@nxtedition/rocksdb 15.1.5 → 15.2.0

package/deps/abseil-cpp/absl/strings/cord.cc

@@ -0,0 +1,1582 @@
+// Copyright 2020 The Abseil Authors.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//      https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#include "absl/strings/cord.h"
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cassert>
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstdlib>
+#include <cstring>
+#include <iomanip>
+#include <ios>
+#include <iostream>
+#include <limits>
+#include <memory>
+#include <ostream>
+#include <sstream>
+#include <string>
+#include <utility>
+
+#include "absl/base/attributes.h"
+#include "absl/base/config.h"
+#include "absl/base/internal/endian.h"
+#include "absl/base/internal/raw_logging.h"
+#include "absl/base/macros.h"
+#include "absl/base/optimization.h"
+#include "absl/base/nullability.h"
+#include "absl/container/inlined_vector.h"
+#include "absl/crc/crc32c.h"
+#include "absl/crc/internal/crc_cord_state.h"
+#include "absl/functional/function_ref.h"
+#include "absl/strings/cord_buffer.h"
+#include "absl/strings/escaping.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/append_and_overwrite.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_data_edge.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_internal.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_btree.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_crc.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_flat.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cordz_update_tracker.h"
+#include "absl/strings/match.h"
+#include "absl/strings/resize_and_overwrite.h"
+#include "absl/strings/str_cat.h"
+#include "absl/strings/string_view.h"
+#include "absl/strings/strip.h"
+#include "absl/types/optional.h"
+#include "absl/types/span.h"
+
+namespace absl {
+ABSL_NAMESPACE_BEGIN
+
+using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRep;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepBtree;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepCrc;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepExternal;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepFlat;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepSubstring;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::CordzUpdateTracker;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::InlineData;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::kMaxFlatLength;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::kMinFlatLength;
+
+using ::absl::cord_internal::kInlinedVectorSize;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::kMaxBytesToCopy;
+
+static void DumpNode(CordRep* absl_nonnull nonnull_rep, bool include_data,
+                     std::ostream* absl_nonnull os, int indent = 0);
+static bool VerifyNode(CordRep* absl_nonnull root,
+                       CordRep* absl_nonnull start_node);
+
+static inline CordRep* absl_nullable VerifyTree(CordRep* absl_nullable node) {
+  assert(node == nullptr || VerifyNode(node, node));
+  static_cast<void>(&VerifyNode);
+  return node;
+}
+
+static CordRepFlat* absl_nonnull CreateFlat(const char* absl_nonnull data,
+                                            size_t length, size_t alloc_hint) {
+  CordRepFlat* flat = CordRepFlat::New(length + alloc_hint);
+  flat->length = length;
+  memcpy(flat->Data(), data, length);
+  return flat;
+}
+
+// Creates a new flat or Btree out of the specified array.
+// The returned node has a refcount of 1.
+static CordRep* absl_nonnull NewBtree(const char* absl_nonnull data,
+                                      size_t length, size_t alloc_hint) {
+  if (length <= kMaxFlatLength) {
+    return CreateFlat(data, length, alloc_hint);
+  }
+  CordRepFlat* flat = CreateFlat(data, kMaxFlatLength, 0);
+  data += kMaxFlatLength;
+  length -= kMaxFlatLength;
+  auto* root = CordRepBtree::Create(flat);
+  return CordRepBtree::Append(root, {data, length}, alloc_hint);
+}
+
+// Create a new tree out of the specified array.
+// The returned node has a refcount of 1.
+static CordRep* absl_nullable NewTree(const char* absl_nullable data,
+                                      size_t length, size_t alloc_hint) {
+  if (length == 0) return nullptr;
+  return NewBtree(data, length, alloc_hint);
+}
+
+namespace cord_internal {
+
+void InitializeCordRepExternal(absl::string_view data,
+                               CordRepExternal* absl_nonnull rep) {
+  assert(!data.empty());
+  rep->length = data.size();
+  rep->tag = EXTERNAL;
+  rep->base = data.data();
+  VerifyTree(rep);
+}
+
+}  // namespace cord_internal
+
+// Creates a CordRep from the provided string. If the string is large enough,
+// and not wasteful, we move the string into an external cord rep, preserving
+// the already allocated string contents.
+// Requires the provided string length to be larger than `kMaxInline`.
+static CordRep* absl_nonnull CordRepFromString(std::string&& src) {
+  assert(src.length() > cord_internal::kMaxInline);
+  if (
+      // String is short: copy data to avoid external block overhead.
+      src.size() <= kMaxBytesToCopy ||
+      // String is wasteful: copy data to avoid pinning too much unused memory.
+      src.size() < src.capacity() / 2
+  ) {
+    return NewTree(src.data(), src.size(), 0);
+  }
+
+  struct StringReleaser {
+    void operator()(absl::string_view /* data */) {}
+    std::string data;
+  };
+  const absl::string_view original_data = src;
+  auto* rep =
+      static_cast<::absl::cord_internal::CordRepExternalImpl<StringReleaser>*>(
+          absl::cord_internal::NewExternalRep(original_data,
+                                              StringReleaser{std::move(src)}));
+  // Moving src may have invalidated its data pointer, so adjust it.
+  rep->base = rep->template get<0>().data.data();
+  return rep;
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Cord::InlineRep functions
+
+inline void Cord::InlineRep::set_data(const char* absl_nullable data,
+                                      size_t n) {
+  static_assert(kMaxInline == 15, "set_data is hard-coded for a length of 15");
+  assert(data != nullptr || n == 0);
+  data_.set_inline_data(data, n);
+}
+
+inline char* absl_nonnull Cord::InlineRep::set_data(size_t n) {
+  assert(n <= kMaxInline);
+  ResetToEmpty();
+  set_inline_size(n);
+  return data_.as_chars();
+}
+
+inline void Cord::InlineRep::reduce_size(size_t n) {
+  size_t tag = inline_size();
+  assert(tag <= kMaxInline);
+  assert(tag >= n);
+  tag -= n;
+  memset(data_.as_chars() + tag, 0, n);
+  set_inline_size(tag);
+}
+
+inline void Cord::InlineRep::remove_prefix(size_t n) {
+  cord_internal::SmallMemmove(data_.as_chars(), data_.as_chars() + n,
+                              inline_size() - n);
+  reduce_size(n);
+}
+
+// Returns `rep` converted into a CordRepBtree.
+// Directly returns `rep` if `rep` is already a CordRepBtree.
+static CordRepBtree* absl_nonnull ForceBtree(CordRep* rep) {
+  return rep->IsBtree()
+             ? rep->btree()
+             : CordRepBtree::Create(cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(rep));
+}
+
+void Cord::InlineRep::AppendTreeToInlined(CordRep* absl_nonnull tree,
+                                          MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(!is_tree());
+  if (!data_.is_empty()) {
+    CordRepFlat* flat = MakeFlatWithExtraCapacity(0);
+    tree = CordRepBtree::Append(CordRepBtree::Create(flat), tree);
+  }
+  EmplaceTree(tree, method);
+}
+
+void Cord::InlineRep::AppendTreeToTree(CordRep* absl_nonnull tree,
+                                       MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(is_tree());
+  const CordzUpdateScope scope(data_.cordz_info(), method);
+  tree = CordRepBtree::Append(ForceBtree(data_.as_tree()), tree);
+  SetTree(tree, scope);
+}
+
+void Cord::InlineRep::AppendTree(CordRep* absl_nonnull tree,
+                                 MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(tree != nullptr);
+  assert(tree->length != 0);
+  assert(!tree->IsCrc());
+  if (data_.is_tree()) {
+    AppendTreeToTree(tree, method);
+  } else {
+    AppendTreeToInlined(tree, method);
+  }
+}
+
+void Cord::InlineRep::PrependTreeToInlined(CordRep* absl_nonnull tree,
+                                           MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(!is_tree());
+  if (!data_.is_empty()) {
+    CordRepFlat* flat = MakeFlatWithExtraCapacity(0);
+    tree = CordRepBtree::Prepend(CordRepBtree::Create(flat), tree);
+  }
+  EmplaceTree(tree, method);
+}
+
+void Cord::InlineRep::PrependTreeToTree(CordRep* absl_nonnull tree,
+                                        MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(is_tree());
+  const CordzUpdateScope scope(data_.cordz_info(), method);
+  tree = CordRepBtree::Prepend(ForceBtree(data_.as_tree()), tree);
+  SetTree(tree, scope);
+}
+
+void Cord::InlineRep::PrependTree(CordRep* absl_nonnull tree,
+                                  MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(tree != nullptr);
+  assert(tree->length != 0);
+  assert(!tree->IsCrc());
+  if (data_.is_tree()) {
+    PrependTreeToTree(tree, method);
+  } else {
+    PrependTreeToInlined(tree, method);
+  }
+}
+
+// Searches for a non-full flat node at the rightmost leaf of the tree. If a
+// suitable leaf is found, the function will update the length field for all
+// nodes to account for the size increase. The append region address will be
+// written to region and the actual size increase will be written to size.
+static inline bool PrepareAppendRegion(CordRep* absl_nonnull root,
+                                       char* absl_nullable* absl_nonnull region,
+                                       size_t* absl_nonnull size,
+                                       size_t max_length) {
+  if (root->IsBtree() && root->refcount.IsOne()) {
+    Span<char> span = root->btree()->GetAppendBuffer(max_length);
+    if (!span.empty()) {
+      *region = span.data();
+      *size = span.size();
+      return true;
+    }
+  }
+
+  CordRep* dst = root;
+  if (!dst->IsFlat() || !dst->refcount.IsOne()) {
+    *region = nullptr;
+    *size = 0;
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  const size_t in_use = dst->length;
+  const size_t capacity = dst->flat()->Capacity();
+  if (in_use == capacity) {
+    *region = nullptr;
+    *size = 0;
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  const size_t size_increase = std::min(capacity - in_use, max_length);
+  dst->length += size_increase;
+
+  *region = dst->flat()->Data() + in_use;
+  *size = size_increase;
+  return true;
+}
+
+void Cord::InlineRep::AssignSlow(const Cord::InlineRep& src) {
+  assert(&src != this);
+  assert(is_tree() || src.is_tree());
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kAssignCord;
+  if (ABSL_PREDICT_TRUE(!is_tree())) {
+    EmplaceTree(CordRep::Ref(src.as_tree()), src.data_, method);
+    return;
+  }
+
+  CordRep* tree = as_tree();
+  if (CordRep* src_tree = src.tree()) {
+    // Leave any existing `cordz_info` in place, and let MaybeTrackCord()
+    // decide if this cord should be (or remains to be) sampled or not.
+    data_.set_tree(CordRep::Ref(src_tree));
+    CordzInfo::MaybeTrackCord(data_, src.data_, method);
+  } else {
+    CordzInfo::MaybeUntrackCord(data_.cordz_info());
+    data_ = src.data_;
+  }
+  CordRep::Unref(tree);
+}
+
+void Cord::InlineRep::UnrefTree() {
+  if (is_tree()) {
+    CordzInfo::MaybeUntrackCord(data_.cordz_info());
+    CordRep::Unref(tree());
+  }
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Constructors and destructors
+
+Cord::Cord(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method)
+    : contents_(InlineData::kDefaultInit) {
+  const size_t n = src.size();
+  if (n <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
+    contents_.set_data(src.data(), n);
+  } else {
+    CordRep* rep = NewTree(src.data(), n, 0);
+    contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
+  }
+}
+
+template <typename T, Cord::EnableIfString<T>>
+Cord::Cord(T&& src) : contents_(InlineData::kDefaultInit) {
+  if (src.size() <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
+    contents_.set_data(src.data(), src.size());
+  } else {
+    CordRep* rep = CordRepFromString(std::forward<T>(src));
+    contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kConstructorString);
+  }
+}
+
+template Cord::Cord(std::string&& src);
+
+// The destruction code is separate so that the compiler can determine
+// that it does not need to call the destructor on a moved-from Cord.
+void Cord::DestroyCordSlow() {
+  assert(contents_.is_tree());
+  CordzInfo::MaybeUntrackCord(contents_.cordz_info());
+  CordRep::Unref(VerifyTree(contents_.as_tree()));
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Mutators
+
+void Cord::Clear() {
+  if (CordRep* tree = contents_.clear()) {
+    CordRep::Unref(tree);
+  }
+}
+
+Cord& Cord::AssignLargeString(std::string&& src) {
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kAssignString;
+  assert(src.size() > kMaxBytesToCopy);
+  CordRep* rep = CordRepFromString(std::move(src));
+  if (CordRep* tree = contents_.tree()) {
+    CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
+    contents_.SetTree(rep, scope);
+    CordRep::Unref(tree);
+  } else {
+    contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
+  }
+  return *this;
+}
+
+Cord& Cord::operator=(absl::string_view src) {
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kAssignString;
+  const char* data = src.data();
+  size_t length = src.size();
+  CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
+  if (length <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
+    // Embed into this->contents_, which is somewhat subtle:
+    // - MaybeUntrackCord must be called before Unref(tree).
+    // - MaybeUntrackCord must be called before set_data() clobbers cordz_info.
+    // - set_data() must be called before Unref(tree) as it may reference tree.
+    if (tree != nullptr) CordzInfo::MaybeUntrackCord(contents_.cordz_info());
+    contents_.set_data(data, length);
+    if (tree != nullptr) CordRep::Unref(tree);
+    return *this;
+  }
+  if (tree != nullptr) {
+    CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
+    if (tree->IsFlat() && tree->flat()->Capacity() >= length &&
+        tree->refcount.IsOne()) {
+      // Copy in place if the existing FLAT node is reusable.
+      memmove(tree->flat()->Data(), data, length);
+      tree->length = length;
+      VerifyTree(tree);
+      return *this;
+    }
+    contents_.SetTree(NewTree(data, length, 0), scope);
+    CordRep::Unref(tree);
+  } else {
+    contents_.EmplaceTree(NewTree(data, length, 0), method);
+  }
+  return *this;
+}
+
+// TODO(sanjay): Move to Cord::InlineRep section of file.  For now,
+// we keep it here to make diffs easier.
+void Cord::InlineRep::AppendArray(absl::string_view src,
+                                  MethodIdentifier method) {
+  if (src.empty()) return;  // memcpy(_, nullptr, 0) is undefined.
+  MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+
+  size_t appended = 0;
+  CordRep* rep = tree();
+  const CordRep* const root = rep;
+  CordzUpdateScope scope(root ? cordz_info() : nullptr, method);
+  if (root != nullptr) {
+    rep = cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(rep);
+    char* region;
+    if (PrepareAppendRegion(rep, &region, &appended, src.size())) {
+      memcpy(region, src.data(), appended);
+    }
+  } else {
+    // Try to fit in the inline buffer if possible.
+    size_t inline_length = inline_size();
+    if (src.size() <= kMaxInline - inline_length) {
+      // Append new data to embedded array
+      set_inline_size(inline_length + src.size());
+      memcpy(data_.as_chars() + inline_length, src.data(), src.size());
+      return;
+    }
+
+    // Allocate flat to be a perfect fit on first append exceeding inlined size.
+    // Subsequent growth will use amortized growth until we reach maximum flat
+    // size.
+    rep = CordRepFlat::New(inline_length + src.size());
+    appended = std::min(src.size(), rep->flat()->Capacity() - inline_length);
+    memcpy(rep->flat()->Data(), data_.as_chars(), inline_length);
+    memcpy(rep->flat()->Data() + inline_length, src.data(), appended);
+    rep->length = inline_length + appended;
+  }
+
+  src.remove_prefix(appended);
+  if (src.empty()) {
+    CommitTree(root, rep, scope, method);
+    return;
+  }
+
+  // TODO(b/192061034): keep legacy 10% growth rate: consider other rates.
+  rep = ForceBtree(rep);
+  const size_t min_growth = std::max<size_t>(rep->length / 10, src.size());
+  rep = CordRepBtree::Append(rep->btree(), src, min_growth - src.size());
+
+  CommitTree(root, rep, scope, method);
+}
+
+inline CordRep* absl_nonnull Cord::TakeRep() const& {
+  return CordRep::Ref(contents_.tree());
+}
+
+inline CordRep* absl_nonnull Cord::TakeRep() && {
+  CordRep* rep = contents_.tree();
+  contents_.clear();
+  return rep;
+}
+
+template <typename C>
+inline void Cord::AppendImpl(C&& src) {
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kAppendCord;
+
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+  if (src.empty()) return;
+
+  if (empty()) {
+    // Since destination is empty, we can avoid allocating a node,
+    if (src.contents_.is_tree()) {
+      // by taking the tree directly
+      CordRep* rep =
+          cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(std::forward<C>(src).TakeRep());
+      contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
+    } else {
+      // or copying over inline data
+      contents_.data_ = src.contents_.data_;
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+
+  // For short cords, it is faster to copy data if there is room in dst.
+  const size_t src_size = src.contents_.size();
+  if (src_size <= kMaxBytesToCopy) {
+    CordRep* src_tree = src.contents_.tree();
+    if (src_tree == nullptr) {
+      // src has embedded data.
+      contents_.AppendArray({src.contents_.data(), src_size}, method);
+      return;
+    }
+    if (src_tree->IsFlat()) {
+      // src tree just has one flat node.
+      contents_.AppendArray({src_tree->flat()->Data(), src_size}, method);
+      return;
+    }
+    if (&src == this) {
+      // ChunkIterator below assumes that src is not modified during traversal.
+      Append(Cord(src));
+      return;
+    }
+    // TODO(mec): Should we only do this if "dst" has space?
+    for (absl::string_view chunk : src.Chunks()) {
+      Append(chunk);
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+
+  // Guaranteed to be a tree (kMaxBytesToCopy > kInlinedSize)
+  CordRep* rep = cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(std::forward<C>(src).TakeRep());
+  contents_.AppendTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kAppendCord);
+}
+
+static CordRep::ExtractResult ExtractAppendBuffer(CordRep* absl_nonnull rep,
+                                                  size_t min_capacity) {
+  switch (rep->tag) {
+    case cord_internal::BTREE:
+      return CordRepBtree::ExtractAppendBuffer(rep->btree(), min_capacity);
+    default:
+      if (rep->IsFlat() && rep->refcount.IsOne() &&
+          rep->flat()->Capacity() - rep->length >= min_capacity) {
+        return {nullptr, rep};
+      }
+      return {rep, nullptr};
+  }
+}
+
+static CordBuffer CreateAppendBuffer(InlineData& data, size_t block_size,
+                                     size_t capacity) {
+  // Watch out for overflow, people can ask for size_t::max().
+  const size_t size = data.inline_size();
+  const size_t max_capacity = std::numeric_limits<size_t>::max() - size;
+  capacity = (std::min)(max_capacity, capacity) + size;
+  CordBuffer buffer =
+      block_size ? CordBuffer::CreateWithCustomLimit(block_size, capacity)
+                 : CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(capacity);
+  cord_internal::SmallMemmove(buffer.data(), data.as_chars(), size);
+  buffer.SetLength(size);
+  data = {};
+  return buffer;
+}
+
+CordBuffer Cord::GetAppendBufferSlowPath(size_t block_size, size_t capacity,
+                                         size_t min_capacity) {
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kGetAppendBuffer;
+  CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
+  if (tree != nullptr) {
+    CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
+    CordRep::ExtractResult result = ExtractAppendBuffer(tree, min_capacity);
+    if (result.extracted != nullptr) {
+      contents_.SetTreeOrEmpty(result.tree, scope);
+      return CordBuffer(result.extracted->flat());
+    }
+    return block_size ? CordBuffer::CreateWithCustomLimit(block_size, capacity)
+                      : CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(capacity);
+  }
+  return CreateAppendBuffer(contents_.data_, block_size, capacity);
+}
+
+void Cord::Append(const Cord& src) { AppendImpl(src); }
+
+void Cord::Append(Cord&& src) { AppendImpl(std::move(src)); }
+
+template <typename T, Cord::EnableIfString<T>>
+void Cord::Append(T&& src) {
+  if (src.size() <= kMaxBytesToCopy) {
+    Append(absl::string_view(src));
+  } else {
+    CordRep* rep = CordRepFromString(std::forward<T>(src));
+    contents_.AppendTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kAppendString);
+  }
+}
+
+template void Cord::Append(std::string&& src);
+
+void Cord::Prepend(const Cord& src) {
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+  if (src.empty()) return;
+
+  CordRep* src_tree = src.contents_.tree();
+  if (src_tree != nullptr) {
+    CordRep::Ref(src_tree);
+    contents_.PrependTree(cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(src_tree),
+                          CordzUpdateTracker::kPrependCord);
+    return;
+  }
+
+  // `src` cord is inlined.
+  absl::string_view src_contents(src.contents_.data(), src.contents_.size());
+  return Prepend(src_contents);
+}
+
+void Cord::PrependArray(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method) {
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+  if (src.empty()) return;  // memcpy(_, nullptr, 0) is undefined.
+
+  if (!contents_.is_tree()) {
+    size_t cur_size = contents_.inline_size();
+    if (cur_size + src.size() <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
+      // Use embedded storage.
+      InlineData data;
+      data.set_inline_size(cur_size + src.size());
+      memcpy(data.as_chars(), src.data(), src.size());
+      memcpy(data.as_chars() + src.size(), contents_.data(), cur_size);
+      contents_.data_ = data;
+      return;
+    }
+  }
+  CordRep* rep = NewTree(src.data(), src.size(), 0);
+  contents_.PrependTree(rep, method);
+}
+
+void Cord::AppendPrecise(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(!src.empty());
+  assert(src.size() <= cord_internal::kMaxFlatLength);
+  if (contents_.remaining_inline_capacity() >= src.size()) {
+    const size_t inline_length = contents_.inline_size();
+    contents_.set_inline_size(inline_length + src.size());
+    memcpy(contents_.data_.as_chars() + inline_length, src.data(), src.size());
+  } else {
+    contents_.AppendTree(CordRepFlat::Create(src), method);
+  }
+}
+
+void Cord::PrependPrecise(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(!src.empty());
+  assert(src.size() <= cord_internal::kMaxFlatLength);
+  if (contents_.remaining_inline_capacity() >= src.size()) {
+    const size_t cur_size = contents_.inline_size();
+    InlineData data;
+    data.set_inline_size(cur_size + src.size());
+    memcpy(data.as_chars(), src.data(), src.size());
+    memcpy(data.as_chars() + src.size(), contents_.data(), cur_size);
+    contents_.data_ = data;
+  } else {
+    contents_.PrependTree(CordRepFlat::Create(src), method);
+  }
+}
+
+template <typename T, Cord::EnableIfString<T>>
+inline void Cord::Prepend(T&& src) {
+  if (src.size() <= kMaxBytesToCopy) {
+    Prepend(absl::string_view(src));
+  } else {
+    CordRep* rep = CordRepFromString(std::forward<T>(src));
+    contents_.PrependTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kPrependString);
+  }
+}
+
+template void Cord::Prepend(std::string&& src);
+
+void Cord::RemovePrefix(size_t n) {
+  ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(n <= size(),
+                      absl::StrCat("Requested prefix size ", n,
+                                   " exceeds Cord's size ", size()));
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+  CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
+  if (tree == nullptr) {
+    contents_.remove_prefix(n);
+  } else {
+    auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kRemovePrefix;
+    CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
+    tree = cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(tree);
+    if (n >= tree->length) {
+      CordRep::Unref(tree);
+      tree = nullptr;
+    } else if (tree->IsBtree()) {
+      CordRep* old = tree;
+      tree = tree->btree()->SubTree(n, tree->length - n);
+      CordRep::Unref(old);
+    } else if (tree->IsSubstring() && tree->refcount.IsOne()) {
+      tree->substring()->start += n;
+      tree->length -= n;
+    } else {
+      CordRep* rep = CordRepSubstring::Substring(tree, n, tree->length - n);
+      CordRep::Unref(tree);
+      tree = rep;
+    }
+    contents_.SetTreeOrEmpty(tree, scope);
+  }
+}
+
+void Cord::RemoveSuffix(size_t n) {
+  ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(n <= size(),
+                      absl::StrCat("Requested suffix size ", n,
+                                   " exceeds Cord's size ", size()));
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+  CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
+  if (tree == nullptr) {
+    contents_.reduce_size(n);
+  } else {
+    auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kRemoveSuffix;
+    CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
+    tree = cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(tree);
+    if (n >= tree->length) {
+      CordRep::Unref(tree);
+      tree = nullptr;
+    } else if (tree->IsBtree()) {
+      tree = CordRepBtree::RemoveSuffix(tree->btree(), n);
+    } else if (!tree->IsExternal() && tree->refcount.IsOne()) {
+      assert(tree->IsFlat() || tree->IsSubstring());
+      tree->length -= n;
+    } else {
+      CordRep* rep = CordRepSubstring::Substring(tree, 0, tree->length - n);
+      CordRep::Unref(tree);
+      tree = rep;
+    }
+    contents_.SetTreeOrEmpty(tree, scope);
+  }
+}
+
+Cord Cord::Subcord(size_t pos, size_t new_size) const {
+  Cord sub_cord;
+  size_t length = size();
+  if (pos > length) pos = length;
+  if (new_size > length - pos) new_size = length - pos;
+  if (new_size == 0) return sub_cord;
+
+  CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
+  if (tree == nullptr) {
+    sub_cord.contents_.set_data(contents_.data() + pos, new_size);
+    return sub_cord;
+  }
+
+  if (new_size <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
+    sub_cord.contents_.set_inline_size(new_size);
+    char* dest = sub_cord.contents_.data_.as_chars();
+    Cord::ChunkIterator it = chunk_begin();
+    it.AdvanceBytes(pos);
+    size_t remaining_size = new_size;
+    while (remaining_size > it->size()) {
+      cord_internal::SmallMemmove(dest, it->data(), it->size());
+      remaining_size -= it->size();
+      dest += it->size();
+      ++it;
+    }
+    cord_internal::SmallMemmove(dest, it->data(), remaining_size);
+    return sub_cord;
+  }
+
+  tree = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(tree);
+  if (tree->IsBtree()) {
+    tree = tree->btree()->SubTree(pos, new_size);
+  } else {
+    tree = CordRepSubstring::Substring(tree, pos, new_size);
+  }
+  sub_cord.contents_.EmplaceTree(tree, contents_.data_,
+                                 CordzUpdateTracker::kSubCord);
+  return sub_cord;
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Comparators
+
+namespace {
+
+int ClampResult(int memcmp_res) {
+  return static_cast<int>(memcmp_res > 0) - static_cast<int>(memcmp_res < 0);
+}
+
+int CompareChunks(absl::string_view* absl_nonnull lhs,
+                  absl::string_view* absl_nonnull rhs,
+                  size_t* absl_nonnull size_to_compare) {
+  size_t compared_size = std::min(lhs->size(), rhs->size());
+  assert(*size_to_compare >= compared_size);
+  *size_to_compare -= compared_size;
+
+  int memcmp_res = ::memcmp(lhs->data(), rhs->data(), compared_size);
+  if (memcmp_res != 0) return memcmp_res;
+
+  lhs->remove_prefix(compared_size);
+  rhs->remove_prefix(compared_size);
+
+  return 0;
+}
+
+// This overload set computes comparison results from memcmp result. This
+// interface is used inside GenericCompare below. Different implementations
+// are specialized for int and bool. For int we clamp result to {-1, 0, 1}
+// set. For bool we just interested in "value == 0".
+template <typename ResultType>
+ResultType ComputeCompareResult(int memcmp_res) {
+  return ClampResult(memcmp_res);
+}
+template <>
+bool ComputeCompareResult<bool>(int memcmp_res) {
+  return memcmp_res == 0;
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+// Helper routine. Locates the first flat or external chunk of the Cord without
+// initializing the iterator, and returns a string_view referencing the data.
+inline absl::string_view Cord::InlineRep::FindFlatStartPiece() const {
+  if (!is_tree()) {
+    return absl::string_view(data_.as_chars(), data_.inline_size());
+  }
+
+  CordRep* node = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(tree());
+  if (node->IsFlat()) {
+    return absl::string_view(node->flat()->Data(), node->length);
+  }
+
+  if (node->IsExternal()) {
+    return absl::string_view(node->external()->base, node->length);
+  }
+
+  if (node->IsBtree()) {
+    CordRepBtree* tree = node->btree();
+    int height = tree->height();
+    while (--height >= 0) {
+      tree = tree->Edge(CordRepBtree::kFront)->btree();
+    }
+    return tree->Data(tree->begin());
+  }
+
+  // Get the child node if we encounter a SUBSTRING.
+  size_t offset = 0;
+  size_t length = node->length;
+  assert(length != 0);
+
+  if (node->IsSubstring()) {
+    offset = node->substring()->start;
+    node = node->substring()->child;
+  }
+
+  if (node->IsFlat()) {
+    return absl::string_view(node->flat()->Data() + offset, length);
+  }
+
+  assert(node->IsExternal() && "Expect FLAT or EXTERNAL node here");
+
+  return absl::string_view(node->external()->base + offset, length);
+}
+
+void Cord::SetCrcCordState(crc_internal::CrcCordState state) {
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kSetExpectedChecksum;
+  if (empty()) {
+    contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+    CordRep* rep = CordRepCrc::New(nullptr, std::move(state));
+    contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
+  } else if (!contents_.is_tree()) {
+    CordRep* rep = contents_.MakeFlatWithExtraCapacity(0);
+    rep = CordRepCrc::New(rep, std::move(state));
+    contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
+  } else {
+    const CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.data_.cordz_info(), method);
+    CordRep* rep = CordRepCrc::New(contents_.data_.as_tree(), std::move(state));
+    contents_.SetTree(rep, scope);
+  }
+}
+
+void Cord::SetExpectedChecksum(uint32_t crc) {
+  // Construct a CrcCordState with a single chunk.
+  crc_internal::CrcCordState state;
+  state.mutable_rep()->prefix_crc.push_back(
+      crc_internal::CrcCordState::PrefixCrc(size(), absl::crc32c_t{crc}));
+  SetCrcCordState(std::move(state));
+}
+
+const crc_internal::CrcCordState* absl_nullable Cord::MaybeGetCrcCordState()
+    const {
+  if (!contents_.is_tree() || !contents_.tree()->IsCrc()) {
+    return nullptr;
+  }
+  return &contents_.tree()->crc()->crc_cord_state;
+}
+
+absl::optional<uint32_t> Cord::ExpectedChecksum() const {
+  if (!contents_.is_tree() || !contents_.tree()->IsCrc()) {
+    return absl::nullopt;
+  }
+  return static_cast<uint32_t>(
+      contents_.tree()->crc()->crc_cord_state.Checksum());
+}
+
+inline int Cord::CompareSlowPath(absl::string_view rhs, size_t compared_size,
+                                 size_t size_to_compare) const {
+  auto advance = [](Cord::ChunkIterator* absl_nonnull it,
+                    absl::string_view* absl_nonnull chunk) {
+    if (!chunk->empty()) return true;
+    ++*it;
+    if (it->bytes_remaining_ == 0) return false;
+    *chunk = **it;
+    return true;
+  };
+
+  Cord::ChunkIterator lhs_it = chunk_begin();
+
+  // compared_size is inside first chunk.
+  absl::string_view lhs_chunk =
+      (lhs_it.bytes_remaining_ != 0) ? *lhs_it : absl::string_view();
+  assert(compared_size <= lhs_chunk.size());
+  assert(compared_size <= rhs.size());
+  lhs_chunk.remove_prefix(compared_size);
+  rhs.remove_prefix(compared_size);
+  size_to_compare -= compared_size;  // skip already compared size.
+
+  while (advance(&lhs_it, &lhs_chunk) && !rhs.empty()) {
+    int comparison_result = CompareChunks(&lhs_chunk, &rhs, &size_to_compare);
+    if (comparison_result != 0) return comparison_result;
+    if (size_to_compare == 0) return 0;
+  }
+
+  return static_cast<int>(rhs.empty()) - static_cast<int>(lhs_chunk.empty());
+}
+
+inline int Cord::CompareSlowPath(const Cord& rhs, size_t compared_size,
+                                 size_t size_to_compare) const {
+  auto advance = [](Cord::ChunkIterator* absl_nonnull it,
+                    absl::string_view* absl_nonnull chunk) {
+    if (!chunk->empty()) return true;
+    ++*it;
+    if (it->bytes_remaining_ == 0) return false;
+    *chunk = **it;
+    return true;
+  };
+
+  Cord::ChunkIterator lhs_it = chunk_begin();
+  Cord::ChunkIterator rhs_it = rhs.chunk_begin();
+
+  // compared_size is inside both first chunks.
+  absl::string_view lhs_chunk =
+      (lhs_it.bytes_remaining_ != 0) ? *lhs_it : absl::string_view();
+  absl::string_view rhs_chunk =
+      (rhs_it.bytes_remaining_ != 0) ? *rhs_it : absl::string_view();
+  assert(compared_size <= lhs_chunk.size());
+  assert(compared_size <= rhs_chunk.size());
+  lhs_chunk.remove_prefix(compared_size);
+  rhs_chunk.remove_prefix(compared_size);
+  size_to_compare -= compared_size;  // skip already compared size.
+
+  while (advance(&lhs_it, &lhs_chunk) && advance(&rhs_it, &rhs_chunk)) {
+    int memcmp_res = CompareChunks(&lhs_chunk, &rhs_chunk, &size_to_compare);
+    if (memcmp_res != 0) return memcmp_res;
+    if (size_to_compare == 0) return 0;
+  }
+
+  return static_cast<int>(rhs_chunk.empty()) -
+         static_cast<int>(lhs_chunk.empty());
+}
+
+inline absl::string_view Cord::GetFirstChunk(const Cord& c) {
+  if (c.empty()) return {};
+  return c.contents_.FindFlatStartPiece();
+}
+inline absl::string_view Cord::GetFirstChunk(absl::string_view sv) {
+  return sv;
+}
+
+// Compares up to 'size_to_compare' bytes of 'lhs' with 'rhs'. It is assumed
+// that 'size_to_compare' is greater that size of smallest of first chunks.
+template <typename ResultType, typename RHS>
+ResultType GenericCompare(const Cord& lhs, const RHS& rhs,
+                          size_t size_to_compare) {
+  absl::string_view lhs_chunk = Cord::GetFirstChunk(lhs);
+  absl::string_view rhs_chunk = Cord::GetFirstChunk(rhs);
+
+  size_t compared_size = std::min(lhs_chunk.size(), rhs_chunk.size());
+  assert(size_to_compare >= compared_size);
+  int memcmp_res = compared_size > 0 ? ::memcmp(lhs_chunk.data(),
+                                                rhs_chunk.data(), compared_size)
+                                     : 0;
+  if (compared_size == size_to_compare || memcmp_res != 0) {
+    return ComputeCompareResult<ResultType>(memcmp_res);
+  }
+
+  return ComputeCompareResult<ResultType>(
+      lhs.CompareSlowPath(rhs, compared_size, size_to_compare));
+}
+
+bool Cord::EqualsImpl(absl::string_view rhs, size_t size_to_compare) const {
+  return GenericCompare<bool>(*this, rhs, size_to_compare);
+}
+
+bool Cord::EqualsImpl(const Cord& rhs, size_t size_to_compare) const {
+  return GenericCompare<bool>(*this, rhs, size_to_compare);
+}
+
+template <typename RHS>
+inline int SharedCompareImpl(const Cord& lhs, const RHS& rhs) {
+  size_t lhs_size = lhs.size();
+  size_t rhs_size = rhs.size();
+  if (lhs_size == rhs_size) {
+    return GenericCompare<int>(lhs, rhs, lhs_size);
+  }
+  if (lhs_size < rhs_size) {
+    auto data_comp_res = GenericCompare<int>(lhs, rhs, lhs_size);
+    return data_comp_res == 0 ? -1 : data_comp_res;
+  }
+
+  auto data_comp_res = GenericCompare<int>(lhs, rhs, rhs_size);
+  return data_comp_res == 0 ? +1 : data_comp_res;
+}
+
+int Cord::Compare(absl::string_view rhs) const {
+  return SharedCompareImpl(*this, rhs);
+}
+
+int Cord::CompareImpl(const Cord& rhs) const {
+  return SharedCompareImpl(*this, rhs);
+}
+
+bool Cord::EndsWith(absl::string_view rhs) const {
+  size_t my_size = size();
+  size_t rhs_size = rhs.size();
+
+  if (my_size < rhs_size) return false;
+
+  Cord tmp(*this);
+  tmp.RemovePrefix(my_size - rhs_size);
+  return tmp.EqualsImpl(rhs, rhs_size);
+}
+
+bool Cord::EndsWith(const Cord& rhs) const {
+  size_t my_size = size();
+  size_t rhs_size = rhs.size();
+
+  if (my_size < rhs_size) return false;
+
+  Cord tmp(*this);
+  tmp.RemovePrefix(my_size - rhs_size);
+  return tmp.EqualsImpl(rhs, rhs_size);
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Misc.
+
+Cord::operator std::string() const {
+  std::string s;
+  absl::CopyCordToString(*this, &s);
+  return s;
+}
+
+void CopyCordToString(const Cord& src, std::string* absl_nonnull dst) {
+  if (!src.contents_.is_tree()) {
+    src.contents_.CopyTo(dst);
+  } else {
+    StringResizeAndOverwrite(*dst, src.size(),
+                             [&src](char* buf, size_t buf_size) {
+                               src.CopyToArraySlowPath(buf);
+                               return buf_size;
+                             });
+  }
+}
+
+void AppendCordToString(const Cord& src, std::string* absl_nonnull dst) {
+  strings_internal::StringAppendAndOverwrite(
+      *dst, src.size(), [&src](char* buf, size_t buf_size) {
+        src.CopyToArrayImpl(buf);
+        return buf_size;
+      });
+}
+
+void Cord::CopyToArraySlowPath(char* absl_nonnull dst) const {
+  assert(contents_.is_tree());
+  absl::string_view fragment;
+  if (GetFlatAux(contents_.tree(), &fragment) && !fragment.empty()) {
+    memcpy(dst, fragment.data(), fragment.size());
+    return;
+  }
+  for (absl::string_view chunk : Chunks()) {
+    memcpy(dst, chunk.data(), chunk.size());
+    dst += chunk.size();
+  }
+}
+
+Cord Cord::ChunkIterator::AdvanceAndReadBytes(size_t n) {
+  ABSL_HARDENING_ASSERT(bytes_remaining_ >= n &&
+                        "Attempted to iterate past `end()`");
+  Cord subcord;
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kCordReader;
+
+  if (n <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
+    // Range to read fits in inline data. Flatten it.
+    char* data = subcord.contents_.set_data(n);
+    while (n > current_chunk_.size()) {
+      memcpy(data, current_chunk_.data(), current_chunk_.size());
+      data += current_chunk_.size();
+      n -= current_chunk_.size();
+      ++*this;
+    }
+    memcpy(data, current_chunk_.data(), n);
+    if (n < current_chunk_.size()) {
+      RemoveChunkPrefix(n);
+    } else if (n > 0) {
+      ++*this;
+    }
+    return subcord;
+  }
+
+  if (btree_reader_) {
+    size_t chunk_size = current_chunk_.size();
+    if (n <= chunk_size && n <= kMaxBytesToCopy) {
+      subcord = Cord(current_chunk_.substr(0, n), method);
+      if (n < chunk_size) {
+        current_chunk_.remove_prefix(n);
+      } else {
+        current_chunk_ = btree_reader_.Next();
+      }
+    } else {
+      CordRep* rep;
+      current_chunk_ = btree_reader_.Read(n, chunk_size, rep);
+      subcord.contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
+    }
+    bytes_remaining_ -= n;
+    return subcord;
+  }
+
+  // Short circuit if reading the entire data edge.
+  assert(current_leaf_ != nullptr);
+  if (n == current_leaf_->length) {
+    bytes_remaining_ = 0;
+    current_chunk_ = {};
+    CordRep* tree = CordRep::Ref(current_leaf_);
+    subcord.contents_.EmplaceTree(VerifyTree(tree), method);
+    return subcord;
+  }
+
+  // From this point on, we need a partial substring node.
+  // Get pointer to the underlying flat or external data payload and
+  // compute data pointer and offset into current flat or external.
+  CordRep* payload = current_leaf_->IsSubstring()
+                         ? current_leaf_->substring()->child
+                         : current_leaf_;
+  const char* data = payload->IsExternal() ? payload->external()->base
+                                           : payload->flat()->Data();
+  const size_t offset = static_cast<size_t>(current_chunk_.data() - data);
+
+  auto* tree = CordRepSubstring::Substring(payload, offset, n);
+  subcord.contents_.EmplaceTree(VerifyTree(tree), method);
+  bytes_remaining_ -= n;
+  current_chunk_.remove_prefix(n);
+  return subcord;
+}
+
+char Cord::operator[](size_t i) const {
+  ABSL_HARDENING_ASSERT(i < size());
+  size_t offset = i;
+  const CordRep* rep = contents_.tree();
+  if (rep == nullptr) {
+    return contents_.data()[i];
+  }
+  rep = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(rep);
+  while (true) {
+    assert(rep != nullptr);
+    assert(offset < rep->length);
+    if (rep->IsFlat()) {
+      // Get the "i"th character directly from the flat array.
+      return rep->flat()->Data()[offset];
+    } else if (rep->IsBtree()) {
+      return rep->btree()->GetCharacter(offset);
+    } else if (rep->IsExternal()) {
+      // Get the "i"th character from the external array.
+      return rep->external()->base[offset];
+    } else {
+      // This must be a substring a node, so bypass it to get to the child.
+      assert(rep->IsSubstring());
+      offset += rep->substring()->start;
+      rep = rep->substring()->child;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+namespace {
+
+// Tests whether the sequence of chunks beginning at `position` starts with
+// `needle`.
+//
+// REQUIRES: remaining `absl::Cord` starting at `position` is greater than or
+// equal to `needle.size()`.
+bool IsSubstringInCordAt(absl::Cord::CharIterator position,
+                         absl::string_view needle) {
+  auto haystack_chunk = absl::Cord::ChunkRemaining(position);
+  while (true) {
+    // Precondition is that `absl::Cord::ChunkRemaining(position)` is not
+    // empty. This assert will trigger if that is not true.
+    assert(!haystack_chunk.empty());
+    auto min_length = std::min(haystack_chunk.size(), needle.size());
+    if (!absl::ConsumePrefix(&needle, haystack_chunk.substr(0, min_length))) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    if (needle.empty()) {
+      return true;
+    }
+    absl::Cord::Advance(&position, min_length);
+    haystack_chunk = absl::Cord::ChunkRemaining(position);
+  }
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+// A few options how this could be implemented:
+// (a) Flatten the Cord and find, i.e.
+//       haystack.Flatten().find(needle)
+//     For large 'haystack' (where Cord makes sense to be used), this copies
+//     the whole 'haystack' and can be slow.
+// (b) Use std::search, i.e.
+//       std::search(haystack.char_begin(), haystack.char_end(),
+//                   needle.begin(), needle.end())
+//     This avoids the copy, but compares one byte at a time, and branches a
+//     lot every time it has to advance. It is also not possible to use
+//     std::search as is, because CharIterator is only an input iterator, not a
+//     forward iterator.
+// (c) Use string_view::find in each fragment, and specifically handle fragment
+//     boundaries.
+//
+// This currently implements option (b).
+absl::Cord::CharIterator absl::Cord::FindImpl(CharIterator it,
+                                              absl::string_view needle) const {
+  // Ensure preconditions are met by callers first.
+
+  // Needle must not be empty.
+  assert(!needle.empty());
+  // Haystack must be at least as large as needle.
+  assert(it.chunk_iterator_.bytes_remaining_ >= needle.size());
+
+  // Cord is a sequence of chunks. To find `needle` we go chunk by chunk looking
+  // for the first char of needle, up until we have advanced `N` defined as
+  // `haystack.size() - needle.size()`. If we find the first char of needle at
+  // `P` and `P` is less than `N`, we then call `IsSubstringInCordAt` to
+  // see if this is the needle. If not, we advance to `P + 1` and try again.
+  while (it.chunk_iterator_.bytes_remaining_ >= needle.size()) {
+    auto haystack_chunk = Cord::ChunkRemaining(it);
+    assert(!haystack_chunk.empty());
+    // Look for the first char of `needle` in the current chunk.
+    auto idx = haystack_chunk.find(needle.front());
+    if (idx == absl::string_view::npos) {
+      // No potential match in this chunk, advance past it.
+      Cord::Advance(&it, haystack_chunk.size());
+      continue;
+    }
+    // We found the start of a potential match in the chunk. Advance the
+    // iterator and haystack chunk to the match the position.
+    Cord::Advance(&it, idx);
+    // Check if there is enough haystack remaining to actually have a match.
+    if (it.chunk_iterator_.bytes_remaining_ < needle.size()) {
+      break;
+    }
+    // Check if this is `needle`.
+    if (IsSubstringInCordAt(it, needle)) {
+      return it;
+    }
+    // No match, increment the iterator for the next attempt.
+    Cord::Advance(&it, 1);
+  }
+  // If we got here, we did not find `needle`.
+  return char_end();
+}
+
+absl::Cord::CharIterator absl::Cord::Find(absl::string_view needle) const {
+  if (needle.empty()) {
+    return char_begin();
+  }
+  if (needle.size() > size()) {
+    return char_end();
+  }
+  if (needle.size() == size()) {
+    return *this == needle ? char_begin() : char_end();
+  }
+  return FindImpl(char_begin(), needle);
+}
+
+namespace {
+
+// Tests whether the sequence of chunks beginning at `haystack` starts with the
+// sequence of chunks beginning at `needle_begin` and extending to `needle_end`.
+//
+// REQUIRES: remaining `absl::Cord` starting at `position` is greater than or
+// equal to `needle_end - needle_begin` and `advance`.
+bool IsSubcordInCordAt(absl::Cord::CharIterator haystack,
+                       absl::Cord::CharIterator needle_begin,
+                       absl::Cord::CharIterator needle_end) {
+  while (needle_begin != needle_end) {
+    auto haystack_chunk = absl::Cord::ChunkRemaining(haystack);
+    assert(!haystack_chunk.empty());
+    auto needle_chunk = absl::Cord::ChunkRemaining(needle_begin);
+    auto min_length = std::min(haystack_chunk.size(), needle_chunk.size());
+    if (haystack_chunk.substr(0, min_length) !=
+        needle_chunk.substr(0, min_length)) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    absl::Cord::Advance(&haystack, min_length);
+    absl::Cord::Advance(&needle_begin, min_length);
+  }
+  return true;
+}
+
+// Tests whether the sequence of chunks beginning at `position` starts with the
+// cord `needle`.
+//
+// REQUIRES: remaining `absl::Cord` starting at `position` is greater than or
+// equal to `needle.size()`.
+bool IsSubcordInCordAt(absl::Cord::CharIterator position,
+                       const absl::Cord& needle) {
+  return IsSubcordInCordAt(position, needle.char_begin(), needle.char_end());
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+absl::Cord::CharIterator absl::Cord::Find(const absl::Cord& needle) const {
+  if (needle.empty()) {
+    return char_begin();
+  }
+  const auto needle_size = needle.size();
+  if (needle_size > size()) {
+    return char_end();
+  }
+  if (needle_size == size()) {
+    return *this == needle ? char_begin() : char_end();
+  }
+  const auto needle_chunk = Cord::ChunkRemaining(needle.char_begin());
+  auto haystack_it = char_begin();
+  while (true) {
+    haystack_it = FindImpl(haystack_it, needle_chunk);
+    if (haystack_it == char_end() ||
+        haystack_it.chunk_iterator_.bytes_remaining_ < needle_size) {
+      break;
+    }
+    // We found the first chunk of `needle` at `haystack_it` but not the entire
+    // subcord. Advance past the first chunk and check for the remainder.
+    auto haystack_advanced_it = haystack_it;
+    auto needle_it = needle.char_begin();
+    Cord::Advance(&haystack_advanced_it, needle_chunk.size());
+    Cord::Advance(&needle_it, needle_chunk.size());
+    if (IsSubcordInCordAt(haystack_advanced_it, needle_it, needle.char_end())) {
+      return haystack_it;
+    }
+    Cord::Advance(&haystack_it, 1);
+    if (haystack_it.chunk_iterator_.bytes_remaining_ < needle_size) {
+      break;
+    }
+    if (haystack_it.chunk_iterator_.bytes_remaining_ == needle_size) {
+      // Special case, if there is exactly `needle_size` bytes remaining, the
+      // subcord is either at `haystack_it` or not at all.
+      if (IsSubcordInCordAt(haystack_it, needle)) {
+        return haystack_it;
+      }
+      break;
+    }
+  }
+  return char_end();
+}
+
+bool Cord::Contains(absl::string_view rhs) const {
+  return rhs.empty() || Find(rhs) != char_end();
+}
+
+bool Cord::Contains(const absl::Cord& rhs) const {
+  return rhs.empty() || Find(rhs) != char_end();
+}
+
+absl::string_view Cord::FlattenSlowPath() {
+  assert(contents_.is_tree());
+  size_t total_size = size();
+  CordRep* new_rep;
+  char* new_buffer;
+
+  // Try to put the contents into a new flat rep. If they won't fit in the
+  // biggest possible flat node, use an external rep instead.
+  if (total_size <= kMaxFlatLength) {
+    new_rep = CordRepFlat::New(total_size);
+    new_rep->length = total_size;
+    new_buffer = new_rep->flat()->Data();
+    CopyToArraySlowPath(new_buffer);
+  } else {
+    new_buffer = std::allocator<char>().allocate(total_size);
+    CopyToArraySlowPath(new_buffer);
+    new_rep = absl::cord_internal::NewExternalRep(
+        absl::string_view(new_buffer, total_size), [](absl::string_view s) {
+          std::allocator<char>().deallocate(const_cast<char*>(s.data()),
+                                            s.size());
+        });
+  }
+  CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), CordzUpdateTracker::kFlatten);
+  CordRep::Unref(contents_.as_tree());
+  contents_.SetTree(new_rep, scope);
+  return absl::string_view(new_buffer, total_size);
+}
+
+/* static */ bool Cord::GetFlatAux(CordRep* absl_nonnull rep,
+                                   absl::string_view* absl_nonnull fragment) {
+  assert(rep != nullptr);
+  if (rep->length == 0) {
+    *fragment = absl::string_view();
+    return true;
+  }
+  rep = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(rep);
+  if (rep->IsFlat()) {
+    *fragment = absl::string_view(rep->flat()->Data(), rep->length);
+    return true;
+  } else if (rep->IsExternal()) {
+    *fragment = absl::string_view(rep->external()->base, rep->length);
+    return true;
+  } else if (rep->IsBtree()) {
+    return rep->btree()->IsFlat(fragment);
+  } else if (rep->IsSubstring()) {
+    CordRep* child = rep->substring()->child;
+    if (child->IsFlat()) {
+      *fragment = absl::string_view(
+          child->flat()->Data() + rep->substring()->start, rep->length);
+      return true;
+    } else if (child->IsExternal()) {
+      *fragment = absl::string_view(
+          child->external()->base + rep->substring()->start, rep->length);
+      return true;
+    } else if (child->IsBtree()) {
+      return child->btree()->IsFlat(rep->substring()->start, rep->length,
+                                    fragment);
+    }
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+
+/* static */ void Cord::ForEachChunkAux(
+    absl::cord_internal::CordRep* absl_nonnull rep,
+    absl::FunctionRef<void(absl::string_view)> callback) {
+  assert(rep != nullptr);
+  if (rep->length == 0) return;
+  rep = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(rep);
+
+  if (rep->IsBtree()) {
+    ChunkIterator it(rep), end;
+    while (it != end) {
+      callback(*it);
+      ++it;
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+
+  // This is a leaf node, so invoke our callback.
+  absl::cord_internal::CordRep* current_node = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(rep);
+  absl::string_view chunk;
+  bool success = GetFlatAux(current_node, &chunk);
+  assert(success);
+  if (success) {
+    callback(chunk);
+  }
+}
+
+static void DumpNode(CordRep* absl_nonnull nonnull_rep, bool include_data,
+                     std::ostream* absl_nonnull os, int indent) {
+  CordRep* rep = nonnull_rep;
+  const int kIndentStep = 1;
+  for (;;) {
+    *os << std::setw(3) << (rep == nullptr ? 0 : rep->refcount.Get());
+    *os << " " << std::setw(7) << (rep == nullptr ? 0 : rep->length);
+    *os << " [";
+    if (include_data) *os << static_cast<void*>(rep);
+    *os << "]";
+    *os << " " << std::setw(indent) << "";
+    bool leaf = false;
+    if (rep == nullptr) {
+      *os << "NULL\n";
+      leaf = true;
+    } else if (rep->IsCrc()) {
+      *os << "CRC crc=" << rep->crc()->crc_cord_state.Checksum() << "\n";
+      indent += kIndentStep;
+      rep = rep->crc()->child;
+    } else if (rep->IsSubstring()) {
+      *os << "SUBSTRING @ " << rep->substring()->start << "\n";
+      indent += kIndentStep;
+      rep = rep->substring()->child;
+    } else {  // Leaf or ring
+      leaf = true;
+      if (rep->IsExternal()) {
+        *os << "EXTERNAL [";
+        if (include_data)
+          *os << absl::CEscape(
+              absl::string_view(rep->external()->base, rep->length));
+        *os << "]\n";
+      } else if (rep->IsFlat()) {
+        *os << "FLAT cap=" << rep->flat()->Capacity() << " [";
+        if (include_data)
+          *os << absl::CEscape(
+              absl::string_view(rep->flat()->Data(), rep->length));
+        *os << "]\n";
+      } else {
+        CordRepBtree::Dump(rep, /*label=*/"", include_data, *os);
+      }
+    }
+    if (leaf) {
+      break;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+static std::string ReportError(CordRep* absl_nonnull root,
+                               CordRep* absl_nonnull node) {
+  std::ostringstream buf;
+  buf << "Error at node " << node << " in:";
+  DumpNode(root, true, &buf);
+  return buf.str();
+}
+
+static bool VerifyNode(CordRep* absl_nonnull root,
+                       CordRep* absl_nonnull start_node) {
+  absl::InlinedVector<CordRep* absl_nonnull, 2> worklist;
+  worklist.push_back(start_node);
+  do {
+    CordRep* node = worklist.back();
+    worklist.pop_back();
+
+    ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node != nullptr, ReportError(root, node));
+    if (node != root) {
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->length != 0, ReportError(root, node));
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(!node->IsCrc(), ReportError(root, node));
+    }
+
+    if (node->IsFlat()) {
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->length <= node->flat()->Capacity(),
+                          ReportError(root, node));
+    } else if (node->IsExternal()) {
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->external()->base != nullptr,
+                          ReportError(root, node));
+    } else if (node->IsSubstring()) {
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(
+          node->substring()->start < node->substring()->child->length,
+          ReportError(root, node));
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->substring()->start + node->length <=
+                              node->substring()->child->length,
+                          ReportError(root, node));
+    } else if (node->IsCrc()) {
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(
+          node->crc()->child != nullptr || node->crc()->length == 0,
+          ReportError(root, node));
+      if (node->crc()->child != nullptr) {
+        ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->crc()->length == node->crc()->child->length,
+                            ReportError(root, node));
+        worklist.push_back(node->crc()->child);
+      }
+    }
+  } while (!worklist.empty());
+  return true;
+}
+
+std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& out, const Cord& cord) {
+  for (absl::string_view chunk : cord.Chunks()) {
+    out.write(chunk.data(), static_cast<std::streamsize>(chunk.size()));
+  }
+  return out;
+}
+
+namespace strings_internal {
+size_t CordTestAccess::FlatOverhead() { return cord_internal::kFlatOverhead; }
+size_t CordTestAccess::MaxFlatLength() { return cord_internal::kMaxFlatLength; }
+size_t CordTestAccess::FlatTagToLength(uint8_t tag) {
+  return cord_internal::TagToLength(tag);
+}
+uint8_t CordTestAccess::LengthToTag(size_t s) {
+  ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(s <= kMaxFlatLength, absl::StrCat("Invalid length ", s));
+  return cord_internal::AllocatedSizeToTag(s + cord_internal::kFlatOverhead);
+}
+size_t CordTestAccess::SizeofCordRepExternal() {
+  return sizeof(CordRepExternal);
+}
+size_t CordTestAccess::SizeofCordRepSubstring() {
+  return sizeof(CordRepSubstring);
+}
+}  // namespace strings_internal
+ABSL_NAMESPACE_END
+}  // namespace absl