wasmtime 21.0.1 → 23.0.2

data/ext/cargo-vendor/cranelift-codegen-0.110.2/src/machinst/buffer.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,2544 @@
+//! In-memory representation of compiled machine code, with labels and fixups to
+//! refer to those labels. Handles constant-pool island insertion and also
+//! veneer insertion for out-of-range jumps.
+//!
+//! This code exists to solve three problems:
+//!
+//! - Branch targets for forward branches are not known until later, when we
+//!   emit code in a single pass through the instruction structs.
+//!
+//! - On many architectures, address references or offsets have limited range.
+//!   For example, on AArch64, conditional branches can only target code +/- 1MB
+//!   from the branch itself.
+//!
+//! - The lowering of control flow from the CFG-with-edges produced by
+//!   [BlockLoweringOrder](super::BlockLoweringOrder), combined with many empty
+//!   edge blocks when the register allocator does not need to insert any
+//!   spills/reloads/moves in edge blocks, results in many suboptimal branch
+//!   patterns. The lowering also pays no attention to block order, and so
+//!   two-target conditional forms (cond-br followed by uncond-br) can often by
+//!   avoided because one of the targets is the fallthrough. There are several
+//!   cases here where we can simplify to use fewer branches.
+//!
+//! This "buffer" implements a single-pass code emission strategy (with a later
+//! "fixup" pass, but only through recorded fixups, not all instructions). The
+//! basic idea is:
+//!
+//! - Emit branches as they are, including two-target (cond/uncond) compound
+//!   forms, but with zero offsets and optimistically assuming the target will be
+//!   in range. Record the "fixup" for later. Targets are denoted instead by
+//!   symbolic "labels" that are then bound to certain offsets in the buffer as
+//!   we emit code. (Nominally, there is a label at the start of every basic
+//!   block.)
+//!
+//! - As we do this, track the offset in the buffer at which the first label
+//!   reference "goes out of range". We call this the "deadline". If we reach the
+//!   deadline and we still have not bound the label to which an unresolved branch
+//!   refers, we have a problem!
+//!
+//! - To solve this problem, we emit "islands" full of "veneers". An island is
+//!   simply a chunk of code inserted in the middle of the code actually produced
+//!   by the emitter (e.g., vcode iterating over instruction structs). The emitter
+//!   has some awareness of this: it either asks for an island between blocks, so
+//!   it is not accidentally executed, or else it emits a branch around the island
+//!   when all other options fail (see `Inst::EmitIsland` meta-instruction).
+//!
+//! - A "veneer" is an instruction (or sequence of instructions) in an "island"
+//!   that implements a longer-range reference to a label. The idea is that, for
+//!   example, a branch with a limited range can branch to a "veneer" instead,
+//!   which is simply a branch in a form that can use a longer-range reference. On
+//!   AArch64, for example, conditionals have a +/- 1 MB range, but a conditional
+//!   can branch to an unconditional branch which has a +/- 128 MB range. Hence, a
+//!   conditional branch's label reference can be fixed up with a "veneer" to
+//!   achieve a longer range.
+//!
+//! - To implement all of this, we require the backend to provide a `LabelUse`
+//!   type that implements a trait. This is nominally an enum that records one of
+//!   several kinds of references to an offset in code -- basically, a relocation
+//!   type -- and will usually correspond to different instruction formats. The
+//!   `LabelUse` implementation specifies the maximum range, how to patch in the
+//!   actual label location when known, and how to generate a veneer to extend the
+//!   range.
+//!
+//! That satisfies label references, but we still may have suboptimal branch
+//! patterns. To clean up the branches, we do a simple "peephole"-style
+//! optimization on the fly. To do so, the emitter (e.g., `Inst::emit()`)
+//! informs the buffer of branches in the code and, in the case of conditionals,
+//! the code that would have been emitted to invert this branch's condition. We
+//! track the "latest branches": these are branches that are contiguous up to
+//! the current offset. (If any code is emitted after a branch, that branch or
+//! run of contiguous branches is no longer "latest".) The latest branches are
+//! those that we can edit by simply truncating the buffer and doing something
+//! else instead.
+//!
+//! To optimize branches, we implement several simple rules, and try to apply
+//! them to the "latest branches" when possible:
+//!
+//! - A branch with a label target, when that label is bound to the ending
+//!   offset of the branch (the fallthrough location), can be removed altogether,
+//!   because the branch would have no effect).
+//!
+//! - An unconditional branch that starts at a label location, and branches to
+//!   another label, results in a "label alias": all references to the label bound
+//!   *to* this branch instruction are instead resolved to the *target* of the
+//!   branch instruction. This effectively removes empty blocks that just
+//!   unconditionally branch to the next block. We call this "branch threading".
+//!
+//! - A conditional followed by an unconditional, when the conditional branches
+//!   to the unconditional's fallthrough, results in (i) the truncation of the
+//!   unconditional, (ii) the inversion of the condition's condition, and (iii)
+//!   replacement of the conditional's target (using the original target of the
+//!   unconditional). This is a fancy way of saying "we can flip a two-target
+//!   conditional branch's taken/not-taken targets if it works better with our
+//!   fallthrough". To make this work, the emitter actually gives the buffer
+//!   *both* forms of every conditional branch: the true form is emitted into the
+//!   buffer, and the "inverted" machine-code bytes are provided as part of the
+//!   branch-fixup metadata.
+//!
+//! - An unconditional B preceded by another unconditional P, when B's label(s) have
+//!   been redirected to target(B), can be removed entirely. This is an extension
+//!   of the branch-threading optimization, and is valid because if we know there
+//!   will be no fallthrough into this branch instruction (the prior instruction
+//!   is an unconditional jump), and if we know we have successfully redirected
+//!   all labels, then this branch instruction is unreachable. Note that this
+//!   works because the redirection happens before the label is ever resolved
+//!   (fixups happen at island emission time, at which point latest-branches are
+//!   cleared, or at the end of emission), so we are sure to catch and redirect
+//!   all possible paths to this instruction.
+//!
+//! # Branch-optimization Correctness
+//!
+//! The branch-optimization mechanism depends on a few data structures with
+//! invariants, which are always held outside the scope of top-level public
+//! methods:
+//!
+//! - The latest-branches list. Each entry describes a span of the buffer
+//!   (start/end offsets), the label target, the corresponding fixup-list entry
+//!   index, and the bytes (must be the same length) for the inverted form, if
+//!   conditional. The list of labels that are bound to the start-offset of this
+//!   branch is *complete* (if any label has a resolved offset equal to `start`
+//!   and is not an alias, it must appear in this list) and *precise* (no label
+//!   in this list can be bound to another offset). No label in this list should
+//!   be an alias.  No two branch ranges can overlap, and branches are in
+//!   ascending-offset order.
+//!
+//! - The labels-at-tail list. This contains all MachLabels that have been bound
+//!   to (whose resolved offsets are equal to) the tail offset of the buffer.
+//!   No label in this list should be an alias.
+//!
+//! - The label_offsets array, containing the bound offset of a label or
+//!   UNKNOWN. No label can be bound at an offset greater than the current
+//!   buffer tail.
+//!
+//! - The label_aliases array, containing another label to which a label is
+//!   bound or UNKNOWN. A label's resolved offset is the resolved offset
+//!   of the label it is aliased to, if this is set.
+//!
+//! We argue below, at each method, how the invariants in these data structures
+//! are maintained (grep for "Post-invariant").
+//!
+//! Given these invariants, we argue why each optimization preserves execution
+//! semantics below (grep for "Preserves execution semantics").
+//!
+//! # Avoiding Quadratic Behavior
+//!
+//! There are two cases where we've had to take some care to avoid
+//! quadratic worst-case behavior:
+//!
+//! - The "labels at this branch" list can grow unboundedly if the
+//!   code generator binds many labels at one location. If the count
+//!   gets too high (defined by the `LABEL_LIST_THRESHOLD` constant), we
+//!   simply abort an optimization early in a way that is always correct
+//!   but is conservative.
+//!
+//! - The fixup list can interact with island emission to create
+//!   "quadratic island behvior". In a little more detail, one can hit
+//!   this behavior by having some pending fixups (forward label
+//!   references) with long-range label-use kinds, and some others
+//!   with shorter-range references that nonetheless still are pending
+//!   long enough to trigger island generation. In such a case, we
+//!   process the fixup list, generate veneers to extend some forward
+//!   references' ranges, but leave the other (longer-range) ones
+//!   alone. The way this was implemented put them back on a list and
+//!   resulted in quadratic behavior.
+//!
+//!   To avoid this fixups are split into two lists: one "pending" list and one
+//!   final list. The pending list is kept around for handling fixups related to
+//!   branches so it can be edited/truncated. When an island is reached, which
+//!   starts processing fixups, all pending fixups are flushed into the final
+//!   list. The final list is a `BinaryHeap` which enables fixup processing to
+//!   only process those which are required during island emission, deferring
+//!   all longer-range fixups to later.
+
+use crate::binemit::{Addend, CodeOffset, Reloc, StackMap};
+use crate::ir::function::FunctionParameters;
+use crate::ir::{ExternalName, Opcode, RelSourceLoc, SourceLoc, TrapCode};
+use crate::isa::unwind::UnwindInst;
+use crate::machinst::{
+    BlockIndex, MachInstLabelUse, TextSectionBuilder, VCodeConstant, VCodeConstants, VCodeInst,
+};
+use crate::trace;
+use crate::{ir, MachInstEmitState};
+use crate::{timing, VCodeConstantData};
+use cranelift_control::ControlPlane;
+use cranelift_entity::{entity_impl, PrimaryMap};
+use smallvec::SmallVec;
+use std::cmp::Ordering;
+use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
+use std::mem;
+use std::string::String;
+use std::vec::Vec;
+
+#[cfg(feature = "enable-serde")]
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+#[cfg(feature = "enable-serde")]
+pub trait CompilePhase {
+    type MachSrcLocType: for<'a> Deserialize<'a> + Serialize + core::fmt::Debug + PartialEq + Clone;
+    type SourceLocType: for<'a> Deserialize<'a> + Serialize + core::fmt::Debug + PartialEq + Clone;
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "enable-serde"))]
+pub trait CompilePhase {
+    type MachSrcLocType: core::fmt::Debug + PartialEq + Clone;
+    type SourceLocType: core::fmt::Debug + PartialEq + Clone;
+}
+
+/// Status of a compiled artifact that needs patching before being used.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "enable-serde", derive(Serialize, Deserialize))]
+pub struct Stencil;
+
+/// Status of a compiled artifact ready to use.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Final;
+
+impl CompilePhase for Stencil {
+    type MachSrcLocType = MachSrcLoc<Stencil>;
+    type SourceLocType = RelSourceLoc;
+}
+
+impl CompilePhase for Final {
+    type MachSrcLocType = MachSrcLoc<Final>;
+    type SourceLocType = SourceLoc;
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum ForceVeneers {
+    Yes,
+    No,
+}
+
+/// A buffer of output to be produced, fixed up, and then emitted to a CodeSink
+/// in bulk.
+///
+/// This struct uses `SmallVec`s to support small-ish function bodies without
+/// any heap allocation. As such, it will be several kilobytes large. This is
+/// likely fine as long as it is stack-allocated for function emission then
+/// thrown away; but beware if many buffer objects are retained persistently.
+pub struct MachBuffer<I: VCodeInst> {
+    /// The buffer contents, as raw bytes.
+    data: SmallVec<[u8; 1024]>,
+    /// Any relocations referring to this code. Note that only *external*
+    /// relocations are tracked here; references to labels within the buffer are
+    /// resolved before emission.
+    relocs: SmallVec<[MachReloc; 16]>,
+    /// Any trap records referring to this code.
+    traps: SmallVec<[MachTrap; 16]>,
+    /// Any call site records referring to this code.
+    call_sites: SmallVec<[MachCallSite; 16]>,
+    /// Any source location mappings referring to this code.
+    srclocs: SmallVec<[MachSrcLoc<Stencil>; 64]>,
+    /// Any stack maps referring to this code.
+    stack_maps: SmallVec<[MachStackMap; 8]>,
+    /// Any user stack maps for this code.
+    ///
+    /// Each entry is an `(offset, span, stack_map)` triple. Entries are sorted
+    /// by code offset, and each stack map covers `span` bytes on the stack.
+    user_stack_maps: SmallVec<[(CodeOffset, u32, ir::UserStackMap); 8]>,
+    /// Any unwind info at a given location.
+    unwind_info: SmallVec<[(CodeOffset, UnwindInst); 8]>,
+    /// The current source location in progress (after `start_srcloc()` and
+    /// before `end_srcloc()`).  This is a (start_offset, src_loc) tuple.
+    cur_srcloc: Option<(CodeOffset, RelSourceLoc)>,
+    /// Known label offsets; `UNKNOWN_LABEL_OFFSET` if unknown.
+    label_offsets: SmallVec<[CodeOffset; 16]>,
+    /// Label aliases: when one label points to an unconditional jump, and that
+    /// jump points to another label, we can redirect references to the first
+    /// label immediately to the second.
+    ///
+    /// Invariant: we don't have label-alias cycles. We ensure this by,
+    /// before setting label A to alias label B, resolving B's alias
+    /// target (iteratively until a non-aliased label); if B is already
+    /// aliased to A, then we cannot alias A back to B.
+    label_aliases: SmallVec<[MachLabel; 16]>,
+    /// Constants that must be emitted at some point.
+    pending_constants: SmallVec<[VCodeConstant; 16]>,
+    /// Byte size of all constants in `pending_constants`.
+    pending_constants_size: CodeOffset,
+    /// Traps that must be emitted at some point.
+    pending_traps: SmallVec<[MachLabelTrap; 16]>,
+    /// Fixups that haven't yet been flushed into `fixup_records` below and may
+    /// be related to branches that are chomped. These all get added to
+    /// `fixup_records` during island emission.
+    pending_fixup_records: SmallVec<[MachLabelFixup<I>; 16]>,
+    /// The nearest upcoming deadline for entries in `pending_fixup_records`.
+    pending_fixup_deadline: CodeOffset,
+    /// Fixups that must be performed after all code is emitted.
+    fixup_records: BinaryHeap<MachLabelFixup<I>>,
+    /// Latest branches, to facilitate in-place editing for better fallthrough
+    /// behavior and empty-block removal.
+    latest_branches: SmallVec<[MachBranch; 4]>,
+    /// All labels at the current offset (emission tail). This is lazily
+    /// cleared: it is actually accurate as long as the current offset is
+    /// `labels_at_tail_off`, but if `cur_offset()` has grown larger, it should
+    /// be considered as empty.
+    ///
+    /// For correctness, this *must* be complete (i.e., the vector must contain
+    /// all labels whose offsets are resolved to the current tail), because we
+    /// rely on it to update labels when we truncate branches.
+    labels_at_tail: SmallVec<[MachLabel; 4]>,
+    /// The last offset at which `labels_at_tail` is valid. It is conceptually
+    /// always describing the tail of the buffer, but we do not clear
+    /// `labels_at_tail` eagerly when the tail grows, rather we lazily clear it
+    /// when the offset has grown past this (`labels_at_tail_off`) point.
+    /// Always <= `cur_offset()`.
+    labels_at_tail_off: CodeOffset,
+    /// Metadata about all constants that this function has access to.
+    ///
+    /// This records the size/alignment of all constants (not the actual data)
+    /// along with the last available label generated for the constant. This map
+    /// is consulted when constants are referred to and the label assigned to a
+    /// constant may change over time as well.
+    constants: PrimaryMap<VCodeConstant, MachBufferConstant>,
+    /// All recorded usages of constants as pairs of the constant and where the
+    /// constant needs to be placed within `self.data`. Note that the same
+    /// constant may appear in this array multiple times if it was emitted
+    /// multiple times.
+    used_constants: SmallVec<[(VCodeConstant, CodeOffset); 4]>,
+    /// Indicates when a patchable region is currently open, to guard that it's
+    /// not possible to nest patchable regions.
+    open_patchable: bool,
+}
+
+impl MachBufferFinalized<Stencil> {
+    /// Get a finalized machine buffer by applying the function's base source location.
+    pub fn apply_base_srcloc(self, base_srcloc: SourceLoc) -> MachBufferFinalized<Final> {
+        MachBufferFinalized {
+            data: self.data,
+            relocs: self.relocs,
+            traps: self.traps,
+            call_sites: self.call_sites,
+            srclocs: self
+                .srclocs
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|srcloc| srcloc.apply_base_srcloc(base_srcloc))
+                .collect(),
+            stack_maps: self.stack_maps,
+            user_stack_maps: self.user_stack_maps,
+            unwind_info: self.unwind_info,
+            alignment: self.alignment,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A `MachBuffer` once emission is completed: holds generated code and records,
+/// without fixups. This allows the type to be independent of the backend.
+#[derive(PartialEq, Debug, Clone)]
+#[cfg_attr(
+    feature = "enable-serde",
+    derive(serde_derive::Serialize, serde_derive::Deserialize)
+)]
+pub struct MachBufferFinalized<T: CompilePhase> {
+    /// The buffer contents, as raw bytes.
+    pub(crate) data: SmallVec<[u8; 1024]>,
+    /// Any relocations referring to this code. Note that only *external*
+    /// relocations are tracked here; references to labels within the buffer are
+    /// resolved before emission.
+    pub(crate) relocs: SmallVec<[FinalizedMachReloc; 16]>,
+    /// Any trap records referring to this code.
+    pub(crate) traps: SmallVec<[MachTrap; 16]>,
+    /// Any call site records referring to this code.
+    pub(crate) call_sites: SmallVec<[MachCallSite; 16]>,
+    /// Any source location mappings referring to this code.
+    pub(crate) srclocs: SmallVec<[T::MachSrcLocType; 64]>,
+    /// Any stack maps referring to this code.
+    pub(crate) stack_maps: SmallVec<[MachStackMap; 8]>,
+    /// Any user stack maps for this code.
+    ///
+    /// Each entry is an `(offset, span, stack_map)` triple. Entries are sorted
+    /// by code offset, and each stack map covers `span` bytes on the stack.
+    pub(crate) user_stack_maps: SmallVec<[(CodeOffset, u32, ir::UserStackMap); 8]>,
+    /// Any unwind info at a given location.
+    pub unwind_info: SmallVec<[(CodeOffset, UnwindInst); 8]>,
+    /// The required alignment of this buffer.
+    pub alignment: u32,
+}
+
+const UNKNOWN_LABEL_OFFSET: CodeOffset = 0xffff_ffff;
+const UNKNOWN_LABEL: MachLabel = MachLabel(0xffff_ffff);
+
+/// Threshold on max length of `labels_at_this_branch` list to avoid
+/// unbounded quadratic behavior (see comment below at use-site).
+const LABEL_LIST_THRESHOLD: usize = 100;
+
+/// A label refers to some offset in a `MachBuffer`. It may not be resolved at
+/// the point at which it is used by emitted code; the buffer records "fixups"
+/// for references to the label, and will come back and patch the code
+/// appropriately when the label's location is eventually known.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
+pub struct MachLabel(u32);
+entity_impl!(MachLabel);
+
+impl MachLabel {
+    /// Get a label for a block. (The first N MachLabels are always reserved for
+    /// the N blocks in the vcode.)
+    pub fn from_block(bindex: BlockIndex) -> MachLabel {
+        MachLabel(bindex.index() as u32)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the numeric label index.
+    pub fn get(self) -> u32 {
+        self.0
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a string representing this label, for convenience.
+    pub fn to_string(&self) -> String {
+        format!("label{}", self.0)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for MachLabel {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        UNKNOWN_LABEL
+    }
+}
+
+/// A stack map extent, when creating a stack map.
+pub enum StackMapExtent {
+    /// The stack map starts at this instruction, and ends after the number of upcoming bytes
+    /// (note: this is a code offset diff).
+    UpcomingBytes(CodeOffset),
+
+    /// The stack map started at the given offset and ends at the current one. This helps
+    /// architectures where the instruction size has not a fixed length.
+    StartedAtOffset(CodeOffset),
+}
+
+/// Represents the beginning of an editable region in the [`MachBuffer`], while code emission is
+/// still occurring. An [`OpenPatchRegion`] is closed by [`MachBuffer::end_patchable`], consuming
+/// the [`OpenPatchRegion`] token in the process.
+pub struct OpenPatchRegion(usize);
+
+/// A region in the [`MachBuffer`] code buffer that can be edited prior to finalization. An example
+/// of where you might want to use this is for patching instructions that mention constants that
+/// won't be known until later: [`MachBuffer::start_patchable`] can be used to begin the patchable
+/// region, instructions can be emitted with placeholder constants, and the [`PatchRegion`] token
+/// can be produced by [`MachBuffer::end_patchable`]. Once the values of those constants are known,
+/// the [`PatchRegion::patch`] function can be used to get a mutable buffer to the instruction
+/// bytes, and the constants uses can be updated directly.
+pub struct PatchRegion {
+    range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+}
+
+impl PatchRegion {
+    /// Consume the patch region to yield a mutable slice of the [`MachBuffer`] data buffer.
+    pub fn patch<I: VCodeInst>(self, buffer: &mut MachBuffer<I>) -> &mut [u8] {
+        &mut buffer.data[self.range]
+    }
+}
+
+impl<I: VCodeInst> MachBuffer<I> {
+    /// Create a new section, known to start at `start_offset` and with a size limited to
+    /// `length_limit`.
+    pub fn new() -> MachBuffer<I> {
+        MachBuffer {
+            data: SmallVec::new(),
+            relocs: SmallVec::new(),
+            traps: SmallVec::new(),
+            call_sites: SmallVec::new(),
+            srclocs: SmallVec::new(),
+            stack_maps: SmallVec::new(),
+            user_stack_maps: SmallVec::new(),
+            unwind_info: SmallVec::new(),
+            cur_srcloc: None,
+            label_offsets: SmallVec::new(),
+            label_aliases: SmallVec::new(),
+            pending_constants: SmallVec::new(),
+            pending_constants_size: 0,
+            pending_traps: SmallVec::new(),
+            pending_fixup_records: SmallVec::new(),
+            pending_fixup_deadline: u32::MAX,
+            fixup_records: Default::default(),
+            latest_branches: SmallVec::new(),
+            labels_at_tail: SmallVec::new(),
+            labels_at_tail_off: 0,
+            constants: Default::default(),
+            used_constants: Default::default(),
+            open_patchable: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Current offset from start of buffer.
+    pub fn cur_offset(&self) -> CodeOffset {
+        self.data.len() as CodeOffset
+    }
+
+    /// Add a byte.
+    pub fn put1(&mut self, value: u8) {
+        self.data.push(value);
+
+        // Post-invariant: conceptual-labels_at_tail contains a complete and
+        // precise list of labels bound at `cur_offset()`. We have advanced
+        // `cur_offset()`, hence if it had been equal to `labels_at_tail_off`
+        // before, it is not anymore (and it cannot become equal, because
+        // `labels_at_tail_off` is always <= `cur_offset()`). Thus the list is
+        // conceptually empty (even though it is only lazily cleared). No labels
+        // can be bound at this new offset (by invariant on `label_offsets`).
+        // Hence the invariant holds.
+    }
+
+    /// Add 2 bytes.
+    pub fn put2(&mut self, value: u16) {
+        let bytes = value.to_le_bytes();
+        self.data.extend_from_slice(&bytes[..]);
+
+        // Post-invariant: as for `put1()`.
+    }
+
+    /// Add 4 bytes.
+    pub fn put4(&mut self, value: u32) {
+        let bytes = value.to_le_bytes();
+        self.data.extend_from_slice(&bytes[..]);
+
+        // Post-invariant: as for `put1()`.
+    }
+
+    /// Add 8 bytes.
+    pub fn put8(&mut self, value: u64) {
+        let bytes = value.to_le_bytes();
+        self.data.extend_from_slice(&bytes[..]);
+
+        // Post-invariant: as for `put1()`.
+    }
+
+    /// Add a slice of bytes.
+    pub fn put_data(&mut self, data: &[u8]) {
+        self.data.extend_from_slice(data);
+
+        // Post-invariant: as for `put1()`.
+    }
+
+    /// Reserve appended space and return a mutable slice referring to it.
+    pub fn get_appended_space(&mut self, len: usize) -> &mut [u8] {
+        let off = self.data.len();
+        let new_len = self.data.len() + len;
+        self.data.resize(new_len, 0);
+        &mut self.data[off..]
+
+        // Post-invariant: as for `put1()`.
+    }
+
+    /// Align up to the given alignment.
+    pub fn align_to(&mut self, align_to: CodeOffset) {
+        trace!("MachBuffer: align to {}", align_to);
+        assert!(
+            align_to.is_power_of_two(),
+            "{} is not a power of two",
+            align_to
+        );
+        while self.cur_offset() & (align_to - 1) != 0 {
+            self.put1(0);
+        }
+
+        // Post-invariant: as for `put1()`.
+    }
+
+    /// Begin a region of patchable code. There is one requirement for the
+    /// code that is emitted: It must not introduce any instructions that
+    /// could be chomped (branches are an example of this). In other words,
+    /// you must not call [`MachBuffer::add_cond_branch`] or
+    /// [`MachBuffer::add_uncond_branch`] between calls to this method and
+    /// [`MachBuffer::end_patchable`].
+    pub fn start_patchable(&mut self) -> OpenPatchRegion {
+        assert!(!self.open_patchable, "Patchable regions may not be nested");
+        self.open_patchable = true;
+        OpenPatchRegion(usize::try_from(self.cur_offset()).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    /// End a region of patchable code, yielding a [`PatchRegion`] value that
+    /// can be consumed later to produce a one-off mutable slice to the
+    /// associated region of the data buffer.
+    pub fn end_patchable(&mut self, open: OpenPatchRegion) -> PatchRegion {
+        // No need to assert the state of `open_patchable` here, as we take
+        // ownership of the only `OpenPatchable` value.
+        self.open_patchable = false;
+        let end = usize::try_from(self.cur_offset()).unwrap();
+        PatchRegion { range: open.0..end }
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate a `Label` to refer to some offset. May not be bound to a fixed
+    /// offset yet.
+    pub fn get_label(&mut self) -> MachLabel {
+        let l = self.label_offsets.len() as u32;
+        self.label_offsets.push(UNKNOWN_LABEL_OFFSET);
+        self.label_aliases.push(UNKNOWN_LABEL);
+        trace!("MachBuffer: new label -> {:?}", MachLabel(l));
+        MachLabel(l)
+
+        // Post-invariant: the only mutation is to add a new label; it has no
+        // bound offset yet, so it trivially satisfies all invariants.
+    }
+
+    /// Reserve the first N MachLabels for blocks.
+    pub fn reserve_labels_for_blocks(&mut self, blocks: usize) {
+        trace!("MachBuffer: first {} labels are for blocks", blocks);
+        debug_assert!(self.label_offsets.is_empty());
+        self.label_offsets.resize(blocks, UNKNOWN_LABEL_OFFSET);
+        self.label_aliases.resize(blocks, UNKNOWN_LABEL);
+
+        // Post-invariant: as for `get_label()`.
+    }
+
+    /// Registers metadata in this `MachBuffer` about the `constants` provided.
+    ///
+    /// This will record the size/alignment of all constants which will prepare
+    /// them for emission later on.
+    pub fn register_constants(&mut self, constants: &VCodeConstants) {
+        for (c, val) in constants.iter() {
+            self.register_constant(&c, val);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Similar to [`MachBuffer::register_constants`] but registers a
+    /// single constant metadata. This function is useful in
+    /// situations where not all constants are known at the time of
+    /// emission.
+    pub fn register_constant(&mut self, constant: &VCodeConstant, data: &VCodeConstantData) {
+        let c2 = self.constants.push(MachBufferConstant {
+            upcoming_label: None,
+            align: data.alignment(),
+            size: data.as_slice().len(),
+        });
+        assert_eq!(*constant, c2);
+    }
+
+    /// Completes constant emission by iterating over `self.used_constants` and
+    /// filling in the "holes" with the constant values provided by `constants`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the alignment required for this entire buffer. Alignment starts
+    /// at the ISA's minimum function alignment and can be increased due to
+    /// constant requirements.
+    fn finish_constants(&mut self, constants: &VCodeConstants) -> u32 {
+        let mut alignment = I::function_alignment().minimum;
+        for (constant, offset) in mem::take(&mut self.used_constants) {
+            let constant = constants.get(constant);
+            let data = constant.as_slice();
+            self.data[offset as usize..][..data.len()].copy_from_slice(data);
+            alignment = constant.alignment().max(alignment);
+        }
+        alignment
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a label that can be used to refer to the `constant` provided.
+    ///
+    /// This will automatically defer a new constant to be emitted for
+    /// `constant` if it has not been previously emitted. Note that this
+    /// function may return a different label for the same constant at
+    /// different points in time. The label is valid to use only from the
+    /// current location; the MachBuffer takes care to emit the same constant
+    /// multiple times if needed so the constant is always in range.
+    pub fn get_label_for_constant(&mut self, constant: VCodeConstant) -> MachLabel {
+        let MachBufferConstant {
+            align,
+            size,
+            upcoming_label,
+        } = self.constants[constant];
+        if let Some(label) = upcoming_label {
+            return label;
+        }
+
+        let label = self.get_label();
+        trace!(
+            "defer constant: eventually emit {size} bytes aligned \
+             to {align} at label {label:?}",
+        );
+        self.pending_constants.push(constant);
+        self.pending_constants_size += size as u32;
+        self.constants[constant].upcoming_label = Some(label);
+        label
+    }
+
+    /// Bind a label to the current offset. A label can only be bound once.
+    pub fn bind_label(&mut self, label: MachLabel, ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane) {
+        trace!(
+            "MachBuffer: bind label {:?} at offset {}",
+            label,
+            self.cur_offset()
+        );
+        debug_assert_eq!(self.label_offsets[label.0 as usize], UNKNOWN_LABEL_OFFSET);
+        debug_assert_eq!(self.label_aliases[label.0 as usize], UNKNOWN_LABEL);
+        let offset = self.cur_offset();
+        self.label_offsets[label.0 as usize] = offset;
+        self.lazily_clear_labels_at_tail();
+        self.labels_at_tail.push(label);
+
+        // Invariants hold: bound offset of label is <= cur_offset (in fact it
+        // is equal). If the `labels_at_tail` list was complete and precise
+        // before, it is still, because we have bound this label to the current
+        // offset and added it to the list (which contains all labels at the
+        // current offset).
+
+        self.optimize_branches(ctrl_plane);
+
+        // Post-invariant: by `optimize_branches()` (see argument there).
+    }
+
+    /// Lazily clear `labels_at_tail` if the tail offset has moved beyond the
+    /// offset that it applies to.
+    fn lazily_clear_labels_at_tail(&mut self) {
+        let offset = self.cur_offset();
+        if offset > self.labels_at_tail_off {
+            self.labels_at_tail_off = offset;
+            self.labels_at_tail.clear();
+        }
+
+        // Post-invariant: either labels_at_tail_off was at cur_offset, and
+        // state is untouched, or was less than cur_offset, in which case the
+        // labels_at_tail list was conceptually empty, and is now actually
+        // empty.
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve a label to an offset, if known. May return `UNKNOWN_LABEL_OFFSET`.
+    pub(crate) fn resolve_label_offset(&self, mut label: MachLabel) -> CodeOffset {
+        let mut iters = 0;
+        while self.label_aliases[label.0 as usize] != UNKNOWN_LABEL {
+            label = self.label_aliases[label.0 as usize];
+            // To protect against an infinite loop (despite our assurances to
+            // ourselves that the invariants make this impossible), assert out
+            // after 1M iterations. The number of basic blocks is limited
+            // in most contexts anyway so this should be impossible to hit with
+            // a legitimate input.
+            iters += 1;
+            assert!(iters < 1_000_000, "Unexpected cycle in label aliases");
+        }
+        self.label_offsets[label.0 as usize]
+
+        // Post-invariant: no mutations.
+    }
+
+    /// Emit a reference to the given label with the given reference type (i.e.,
+    /// branch-instruction format) at the current offset.  This is like a
+    /// relocation, but handled internally.
+    ///
+    /// This can be called before the branch is actually emitted; fixups will
+    /// not happen until an island is emitted or the buffer is finished.
+    pub fn use_label_at_offset(&mut self, offset: CodeOffset, label: MachLabel, kind: I::LabelUse) {
+        trace!(
+            "MachBuffer: use_label_at_offset: offset {} label {:?} kind {:?}",
+            offset,
+            label,
+            kind
+        );
+
+        // Add the fixup, and update the worst-case island size based on a
+        // veneer for this label use.
+        let fixup = MachLabelFixup {
+            label,
+            offset,
+            kind,
+        };
+        self.pending_fixup_deadline = self.pending_fixup_deadline.min(fixup.deadline());
+        self.pending_fixup_records.push(fixup);
+
+        // Post-invariant: no mutations to branches/labels data structures.
+    }
+
+    /// Inform the buffer of an unconditional branch at the given offset,
+    /// targeting the given label. May be used to optimize branches.
+    /// The last added label-use must correspond to this branch.
+    /// This must be called when the current offset is equal to `start`; i.e.,
+    /// before actually emitting the branch. This implies that for a branch that
+    /// uses a label and is eligible for optimizations by the MachBuffer, the
+    /// proper sequence is:
+    ///
+    /// - Call `use_label_at_offset()` to emit the fixup record.
+    /// - Call `add_uncond_branch()` to make note of the branch.
+    /// - Emit the bytes for the branch's machine code.
+    ///
+    /// Additional requirement: no labels may be bound between `start` and `end`
+    /// (exclusive on both ends).
+    pub fn add_uncond_branch(&mut self, start: CodeOffset, end: CodeOffset, target: MachLabel) {
+        debug_assert!(
+            !self.open_patchable,
+            "Branch instruction inserted within a patchable region"
+        );
+        assert!(self.cur_offset() == start);
+        debug_assert!(end > start);
+        assert!(!self.pending_fixup_records.is_empty());
+        let fixup = self.pending_fixup_records.len() - 1;
+        self.lazily_clear_labels_at_tail();
+        self.latest_branches.push(MachBranch {
+            start,
+            end,
+            target,
+            fixup,
+            inverted: None,
+            labels_at_this_branch: self.labels_at_tail.clone(),
+        });
+
+        // Post-invariant: we asserted branch start is current tail; the list of
+        // labels at branch is cloned from list of labels at current tail.
+    }
+
+    /// Inform the buffer of a conditional branch at the given offset,
+    /// targeting the given label. May be used to optimize branches.
+    /// The last added label-use must correspond to this branch.
+    ///
+    /// Additional requirement: no labels may be bound between `start` and `end`
+    /// (exclusive on both ends).
+    pub fn add_cond_branch(
+        &mut self,
+        start: CodeOffset,
+        end: CodeOffset,
+        target: MachLabel,
+        inverted: &[u8],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert!(
+            !self.open_patchable,
+            "Branch instruction inserted within a patchable region"
+        );
+        assert!(self.cur_offset() == start);
+        debug_assert!(end > start);
+        assert!(!self.pending_fixup_records.is_empty());
+        debug_assert!(inverted.len() == (end - start) as usize);
+        let fixup = self.pending_fixup_records.len() - 1;
+        let inverted = Some(SmallVec::from(inverted));
+        self.lazily_clear_labels_at_tail();
+        self.latest_branches.push(MachBranch {
+            start,
+            end,
+            target,
+            fixup,
+            inverted,
+            labels_at_this_branch: self.labels_at_tail.clone(),
+        });
+
+        // Post-invariant: we asserted branch start is current tail; labels at
+        // branch list is cloned from list of labels at current tail.
+    }
+
+    fn truncate_last_branch(&mut self) {
+        debug_assert!(
+            !self.open_patchable,
+            "Branch instruction truncated within a patchable region"
+        );
+
+        self.lazily_clear_labels_at_tail();
+        // Invariants hold at this point.
+
+        let b = self.latest_branches.pop().unwrap();
+        assert!(b.end == self.cur_offset());
+
+        // State:
+        //    [PRE CODE]
+        //  Offset b.start, b.labels_at_this_branch:
+        //    [BRANCH CODE]
+        //  cur_off, self.labels_at_tail -->
+        //    (end of buffer)
+        self.data.truncate(b.start as usize);
+        self.pending_fixup_records.truncate(b.fixup);
+        while let Some(last_srcloc) = self.srclocs.last_mut() {
+            if last_srcloc.end <= b.start {
+                break;
+            }
+            if last_srcloc.start < b.start {
+                last_srcloc.end = b.start;
+                break;
+            }
+            self.srclocs.pop();
+        }
+        // State:
+        //    [PRE CODE]
+        //  cur_off, Offset b.start, b.labels_at_this_branch:
+        //    (end of buffer)
+        //
+        //  self.labels_at_tail -->  (past end of buffer)
+        let cur_off = self.cur_offset();
+        self.labels_at_tail_off = cur_off;
+        // State:
+        //    [PRE CODE]
+        //  cur_off, Offset b.start, b.labels_at_this_branch,
+        //  self.labels_at_tail:
+        //    (end of buffer)
+        //
+        // resolve_label_offset(l) for l in labels_at_tail:
+        //    (past end of buffer)
+
+        trace!(
+            "truncate_last_branch: truncated {:?}; off now {}",
+            b,
+            cur_off
+        );
+
+        // Fix up resolved label offsets for labels at tail.
+        for &l in &self.labels_at_tail {
+            self.label_offsets[l.0 as usize] = cur_off;
+        }
+        // Old labels_at_this_branch are now at cur_off.
+        self.labels_at_tail
+            .extend(b.labels_at_this_branch.into_iter());
+
+        // Post-invariant: this operation is defined to truncate the buffer,
+        // which moves cur_off backward, and to move labels at the end of the
+        // buffer back to the start-of-branch offset.
+        //
+        // latest_branches satisfies all invariants:
+        // - it has no branches past the end of the buffer (branches are in
+        //   order, we removed the last one, and we truncated the buffer to just
+        //   before the start of that branch)
+        // - no labels were moved to lower offsets than the (new) cur_off, so
+        //   the labels_at_this_branch list for any other branch need not change.
+        //
+        // labels_at_tail satisfies all invariants:
+        // - all labels that were at the tail after the truncated branch are
+        //   moved backward to just before the branch, which becomes the new tail;
+        //   thus every element in the list should remain (ensured by `.extend()`
+        //   above).
+        // - all labels that refer to the new tail, which is the start-offset of
+        //   the truncated branch, must be present. The `labels_at_this_branch`
+        //   list in the truncated branch's record is a complete and precise list
+        //   of exactly these labels; we append these to labels_at_tail.
+        // - labels_at_tail_off is at cur_off after truncation occurs, so the
+        //   list is valid (not to be lazily cleared).
+        //
+        // The stated operation was performed:
+        // - For each label at the end of the buffer prior to this method, it
+        //   now resolves to the new (truncated) end of the buffer: it must have
+        //   been in `labels_at_tail` (this list is precise and complete, and
+        //   the tail was at the end of the truncated branch on entry), and we
+        //   iterate over this list and set `label_offsets` to the new tail.
+        //   None of these labels could have been an alias (by invariant), so
+        //   `label_offsets` is authoritative for each.
+        // - No other labels will be past the end of the buffer, because of the
+        //   requirement that no labels be bound to the middle of branch ranges
+        //   (see comments to `add_{cond,uncond}_branch()`).
+        // - The buffer is truncated to just before the last branch, and the
+        //   fixup record referring to that last branch is removed.
+    }
+
+    /// Performs various optimizations on branches pointing at the current label.
+    pub fn optimize_branches(&mut self, ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane) {
+        if ctrl_plane.get_decision() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        self.lazily_clear_labels_at_tail();
+        // Invariants valid at this point.
+
+        trace!(
+            "enter optimize_branches:\n b = {:?}\n l = {:?}\n f = {:?}",
+            self.latest_branches,
+            self.labels_at_tail,
+            self.pending_fixup_records
+        );
+
+        // We continue to munch on branches at the tail of the buffer until no
+        // more rules apply. Note that the loop only continues if a branch is
+        // actually truncated (or if labels are redirected away from a branch),
+        // so this always makes progress.
+        while let Some(b) = self.latest_branches.last() {
+            let cur_off = self.cur_offset();
+            trace!("optimize_branches: last branch {:?} at off {}", b, cur_off);
+            // If there has been any code emission since the end of the last branch or
+            // label definition, then there's nothing we can edit (because we
+            // don't move code once placed, only back up and overwrite), so
+            // clear the records and finish.
+            if b.end < cur_off {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            // If the "labels at this branch" list on this branch is
+            // longer than a threshold, don't do any simplification,
+            // and let the branch remain to separate those labels from
+            // the current tail. This avoids quadratic behavior (see
+            // #3468): otherwise, if a long string of "goto next;
+            // next:" patterns are emitted, all of the labels will
+            // coalesce into a long list of aliases for the current
+            // buffer tail. We must track all aliases of the current
+            // tail for correctness, but we are also allowed to skip
+            // optimization (removal) of any branch, so we take the
+            // escape hatch here and let it stand. In effect this
+            // "spreads" the many thousands of labels in the
+            // pathological case among an actual (harmless but
+            // suboptimal) instruction once per N labels.
+            if b.labels_at_this_branch.len() > LABEL_LIST_THRESHOLD {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            // Invariant: we are looking at a branch that ends at the tail of
+            // the buffer.
+
+            // For any branch, conditional or unconditional:
+            // - If the target is a label at the current offset, then remove
+            //   the conditional branch, and reset all labels that targeted
+            //   the current offset (end of branch) to the truncated
+            //   end-of-code.
+            //
+            // Preserves execution semantics: a branch to its own fallthrough
+            // address is equivalent to a no-op; in both cases, nextPC is the
+            // fallthrough.
+            if self.resolve_label_offset(b.target) == cur_off {
+                trace!("branch with target == cur off; truncating");
+                self.truncate_last_branch();
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // If latest is an unconditional branch:
+            //
+            // - If the branch's target is not its own start address, then for
+            //   each label at the start of branch, make the label an alias of the
+            //   branch target, and remove the label from the "labels at this
+            //   branch" list.
+            //
+            //   - Preserves execution semantics: an unconditional branch's
+            //     only effect is to set PC to a new PC; this change simply
+            //     collapses one step in the step-semantics.
+            //
+            //   - Post-invariant: the labels that were bound to the start of
+            //     this branch become aliases, so they must not be present in any
+            //     labels-at-this-branch list or the labels-at-tail list. The
+            //     labels are removed form the latest-branch record's
+            //     labels-at-this-branch list, and are never placed in the
+            //     labels-at-tail list. Furthermore, it is correct that they are
+            //     not in either list, because they are now aliases, and labels
+            //     that are aliases remain aliases forever.
+            //
+            // - If there is a prior unconditional branch that ends just before
+            //   this one begins, and this branch has no labels bound to its
+            //   start, then we can truncate this branch, because it is entirely
+            //   unreachable (we have redirected all labels that make it
+            //   reachable otherwise). Do so and continue around the loop.
+            //
+            //   - Preserves execution semantics: the branch is unreachable,
+            //     because execution can only flow into an instruction from the
+            //     prior instruction's fallthrough or from a branch bound to that
+            //     instruction's start offset. Unconditional branches have no
+            //     fallthrough, so if the prior instruction is an unconditional
+            //     branch, no fallthrough entry can happen. The
+            //     labels-at-this-branch list is complete (by invariant), so if it
+            //     is empty, then the instruction is entirely unreachable. Thus,
+            //     it can be removed.
+            //
+            //   - Post-invariant: ensured by truncate_last_branch().
+            //
+            // - If there is a prior conditional branch whose target label
+            //   resolves to the current offset (branches around the
+            //   unconditional branch), then remove the unconditional branch,
+            //   and make the target of the unconditional the target of the
+            //   conditional instead.
+            //
+            //   - Preserves execution semantics: previously we had:
+            //
+            //         L1:
+            //            cond_br L2
+            //            br L3
+            //         L2:
+            //            (end of buffer)
+            //
+            //     by removing the last branch, we have:
+            //
+            //         L1:
+            //            cond_br L2
+            //         L2:
+            //            (end of buffer)
+            //
+            //     we then fix up the records for the conditional branch to
+            //     have:
+            //
+            //         L1:
+            //           cond_br.inverted L3
+            //         L2:
+            //
+            //     In the original code, control flow reaches L2 when the
+            //     conditional branch's predicate is true, and L3 otherwise. In
+            //     the optimized code, the same is true.
+            //
+            //   - Post-invariant: all edits to latest_branches and
+            //     labels_at_tail are performed by `truncate_last_branch()`,
+            //     which maintains the invariants at each step.
+
+            if b.is_uncond() {
+                // Set any label equal to current branch's start as an alias of
+                // the branch's target, if the target is not the branch itself
+                // (i.e., an infinite loop).
+                //
+                // We cannot perform this aliasing if the target of this branch
+                // ultimately aliases back here; if so, we need to keep this
+                // branch, so break out of this loop entirely (and clear the
+                // latest-branches list below).
+                //
+                // Note that this check is what prevents cycles from forming in
+                // `self.label_aliases`. To see why, consider an arbitrary start
+                // state:
+                //
+                // label_aliases[L1] = L2, label_aliases[L2] = L3, ..., up to
+                // Ln, which is not aliased.
+                //
+                // We would create a cycle if we assigned label_aliases[Ln]
+                // = L1.  Note that the below assignment is the only write
+                // to label_aliases.
+                //
+                // By our other invariants, we have that Ln (`l` below)
+                // resolves to the offset `b.start`, because it is in the
+                // set `b.labels_at_this_branch`.
+                //
+                // If L1 were already aliased, through some arbitrarily deep
+                // chain, to Ln, then it must also resolve to this offset
+                // `b.start`.
+                //
+                // By checking the resolution of `L1` against this offset,
+                // and aborting this branch-simplification if they are
+                // equal, we prevent the below assignment from ever creating
+                // a cycle.
+                if self.resolve_label_offset(b.target) != b.start {
+                    let redirected = b.labels_at_this_branch.len();
+                    for &l in &b.labels_at_this_branch {
+                        trace!(
+                            " -> label at start of branch {:?} redirected to target {:?}",
+                            l,
+                            b.target
+                        );
+                        self.label_aliases[l.0 as usize] = b.target;
+                        // NOTE: we continue to ensure the invariant that labels
+                        // pointing to tail of buffer are in `labels_at_tail`
+                        // because we already ensured above that the last branch
+                        // cannot have a target of `cur_off`; so we never have
+                        // to put the label into `labels_at_tail` when moving it
+                        // here.
+                    }
+                    // Maintain invariant: all branches have been redirected
+                    // and are no longer pointing at the start of this branch.
+                    let mut_b = self.latest_branches.last_mut().unwrap();
+                    mut_b.labels_at_this_branch.clear();
+
+                    if redirected > 0 {
+                        trace!(" -> after label redirects, restarting loop");
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    break;
+                }
+
+                let b = self.latest_branches.last().unwrap();
+
+                // Examine any immediately preceding branch.
+                if self.latest_branches.len() > 1 {
+                    let prev_b = &self.latest_branches[self.latest_branches.len() - 2];
+                    trace!(" -> more than one branch; prev_b = {:?}", prev_b);
+                    // This uncond is immediately after another uncond; we
+                    // should have already redirected labels to this uncond away
+                    // (but check to be sure); so we can truncate this uncond.
+                    if prev_b.is_uncond()
+                        && prev_b.end == b.start
+                        && b.labels_at_this_branch.is_empty()
+                    {
+                        trace!(" -> uncond follows another uncond; truncating");
+                        self.truncate_last_branch();
+                        continue;
+                    }
+
+                    // This uncond is immediately after a conditional, and the
+                    // conditional's target is the end of this uncond, and we've
+                    // already redirected labels to this uncond away; so we can
+                    // truncate this uncond, flip the sense of the conditional, and
+                    // set the conditional's target (in `latest_branches` and in
+                    // `fixup_records`) to the uncond's target.
+                    if prev_b.is_cond()
+                        && prev_b.end == b.start
+                        && self.resolve_label_offset(prev_b.target) == cur_off
+                    {
+                        trace!(" -> uncond follows a conditional, and conditional's target resolves to current offset");
+                        // Save the target of the uncond (this becomes the
+                        // target of the cond), and truncate the uncond.
+                        let target = b.target;
+                        let data = prev_b.inverted.clone().unwrap();
+                        self.truncate_last_branch();
+
+                        // Mutate the code and cond branch.
+                        let off_before_edit = self.cur_offset();
+                        let prev_b = self.latest_branches.last_mut().unwrap();
+                        let not_inverted = SmallVec::from(
+                            &self.data[(prev_b.start as usize)..(prev_b.end as usize)],
+                        );
+
+                        // Low-level edit: replaces bytes of branch with
+                        // inverted form. cur_off remains the same afterward, so
+                        // we do not need to modify label data structures.
+                        self.data.truncate(prev_b.start as usize);
+                        self.data.extend_from_slice(&data[..]);
+
+                        // Save the original code as the inversion of the
+                        // inverted branch, in case we later edit this branch
+                        // again.
+                        prev_b.inverted = Some(not_inverted);
+                        self.pending_fixup_records[prev_b.fixup].label = target;
+                        trace!(" -> reassigning target of condbr to {:?}", target);
+                        prev_b.target = target;
+                        debug_assert_eq!(off_before_edit, self.cur_offset());
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            // If we couldn't do anything with the last branch, then break.
+            break;
+        }
+
+        self.purge_latest_branches();
+
+        trace!(
+            "leave optimize_branches:\n b = {:?}\n l = {:?}\n f = {:?}",
+            self.latest_branches,
+            self.labels_at_tail,
+            self.pending_fixup_records
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn purge_latest_branches(&mut self) {
+        // All of our branch simplification rules work only if a branch ends at
+        // the tail of the buffer, with no following code; and branches are in
+        // order in latest_branches; so if the last entry ends prior to
+        // cur_offset, then clear all entries.
+        let cur_off = self.cur_offset();
+        if let Some(l) = self.latest_branches.last() {
+            if l.end < cur_off {
+                trace!("purge_latest_branches: removing branch {:?}", l);
+                self.latest_branches.clear();
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Post-invariant: no invariant requires any branch to appear in
+        // `latest_branches`; it is always optional. The list-clear above thus
+        // preserves all semantics.
+    }
+
+    /// Emit a trap at some point in the future with the specified code and
+    /// stack map.
+    ///
+    /// This function returns a [`MachLabel`] which will be the future address
+    /// of the trap. Jumps should refer to this label, likely by using the
+    /// [`MachBuffer::use_label_at_offset`] method, to get a relocation
+    /// patched in once the address of the trap is known.
+    ///
+    /// This will batch all traps into the end of the function.
+    pub fn defer_trap(&mut self, code: TrapCode) -> MachLabel {
+        let label = self.get_label();
+        self.pending_traps.push(MachLabelTrap {
+            label,
+            code,
+            loc: self.cur_srcloc.map(|(_start, loc)| loc),
+        });
+        label
+    }
+
+    /// Is an island needed within the next N bytes?
+    pub fn island_needed(&self, distance: CodeOffset) -> bool {
+        let deadline = match self.fixup_records.peek() {
+            Some(fixup) => fixup.deadline().min(self.pending_fixup_deadline),
+            None => self.pending_fixup_deadline,
+        };
+        deadline < u32::MAX && self.worst_case_end_of_island(distance) > deadline
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the maximal offset that islands can reach if `distance` more
+    /// bytes are appended.
+    ///
+    /// This is used to determine if veneers need insertions since jumps that
+    /// can't reach past this point must get a veneer of some form.
+    fn worst_case_end_of_island(&self, distance: CodeOffset) -> CodeOffset {
+        // Assume that all fixups will require veneers and that the veneers are
+        // the worst-case size for each platform. This is an over-generalization
+        // to avoid iterating over the `fixup_records` list or maintaining
+        // information about it as we go along.
+        let island_worst_case_size = ((self.fixup_records.len() + self.pending_fixup_records.len())
+            as u32)
+            * (I::LabelUse::worst_case_veneer_size())
+            + self.pending_constants_size
+            + (self.pending_traps.len() * I::TRAP_OPCODE.len()) as u32;
+        self.cur_offset()
+            .saturating_add(distance)
+            .saturating_add(island_worst_case_size)
+    }
+
+    /// Emit all pending constants and required pending veneers.
+    ///
+    /// Should only be called if `island_needed()` returns true, i.e., if we
+    /// actually reach a deadline. It's not necessarily a problem to do so
+    /// otherwise but it may result in unnecessary work during emission.
+    pub fn emit_island(&mut self, distance: CodeOffset, ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane) {
+        self.emit_island_maybe_forced(ForceVeneers::No, distance, ctrl_plane);
+    }
+
+    /// Same as `emit_island`, but an internal API with a `force_veneers`
+    /// argument to force all veneers to always get emitted for debugging.
+    fn emit_island_maybe_forced(
+        &mut self,
+        force_veneers: ForceVeneers,
+        distance: CodeOffset,
+        ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane,
+    ) {
+        // We're going to purge fixups, so no latest-branch editing can happen
+        // anymore.
+        self.latest_branches.clear();
+
+        // End the current location tracking since anything emitted during this
+        // function shouldn't be attributed to whatever the current source
+        // location is.
+        //
+        // Note that the current source location, if it's set right now, will be
+        // restored at the end of this island emission.
+        let cur_loc = self.cur_srcloc.map(|(_, loc)| loc);
+        if cur_loc.is_some() {
+            self.end_srcloc();
+        }
+
+        let forced_threshold = self.worst_case_end_of_island(distance);
+
+        // First flush out all traps/constants so we have more labels in case
+        // fixups are applied against these labels.
+        //
+        // Note that traps are placed first since this typically happens at the
+        // end of the function and for disassemblers we try to keep all the code
+        // contiguously together.
+        for MachLabelTrap { label, code, loc } in mem::take(&mut self.pending_traps) {
+            // If this trap has source information associated with it then
+            // emit this information for the trap instruction going out now too.
+            if let Some(loc) = loc {
+                self.start_srcloc(loc);
+            }
+            self.align_to(I::LabelUse::ALIGN);
+            self.bind_label(label, ctrl_plane);
+            self.add_trap(code);
+            self.put_data(I::TRAP_OPCODE);
+            if loc.is_some() {
+                self.end_srcloc();
+            }
+        }
+
+        for constant in mem::take(&mut self.pending_constants) {
+            let MachBufferConstant { align, size, .. } = self.constants[constant];
+            let label = self.constants[constant].upcoming_label.take().unwrap();
+            self.align_to(align);
+            self.bind_label(label, ctrl_plane);
+            self.used_constants.push((constant, self.cur_offset()));
+            self.get_appended_space(size);
+        }
+
+        // Either handle all pending fixups because they're ready or move them
+        // onto the `BinaryHeap` tracking all pending fixups if they aren't
+        // ready.
+        assert!(self.latest_branches.is_empty());
+        for fixup in mem::take(&mut self.pending_fixup_records) {
+            if self.should_apply_fixup(&fixup, forced_threshold) {
+                self.handle_fixup(fixup, force_veneers, forced_threshold);
+            } else {
+                self.fixup_records.push(fixup);
+            }
+        }
+        self.pending_fixup_deadline = u32::MAX;
+        while let Some(fixup) = self.fixup_records.peek() {
+            trace!("emit_island: fixup {:?}", fixup);
+
+            // If this fixup shouldn't be applied, that means its label isn't
+            // defined yet and there'll be remaining space to apply a veneer if
+            // necessary in the future after this island. In that situation
+            // because `fixup_records` is sorted by deadline this loop can
+            // exit.
+            if !self.should_apply_fixup(fixup, forced_threshold) {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            let fixup = self.fixup_records.pop().unwrap();
+            self.handle_fixup(fixup, force_veneers, forced_threshold);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(loc) = cur_loc {
+            self.start_srcloc(loc);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn should_apply_fixup(&self, fixup: &MachLabelFixup<I>, forced_threshold: CodeOffset) -> bool {
+        let label_offset = self.resolve_label_offset(fixup.label);
+        label_offset != UNKNOWN_LABEL_OFFSET || fixup.deadline() < forced_threshold
+    }
+
+    fn handle_fixup(
+        &mut self,
+        fixup: MachLabelFixup<I>,
+        force_veneers: ForceVeneers,
+        forced_threshold: CodeOffset,
+    ) {
+        let MachLabelFixup {
+            label,
+            offset,
+            kind,
+        } = fixup;
+        let start = offset as usize;
+        let end = (offset + kind.patch_size()) as usize;
+        let label_offset = self.resolve_label_offset(label);
+
+        if label_offset != UNKNOWN_LABEL_OFFSET {
+            // If the offset of the label for this fixup is known then
+            // we're going to do something here-and-now. We're either going
+            // to patch the original offset because it's an in-bounds jump,
+            // or we're going to generate a veneer, patch the fixup to jump
+            // to the veneer, and then keep going.
+            //
+            // If the label comes after the original fixup, then we should
+            // be guaranteed that the jump is in-bounds. Otherwise there's
+            // a bug somewhere because this method wasn't called soon
+            // enough. All forward-jumps are tracked and should get veneers
+            // before their deadline comes and they're unable to jump
+            // further.
+            //
+            // Otherwise if the label is before the fixup, then that's a
+            // backwards jump. If it's past the maximum negative range
+            // then we'll emit a veneer that to jump forward to which can
+            // then jump backwards.
+            let veneer_required = if label_offset >= offset {
+                assert!((label_offset - offset) <= kind.max_pos_range());
+                false
+            } else {
+                (offset - label_offset) > kind.max_neg_range()
+            };
+            trace!(
+                " -> label_offset = {}, known, required = {} (pos {} neg {})",
+                label_offset,
+                veneer_required,
+                kind.max_pos_range(),
+                kind.max_neg_range()
+            );
+
+            if (force_veneers == ForceVeneers::Yes && kind.supports_veneer()) || veneer_required {
+                self.emit_veneer(label, offset, kind);
+            } else {
+                let slice = &mut self.data[start..end];
+                trace!("patching in-range!");
+                kind.patch(slice, offset, label_offset);
+            }
+        } else {
+            // If the offset of this label is not known at this time then
+            // that means that a veneer is required because after this
+            // island the target can't be in range of the original target.
+            assert!(forced_threshold - offset > kind.max_pos_range());
+            self.emit_veneer(label, offset, kind);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Emits a "veneer" the `kind` code at `offset` to jump to `label`.
+    ///
+    /// This will generate extra machine code, using `kind`, to get a
+    /// larger-jump-kind than `kind` allows. The code at `offset` is then
+    /// patched to jump to our new code, and then the new code is enqueued for
+    /// a fixup to get processed at some later time.
+    fn emit_veneer(&mut self, label: MachLabel, offset: CodeOffset, kind: I::LabelUse) {
+        // If this `kind` doesn't support a veneer then that's a bug in the
+        // backend because we need to implement support for such a veneer.
+        assert!(
+            kind.supports_veneer(),
+            "jump beyond the range of {:?} but a veneer isn't supported",
+            kind,
+        );
+
+        // Allocate space for a veneer in the island.
+        self.align_to(I::LabelUse::ALIGN);
+        let veneer_offset = self.cur_offset();
+        trace!("making a veneer at {}", veneer_offset);
+        let start = offset as usize;
+        let end = (offset + kind.patch_size()) as usize;
+        let slice = &mut self.data[start..end];
+        // Patch the original label use to refer to the veneer.
+        trace!(
+            "patching original at offset {} to veneer offset {}",
+            offset,
+            veneer_offset
+        );
+        kind.patch(slice, offset, veneer_offset);
+        // Generate the veneer.
+        let veneer_slice = self.get_appended_space(kind.veneer_size() as usize);
+        let (veneer_fixup_off, veneer_label_use) =
+            kind.generate_veneer(veneer_slice, veneer_offset);
+        trace!(
+            "generated veneer; fixup offset {}, label_use {:?}",
+            veneer_fixup_off,
+            veneer_label_use
+        );
+        // Register a new use of `label` with our new veneer fixup and
+        // offset. This'll recalculate deadlines accordingly and
+        // enqueue this fixup to get processed at some later
+        // time.
+        self.use_label_at_offset(veneer_fixup_off, label, veneer_label_use);
+    }
+
+    fn finish_emission_maybe_forcing_veneers(
+        &mut self,
+        force_veneers: ForceVeneers,
+        ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane,
+    ) {
+        while !self.pending_constants.is_empty()
+            || !self.pending_traps.is_empty()
+            || !self.fixup_records.is_empty()
+            || !self.pending_fixup_records.is_empty()
+        {
+            // `emit_island()` will emit any pending veneers and constants, and
+            // as a side-effect, will also take care of any fixups with resolved
+            // labels eagerly.
+            self.emit_island_maybe_forced(force_veneers, u32::MAX, ctrl_plane);
+        }
+
+        // Ensure that all labels have been fixed up after the last island is emitted. This is a
+        // full (release-mode) assert because an unresolved label means the emitted code is
+        // incorrect.
+        assert!(self.fixup_records.is_empty());
+        assert!(self.pending_fixup_records.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// Finish any deferred emissions and/or fixups.
+    pub fn finish(
+        mut self,
+        constants: &VCodeConstants,
+        ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane,
+    ) -> MachBufferFinalized<Stencil> {
+        let _tt = timing::vcode_emit_finish();
+
+        self.finish_emission_maybe_forcing_veneers(ForceVeneers::No, ctrl_plane);
+
+        let alignment = self.finish_constants(constants);
+
+        // Resolve all labels to their offsets.
+        let finalized_relocs = self
+            .relocs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|reloc| FinalizedMachReloc {
+                offset: reloc.offset,
+                kind: reloc.kind,
+                addend: reloc.addend,
+                target: match &reloc.target {
+                    RelocTarget::ExternalName(name) => {
+                        FinalizedRelocTarget::ExternalName(name.clone())
+                    }
+                    RelocTarget::Label(label) => {
+                        FinalizedRelocTarget::Func(self.resolve_label_offset(*label))
+                    }
+                },
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let mut srclocs = self.srclocs;
+        srclocs.sort_by_key(|entry| entry.start);
+
+        MachBufferFinalized {
+            data: self.data,
+            relocs: finalized_relocs,
+            traps: self.traps,
+            call_sites: self.call_sites,
+            srclocs,
+            stack_maps: self.stack_maps,
+            user_stack_maps: self.user_stack_maps,
+            unwind_info: self.unwind_info,
+            alignment,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add an external relocation at the given offset from current offset.
+    pub fn add_reloc_at_offset<T: Into<RelocTarget> + Clone>(
+        &mut self,
+        offset: CodeOffset,
+        kind: Reloc,
+        target: &T,
+        addend: Addend,
+    ) {
+        let target: RelocTarget = target.clone().into();
+        // FIXME(#3277): This should use `I::LabelUse::from_reloc` to optionally
+        // generate a label-use statement to track whether an island is possibly
+        // needed to escape this function to actually get to the external name.
+        // This is most likely to come up on AArch64 where calls between
+        // functions use a 26-bit signed offset which gives +/- 64MB. This means
+        // that if a function is 128MB in size and there's a call in the middle
+        // it's impossible to reach the actual target. Also, while it's
+        // technically possible to jump to the start of a function and then jump
+        // further, island insertion below always inserts islands after
+        // previously appended code so for Cranelift's own implementation this
+        // is also a problem for 64MB functions on AArch64 which start with a
+        // call instruction, those won't be able to escape.
+        //
+        // Ideally what needs to happen here is that a `LabelUse` is
+        // transparently generated (or call-sites of this function are audited
+        // to generate a `LabelUse` instead) and tracked internally. The actual
+        // relocation would then change over time if and when a veneer is
+        // inserted, where the relocation here would be patched by this
+        // `MachBuffer` to jump to the veneer. The problem, though, is that all
+        // this still needs to end up, in the case of a singular function,
+        // generating a final relocation pointing either to this particular
+        // relocation or to the veneer inserted. Additionally
+        // `MachBuffer` needs the concept of a label which will never be
+        // resolved, so `emit_island` doesn't trip over not actually ever
+        // knowning what some labels are. Currently the loop in
+        // `finish_emission_maybe_forcing_veneers` would otherwise infinitely
+        // loop.
+        //
+        // For now this means that because relocs aren't tracked at all that
+        // AArch64 functions have a rough size limits of 64MB. For now that's
+        // somewhat reasonable and the failure mode is a panic in `MachBuffer`
+        // when a relocation can't otherwise be resolved later, so it shouldn't
+        // actually result in any memory unsafety or anything like that.
+        self.relocs.push(MachReloc {
+            offset: self.data.len() as CodeOffset + offset,
+            kind,
+            target,
+            addend,
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Add an external relocation at the current offset.
+    pub fn add_reloc<T: Into<RelocTarget> + Clone>(
+        &mut self,
+        kind: Reloc,
+        target: &T,
+        addend: Addend,
+    ) {
+        self.add_reloc_at_offset(0, kind, target, addend);
+    }
+
+    /// Add a trap record at the current offset.
+    pub fn add_trap(&mut self, code: TrapCode) {
+        self.traps.push(MachTrap {
+            offset: self.data.len() as CodeOffset,
+            code,
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Add a call-site record at the current offset.
+    pub fn add_call_site(&mut self, opcode: Opcode) {
+        debug_assert!(
+            opcode.is_call(),
+            "adding call site info for a non-call instruction."
+        );
+        self.call_sites.push(MachCallSite {
+            ret_addr: self.data.len() as CodeOffset,
+            opcode,
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Add an unwind record at the current offset.
+    pub fn add_unwind(&mut self, unwind: UnwindInst) {
+        self.unwind_info.push((self.cur_offset(), unwind));
+    }
+
+    /// Set the `SourceLoc` for code from this offset until the offset at the
+    /// next call to `end_srcloc()`.
+    /// Returns the current [CodeOffset] and [RelSourceLoc].
+    pub fn start_srcloc(&mut self, loc: RelSourceLoc) -> (CodeOffset, RelSourceLoc) {
+        let cur = (self.cur_offset(), loc);
+        self.cur_srcloc = Some(cur);
+        cur
+    }
+
+    /// Mark the end of the `SourceLoc` segment started at the last
+    /// `start_srcloc()` call.
+    pub fn end_srcloc(&mut self) {
+        let (start, loc) = self
+            .cur_srcloc
+            .take()
+            .expect("end_srcloc() called without start_srcloc()");
+        let end = self.cur_offset();
+        // Skip zero-length extends.
+        debug_assert!(end >= start);
+        if end > start {
+            self.srclocs.push(MachSrcLoc { start, end, loc });
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add stack map metadata for this program point: a set of stack offsets
+    /// (from SP upward) that contain live references.
+    pub fn add_stack_map(&mut self, extent: StackMapExtent, stack_map: StackMap) {
+        let (start, end) = match extent {
+            StackMapExtent::UpcomingBytes(insn_len) => {
+                let start_offset = self.cur_offset();
+                (start_offset, start_offset + insn_len)
+            }
+            StackMapExtent::StartedAtOffset(start_offset) => {
+                let end_offset = self.cur_offset();
+                debug_assert!(end_offset >= start_offset);
+                (start_offset, end_offset)
+            }
+        };
+        trace!("Adding stack map for offsets {start:#x}..{end:#x}: {stack_map:?}");
+        self.stack_maps.push(MachStackMap {
+            offset: start,
+            offset_end: end,
+            stack_map,
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Push a user stack map onto this buffer.
+    ///
+    /// The stack map is associated with the given `return_addr` code
+    /// offset. This must be the PC for the instruction just *after* this stack
+    /// map's associated instruction. For example in the sequence `call $foo;
+    /// add r8, rax`, the `return_addr` must be the offset of the start of the
+    /// `add` instruction.
+    ///
+    /// Stack maps must be pushed in sorted `return_addr` order.
+    pub fn push_user_stack_map(
+        &mut self,
+        emit_state: &I::State,
+        return_addr: CodeOffset,
+        stack_map: ir::UserStackMap,
+    ) {
+        let span = emit_state.frame_layout().active_size();
+        trace!("Adding user stack map @ {return_addr:#x} spanning {span} bytes: {stack_map:?}");
+
+        debug_assert!(
+            self.user_stack_maps
+                .last()
+                .map_or(true, |(prev_addr, _, _)| *prev_addr < return_addr),
+            "pushed stack maps out of order: {} is not less than {}",
+            self.user_stack_maps.last().unwrap().0,
+            return_addr,
+        );
+
+        self.user_stack_maps.push((return_addr, span, stack_map));
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: CompilePhase> MachBufferFinalized<T> {
+    /// Get a list of source location mapping tuples in sorted-by-start-offset order.
+    pub fn get_srclocs_sorted(&self) -> &[T::MachSrcLocType] {
+        &self.srclocs[..]
+    }
+
+    /// Get the total required size for the code.
+    pub fn total_size(&self) -> CodeOffset {
+        self.data.len() as CodeOffset
+    }
+
+    /// Return the code in this mach buffer as a hex string for testing purposes.
+    pub fn stringify_code_bytes(&self) -> String {
+        // This is pretty lame, but whatever ..
+        use std::fmt::Write;
+        let mut s = String::with_capacity(self.data.len() * 2);
+        for b in &self.data {
+            write!(&mut s, "{:02X}", b).unwrap();
+        }
+        s
+    }
+
+    /// Get the code bytes.
+    pub fn data(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        // N.B.: we emit every section into the .text section as far as
+        // the `CodeSink` is concerned; we do not bother to segregate
+        // the contents into the actual program text, the jumptable and the
+        // rodata (constant pool). This allows us to generate code assuming
+        // that these will not be relocated relative to each other, and avoids
+        // having to designate each section as belonging in one of the three
+        // fixed categories defined by `CodeSink`. If this becomes a problem
+        // later (e.g. because of memory permissions or similar), we can
+        // add this designation and segregate the output; take care, however,
+        // to add the appropriate relocations in this case.
+
+        &self.data[..]
+    }
+
+    /// Get the list of external relocations for this code.
+    pub fn relocs(&self) -> &[FinalizedMachReloc] {
+        &self.relocs[..]
+    }
+
+    /// Get the list of trap records for this code.
+    pub fn traps(&self) -> &[MachTrap] {
+        &self.traps[..]
+    }
+
+    /// Get the stack map metadata for this code.
+    pub fn stack_maps(&self) -> &[MachStackMap] {
+        &self.stack_maps[..]
+    }
+
+    /// Take this buffer's stack map metadata.
+    pub fn take_stack_maps(&mut self) -> SmallVec<[MachStackMap; 8]> {
+        mem::take(&mut self.stack_maps)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the list of call sites for this code.
+    pub fn call_sites(&self) -> &[MachCallSite] {
+        &self.call_sites[..]
+    }
+}
+
+/// Metadata about a constant.
+struct MachBufferConstant {
+    /// A label which has not yet been bound which can be used for this
+    /// constant.
+    ///
+    /// This is lazily created when a label is requested for a constant and is
+    /// cleared when a constant is emitted.
+    upcoming_label: Option<MachLabel>,
+    /// Required alignment.
+    align: CodeOffset,
+    /// The byte size of this constant.
+    size: usize,
+}
+
+/// A trap that is deferred to the next time an island is emitted for either
+/// traps, constants, or fixups.
+struct MachLabelTrap {
+    /// This label will refer to the trap's offset.
+    label: MachLabel,
+    /// The code associated with this trap.
+    code: TrapCode,
+    /// An optional source location to assign for this trap.
+    loc: Option<RelSourceLoc>,
+}
+
+/// A fixup to perform on the buffer once code is emitted. Fixups always refer
+/// to labels and patch the code based on label offsets. Hence, they are like
+/// relocations, but internal to one buffer.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct MachLabelFixup<I: VCodeInst> {
+    /// The label whose offset controls this fixup.
+    label: MachLabel,
+    /// The offset to fix up / patch to refer to this label.
+    offset: CodeOffset,
+    /// The kind of fixup. This is architecture-specific; each architecture may have,
+    /// e.g., several types of branch instructions, each with differently-sized
+    /// offset fields and different places within the instruction to place the
+    /// bits.
+    kind: I::LabelUse,
+}
+
+impl<I: VCodeInst> MachLabelFixup<I> {
+    fn deadline(&self) -> CodeOffset {
+        self.offset.saturating_add(self.kind.max_pos_range())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<I: VCodeInst> PartialEq for MachLabelFixup<I> {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.deadline() == other.deadline()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<I: VCodeInst> Eq for MachLabelFixup<I> {}
+
+impl<I: VCodeInst> PartialOrd for MachLabelFixup<I> {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<I: VCodeInst> Ord for MachLabelFixup<I> {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering {
+        other.deadline().cmp(&self.deadline())
+    }
+}
+
+/// A relocation resulting from a compilation.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(
+    feature = "enable-serde",
+    derive(serde_derive::Serialize, serde_derive::Deserialize)
+)]
+pub struct MachRelocBase<T> {
+    /// The offset at which the relocation applies, *relative to the
+    /// containing section*.
+    pub offset: CodeOffset,
+    /// The kind of relocation.
+    pub kind: Reloc,
+    /// The external symbol / name to which this relocation refers.
+    pub target: T,
+    /// The addend to add to the symbol value.
+    pub addend: i64,
+}
+
+type MachReloc = MachRelocBase<RelocTarget>;
+
+/// A relocation resulting from a compilation.
+pub type FinalizedMachReloc = MachRelocBase<FinalizedRelocTarget>;
+
+/// A Relocation target
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub enum RelocTarget {
+    /// Points to an [ExternalName] outside the current function.
+    ExternalName(ExternalName),
+    /// Points to a [MachLabel] inside this function.
+    /// This is different from [MachLabelFixup] in that both the relocation and the
+    /// label will be emitted and are only resolved at link time.
+    ///
+    /// There is no reason to prefer this over [MachLabelFixup] unless the ABI requires it.
+    Label(MachLabel),
+}
+
+impl From<ExternalName> for RelocTarget {
+    fn from(name: ExternalName) -> Self {
+        Self::ExternalName(name)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<MachLabel> for RelocTarget {
+    fn from(label: MachLabel) -> Self {
+        Self::Label(label)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A Relocation target
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+#[cfg_attr(
+    feature = "enable-serde",
+    derive(serde_derive::Serialize, serde_derive::Deserialize)
+)]
+pub enum FinalizedRelocTarget {
+    /// Points to an [ExternalName] outside the current function.
+    ExternalName(ExternalName),
+    /// Points to a [CodeOffset] from the start of the current function.
+    Func(CodeOffset),
+}
+
+impl FinalizedRelocTarget {
+    /// Returns a display for the current [FinalizedRelocTarget], with extra context to prettify the
+    /// output.
+    pub fn display<'a>(&'a self, params: Option<&'a FunctionParameters>) -> String {
+        match self {
+            FinalizedRelocTarget::ExternalName(name) => format!("{}", name.display(params)),
+            FinalizedRelocTarget::Func(offset) => format!("func+{offset}"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A trap record resulting from a compilation.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(
+    feature = "enable-serde",
+    derive(serde_derive::Serialize, serde_derive::Deserialize)
+)]
+pub struct MachTrap {
+    /// The offset at which the trap instruction occurs, *relative to the
+    /// containing section*.
+    pub offset: CodeOffset,
+    /// The trap code.
+    pub code: TrapCode,
+}
+
+/// A call site record resulting from a compilation.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(
+    feature = "enable-serde",
+    derive(serde_derive::Serialize, serde_derive::Deserialize)
+)]
+pub struct MachCallSite {
+    /// The offset of the call's return address, *relative to the containing section*.
+    pub ret_addr: CodeOffset,
+    /// The call's opcode.
+    pub opcode: Opcode,
+}
+
+/// A source-location mapping resulting from a compilation.
+#[derive(PartialEq, Debug, Clone)]
+#[cfg_attr(
+    feature = "enable-serde",
+    derive(serde_derive::Serialize, serde_derive::Deserialize)
+)]
+pub struct MachSrcLoc<T: CompilePhase> {
+    /// The start of the region of code corresponding to a source location.
+    /// This is relative to the start of the function, not to the start of the
+    /// section.
+    pub start: CodeOffset,
+    /// The end of the region of code corresponding to a source location.
+    /// This is relative to the start of the section, not to the start of the
+    /// section.
+    pub end: CodeOffset,
+    /// The source location.
+    pub loc: T::SourceLocType,
+}
+
+impl MachSrcLoc<Stencil> {
+    fn apply_base_srcloc(self, base_srcloc: SourceLoc) -> MachSrcLoc<Final> {
+        MachSrcLoc {
+            start: self.start,
+            end: self.end,
+            loc: self.loc.expand(base_srcloc),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Record of stack map metadata: stack offsets containing references.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(
+    feature = "enable-serde",
+    derive(serde_derive::Serialize, serde_derive::Deserialize)
+)]
+pub struct MachStackMap {
+    /// The code offset at which this stack map applies.
+    pub offset: CodeOffset,
+    /// The code offset just past the "end" of the instruction: that is, the
+    /// offset of the first byte of the following instruction, or equivalently,
+    /// the start offset plus the instruction length.
+    pub offset_end: CodeOffset,
+    /// The stack map itself.
+    pub stack_map: StackMap,
+}
+
+/// Record of branch instruction in the buffer, to facilitate editing.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct MachBranch {
+    start: CodeOffset,
+    end: CodeOffset,
+    target: MachLabel,
+    fixup: usize,
+    inverted: Option<SmallVec<[u8; 8]>>,
+    /// All labels pointing to the start of this branch. For correctness, this
+    /// *must* be complete (i.e., must contain all labels whose resolved offsets
+    /// are at the start of this branch): we rely on being able to redirect all
+    /// labels that could jump to this branch before removing it, if it is
+    /// otherwise unreachable.
+    labels_at_this_branch: SmallVec<[MachLabel; 4]>,
+}
+
+impl MachBranch {
+    fn is_cond(&self) -> bool {
+        self.inverted.is_some()
+    }
+    fn is_uncond(&self) -> bool {
+        self.inverted.is_none()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Implementation of the `TextSectionBuilder` trait backed by `MachBuffer`.
+///
+/// Note that `MachBuffer` was primarily written for intra-function references
+/// of jumps between basic blocks, but it's also quite usable for entire text
+/// sections and resolving references between functions themselves. This
+/// builder interprets "blocks" as labeled functions for the purposes of
+/// resolving labels internally in the buffer.
+pub struct MachTextSectionBuilder<I: VCodeInst> {
+    buf: MachBuffer<I>,
+    next_func: usize,
+    force_veneers: ForceVeneers,
+}
+
+impl<I: VCodeInst> MachTextSectionBuilder<I> {
+    /// Creates a new text section builder which will have `num_funcs` functions
+    /// pushed into it.
+    pub fn new(num_funcs: usize) -> MachTextSectionBuilder<I> {
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::new();
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(num_funcs);
+        MachTextSectionBuilder {
+            buf,
+            next_func: 0,
+            force_veneers: ForceVeneers::No,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<I: VCodeInst> TextSectionBuilder for MachTextSectionBuilder<I> {
+    fn append(
+        &mut self,
+        labeled: bool,
+        func: &[u8],
+        align: u32,
+        ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane,
+    ) -> u64 {
+        // Conditionally emit an island if it's necessary to resolve jumps
+        // between functions which are too far away.
+        let size = func.len() as u32;
+        if self.force_veneers == ForceVeneers::Yes || self.buf.island_needed(size) {
+            self.buf
+                .emit_island_maybe_forced(self.force_veneers, size, ctrl_plane);
+        }
+
+        self.buf.align_to(align);
+        let pos = self.buf.cur_offset();
+        if labeled {
+            self.buf.bind_label(
+                MachLabel::from_block(BlockIndex::new(self.next_func)),
+                ctrl_plane,
+            );
+            self.next_func += 1;
+        }
+        self.buf.put_data(func);
+        u64::from(pos)
+    }
+
+    fn resolve_reloc(&mut self, offset: u64, reloc: Reloc, addend: Addend, target: usize) -> bool {
+        crate::trace!(
+            "Resolving relocation @ {offset:#x} + {addend:#x} to target {target} of kind {reloc:?}"
+        );
+        let label = MachLabel::from_block(BlockIndex::new(target));
+        let offset = u32::try_from(offset).unwrap();
+        match I::LabelUse::from_reloc(reloc, addend) {
+            Some(label_use) => {
+                self.buf.use_label_at_offset(offset, label, label_use);
+                true
+            }
+            None => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn force_veneers(&mut self) {
+        self.force_veneers = ForceVeneers::Yes;
+    }
+
+    fn finish(&mut self, ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane) -> Vec<u8> {
+        // Double-check all functions were pushed.
+        assert_eq!(self.next_func, self.buf.label_offsets.len());
+
+        // Finish up any veneers, if necessary.
+        self.buf
+            .finish_emission_maybe_forcing_veneers(self.force_veneers, ctrl_plane);
+
+        // We don't need the data any more, so return it to the caller.
+        mem::take(&mut self.buf.data).into_vec()
+    }
+}
+
+// We use an actual instruction definition to do tests, so we depend on the `arm64` feature here.
+#[cfg(all(test, feature = "arm64"))]
+mod test {
+    use cranelift_entity::EntityRef as _;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::ir::UserExternalNameRef;
+    use crate::isa::aarch64::inst::xreg;
+    use crate::isa::aarch64::inst::{BranchTarget, CondBrKind, EmitInfo, Inst};
+    use crate::machinst::{MachInstEmit, MachInstEmitState};
+    use crate::settings;
+
+    fn label(n: u32) -> MachLabel {
+        MachLabel::from_block(BlockIndex::new(n as usize))
+    }
+    fn target(n: u32) -> BranchTarget {
+        BranchTarget::Label(label(n))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_elide_jump_to_next() {
+        let info = EmitInfo::new(settings::Flags::new(settings::builder()));
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = <Inst as MachInstEmit>::State::default();
+        let constants = Default::default();
+
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(2);
+        buf.bind_label(label(0), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(1) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+        buf.bind_label(label(1), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let buf = buf.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        assert_eq!(0, buf.total_size());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_elide_trivial_jump_blocks() {
+        let info = EmitInfo::new(settings::Flags::new(settings::builder()));
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = <Inst as MachInstEmit>::State::default();
+        let constants = Default::default();
+
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(4);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(0), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::CondBr {
+            kind: CondBrKind::NotZero(xreg(0)),
+            taken: target(1),
+            not_taken: target(2),
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(1), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(3) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(2), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(3) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(3), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        let buf = buf.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        assert_eq!(0, buf.total_size());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flip_cond() {
+        let info = EmitInfo::new(settings::Flags::new(settings::builder()));
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = <Inst as MachInstEmit>::State::default();
+        let constants = Default::default();
+
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(4);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(0), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::CondBr {
+            kind: CondBrKind::Zero(xreg(0)),
+            taken: target(1),
+            not_taken: target(2),
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(1), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(2), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Udf {
+            trap_code: TrapCode::Interrupt,
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(3), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        let buf = buf.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        let mut buf2 = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = Default::default();
+        let inst = Inst::TrapIf {
+            kind: CondBrKind::NotZero(xreg(0)),
+            trap_code: TrapCode::Interrupt,
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf2, &info, &mut state);
+        let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+        inst.emit(&mut buf2, &info, &mut state);
+
+        let buf2 = buf2.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        assert_eq!(buf.data, buf2.data);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_island() {
+        let info = EmitInfo::new(settings::Flags::new(settings::builder()));
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = <Inst as MachInstEmit>::State::default();
+        let constants = Default::default();
+
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(4);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(0), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::CondBr {
+            kind: CondBrKind::NotZero(xreg(0)),
+            taken: target(2),
+            not_taken: target(3),
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(1), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        while buf.cur_offset() < 2000000 {
+            if buf.island_needed(0) {
+                buf.emit_island(0, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+            }
+            let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+            inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+        }
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(2), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(3), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        let buf = buf.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        assert_eq!(2000000 + 8, buf.total_size());
+
+        let mut buf2 = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = Default::default();
+        let inst = Inst::CondBr {
+            kind: CondBrKind::NotZero(xreg(0)),
+
+            // This conditionally taken branch has a 19-bit constant, shifted
+            // to the left by two, giving us a 21-bit range in total. Half of
+            // this range positive so the we should be around 1 << 20 bytes
+            // away for our jump target.
+            //
+            // There are two pending fixups by the time we reach this point,
+            // one for this 19-bit jump and one for the unconditional 26-bit
+            // jump below. A 19-bit veneer is 4 bytes large and the 26-bit
+            // veneer is 20 bytes large, which means that pessimistically
+            // assuming we'll need two veneers. Currently each veneer is
+            // pessimistically assumed to be the maximal size which means we
+            // need 40 bytes of extra space, meaning that the actual island
+            // should come 40-bytes before the deadline.
+            taken: BranchTarget::ResolvedOffset((1 << 20) - 20 - 20),
+
+            // This branch is in-range so no veneers should be needed, it should
+            // go directly to the target.
+            not_taken: BranchTarget::ResolvedOffset(2000000 + 4 - 4),
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf2, &info, &mut state);
+
+        let buf2 = buf2.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        assert_eq!(&buf.data[0..8], &buf2.data[..]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_island_backward() {
+        let info = EmitInfo::new(settings::Flags::new(settings::builder()));
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = <Inst as MachInstEmit>::State::default();
+        let constants = Default::default();
+
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(4);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(0), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(1), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(2), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        while buf.cur_offset() < 2000000 {
+            let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+            inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+        }
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(3), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::CondBr {
+            kind: CondBrKind::NotZero(xreg(0)),
+            taken: target(0),
+            not_taken: target(1),
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        let buf = buf.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        assert_eq!(2000000 + 12, buf.total_size());
+
+        let mut buf2 = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = Default::default();
+        let inst = Inst::CondBr {
+            kind: CondBrKind::NotZero(xreg(0)),
+            taken: BranchTarget::ResolvedOffset(8),
+            not_taken: BranchTarget::ResolvedOffset(4 - (2000000 + 4)),
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf2, &info, &mut state);
+        let inst = Inst::Jump {
+            dest: BranchTarget::ResolvedOffset(-(2000000 + 8)),
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf2, &info, &mut state);
+
+        let buf2 = buf2.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        assert_eq!(&buf.data[2000000..], &buf2.data[..]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multiple_redirect() {
+        // label0:
+        //   cbz x0, label1
+        //   b label2
+        // label1:
+        //   b label3
+        // label2:
+        //   nop
+        //   nop
+        //   b label0
+        // label3:
+        //   b label4
+        // label4:
+        //   b label5
+        // label5:
+        //   b label7
+        // label6:
+        //   nop
+        // label7:
+        //   ret
+        //
+        // -- should become:
+        //
+        // label0:
+        //   cbz x0, label7
+        // label2:
+        //   nop
+        //   nop
+        //   b label0
+        // label6:
+        //   nop
+        // label7:
+        //   ret
+
+        let info = EmitInfo::new(settings::Flags::new(settings::builder()));
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = <Inst as MachInstEmit>::State::default();
+        let constants = Default::default();
+
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(8);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(0), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::CondBr {
+            kind: CondBrKind::Zero(xreg(0)),
+            taken: target(1),
+            not_taken: target(2),
+        };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(1), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(3) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(2), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(0) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(3), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(4) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(4), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(5) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(5), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(7) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(6), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Nop4;
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(7), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Ret {};
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        let buf = buf.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        let golden_data = vec![
+            0xa0, 0x00, 0x00, 0xb4, // cbz x0, 0x14
+            0x1f, 0x20, 0x03, 0xd5, // nop
+            0x1f, 0x20, 0x03, 0xd5, // nop
+            0xfd, 0xff, 0xff, 0x17, // b 0
+            0x1f, 0x20, 0x03, 0xd5, // nop
+            0xc0, 0x03, 0x5f, 0xd6, // ret
+        ];
+
+        assert_eq!(&golden_data[..], &buf.data[..]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_handle_branch_cycle() {
+        // label0:
+        //   b label1
+        // label1:
+        //   b label2
+        // label2:
+        //   b label3
+        // label3:
+        //   b label4
+        // label4:
+        //   b label1  // note: not label0 (to make it interesting).
+        //
+        // -- should become:
+        //
+        // label0, label1, ..., label4:
+        //   b label0
+        let info = EmitInfo::new(settings::Flags::new(settings::builder()));
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::new();
+        let mut state = <Inst as MachInstEmit>::State::default();
+        let constants = Default::default();
+
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(5);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(0), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(1) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(1), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(2) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(2), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(3) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(3), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(4) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(4), state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+        let inst = Inst::Jump { dest: target(1) };
+        inst.emit(&mut buf, &info, &mut state);
+
+        let buf = buf.finish(&constants, state.ctrl_plane_mut());
+
+        let golden_data = vec![
+            0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x14, // b 0
+        ];
+
+        assert_eq!(&golden_data[..], &buf.data[..]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn metadata_records() {
+        let mut buf = MachBuffer::<Inst>::new();
+        let ctrl_plane = &mut Default::default();
+        let constants = Default::default();
+
+        buf.reserve_labels_for_blocks(1);
+
+        buf.bind_label(label(0), ctrl_plane);
+        buf.put1(1);
+        buf.add_trap(TrapCode::HeapOutOfBounds);
+        buf.put1(2);
+        buf.add_trap(TrapCode::IntegerOverflow);
+        buf.add_trap(TrapCode::IntegerDivisionByZero);
+        buf.add_call_site(Opcode::Call);
+        buf.add_reloc(
+            Reloc::Abs4,
+            &ExternalName::User(UserExternalNameRef::new(0)),
+            0,
+        );
+        buf.put1(3);
+        buf.add_reloc(
+            Reloc::Abs8,
+            &ExternalName::User(UserExternalNameRef::new(1)),
+            1,
+        );
+        buf.put1(4);
+
+        let buf = buf.finish(&constants, ctrl_plane);
+
+        assert_eq!(buf.data(), &[1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            buf.traps()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|trap| (trap.offset, trap.code))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![
+                (1, TrapCode::HeapOutOfBounds),
+                (2, TrapCode::IntegerOverflow),
+                (2, TrapCode::IntegerDivisionByZero)
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            buf.call_sites()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|call_site| (call_site.ret_addr, call_site.opcode))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(2, Opcode::Call)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            buf.relocs()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|reloc| (reloc.offset, reloc.kind))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(2, Reloc::Abs4), (3, Reloc::Abs8)]
+        );
+    }
+}