  EXPECT_EQ("A small fragmented Cord.", output.str());
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ForEachChunk) {
+  for (int num_elements : {1, 10, 200}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(num_elements);
+    std::vector<std::string> cord_chunks;
+    for (int i = 0; i < num_elements; ++i) {
+      cord_chunks.push_back(absl::StrCat("[", i, "]"));
+    }
+    absl::Cord c = absl::MakeFragmentedCord(cord_chunks);
+    MaybeHarden(c);
+
+    std::vector<std::string> iterated_chunks;
+    absl::CordTestPeer::ForEachChunk(c,
+                                     [&iterated_chunks](absl::string_view sv) {
+                                       iterated_chunks.emplace_back(sv);
+                                     });
+    EXPECT_EQ(iterated_chunks, cord_chunks);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, SmallBufferAssignFromOwnData) {
+  constexpr size_t kMaxInline = 15;
+  std::string contents = "small buff cord";
+  EXPECT_EQ(contents.size(), kMaxInline);
+  for (size_t pos = 0; pos < contents.size(); ++pos) {
+    for (size_t count = contents.size() - pos; count > 0; --count) {
+      absl::Cord c(contents);
+      MaybeHarden(c);
+      absl::string_view flat = c.Flatten();
+      c = flat.substr(pos, count);
+      EXPECT_EQ(c, contents.substr(pos, count))
+          << "pos = " << pos << "; count = " << count;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Format) {
+  absl::Cord c;
+  absl::Format(&c, "There were %04d little %s.", 3, "pigs");
+  EXPECT_EQ(c, "There were 0003 little pigs.");
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  absl::Format(&c, "And %-3llx bad wolf!", 1);
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c, "There were 0003 little pigs.And 1   bad wolf!");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Stringify) {
+  absl::Cord c =
+      absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"A ", "small ", "fragmented ", "Cord", "."});
+  MaybeHarden(c);
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::StrCat(c), "A small fragmented Cord.");
+}
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, Hardening) {
+  absl::Cord cord("hello");
+  MaybeHarden(cord);
+
+  // These statement should abort the program in all builds modes.
+  EXPECT_DEATH_IF_SUPPORTED(cord.RemovePrefix(6), "");
+  EXPECT_DEATH_IF_SUPPORTED(cord.RemoveSuffix(6), "");
+
+  bool test_hardening = false;
+  ABSL_HARDENING_ASSERT([&]() {
+    // This only runs when ABSL_HARDENING_ASSERT is active.
+    test_hardening = true;
+    return true;
+  }());
+  if (!test_hardening) return;
+
+  EXPECT_DEATH_IF_SUPPORTED(cord[5], "");
+  EXPECT_DEATH_IF_SUPPORTED(*cord.chunk_end(), "");
+  EXPECT_DEATH_IF_SUPPORTED(static_cast<void>(cord.chunk_end()->empty()), "");
+  EXPECT_DEATH_IF_SUPPORTED(++cord.chunk_end(), "");
+}
+
+// This test mimics a specific (and rare) application repeatedly splitting a
+// cord, inserting (overwriting) a string value, and composing a new cord from
+// the three pieces. This is hostile towards a Btree implementation: A split of
+// a node at any level is likely to have the right-most edge of the left split,
+// and the left-most edge of the right split shared. For example, splitting a
+// leaf node with 6 edges will result likely in a 1-6, 2-5, 3-4, etc. split,
+// sharing the 'split node'. When recomposing such nodes, we 'injected' an edge
+// in that node. As this happens with some probability on each level of the
+// tree, this will quickly grow the tree until it reaches maximum height.
+TEST_P(CordTest, BtreeHostileSplitInsertJoin) {
+  absl::BitGen bitgen;
+
+  // Start with about 1GB of data
+  std::string data(1 << 10, 'x');
+  absl::Cord buffer(data);
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; ++i) {
+    cord.Append(buffer);
+  }
+
+  for (int j = 0; j < 1000; ++j) {
+    MaybeHarden(cord);
+    size_t offset = absl::Uniform(bitgen, 0u, cord.size());
+    size_t length = absl::Uniform(bitgen, 100u, data.size());
+    if (cord.size() == offset) {
+      cord.Append(absl::string_view(data.data(), length));
+    } else {
+      absl::Cord suffix;
+      if (offset + length < cord.size()) {
+        suffix = cord;
+        suffix.RemovePrefix(offset + length);
+      }
+      if (cord.size() > offset) {
+        cord.RemoveSuffix(cord.size() - offset);
+      }
+      cord.Append(absl::string_view(data.data(), length));
+      if (!suffix.empty()) {
+        cord.Append(suffix);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+class AfterExitCordTester {
+ public:
+  bool Set(absl::Cord* cord, absl::string_view expected) {
+    cord_ = cord;
+    expected_ = expected;
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  ~AfterExitCordTester() {
+    EXPECT_EQ(*cord_, expected_);
+  }
+ private:
+  absl::Cord* cord_;
+  absl::string_view expected_;
+};
+
+template <typename Str>
+void TestAfterExit(Str) {
+  const auto expected = Str::value;
+  // Defined before `cord` to be destroyed after it.
+  static AfterExitCordTester exit_tester;  // NOLINT
+  static absl::NoDestructor<absl::Cord> cord_leaker(Str{});
+  // cord_leaker is static, so this reference will remain valid through the end
+  // of program execution.
+  static absl::Cord& cord = *cord_leaker;
+  static bool init_exit_tester = exit_tester.Set(&cord, expected);
+  (void)init_exit_tester;
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord, expected);
+  // Copy the object and test the copy, and the original.
+  {
+    absl::Cord copy = cord;
+    EXPECT_EQ(copy, expected);
+  }
+  // The original still works
+  EXPECT_EQ(cord, expected);
+
+  // Try making adding more structure to the tree.
+  {
+    absl::Cord copy = cord;
+    std::string expected_copy(expected);
+    for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
+      copy.Append(cord);
+      absl::StrAppend(&expected_copy, expected);
+      EXPECT_EQ(copy, expected_copy);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Make sure we are using the right branch during constant evaluation.
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::CordTestPeer::IsTree(cord), cord.size() >= 16);
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
+    // Make a few more Cords from the same global rep.
+    // This tests what happens when the refcount for it gets below 1.
+    EXPECT_EQ(expected, absl::Cord(Str{}));
+  }
+}
+
+constexpr int SimpleStrlen(const char* p) {
+  return *p ? 1 + SimpleStrlen(p + 1) : 0;
+}
+
+struct ShortView {
+  constexpr absl::string_view operator()() const {
+    return absl::string_view("SSO string", SimpleStrlen("SSO string"));
+  }
+};
+
+struct LongView {
+  constexpr absl::string_view operator()() const {
+    return absl::string_view("String that does not fit SSO.",
+                             SimpleStrlen("String that does not fit SSO."));
+  }
+};
+
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, AfterExit) {
+  TestAfterExit(absl::strings_internal::MakeStringConstant(ShortView{}));
+  TestAfterExit(absl::strings_internal::MakeStringConstant(LongView{}));
+}
+
+namespace {
+
+// Test helper that generates a populated cord for future manipulation.
+//
+// By test convention, all generated cords begin with the characters "abcde" at
+// the start of the first chunk.
+class PopulatedCordFactory {
+ public:
+  constexpr PopulatedCordFactory(absl::string_view name,
+                                 absl::Cord (*generator)())
+      : name_(name), generator_(generator) {}
+
+  absl::string_view Name() const { return name_; }
+  absl::Cord Generate() const { return generator_(); }
+
+ private:
+  absl::string_view name_;
+  absl::Cord (*generator_)();
+};
+
+// clang-format off
+// This array is constant-initialized in conformant compilers.
+PopulatedCordFactory cord_factories[] = {
+  {"sso", [] { return absl::Cord("abcde"); }},
+  {"flat", [] {
+    // Too large to live in SSO space, but small enough to be a simple FLAT.
+    absl::Cord flat(absl::StrCat("abcde", std::string(1000, 'x')));
+    flat.Flatten();
+    return flat;
+  }},
+  {"external", [] {
+    // A cheat: we are using a string literal as the external storage, so a
+    // no-op releaser is correct here.
+    return absl::MakeCordFromExternal("abcde External!", []{});
+  }},
+  {"external substring", [] {
+    // A cheat: we are using a string literal as the external storage, so a
+    // no-op releaser is correct here.
+    absl::Cord ext = absl::MakeCordFromExternal("-abcde External!", []{});
+    return absl::CordTestPeer::MakeSubstring(ext, 1, ext.size() - 1);
+  }},
+  {"substring", [] {
+    absl::Cord flat(absl::StrCat("-abcde", std::string(1000, 'x')));
+    flat.Flatten();
+    return flat.Subcord(1, 998);
+  }},
+  {"fragmented", [] {
+    std::string fragment = absl::StrCat("abcde", std::string(195, 'x'));
+    std::vector<std::string> fragments(200, fragment);
+    absl::Cord cord = absl::MakeFragmentedCord(fragments);
+    assert(cord.size() == 40000);
+    return cord;
+  }},
+};
+// clang-format on
+
+// Test helper that can mutate a cord, and possibly undo the mutation, for
+// testing.
+class CordMutator {
+ public:
+  constexpr CordMutator(absl::string_view name, void (*mutate)(absl::Cord&),
+                        void (*undo)(absl::Cord&) = nullptr)
+      : name_(name), mutate_(mutate), undo_(undo) {}
+
+  absl::string_view Name() const { return name_; }
+  void Mutate(absl::Cord& cord) const { mutate_(cord); }
+  bool CanUndo() const { return undo_ != nullptr; }
+  void Undo(absl::Cord& cord) const { undo_(cord); }
+
+ private:
+  absl::string_view name_;
+  void (*mutate_)(absl::Cord&);
+  void (*undo_)(absl::Cord&);
+};
+
+// clang-format off
+// This array is constant-initialized in conformant compilers.
+CordMutator cord_mutators[] = {
+  {"clear", [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Clear(); }},
+  {"overwrite", [](absl::Cord& c) { c = "overwritten"; }},
+  {
+    "append string",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Append("0123456789"); },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemoveSuffix(10); }
+  },
+  {
+    "append cord",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) {
+      c.Append(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"12345", "67890"}));
+    },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemoveSuffix(10); }
+  },
+  {
+    "append checksummed cord",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) {
+      absl::Cord to_append = absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"12345", "67890"});
+      to_append.SetExpectedChecksum(999);
+      c.Append(to_append);
+    },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemoveSuffix(10); }
+  },
+  {
+    "append self",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Append(c); },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemoveSuffix(c.size() / 2); }
+  },
+  {
+    "append empty string",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Append(""); },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { }
+  },
+  {
+    "append empty cord",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Append(absl::Cord()); },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { }
+  },
+  {
+    "append empty checksummed cord",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) {
+      absl::Cord to_append;
+      to_append.SetExpectedChecksum(999);
+      c.Append(to_append);
+    },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { }
+  },
+  {
+    "prepend string",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Prepend("9876543210"); },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemovePrefix(10); }
+  },
+  {
+    "prepend cord",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) {
+      c.Prepend(absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"98765", "43210"}));
+    },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemovePrefix(10); }
+  },
+  {
+    "prepend checksummed cord",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) {
+      absl::Cord to_prepend = absl::MakeFragmentedCord({"98765", "43210"});
+      to_prepend.SetExpectedChecksum(999);
+      c.Prepend(to_prepend);
+    },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemovePrefix(10); }
+  },
+  {
+    "prepend empty string",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Prepend(""); },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { }
+  },
+  {
+    "prepend empty cord",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Prepend(absl::Cord()); },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { }
+  },
+  {
+    "prepend empty checksummed cord",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) {
+      absl::Cord to_prepend;
+      to_prepend.SetExpectedChecksum(999);
+      c.Prepend(to_prepend);
+    },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { }
+  },
+  {
+    "prepend self",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.Prepend(c); },
+    [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemovePrefix(c.size() / 2); }
+  },
+  {"remove prefix", [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemovePrefix(c.size() / 2); }},
+  {"remove suffix", [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemoveSuffix(c.size() / 2); }},
+  {"remove 0-prefix", [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemovePrefix(0); }},
+  {"remove 0-suffix", [](absl::Cord& c) { c.RemoveSuffix(0); }},
+  {"subcord", [](absl::Cord& c) { c = c.Subcord(1, c.size() - 2); }},
+  {
+    "swap inline",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) {
+      absl::Cord other("swap");
+      c.swap(other);
+    }
+  },
+  {
+    "swap tree",
+    [](absl::Cord& c) {
+      absl::Cord other(std::string(10000, 'x'));
+      c.swap(other);
+    }
+  },
+};
+// clang-format on
+}  // namespace
+
+TEST_P(CordTest, ExpectedChecksum) {
+  for (const PopulatedCordFactory& factory : cord_factories) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(factory.Name());
+    for (bool shared : {false, true}) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE(shared);
+
+      absl::Cord shared_cord_source = factory.Generate();
+      auto make_instance = [=] {
+        return shared ? shared_cord_source : factory.Generate();
+      };
+
+      const absl::Cord base_value = factory.Generate();
+      const std::string base_value_as_string(factory.Generate().Flatten());
+
+      absl::Cord c1 = make_instance();
+      EXPECT_FALSE(c1.ExpectedChecksum().has_value());
+
+      // Setting an expected checksum works, and retains the cord's bytes
+      c1.SetExpectedChecksum(12345);
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1, base_value);
+
+      // Test that setting an expected checksum again doesn't crash or leak
+      // memory.
+      c1.SetExpectedChecksum(12345);
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1, base_value);
+
+      // CRC persists through copies, assignments, and moves:
+      absl::Cord c1_copy_construct = c1;
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1_copy_construct.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+
+      absl::Cord c1_copy_assign;
+      c1_copy_assign = c1;
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1_copy_assign.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+
+      absl::Cord c1_move(std::move(c1_copy_assign));
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1_move.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+
+      // A CRC Cord compares equal to its non-CRC value.
+      EXPECT_EQ(c1, make_instance());
+
+      for (const CordMutator& mutator : cord_mutators) {
+        SCOPED_TRACE(mutator.Name());
+
+        // Test that mutating a cord removes its stored checksum
+        absl::Cord c2 = make_instance();
+        c2.SetExpectedChecksum(24680);
+
+        mutator.Mutate(c2);
+
+        if (c1 == c2) {
+          // Not a mutation (for example, appending the empty string).
+          // Whether the checksum is removed is not defined.
+          continue;
+        }
+
+        EXPECT_EQ(c2.ExpectedChecksum(), absl::nullopt);
+
+        if (mutator.CanUndo()) {
+          // Undoing an operation should not restore the checksum
+          mutator.Undo(c2);
+          EXPECT_EQ(c2, base_value);
+          EXPECT_EQ(c2.ExpectedChecksum(), absl::nullopt);
+        }
+      }
+
+      absl::Cord c3 = make_instance();
+      c3.SetExpectedChecksum(999);
+      const absl::Cord& cc3 = c3;
+
+      // Test that all cord reading operations function in the face of an
+      // expected checksum.
+
+      // Test data precondition
+      ASSERT_TRUE(cc3.StartsWith("abcde"));
+
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3.size(), base_value_as_string.size());
+      EXPECT_FALSE(cc3.empty());
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(base_value), 0);
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(base_value_as_string), 0);
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare("wxyz"), -1);
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(absl::Cord("wxyz")), -1);
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare("aaaa"), 1);
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(absl::Cord("aaaa")), 1);
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord("wxyz").Compare(cc3), 1);
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord("aaaa").Compare(cc3), -1);
+      EXPECT_TRUE(cc3.StartsWith("abcd"));
+      EXPECT_EQ(std::string(cc3), base_value_as_string);
+
+      std::string dest;
+      absl::CopyCordToString(cc3, &dest);
+      EXPECT_EQ(dest, base_value_as_string);
+
+      bool first_pass = true;
+      for (absl::string_view chunk : cc3.Chunks()) {
+        if (first_pass) {
+          EXPECT_TRUE(absl::StartsWith(chunk, "abcde"));
+        }
+        first_pass = false;
+      }
+      first_pass = true;
+      for (char ch : cc3.Chars()) {
+        if (first_pass) {
+          EXPECT_EQ(ch, 'a');
+        }
+        first_pass = false;
+      }
+      EXPECT_TRUE(absl::StartsWith(*cc3.chunk_begin(), "abcde"));
+      EXPECT_EQ(*cc3.char_begin(), 'a');
+
+      auto char_it = cc3.char_begin();
+      absl::Cord::Advance(&char_it, 2);
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord::AdvanceAndRead(&char_it, 2), "cd");
+      EXPECT_EQ(*char_it, 'e');
+      char_it = cc3.char_begin();
+      absl::Cord::Advance(&char_it, 2);
+      EXPECT_TRUE(absl::StartsWith(absl::Cord::ChunkRemaining(char_it), "cde"));
+
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3[0], 'a');
+      EXPECT_EQ(cc3[4], 'e');
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::HashOf(cc3), absl::HashOf(base_value));
+      EXPECT_EQ(absl::HashOf(cc3), absl::HashOf(base_value_as_string));
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// Test the special cases encountered with an empty checksummed cord.
+TEST_P(CordTest, ChecksummedEmptyCord) {
+  absl::Cord c1;
+  EXPECT_FALSE(c1.ExpectedChecksum().has_value());
+
+  // Setting an expected checksum works.
+  c1.SetExpectedChecksum(12345);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1, "");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(c1.empty());
+
+  // Test that setting an expected checksum again doesn't crash or leak memory.
+  c1.SetExpectedChecksum(12345);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1, "");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(c1.empty());
+
+  // CRC persists through copies, assignments, and moves:
+  absl::Cord c1_copy_construct = c1;
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1_copy_construct.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+
+  absl::Cord c1_copy_assign;
+  c1_copy_assign = c1;
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1_copy_assign.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+
+  absl::Cord c1_move(std::move(c1_copy_assign));
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1_move.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1.ExpectedChecksum().value_or(0), 12345);
+
+  // A CRC Cord compares equal to its non-CRC value.
+  EXPECT_EQ(c1, absl::Cord());
+
+  for (const CordMutator& mutator : cord_mutators) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(mutator.Name());
+
+    // Exercise mutating an empty checksummed cord to catch crashes and exercise
+    // memory sanitizers.
+    absl::Cord c2;
+    c2.SetExpectedChecksum(24680);
+    mutator.Mutate(c2);
+
+    if (c2.empty()) {
+      // Not a mutation
+      continue;
+    }
+    EXPECT_EQ(c2.ExpectedChecksum(), absl::nullopt);
+
+    if (mutator.CanUndo()) {
+      mutator.Undo(c2);
+    }
+  }
+
+  absl::Cord c3;
+  c3.SetExpectedChecksum(999);
+  const absl::Cord& cc3 = c3;
+
+  // Test that all cord reading operations function in the face of an
+  // expected checksum.
+  EXPECT_TRUE(cc3.StartsWith(""));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(cc3.EndsWith(""));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(cc3.empty());
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3, "");
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3, absl::Cord());
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3.size(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(absl::Cord()), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(c1), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(cc3), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(""), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare("wxyz"), -1);
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3.Compare(absl::Cord("wxyz")), -1);
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord("wxyz").Compare(cc3), 1);
+  EXPECT_EQ(std::string(cc3), "");
+
+  std::string dest;
+  absl::CopyCordToString(cc3, &dest);
+  EXPECT_EQ(dest, "");
+
+  for (absl::string_view chunk : cc3.Chunks()) {  // NOLINT(unreachable loop)
+    static_cast<void>(chunk);
+    GTEST_FAIL() << "no chunks expected";
+  }
+  EXPECT_TRUE(cc3.chunk_begin() == cc3.chunk_end());
+
+  for (char ch : cc3.Chars()) {  // NOLINT(unreachable loop)
+    static_cast<void>(ch);
+    GTEST_FAIL() << "no chars expected";
+  }
+  EXPECT_TRUE(cc3.char_begin() == cc3.char_end());
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(cc3.TryFlat(), "");
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::HashOf(c3), absl::HashOf(absl::Cord()));
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::HashOf(c3), absl::HashOf(absl::string_view()));
+}
+
+// This must not be static to avoid aggressive optimizations.
+ABSL_ATTRIBUTE_WEAK
+size_t FalseReport(const absl::Cord& a, bool f);
+
+ABSL_ATTRIBUTE_NOINLINE
+size_t FalseReport(const absl::Cord& a, bool f) {
+  absl::Cord b;
+  const absl::Cord& ref = f ? b : a;
+  // Test that sanitizers report nothing here. Without
+  // InlineData::Rep::annotated_this() compiler can unconditionally load
+  // poisoned parts, assuming that local variable is fully accessible.
+  return ref.size();
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesCordFalseReport) {
+  absl::Cord c;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 1000; ++i) c.Append("a");
+  FalseReport(c, false);
+}
+
+TEST(CrcCordTest, ChecksummedEmptyCordEstimateMemoryUsage) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  cord.SetExpectedChecksum(0);
+  EXPECT_NE(cord.EstimatedMemoryUsage(), 0);
+}
+
+TEST(CordThreeWayComparisonTest, CompareCords) {
+#ifndef __cpp_impl_three_way_comparison
+  GTEST_SKIP() << "C++20 three-way <=> comparison not supported";
+#else
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord("a") <=> absl::Cord("a"), std::strong_ordering::equal);
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord("aaaa") <=> absl::Cord("aaab"),
+            std::strong_ordering::less);
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord("baaa") <=> absl::Cord("a"),
+            std::strong_ordering::greater);
+#endif
+}
+
+TEST(CordThreeWayComparisonTest, CompareCordsAndStringViews) {
+#ifndef __cpp_impl_three_way_comparison
+  GTEST_SKIP() << "C++20 three-way <=> comparison not supported";
+#else
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::string_view("a") <=> absl::Cord("a"),
+            std::strong_ordering::equal);
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::Cord("a") <=> absl::string_view("b"),
+            std::strong_ordering::less);
+  EXPECT_EQ(absl::string_view("b") <=> absl::Cord("a"),
+            std::strong_ordering::greater);
+#endif
+}
+
+#if defined(GTEST_HAS_DEATH_TEST) && defined(ABSL_INTERNAL_CORD_HAVE_SANITIZER)
+
+// Returns an expected poison / uninitialized death message expression.
+const char* MASanDeathExpr() {
+  return "(use-after-poison|use-of-uninitialized-value)";
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesEmptyCord) {
+  absl::Cord cord;
+  const char* data = cord.Flatten().data();
+  EXPECT_DEATH(EXPECT_EQ(data[0], 0), MASanDeathExpr());
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesSmallCord) {
+  absl::Cord cord("Hello");
+  const char* data = cord.Flatten().data();
+  EXPECT_DEATH(EXPECT_EQ(data[5], 0), MASanDeathExpr());
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesCordOnSetSSOValue) {
+  absl::Cord cord("String that is too big to be an SSO value");
+  cord = "Hello";
+  const char* data = cord.Flatten().data();
+  EXPECT_DEATH(EXPECT_EQ(data[5], 0), MASanDeathExpr());
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesCordOnCopyCtor) {
+  absl::Cord src("hello");
+  absl::Cord dst(src);
+  const char* data = dst.Flatten().data();
+  EXPECT_DEATH(EXPECT_EQ(data[5], 0), MASanDeathExpr());
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesCordOnMoveCtor) {
+  absl::Cord src("hello");
+  absl::Cord dst(std::move(src));
+  const char* data = dst.Flatten().data();
+  EXPECT_DEATH(EXPECT_EQ(data[5], 0), MASanDeathExpr());
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesCordOnAssign) {
+  absl::Cord src("hello");
+  absl::Cord dst;
+  dst = src;
+  const char* data = dst.Flatten().data();
+  EXPECT_DEATH(EXPECT_EQ(data[5], 0), MASanDeathExpr());
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesCordOnMoveAssign) {
+  absl::Cord src("hello");
+  absl::Cord dst;
+  dst = std::move(src);
+  const char* data = dst.Flatten().data();
+  EXPECT_DEATH(EXPECT_EQ(data[5], 0), MASanDeathExpr());
+}
+
+TEST(CordSanitizerTest, SanitizesCordOnSsoAssign) {
+  absl::Cord src("hello");
+  absl::Cord dst("String that is too big to be an SSO value");
+  dst = src;
+  const char* data = dst.Flatten().data();
+  EXPECT_DEATH(EXPECT_EQ(data[5], 0), MASanDeathExpr());
+}
+
+#endif  // GTEST_HAS_DEATH_TEST && ABSL_INTERNAL_CORD_HAVE_SANITIZER