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data/test/results/lec1.srt

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+1
+0:00:00 --> 00:00:06
+I'm Walter Lewin.
+
+2
+00:00:02 --> 00:00:08
+I will be your lecturer
+this term.
+
+3
+00:00:04 --> 00:00:10
+In physics, we explore the
+very small to the very large.
+
+4
+00:00:10 --> 00:00:16
+The very small is a small
+fraction of a proton
+
+5
+00:00:13 --> 00:00:19
+and the very large is
+the universe itself.
+
+6
+00:00:16 --> 00:00:22
+They span 45 orders
+of magnitude--
+
+7
+00:00:19 --> 00:00:25
+a 1 with 45 zeroes.
+
+8
+00:00:24 --> 00:00:30
+To express measurements
+quantitatively
+
+9
+00:00:28 --> 00:00:34
+we have to introduce units.
+
+10
+00:00:31 --> 00:00:37
+And we introduce for the unit
+of length, the meter;
+
+11
+00:00:37 --> 00:00:43
+for the unit of time,
+the second;
+
+12
+00:00:41 --> 00:00:47
+and for the unit of mass,
+the kilogram.
+
+13
+00:00:46 --> 00:00:52
+Now, you can read in your book
+how these are defined
+
+14
+00:00:49 --> 00:00:55
+and how the definition
+evolved historically.
+
+15
+00:00:53 --> 00:00:59
+Now, there are
+many derived units
+
+16
+00:00:55 --> 00:01:01
+which we use in our daily life
+for convenience
+
+17
+00:00:59 --> 00:01:05
+and some are tailored
+toward specific fields.
+
+18
+00:01:02 --> 00:01:08
+We have centimeters,
+we have millimeters
+
+19
+00:01:05 --> 00:01:11
+kilometers.
+
+20
+00:01:06 --> 00:01:12
+We have inches, feet, miles.
+
+21
+00:01:09 --> 00:01:15
+Astronomers even use
+the astronomical unit
+
+22
+00:01:12 --> 00:01:18
+which is the mean distance
+between the Earth and the sun
+
+23
+00:01:15 --> 00:01:21
+and they use light-years
+
+24
+00:01:17 --> 00:01:23
+which is the distance that
+light travels in one year.
+
+25
+00:01:21 --> 00:01:27
+We have milliseconds,
+we have microseconds
+
+26
+00:01:23 --> 00:01:29
+we have days, weeks, hours,
+centuries, months--
+
+27
+00:01:27 --> 00:01:33
+all derived units.
+
+28
+00:01:29 --> 00:01:35
+For the mass, we have
+milligrams, we have pounds
+
+29
+00:01:33 --> 00:01:39
+we have metric tons.
+
+30
+00:01:36 --> 00:01:42
+So lots of derived units exist.
+
+31
+00:01:41 --> 00:01:47
+Not all of them are
+very easy to work with.
+
+32
+00:01:44 --> 00:01:50
+I find it extremely difficult
+to work with inches and feet.
+
+33
+00:01:47 --> 00:01:53
+It's an extremely
+uncivilized system.
+
+34
+00:01:50 --> 00:01:56
+I don't mean to insult you,
+but think about it--
+
+35
+00:01:52 --> 00:01:58
+12 inches in a foot,
+three feet in a yard.
+
+36
+00:01:56 --> 00:02:02
+Could drive you nuts.
+
+37
+00:01:58 --> 00:02:04
+I work almost
+exclusively decimal,
+
+38
+00:02:01 --> 00:02:07
+and I hope you will do the same
+during this course
+
+39
+00:02:03 --> 00:02:09
+but we may make some exceptions.
+
+40
+00:02:06 --> 00:02:12
+I will now first show you
+a movie,
+
+41
+00:02:08 --> 00:02:14
+which is called
+The Powers of Ten.
+
+42
+00:02:11 --> 00:02:17
+It covers 40 orders
+of magnitude.
+
+43
+00:02:13 --> 00:02:19
+It was originally conceived
+by a Dutchman named Kees Boeke
+
+44
+00:02:17 --> 00:02:23
+in the early '50s.
+
+45
+00:02:19 --> 00:02:25
+This is the second-generation
+movie, and you will hear
+
+46
+00:02:23 --> 00:02:29
+the voice of Professor Morrison,
+who is a professor at MIT.
+
+47
+00:02:30 --> 00:02:36
+The Power of Ten--
+40 Orders of Magnitude.
+
+48
+00:02:37 --> 00:02:43
+Here we go.
+
+49
+00:02:48 --> 00:02:54
+I already introduced,
+as you see there
+
+50
+00:02:50.700,0:02:56.700
+length, time and mass
+
+51
+00:02:53 --> 00:02:59
+and we call these
+
+52
+00:02:55.200,0:03:01.200
+the three fundamental quantities
+in physics.
+
+53
+00:02:59.900,0:03:05.900
+I will give this the symbol
+capital L for length
+
+54
+00:03:03 --> 00:03:09
+capital T for time,
+and capital M for mass.
+
+55
+00:03:06 --> 00:03:12
+All other quantities in physics
+can be derived
+
+56
+00:03:10.500,0:03:16.500
+from these fundamental
+quantities.
+
+57
+00:03:13 --> 00:03:19
+I'll give you an example.
+
+58
+00:03:16 --> 00:03:22
+I put a bracket around here.
+
+59
+00:03:18 --> 00:03:24
+I say speed, and that means
+the dimensions of speed.
+
+60
+00:03:22.200,0:03:28.200
+The dimensions of speed is
+the dimension of length
+
+61
+00:03:24 --> 00:03:30
+divided by the dimension
+of time.
+
+62
+00:03:27 --> 00:03:33
+So I can write for that:
+[L] divided by [T].
+
+63
+00:03:32 --> 00:03:38
+Whether it's meters per second
+or inches per year
+
+64
+00:03:35 --> 00:03:41
+that's not what matters.
+
+65
+00:03:36 --> 00:03:42
+It has the dimension
+length per time.
+
+66
+00:03:39.900,0:03:45.900
+Volume would have
+the dimension
+
+67
+00:03:44 --> 00:03:50
+of length to the power three.
+
+68
+00:03:50 --> 00:03:56
+Density would have
+the dimension
+
+69
+00:03:54 --> 00:04:00
+of mass per unit volume
+
+70
+00:03:59 --> 00:04:05
+so that means
+length to the power three.
+
+71
+00:04:03 --> 00:04:09
+All-important in our course
+is acceleration.
+
+72
+00:04:07 --> 00:04:13
+We will deal a lot
+with acceleration.
+
+73
+00:04:10 --> 00:04:16
+Acceleration, as you will see,
+is length per time squared.
+
+74
+00:04:14.200,0:04:20.200
+The unit is meters
+per second squared.
+
+75
+00:04:17 --> 00:04:23
+So you get length
+divided by time squared.
+
+76
+00:04:25 --> 00:04:31
+So all other quantities
+can be derived
+
+77
+00:04:27.700,0:04:33.700
+from these three fundamental.
+
+78
+00:04:30.600,0:04:36.600
+So now that we have agreed
+on the units--
+
+79
+00:04:33.900,0:04:39.900
+we have the meter,
+the second and the kilogram--
+
+80
+00:04:36 --> 00:04:42
+we can start making
+measurements.
+
+81
+00:04:38.800,0:04:44.800
+Now, all-important
+in making measurements
+
+82
+00:04:41 --> 00:04:47
+which is always ignored
+in every college book
+
+83
+00:04:44 --> 00:04:50
+is the uncertainty
+in your measurement.
+
+84
+00:04:48 --> 00:04:54
+Any measurement that you make
+
+85
+00:04:50 --> 00:04:56
+without any knowledge
+of the uncertainty
+
+86
+00:04:53 --> 00:04:59
+is meaningless.
+
+87
+00:04:55.900,0:05:01.900
+I will repeat this.
+
+88
+00:04:57 --> 00:05:03
+I want you to hear it tonight
+at 3:00 when you wake up.
+
+89
+00:05:00.800,0:05:06.800
+Any measurement that you make
+
+90
+00:05:02 --> 00:05:08
+without the knowledge
+of its uncertainty
+
+91
+00:05:05 --> 00:05:11
+is completely meaningless.
+
+92
+00:05:08 --> 00:05:14
+My grandmother used
+to tell me that...
+
+93
+00:05:13 --> 00:05:19
+at least she believed it...
+
+94
+00:05:15 --> 00:05:21
+that someone who is lying in bed
+
+95
+00:05:18 --> 00:05:24
+is longer than
+someone who stands up.
+
+96
+00:05:21 --> 00:05:27
+And in honor of my grandmother
+
+97
+00:05:22 --> 00:05:28
+I'm going to bring
+this today to a test.
+
+98
+00:05:26 --> 00:05:32
+I have here a setup where I can
+measure a person standing up
+
+99
+00:05:31 --> 00:05:37
+and a person lying down.
+
+100
+00:05:34.700,0:05:40.700
+It's not the greatest bed,
+but lying down.
+
+101
+00:05:37 --> 00:05:43
+I have to convince you
+
+102
+00:05:38.900,0:05:44.900
+about the uncertainty
+in my measurement
+
+103
+00:05:41 --> 00:05:47
+because a measurement without
+knowledge of the uncertainty
+
+104
+00:05:43 --> 00:05:49
+is meaningless.
+
+105
+00:05:45.100,0:05:51.100
+And therefore, what I will do
+is the following.
+
+106
+00:05:47.900,0:05:53.900
+I have here an aluminum bar
+
+107
+00:05:50.200,0:05:56.200
+and I make the reasonable,
+plausible assumption
+
+108
+00:05:53.500,0:05:59.500
+that when this aluminum bar
+is sleeping--
+
+109
+00:05:56 --> 00:06:02
+when it is horizontal--
+
+110
+00:05:57.400,0:06:03.400
+that it is not longer than
+when it is standing up.
+
+111
+00:06:00 --> 00:06:06
+If you accept that,
+we can compare
+
+112
+00:06:02 --> 00:06:08
+the length of this aluminum bar
+with this setup
+
+113
+00:06:06 --> 00:06:12
+and with this setup.
+
+114
+00:06:07.300,0:06:13.300
+At least we have some kind
+of calibration to start with.
+
+115
+00:06:10.900,0:06:16.900
+I will measure it.
+
+116
+00:06:12 --> 00:06:18
+You have to trust me.
+
+117
+00:06:13.800,0:06:19.800
+During these three months,
+we have to trust each other.
+
+118
+00:06:16.800,0:06:22.800
+So I measure here,
+149.9 centimeters.
+
+119
+00:06:24 --> 00:06:30
+However, I would think
+that the...
+
+120
+00:06:27 --> 00:06:33
+so this is the aluminum bar.
+
+121
+00:06:29 --> 00:06:35
+This is in vertical position.
+
+122
+00:06:32 --> 00:06:38
+149.9.
+
+123
+00:06:35 --> 00:06:41
+But I would think that the
+uncertainty of my measurement
+
+124
+00:06:39 --> 00:06:45
+is probably 1 millimeter.
+
+125
+00:06:40.500,0:06:46.500
+I can't really guarantee you
+
+126
+00:06:41 --> 00:06:47
+that I did it accurately
+any better.
+
+127
+00:06:44.200,0:06:50.200
+So that's the vertical one.
+
+128
+00:06:46 --> 00:06:52
+Now we're going to measure
+the bar horizontally
+
+129
+00:06:50.300,0:06:56.300
+for which we have a setup here.
+
+130
+00:06:51.800,0:06:57.800
+Oops!
+
+131
+00:06:52.800,0:06:58.800
+The scale is on your side.
+
+132
+00:06:54 --> 00:07:00
+So now I measure
+the length of this bar.
+
+133
+00:06:57 --> 00:07:03
+150.0 horizontally.
+
+134
+00:07:04 --> 00:07:10
+150.0, again, plus or minus
+0.1 centimeter.
+
+135
+00:07:09.600,0:07:15.600
+So you would agree with me
+that I am capable of measuring
+
+136
+00:07:13 --> 00:07:19
+plus or minus 1 millimeter.
+
+137
+00:07:15 --> 00:07:21
+That's the uncertainty
+of my measurement.
+
+138
+00:07:17 --> 00:07:23
+Now, if the difference
+in lengths
+
+139
+00:07:22 --> 00:07:28
+between lying down
+and standing up
+
+140
+00:07:24 --> 00:07:30
+if that were one foot
+
+141
+00:07:26.800,0:07:32.800
+we would all know it,
+wouldn't we?
+
+142
+00:07:28 --> 00:07:34
+You get out of bed
+in the morning
+
+143
+00:07:29 --> 00:07:35
+you lie down and you get up
+and you go, clunk!
+
+144
+00:07:31 --> 00:07:37
+And you're one foot shorter.
+
+145
+00:07:32 --> 00:07:38
+And we know that that's
+not the case.
+
+146
+00:07:34 --> 00:07:40
+If the difference were
+only one millimeter
+
+147
+00:07:37 --> 00:07:43
+we would never know.
+
+148
+00:07:39 --> 00:07:45
+Therefore, I suspect that
+if my grandmother was right
+
+149
+00:07:43 --> 00:07:49
+then it's probably only
+a few centimeters,
+
+150
+00:07:45 --> 00:07:51
+maybe an inch.
+
+151
+00:07:46 --> 00:07:52
+And so I would argue that
+if I can measure
+
+152
+00:07:49.800,0:07:55.800
+the length of a student
+to one millimeter accuracy
+
+153
+00:07:53.400,0:07:59.400
+that should settle the issue.
+
+154
+00:07:55 --> 00:08:01
+So I need a volunteer.
+
+155
+00:07:58 --> 00:08:04
+You want to volunteer?
+
+156
+00:08:00 --> 00:08:06
+You look like you're very tall.
+
+157
+00:08:01 --> 00:08:07
+I hope that... yeah, I hope that
+we don't run out of, uh...
+
+158
+00:08:06 --> 00:08:12
+You're not taller
+than 178 or so?
+
+159
+00:08:10.700,0:08:16.700
+What is your name?
+
+160
+00:08:11.700,0:08:17.700
+STUDENT:
+Rick Ryder.
+
+161
+00:08:12.500,0:08:18.500
+LEWIN:
+Rick-- Rick Ryder.
+
+162
+00:08:13 --> 00:08:19
+You're not nervous, right?
+
+163
+00:08:15 --> 00:08:21
+RICK:
+No!
+
+164
+00:08:16.500,0:08:22.500
+LEWIN:
+Man!
+
+165
+00:08:17.500,0:08:23.500
+(class laughs )
+
+166
+00:08:20.100,0:08:26.100
+Sit down.
+
+167
+00:08:21.100,0:08:27.100
+(class laughs )
+
+168
+00:08:23 --> 00:08:29
+I can't have tall guys here.
+
+169
+00:08:24 --> 00:08:30
+Come on.
+
+170
+00:08:25 --> 00:08:31
+We need someone
+more modest in size.
+
+171
+00:08:29 --> 00:08:35
+Don't take it personal, Rick.
+
+172
+00:08:32 --> 00:08:38
+Okay, what is your name?
+
+173
+00:08:35 --> 00:08:41
+STUDENT:
+Zach.
+
+174
+00:08:36.100,0:08:42.100
+LEWIN:
+Zach.
+
+175
+00:08:38 --> 00:08:44
+Nice day today, Zach, yeah?
+
+176
+00:08:40 --> 00:08:46
+You feel all right?
+
+177
+00:08:42 --> 00:08:48
+Your first lecture at MIT?
+
+178
+00:08:43.900,0:08:49.900
+I don't.
+
+179
+00:08:47.400,0:08:53.400
+Okay, man.
+
+180
+00:08:48 --> 00:08:54
+Stand there, yeah.
+
+181
+00:08:52 --> 00:08:58
+Okay, 183.2.
+
+182
+00:08:57 --> 00:09:03
+Stay there, stay there.
+
+183
+00:08:58 --> 00:09:04
+Don't move.
+
+184
+00:08:59.800,0:09:05.800
+Zach...
+
+185
+00:09:03 --> 00:09:09
+This is vertical.
+
+186
+00:09:06 --> 00:09:12
+What did I say?
+
+187
+00:09:06 --> 00:09:12
+180?
+
+188
+00:09:09 --> 00:09:15
+Only one person.
+
+189
+00:09:10.600,0:09:16.600
+183?
+
+190
+00:09:15 --> 00:09:21
+Come on.
+
+191
+00:09:16 --> 00:09:22
+.2--
+
+192
+00:09:18 --> 00:09:24
+Okay, 183.2.
+
+193
+00:09:21 --> 00:09:27
+Yeah.
+
+194
+00:09:22 --> 00:09:28
+And an uncertainty
+of about one...
+
+195
+00:09:28.200,0:09:34.200
+Oh, this is centimeters--
+0.1 centimeters.
+
+196
+00:09:32.500,0:09:38.500
+And now we're going to measure
+him horizontally.
+
+197
+00:09:37 --> 00:09:43
+Zach, I don't want you
+to break your bones
+
+198
+00:09:39.600,0:09:45.600
+so we have a little step
+for you here.
+
+199
+00:09:44 --> 00:09:50
+Put your feet there.
+
+200
+00:09:45 --> 00:09:51
+Oh, let me remove
+the aluminum bar.
+
+201
+00:09:46 --> 00:09:52
+Watch out for the scale.
+
+202
+00:09:48.600,0:09:54.600
+That you don't break that,
+because then it's all over.
+
+203
+00:09:52 --> 00:09:58
+Okay, I'll come on your side.
+
+204
+00:09:54 --> 00:10:00
+I have to do that-- yeah, yeah.
+
+205
+00:09:56.800,0:10:02.800
+Relax.
+
+206
+00:09:59.400,0:10:05.400
+Think of this
+as a small sacrifice
+
+207
+00:10:01 --> 00:10:07
+for the sake of science, right?
+
+208
+00:10:03.500,0:10:09.500
+Okay, you good?
+
+209
+00:10:04 --> 00:10:10
+ZACH:
+Yeah.
+
+210
+00:10:05 --> 00:10:11
+LEWIN:
+You comfortable?
+
+211
+00:10:07 --> 00:10:13
+(students laugh )
+
+212
+00:10:09 --> 00:10:15
+You're really comfortable,
+right?
+
+213
+00:10:10 --> 00:10:16
+ZACH:
+Wonderful.
+
+214
+00:10:11.800,0:10:17.800
+LEWIN:
+Okay.
+
+215
+00:10:14 --> 00:10:20
+You ready?
+
+216
+00:10:14.600,0:10:20.600
+ZACH:
+Yes.
+
+217
+00:10:16.100,0:10:22.100
+LEWIN:
+Okay.
+
+218
+00:10:18 --> 00:10:24
+Okay.
+
+219
+00:10:21 --> 00:10:27
+185.7.
+
+220
+00:10:24 --> 00:10:30
+Stay where you are.
+
+221
+00:10:24 --> 00:10:30
+185.7.
+
+222
+00:10:27.300,0:10:33.300
+I'm sure... I want to first
+make the subtraction, right?
+
+223
+00:10:30 --> 00:10:36
+185.7, plus or minus
+0.1 centimeter.
+
+224
+00:10:35.900,0:10:41.900
+Oh, that is five...
+
+225
+00:10:38.900,0:10:44.900
+that is 2.5 plus or minus
+0.2 centimeters.
+
+226
+00:10:43 --> 00:10:49
+You're about one inch taller
+when you sleep
+
+227
+00:10:45 --> 00:10:51
+than when you stand up.
+
+228
+00:10:46 --> 00:10:52
+My grandmother was right.
+
+229
+00:10:47 --> 00:10:53
+She's always right.
+
+230
+00:10:48 --> 00:10:54
+Can you get off here?
+
+231
+00:10:51 --> 00:10:57
+I want you to appreciate
+that the accuracy...
+
+232
+00:10:53 --> 00:10:59
+Thank you very much, Zach.
+
+233
+00:10:55 --> 00:11:01
+That the accuracy
+of one millimeter
+
+234
+00:10:56 --> 00:11:02
+was more than sufficient
+to make the case.
+
+235
+00:10:59 --> 00:11:05
+If the accuracy
+of my measurements
+
+236
+00:11:01 --> 00:11:07
+would have been much less
+
+237
+00:11:03 --> 00:11:09
+this measurement would not
+have been convincing at all.
+
+238
+00:11:07 --> 00:11:13
+So whenever you make
+a measurement
+
+239
+00:11:09 --> 00:11:15
+you must know the uncertainty.
+
+240
+00:11:11 --> 00:11:17
+Otherwise, it is meaningless.
+
+241
+00:11:13.600,0:11:19.600
+Galileo Galilei asked himself
+the question:
+
+242
+00:11:17.400,0:11:23.400
+Why are mammals as large as
+they are and not much larger?
+
+243
+00:11:24 --> 00:11:30
+He had a very clever reasoning
+which I've never seen in print.
+
+244
+00:11:29.100,0:11:35.100
+But it comes down to the fact
+that he argued
+
+245
+00:11:31 --> 00:11:37
+that if the mammal
+becomes too massive
+
+246
+00:11:35 --> 00:11:41
+that the bones will break
+
+247
+00:11:37 --> 00:11:43
+and he thought that that
+was a limiting factor.
+
+248
+00:11:40 --> 00:11:46
+Even though I've never
+seen his reasoning in print
+
+249
+00:11:43.300,0:11:49.300
+I will try to reconstruct it
+
+250
+00:11:45.300,0:11:51.300
+what could have gone
+through his head.
+
+251
+00:11:47 --> 00:11:53
+Here is a mammal.
+
+252
+00:11:52 --> 00:11:58
+And this is one of the
+four legs of the mammal.
+
+253
+00:11:57 --> 00:12:03
+And this mammal has a size S.
+
+254
+00:12:02 --> 00:12:08
+And what I mean by that is
+
+255
+00:12:05 --> 00:12:11
+a mouse is yay big
+and a cat is yay big.
+
+256
+00:12:09 --> 00:12:15
+That's what I mean by size--
+very crudely defined.
+
+257
+00:12:14 --> 00:12:20
+The mass of the mammal is M
+
+258
+00:12:17.900,0:12:23.900
+and this mammal has
+a thigh bone
+
+259
+00:12:21 --> 00:12:27
+which we call the femur,
+which is here.
+
+260
+00:12:25 --> 00:12:31
+And the femur of course carries
+the body, to a large extent.
+
+261
+00:12:30.200,0:12:36.200
+And let's assume that the femur
+has a length l
+
+262
+00:12:33 --> 00:12:39
+and has a thickness d.
+
+263
+00:12:35.800,0:12:41.800
+Here is a femur.
+
+264
+00:12:43 --> 00:12:49
+This is what a femur
+approximately looks like.
+
+265
+00:12:46 --> 00:12:52
+So this will be the length
+of the femur...
+
+266
+00:12:53 --> 00:12:59
+and this will be
+the thickness, d
+
+267
+00:12:57.800,0:13:03.800
+and this will be
+the cross-sectional area A.
+
+268
+00:13:01 --> 00:13:07
+
+269
+00:13:05 --> 00:13:11
+I'm now going to take you
+through what we call in physics
+
+270
+00:13:09 --> 00:13:15
+a scaling argument.
+
+271
+00:13:13 --> 00:13:19
+I would argue that the length
+of the femur
+
+272
+00:13:15 --> 00:13:21
+must be proportional
+to the size of the animal.
+
+273
+00:13:18 --> 00:13:24
+That's completely plausible.
+
+274
+00:13:19.900,0:13:25.900
+If an animal is four times
+larger than another
+
+275
+00:13:22 --> 00:13:28
+you would need four times
+longer legs.
+
+276
+00:13:24 --> 00:13:30
+And that's all this is saying.
+
+277
+00:13:26.200,0:13:32.200
+It's very reasonable.
+
+278
+00:13:29 --> 00:13:35
+It is also very reasonable
+that the mass of an animal
+
+279
+00:13:32.800,0:13:38.800
+is proportional
+to the third power of the size
+
+280
+00:13:36 --> 00:13:42
+because that's related
+to its volume.
+
+281
+00:13:39 --> 00:13:45
+And so if it's related
+to the third power of the size
+
+282
+00:13:42 --> 00:13:48
+it must also be proportional
+
+283
+00:13:44 --> 00:13:50
+to the third power of the length
+of the femur
+
+284
+00:13:47.900,0:13:53.900
+because of this relationship.
+
+285
+00:13:49 --> 00:13:55
+Okay, that's one.
+
+286
+00:13:52 --> 00:13:58
+Now comes the argument.
+
+287
+00:13:56 --> 00:14:02
+Pressure on the femur
+is proportional
+
+288
+00:14:01 --> 00:14:07
+to the weight of the animal
+divided by the cross-section A
+
+289
+00:14:07 --> 00:14:13
+of the femur.
+
+290
+00:14:09 --> 00:14:15
+That's what pressure is.
+
+291
+00:14:11 --> 00:14:17
+And that is the mass
+of the animal
+
+292
+00:14:13 --> 00:14:19
+that's proportional
+
+293
+00:14:14 --> 00:14:20
+to the mass of the animal
+divided by d squared
+
+294
+00:14:18.100,0:14:24.100
+because we want the area here,
+it's proportional to d squared.
+
+295
+00:14:22 --> 00:14:28
+Now follow me closely.
+
+296
+00:14:25 --> 00:14:31
+If the pressure is higher
+than a certain level
+
+297
+00:14:30 --> 00:14:36
+the bones will break.
+
+298
+00:14:33 --> 00:14:39
+Therefore, for an animal
+not to break its bones
+
+299
+00:14:37 --> 00:14:43
+when the mass goes up
+by a certain factor
+
+300
+00:14:39 --> 00:14:45
+let's say a factor of four
+
+301
+00:14:41 --> 00:14:47
+in order for the bones
+not to break
+
+302
+00:14:43.500,0:14:49.500
+d squared must also go up
+by a factor of four.
+
+303
+00:14:46 --> 00:14:52
+That's a key argument
+in the scaling here.
+
+304
+00:14:48 --> 00:14:54
+You really have to think
+that through carefully.
+
+305
+00:14:51.200,0:14:57.200
+Therefore, I would argue
+
+306
+00:14:53 --> 00:14:59
+that the mass must be
+proportional to d squared.
+
+307
+00:14:56 --> 00:15:02
+This is the breaking argument.
+
+308
+00:14:59 --> 00:15:05
+Now compare these two.
+
+309
+00:15:01 --> 00:15:07
+The mass is proportional
+to the length of the femur
+
+310
+00:15:04 --> 00:15:10
+to the power three
+
+311
+00:15:05 --> 00:15:11
+and to the thickness of
+the femur to the power two.
+
+312
+00:15:09 --> 00:15:15
+Therefore, the thickness of
+the femur to the power two
+
+313
+00:15:13 --> 00:15:19
+must be proportional
+to the length l
+
+314
+00:15:15 --> 00:15:21
+and therefore the thickness of
+the femur must be proportional
+
+315
+00:15:18.900,0:15:24.900
+to l to the power three-halfs.
+
+316
+00:15:22.100,0:15:28.100
+A very interesting result.
+
+317
+00:15:25.400,0:15:31.400
+What is this result telling you?
+
+318
+00:15:28.200,0:15:34.200
+It tells you that if
+I have two animals
+
+319
+00:15:31 --> 00:15:37
+and one is ten times larger
+than the other
+
+320
+00:15:34 --> 00:15:40
+then S is ten times larger
+
+321
+00:15:36 --> 00:15:42
+that the lengths of the legs
+are ten times larger
+
+322
+00:15:40 --> 00:15:46
+but that the thickness
+of the femur is 30 times larger
+
+323
+00:15:46.200,0:15:52.200
+because it is l to the power
+three halves.
+
+324
+00:15:48 --> 00:15:54
+If I were to compare
+a mouse with an elephant
+
+325
+00:15:50.900,0:15:56.900
+an elephant is about a hundred
+times larger in size
+
+326
+00:15:54 --> 00:16:00
+so the length of the femur
+of the elephant
+
+327
+00:15:56 --> 00:16:02
+would be a hundred times larger
+than that of a mouse
+
+328
+00:15:58 --> 00:16:04
+but the thickness of the femur
+
+329
+00:16:00.700,0:16:06.700
+would have to be
+1,000 times larger.
+
+330
+00:16:05.800,0:16:11.800
+And that may have convinced
+Galileo Galilei
+
+331
+00:16:09.600,0:16:15.600
+that that's the reason
+
+332
+00:16:11.200,0:16:17.200
+why the largest animals are
+as large as they are.
+
+333
+00:16:14 --> 00:16:20
+Because clearly,
+if you increase the mass
+
+334
+00:16:17.600,0:16:23.600
+there comes a time that
+the thickness of the bones
+
+335
+00:16:20.800,0:16:26.800
+is the same as the length
+of the bones.
+
+336
+00:16:22 --> 00:16:28
+You're all made of bones
+
+337
+00:16:24 --> 00:16:30
+and that is biologically
+not feasible.
+
+338
+00:16:27 --> 00:16:33
+And so there is
+a limit somewhere
+
+339
+00:16:29 --> 00:16:35
+set by this scaling law.
+
+340
+00:16:33 --> 00:16:39
+Well, I wanted to bring
+this to a test.
+
+341
+00:16:36 --> 00:16:42
+After all
+
+342
+00:16:37 --> 00:16:43
+I brought my grandmother's
+statement to a test
+
+343
+00:16:39 --> 00:16:45
+so why not bring Galileo
+Galilei's statement to a test?
+
+344
+00:16:43.100,0:16:49.100
+And so I went to Harvard
+
+345
+00:16:47.100,0:16:53.100
+where they have a beautiful
+collection of femurs
+
+346
+00:16:50.300,0:16:56.300
+and I asked them for the femur
+of a raccoon and a horse.
+
+347
+00:16:56 --> 00:17:02
+A raccoon is this big
+
+348
+00:16:58 --> 00:17:04
+a horse is about
+four times bigger
+
+349
+00:17:02.300,0:17:08.300
+so the length of the femur
+of a horse
+
+350
+00:17:05.400,0:17:11.400
+must be about four times
+the length of the raccoon.
+
+351
+00:17:09.100,0:17:15.100
+Close.
+
+352
+00:17:11 --> 00:17:17
+So I was not surprised.
+
+353
+00:17:14.200,0:17:20.200
+Then I measured the thickness,
+and I said to myself, "Aha!"
+
+354
+00:17:19 --> 00:17:25
+If the length is
+four times higher
+
+355
+00:17:22 --> 00:17:28
+then the thickness has
+to be eight times higher
+
+356
+00:17:26 --> 00:17:32
+if this holds.
+
+357
+00:17:28 --> 00:17:34
+And what I'm going
+to plot for you
+
+358
+00:17:29 --> 00:17:35
+you will see that shortly
+is d divided by l, versus l
+
+359
+00:17:35 --> 00:17:41
+and that, of course,
+must be proportional
+
+360
+00:17:37 --> 00:17:43
+to l to the power one-half.
+
+361
+00:17:38 --> 00:17:44
+I bring one l here.
+
+362
+00:17:40 --> 00:17:46
+So, if I compare the horse
+and I compare the raccoon
+
+363
+00:17:44.200,0:17:50.200
+I would argue that the thickness
+
+364
+00:17:46.500,0:17:52.500
+divided by the length
+of the femur for the horse
+
+365
+00:17:49.900,0:17:55.900
+must be the square root of four,
+twice as much
+
+366
+00:17:53 --> 00:17:59
+as that of the raccoon.
+
+367
+00:17:56 --> 00:18:02
+And so I was very anxious
+to plot that, and I did that
+
+368
+00:18:00 --> 00:18:06
+and I'll show you the result.
+
+369
+00:18:03 --> 00:18:09
+Here is my first result.
+
+370
+00:18:09.700,0:18:15.700
+So we see there, d over l.
+
+371
+00:18:12 --> 00:18:18
+I explained to you why
+I prefer that.
+
+372
+00:18:14.600,0:18:20.600
+And here you see the length.
+
+373
+00:18:17 --> 00:18:23
+You see here the raccoon
+and you see the horse.
+
+374
+00:18:19 --> 00:18:25
+And if you look carefully,
+then the d over l for the horse
+
+375
+00:18:22 --> 00:18:28
+is only about one and a half
+times larger than the raccoon.
+
+376
+00:18:25 --> 00:18:31
+Well, I wasn't too disappointed.
+
+377
+00:18:28 --> 00:18:34
+One and a half is not two, but
+it is in the right direction.
+
+378
+00:18:30 --> 00:18:36
+The horse clearly has a larger
+value for d over l
+
+379
+00:18:33 --> 00:18:39
+than the raccoon.
+
+380
+00:18:36 --> 00:18:42
+I realized I needed more data,
+so I went back to Harvard.
+
+381
+00:18:39 --> 00:18:45
+I said, "Look, I need a smaller
+animal, an opossum maybe
+
+382
+00:18:43 --> 00:18:49
+maybe a rat, maybe a mouse,"
+and they said, "okay."
+
+383
+00:18:47 --> 00:18:53
+They gave me three more bones.
+
+384
+00:18:51 --> 00:18:57
+They gave me an antelope
+
+385
+00:18:52.200,0:18:58.200
+which is actually a little
+larger than a raccoon
+
+386
+00:18:54 --> 00:19:00
+and they gave me an opossum
+and they gave me a mouse.
+
+387
+00:19:00.066,0:19:06.066
+Here is the bone
+of the antelope.
+
+388
+00:19:08 --> 00:19:14
+Here is the one of the raccoon.
+
+389
+00:19:14 --> 00:19:20
+Here is the one of the opossum.
+
+390
+00:19:18.200,0:19:24.200
+And now you won't believe this.
+
+391
+00:19:20.500,0:19:26.500
+This is so wonderful,
+so romantic.
+
+392
+00:19:26 --> 00:19:32
+There is the mouse.
+
+393
+00:19:27.200,0:19:33.200
+(students laugh )
+
+394
+00:19:28 --> 00:19:34
+Isn't that beautiful?
+
+395
+00:19:29 --> 00:19:35
+Teeny, weeny little mouse?
+
+396
+00:19:31 --> 00:19:37
+That's only a teeny,
+weeny little femur.
+
+397
+00:19:35 --> 00:19:41
+And there it is.
+
+398
+00:19:38 --> 00:19:44
+And I made the plot.
+
+399
+00:19:41 --> 00:19:47
+I was very curious
+what that plot would look like.
+
+400
+00:19:44 --> 00:19:50
+And...
+
+401
+00:19:51 --> 00:19:57
+here it is.
+
+402
+00:19:53 --> 00:19:59
+Whew! I was shocked.
+
+403
+00:19:57 --> 00:20:03
+I was really shocked.
+
+404
+00:19:59 --> 00:20:05
+Because look-- the horse
+is 50 times larger in size
+
+405
+00:20:03 --> 00:20:09
+than the mouse.
+
+406
+00:20:05 --> 00:20:11
+The difference in d over l
+is only a factor of two.
+
+407
+00:20:08 --> 00:20:14
+And I expected something more
+like a factor of seven.
+
+408
+00:20:14.400,0:20:20.400
+And so, in d over l, where
+I expect a factor of seven
+
+409
+00:20:17.700,0:20:23.700
+I only see a factor of two.
+
+410
+00:20:19.700,0:20:25.700
+So I said to myself,
+"Oh, my goodness.
+
+411
+00:28:27 --> 00:28:33
+Why didn't I ask them
+for an elephant?"
+
+412
+00:20:24 --> 00:20:30
+The real clincher
+would be the elephant
+
+413
+00:20:27 --> 00:20:33
+because if that goes
+way off scale
+
+414
+00:20:29 --> 00:20:35
+maybe we can still rescue the
+statement by Galileo Galilei
+
+415
+00:20:33 --> 00:20:39
+and so I went back
+and they said
+
+416
+00:20:35 --> 00:20:41
+"Okay, we'll give you
+the femur of an elephant."
+
+417
+00:20:38.500,0:20:44.500
+They also gave me one
+of a moose, believe it or not.
+
+418
+00:20:40.900,0:20:46.900
+I think they wanted to get
+rid of me by that time
+
+419
+00:20:43.200,0:20:49.200
+to be frank with you.
+
+420
+00:20:44.200,0:20:50.200
+And here is the femur
+of an elephant.
+
+421
+00:20:49 --> 00:20:55
+And I measured it.
+
+422
+00:20:50 --> 00:20:56
+The length and the thickness.
+
+423
+00:20:53.600,0:20:59.600
+And it is very heavy.
+
+424
+00:20:56.500,0:21:02.500
+It weighs a ton.
+
+425
+00:20:58 --> 00:21:04
+I plotted it, I was
+full of expectation.
+
+426
+00:21:02.700,0:21:08.700
+I couldn't sleep all night.
+
+427
+00:21:05 --> 00:21:11
+And there's the elephant.
+
+428
+00:21:07.500,0:21:13.500
+There is no evidence whatsoever
+that d over l is really larger
+
+429
+00:21:11.100,0:21:17.100
+for the elephant
+than for the mouse.
+
+430
+00:21:13 --> 00:21:19
+These vertical bars indicate
+my uncertainty
+
+431
+00:21:15 --> 00:21:21
+in measurements of thickness
+
+432
+00:21:17 --> 00:21:23
+and the horizontal scale,
+which is a logarithmic scale...
+
+433
+00:21:20.800,0:21:26.800
+the uncertainty
+of the length measurements
+
+434
+00:21:23 --> 00:21:29
+is in the thickness
+of the red pen
+
+435
+00:21:24 --> 00:21:30
+so there's no need for me
+to indicate that any further.
+
+436
+00:21:28.500,0:21:34.500
+And here you have
+your measurements
+
+437
+00:21:30 --> 00:21:36
+in case you want to check them.
+
+438
+00:21:33 --> 00:21:39
+And look again at the mouse
+and look at the elephant.
+
+439
+00:21:36 --> 00:21:42
+The mouse has indeed only one
+centimeter length of the femur
+
+440
+00:21:43 --> 00:21:49
+and the elephant is, indeed,
+hundred times longer.
+
+441
+00:21:45.500,0:21:51.500
+So the first scaling argument
+that S is proportional to l
+
+442
+00:21:49 --> 00:21:55
+that is certainly
+what you would expect
+
+443
+00:21:51.500,0:21:57.500
+because an elephant is about
+a hundred times larger in size.
+
+444
+00:21:54.600,0:22:00.600
+But when you go to d over l,
+you see it's all over.
+
+445
+00:21:58 --> 00:22:04
+The d over l for the mouse
+
+446
+00:21:59.600,0:22:05.600
+is really not all that
+different from the elephant
+
+447
+00:22:02 --> 00:22:08
+and you would have expected
+that number to be
+
+448
+00:22:04 --> 00:22:10
+with the square root of 100
+
+449
+00:22:09 --> 00:22:15
+so you expect it to be
+ten times larger
+
+450
+00:22:11 --> 00:22:17
+instead of about the same.
+
+451
+00:22:14 --> 00:22:20
+I now want to discuss with you
+
+452
+00:22:17.400,0:22:23.400
+what we call in physics
+dimensional analysis.
+
+453
+00:22:24.900,0:22:30.900
+I want to ask myself
+the question:
+
+454
+00:22:27.400,0:22:33.400
+If I drop an apple
+from a certain height
+
+455
+00:22:31.500,0:22:37.500
+and I change that height
+
+456
+00:22:34 --> 00:22:40
+what will happen with the time
+for the apple to fall?
+
+457
+00:22:40 --> 00:22:46
+Well, I drop the apple
+from a height h
+
+458
+00:22:47 --> 00:22:53
+and I want to know what happened
+with the time when it falls.
+
+459
+00:22:51.200,0:22:57.200
+And I change h.
+
+460
+00:22:54 --> 00:23:00
+So I said to myself,
+"Well, the time that it takes
+
+461
+00:31:02.666,0:31:08.666
+must be proportional to the
+height to some power alpha."
+
+462
+00:23:00 --> 00:23:06
+Completely reasonable.
+
+463
+00:23:01 --> 00:23:07
+If I make the height larger
+
+464
+00:23:03.300,0:23:09.300
+we all know that it takes longer
+for the apple to fall.
+
+465
+00:23:06 --> 00:23:12
+That's a safe thing.
+
+466
+00:23:08 --> 00:23:14
+I said to myself, "Well,
+if the apple has a mass m
+
+467
+00:23:12 --> 00:23:18
+"it probably is
+also proportional
+
+468
+00:31:20.666,0:31:26.666
+to the mass of that apple
+to the power beta."
+
+469
+00:23:17 --> 00:23:23
+I said to myself, "Gee, yeah,
+if something is more massive
+
+470
+00:23:21 --> 00:23:27
+it will probably
+take less time."
+
+471
+00:23:23 --> 00:23:29
+So maybe m to some power beta.
+
+472
+00:23:26.100,0:23:32.100
+I don't know alpha,
+I don't know beta.
+
+473
+00:23:28.900,0:23:34.900
+And then I said, "Gee, there's
+also something like gravity
+
+474
+00:23:31 --> 00:23:37
+that is the Earth's
+gravitational pull--
+
+475
+00:23:33 --> 00:23:39
+the gravitational acceleration
+of the Earth."
+
+476
+00:23:36 --> 00:23:42
+So let's introduce that, too
+
+477
+00:23:38 --> 00:23:44
+and let's assume that that time
+is also proportional
+
+478
+00:23:41 --> 00:23:47
+to the gravitational
+acceleration--
+
+479
+00:23:43 --> 00:23:49
+this is an acceleration; we will 
+learn a lot more about that--
+
+480
+00:23:46 --> 00:23:52
+to the power gamma.
+
+481
+00:23:49.100,0:23:55.100
+Having said this, we can now do
+what's called in physics
+
+482
+00:23:53 --> 00:23:59
+a dimensional analysis.
+
+483
+00:23:57 --> 00:24:03
+
+484
+00:23:59.900,0:24:05.900
+On the left we have a time
+
+485
+00:24:03.300,0:24:09.300
+and if we have a left...
+on the left side a time
+
+486
+00:24:05 --> 00:24:11
+on the right side
+we must also have time.
+
+487
+00:24:08 --> 00:24:14
+You cannot have coconuts on one
+side and oranges on the other.
+
+488
+00:24:12.600,0:24:18.600
+You cannot have seconds
+on one side
+
+489
+00:24:14 --> 00:24:20
+and meters per second
+on the other.
+
+490
+00:24:17 --> 00:24:23
+So the dimensions left and right
+have to be the same.
+
+491
+00:24:20.500,0:24:26.500
+What is the dimension here?
+
+492
+00:24:22.700,0:24:28.700
+That is [T] to the power one.
+
+493
+00:24:25.200,0:24:31.200
+That T... that must be the same
+as length to the power alpha
+
+494
+00:24:33 --> 00:24:39
+times mass to the power beta,
+times acceleration--
+
+495
+00:24:42 --> 00:24:48
+remember, it is still there
+on the blackboard--
+
+496
+00:24:44 --> 00:24:50
+that's dimension [L]
+divided by time squared
+
+497
+00:24:49 --> 00:24:55
+and the whole thing
+to the power gamma
+
+498
+00:24:51.900,0:24:57.900
+so I have a gamma here
+and I have a gamma there.
+
+499
+00:24:54 --> 00:25:00
+This side must have the same
+dimension as that side.
+
+500
+00:24:57.200,0:25:03.200
+That is nonnegotiable
+in physics.
+
+501
+00:25:00 --> 00:25:06
+Okay, there we go.
+
+502
+00:25:01 --> 00:25:07
+There is no M here,
+there is only one M here
+
+503
+00:25:04 --> 00:25:10
+so beta must be zero.
+
+504
+00:25:08 --> 00:25:14
+There is here [L] to the power
+alpha, [L] to the power gamma
+
+505
+00:25:12 --> 00:25:18
+there is no [L] here.
+
+506
+00:25:13 --> 00:25:19
+So [L] must disappear.
+
+507
+00:25:15 --> 00:25:21
+So alpha plus gamma
+must be zero.
+
+508
+00:25:19 --> 00:25:25
+There is [T]
+to the power one here
+
+509
+00:25:22.300,0:25:28.300
+and there is here
+[T] to the power -2 gamma.
+
+510
+00:25:25 --> 00:25:31
+It's minus because
+it's downstairs.
+
+511
+00:25:27 --> 00:25:33
+So one must be equal
+to -2 gamma.
+
+512
+00:25:31.900,0:25:37.900
+That means gamma must be
+minus one half.
+
+513
+00:25:35.600,0:25:41.600
+That if gamma is minus one half,
+then alpha equals plus one half.
+
+514
+00:25:43 --> 00:25:49
+End of my dimensional analysis.
+
+515
+00:25:45 --> 00:25:51
+I therefore conclude that
+the time that it takes
+
+516
+00:25:49 --> 00:25:55
+for an object to fall
+
+517
+00:25:51 --> 00:25:57
+equals some constant,
+which I do not know
+
+518
+00:25:55.400,0:26:01.400
+but that constant
+has no dimension--
+
+519
+00:25:57.200,0:26:03.200
+I don't know what it is--
+
+520
+00:25:59 --> 00:26:05
+times the square root
+of h divided by g.
+
+521
+00:26:07.500,0:26:13.500
+Beta is zero,
+there is no mass
+
+522
+00:26:10 --> 00:26:16
+h to the power one half--
+you see that here--
+
+523
+00:26:13 --> 00:26:19
+and g to the power
+minus one half.
+
+524
+00:26:15 --> 00:26:21
+This is proportional
+to the square root of h
+
+525
+00:26:19.300,0:26:25.300
+because g is a given
+and c is a given
+
+526
+00:26:21 --> 00:26:27
+even though I don't know c.
+
+527
+00:26:22 --> 00:26:28
+I make no pretense that I can
+predict how long it will take
+
+528
+00:26:26 --> 00:26:32
+for the apple to fall.
+
+529
+00:26:27 --> 00:26:33
+All I'm saying is, I can compare
+two different heights.
+
+530
+00:26:31 --> 00:26:37
+I can drop an apple
+from eight meters
+
+531
+00:26:33 --> 00:26:39
+and another one from two meters
+
+532
+00:26:35 --> 00:26:41
+and the one from eight meters
+will take two times longer
+
+533
+00:26:39.400,0:26:45.400
+than the one from two meters.
+
+534
+00:26:41 --> 00:26:47
+The square root of h to two,
+four over two
+
+535
+00:26:45 --> 00:26:51
+will take two times longer,
+right?
+
+536
+00:26:47 --> 00:26:53
+If I drop one from eight meters
+
+537
+00:26:49 --> 00:26:55
+and I drop another one
+from two meters
+
+538
+00:26:52 --> 00:26:58
+then the difference in time will
+be the square root of the ratio.
+
+539
+00:26:56.300,0:27:02.300
+It will be twice as long.
+
+540
+00:26:57 --> 00:27:03
+And that I want to bring
+to a test today.
+
+541
+00:27:03 --> 00:27:09
+We have a setup here.
+
+542
+00:27:05 --> 00:27:11
+We have an apple there
+at a height of three meters
+
+543
+00:27:08 --> 00:27:14
+and we know the length to an
+accuracy... the height
+
+544
+00:27:11 --> 00:27:17
+of about three millimeters,
+no better.
+
+545
+00:27:14 --> 00:27:20
+And here we have a setup
+whereby the apple
+
+546
+00:27:16.400,0:27:22.400
+is about one and a half meters
+above the ground.
+
+547
+00:27:18.900,0:27:24.900
+And we know that to about
+also an accuracy
+
+548
+00:27:21 --> 00:27:27
+of no better than
+about three millimeters.
+
+549
+00:27:26 --> 00:27:32
+So, let's set it up.
+
+550
+00:27:29 --> 00:27:35
+I have here...
+
+551
+00:27:34 --> 00:27:40
+something that's going
+to be a prediction--
+
+552
+00:27:37 --> 00:27:43
+a prediction of the time that
+it takes for one apple to fall
+
+553
+00:27:43 --> 00:27:49
+divided by the time
+that it takes
+
+554
+00:27:44 --> 00:27:50
+for the other apple to fall.
+
+555
+00:27:47.900,0:27:53.900
+H one is three meters
+
+556
+00:27:51.900,0:27:57.900
+but I claim there is
+an uncertainty
+
+557
+00:27:54.300,0:28:00.300
+of about three millimeters.
+
+558
+00:27:56 --> 00:28:02
+Can't do any better.
+
+559
+00:27:57 --> 00:28:03
+And h 2 equals 1.5 meters
+
+560
+00:28:02 --> 00:28:08
+again with an uncertainty
+of about three millimeters.
+
+561
+00:28:09 --> 00:28:15
+So the ratio h one over h two...
+
+562
+00:28:14.700,0:28:20.700
+is 2
+
+563
+00:28:15 --> 00:28:21
+and now I have to come up
+with an uncertainty
+
+564
+00:28:20 --> 00:28:26
+which physicists sometimes call
+an error in their measurements
+
+565
+00:28:23 --> 00:28:29
+but it's really an uncertainty.
+
+566
+00:28:25.100,0:28:31.100
+And the way you find
+your uncertainty is
+
+567
+00:28:27.700,0:28:33.700
+that you add the three here
+and you subtract the three here
+
+568
+00:28:31.600,0:28:37.600
+and you get the largest value
+possible.
+
+569
+00:28:33.900,0:28:39.900
+You can never get
+a larger value.
+
+570
+00:28:35 --> 00:28:41
+And you'll find
+that you get 2.006.
+
+571
+00:28:38 --> 00:28:44
+And so I would say
+the uncertainty is then .006.
+
+572
+00:28:44 --> 00:28:50
+This is a dimensionless number
+
+573
+00:28:46 --> 00:28:52
+because it's length
+divided by length.
+
+574
+00:28:50.200,0:28:56.200
+And so the time t1
+divided by t2
+
+575
+00:28:56 --> 00:29:02
+would be the square root
+of h1 divided by h2.
+
+576
+00:28:59 --> 00:29:05
+That is the dimensional
+analysis argument
+
+577
+00:29:02.700,0:29:08.700
+that we have there.
+
+578
+00:29:04.200,0:29:10.200
+And we find if we take
+the square root of this number
+
+579
+00:29:07 --> 00:29:13
+we find 1.414,
+plus or minus 0.0
+
+580
+00:29:12 --> 00:29:18
+and I think that is a two.
+
+581
+00:29:15 --> 00:29:21
+That is correct.
+
+582
+00:29:16 --> 00:29:22
+So here is a firm prediction.
+
+583
+00:29:22.800,0:29:28.800
+This is a prediction.
+
+584
+00:29:25 --> 00:29:31
+And now we're going to make
+an observation.
+
+585
+00:29:31 --> 00:29:37
+So we're going to measure t1
+and there's going to be a number
+
+586
+00:29:37.500,0:29:43.500
+and then we're going
+to measure t2
+
+587
+00:29:40 --> 00:29:46
+and there's going
+to be a number.
+
+588
+00:29:42.300,0:29:48.300
+I have done this experiment
+ten times
+
+589
+00:29:44 --> 00:29:50
+and the numbers always reproduce
+within about one millisecond.
+
+590
+00:29:49 --> 00:29:55
+So I could just adopt an
+uncertainty of one millisecond.
+
+591
+00:29:51 --> 00:29:57
+I want to be a little bit
+on the safe side.
+
+592
+00:29:54 --> 00:30:00
+Occasionally it differs
+by two milliseconds.
+
+593
+00:29:56.500,0:30:02.500
+So let us be conservative
+
+594
+00:29:59 --> 00:30:05
+and let's assume that I can
+measure this to an accuracy
+
+595
+00:30:02.800,0:30:08.800
+of about two milliseconds.
+
+596
+00:30:06 --> 00:30:12
+That is pretty safe.
+
+597
+00:30:08 --> 00:30:14
+So now we can measure
+these times
+
+598
+00:30:12.300,0:30:18.300
+and then we can take
+the ratio
+
+599
+00:30:15 --> 00:30:21
+and then we can see whether
+we actually confirm
+
+600
+00:30:19 --> 00:30:25
+that the time that it takes
+is proportional to the height
+
+601
+00:30:24 --> 00:30:30
+to the square root
+of the height.
+
+602
+00:30:26.700,0:30:32.700
+So I will make it a little more
+comfortable for you
+
+603
+00:30:33 --> 00:30:39
+in the lecture hall.
+
+604
+00:30:35 --> 00:30:41
+That's all right.
+
+605
+00:30:37.400,0:30:43.400
+We have the setup here.
+
+606
+00:30:39.500,0:30:45.500
+We first do the experiment
+with the... three meters.
+
+607
+00:30:47 --> 00:30:53
+There you see the three meters.
+
+608
+00:30:50 --> 00:30:56
+And the time... the moment
+that I pull this string
+
+609
+00:30:53 --> 00:30:59
+the apple will fall, the contact
+will open, the clock will start.
+
+610
+00:30:57.900,0:31:03.900
+The moment that it hits the
+floor, the time will stop.
+
+611
+00:31:02 --> 00:31:08
+I have to stand on that side.
+
+612
+00:31:04 --> 00:31:10
+Otherwise the apple
+will fall on my hand.
+
+613
+00:31:06 --> 00:31:12
+That's not the idea.
+
+614
+00:31:08 --> 00:31:14
+I'll stand here.
+
+615
+00:31:10 --> 00:31:16
+You ready?
+
+616
+00:31:12.600,0:31:18.600
+Okay, then I'm ready.
+
+617
+00:31:15 --> 00:31:21
+Everything set?
+
+618
+00:31:17 --> 00:31:23
+Make sure that I've
+zeroed that properly.
+
+619
+00:31:19.100,0:31:25.100
+Yes, I have.
+
+620
+00:31:20 --> 00:31:26
+Okay.
+
+621
+00:31:21 --> 00:31:27
+Three, two, one, zero.
+
+622
+00:31:23 --> 00:31:29
+
+623
+00:31:27.100,0:31:33.100
+781 milliseconds.
+
+624
+00:31:30 --> 00:31:36
+So this number...
+you should write it down
+
+625
+00:31:34 --> 00:31:40
+because you will need it
+for your second assignment.
+
+626
+00:31:37 --> 00:31:43
+781 milliseconds, with an
+uncertainty of two milliseconds.
+
+627
+00:31:41 --> 00:31:47
+You ready for the second one?
+
+628
+00:31:47 --> 00:31:53
+You ready?
+
+629
+00:31:50 --> 00:31:56
+You ready?
+
+630
+00:31:52.100,0:31:58.100
+Okay, nothing wrong.
+
+631
+00:31:54.200,0:32:00.200
+Ready.
+
+632
+00:31:58 --> 00:32:04
+Zero, zero, right?
+
+633
+00:32:01 --> 00:32:07
+Thank you.
+
+634
+00:32:02 --> 00:32:08
+Okay.
+
+635
+00:32:04 --> 00:32:10
+Three, two, one, zero.
+
+636
+00:32:06 --> 00:32:12
+
+637
+00:32:08 --> 00:32:14
+551 milliseconds.
+
+638
+00:32:14 --> 00:32:20
+Boy, I'm nervous because
+I hope that physics works.
+
+639
+00:32:21 --> 00:32:27
+So I take my calculator
+
+640
+00:32:25 --> 00:32:31
+and I'm now going to take
+the ratio t1 over t2.
+
+641
+00:32:32 --> 00:32:38
+The uncertainty you can find
+by adding the two here
+
+642
+00:32:35 --> 00:32:41
+and subtracting the two there
+
+643
+00:32:38 --> 00:32:44
+and that will
+then give you an uncertainty
+
+644
+00:32:40 --> 00:32:46
+of, I think, .0... mmm, .08.
+
+645
+00:32:46 --> 00:32:52
+Yeah, .08.
+
+646
+00:32:48 --> 00:32:54
+You should do that
+for yourself-- .008.
+
+647
+00:32:51 --> 00:32:57
+Dimensionless number.
+
+648
+00:32:52 --> 00:32:58
+This would be the uncertainty.
+
+649
+00:32:55 --> 00:33:01
+This is the observation.
+
+650
+00:32:58 --> 00:33:04
+781 divided by 551.
+
+651
+00:33:04.500,0:33:10.500
+One point...
+
+652
+00:33:05.500,0:33:11.500
+Let me do that once more.
+
+653
+00:33:07.700,0:33:13.700
+Seven eight one,
+divided by five five one...
+
+654
+00:33:11 --> 00:33:17
+One four one seven.
+
+655
+00:33:16.300,0:33:22.300
+Perfect agreement.
+
+656
+00:33:19 --> 00:33:25
+Look, the prediction says
+1.414
+
+657
+00:33:24 --> 00:33:30
+but it could be 1 point...
+it could be two higher.
+
+658
+00:33:27.600,0:33:33.600
+That's the uncertainty
+in my height.
+
+659
+00:33:29 --> 00:33:35
+I don't know any better.
+
+660
+00:33:31 --> 00:33:37
+And here I could even
+be off by an eight
+
+661
+00:33:34.500,0:33:40.500
+because that's the uncertainty
+in my timing.
+
+662
+00:33:36 --> 00:33:42
+So these two measurements
+confirm.
+
+663
+00:33:38 --> 00:33:44
+They are in agreement
+with each other.
+
+664
+00:33:40 --> 00:33:46
+You see, uncertainties in
+measurements are essential.
+
+665
+00:33:45.900,0:33:51.900
+Now look at our results.
+
+666
+00:33:53 --> 00:33:59
+We have here a result
+which is striking.
+
+667
+00:33:59 --> 00:34:05
+We have demonstrated that
+the time that it takes
+
+668
+00:34:01 --> 00:34:07
+for an object to fall
+is independent of its mass.
+
+669
+00:34:07 --> 00:34:13
+That is an amazing
+accomplishment.
+
+670
+00:34:11 --> 00:34:17
+Our great-grandfathers must
+have worried about this
+
+671
+00:34:17 --> 00:34:23
+and argued about this
+for more than 300 years.
+
+672
+00:34:22 --> 00:34:28
+Were they so dumb
+
+673
+00:34:24 --> 00:34:30
+to overlook this simple
+dimensional analysis?
+
+674
+00:34:31 --> 00:34:37
+Inconceivable.
+
+675
+00:34:34.300,0:34:40.300
+Is this dimensional analysis
+perhaps not quite kosher?
+
+676
+00:34:39.300,0:34:45.300
+Maybe.
+
+677
+00:34:42 --> 00:34:48
+Is this dimensional analysis
+
+678
+00:34:45.600,0:34:51.600
+perhaps one that could have
+been done differently?
+
+679
+00:34:50 --> 00:34:56
+Yeah, oh, yeah.
+
+680
+00:34:52.400,0:34:58.400
+You could have done it
+very differently.
+
+681
+00:34:55.800,0:35:01.800
+You could have said
+the following.
+
+682
+00:34:59 --> 00:35:05
+You could have said,
+"The time for an apple to fall
+
+683
+00:43:09.433,0:43:15.433
+"is proportional to the height
+that it falls from
+
+684
+00:43:14.133,0:43:20.133
+to a power alpha."
+
+685
+00:35:09.900,0:35:15.900
+Very reasonable.
+
+686
+00:35:11 --> 00:35:17
+We all know, the higher it is,
+the more it will take--
+
+687
+00:35:13 --> 00:35:19
+the more time it will take.
+
+688
+00:35:15 --> 00:35:21
+And we could have said,
+
+689
+00:35:16 --> 00:35:22
+"Yeah, it's probably
+proportional
+
+690
+00:43:24.533,0:43:30.533
+"to the mass somehow.
+
+691
+00:43:25.733,0:43:31.733
+If the mass is more, it will
+take a little bit less time."
+
+692
+00:35:23.300,0:35:29.300
+Turns out to be not so,
+but you could think that.
+
+693
+00:35:26.100,0:35:32.100
+But you could have said
+
+694
+00:35:27.200,0:35:33.200
+"Well, let's not take the
+acceleration of the Earth
+
+695
+00:43:35.800,0:43:41.800
+but let's take the mass
+of the Earth itself."
+
+696
+00:35:32.100,0:35:38.100
+Very reasonable, right?
+
+697
+00:35:33.300,0:35:39.300
+I would think if I increased
+the mass of the Earth
+
+698
+00:35:36 --> 00:35:42
+that the apple will fall faster.
+
+699
+00:35:39 --> 00:35:45
+So now I will put in the math
+of the Earth here.
+
+700
+00:35:43.600,0:35:49.600
+And I start
+my dimensional analysis
+
+701
+00:35:46 --> 00:35:52
+and I end up dead in the waters.
+
+702
+00:35:49.400,0:35:55.400
+Because, you see,
+there is no mass here.
+
+703
+00:35:54 --> 00:36:00
+There is a mass
+to the power beta here
+
+704
+00:35:56.600,0:36:02.600
+and one to the power gamma
+
+705
+00:35:58 --> 00:36:04
+so what you would have found
+is beta plus gamma equals zero
+
+706
+00:36:02.400,0:36:08.400
+and that would be end of story.
+
+707
+00:36:05.600,0:36:11.600
+Now you can ask yourself
+the question
+
+708
+00:36:08 --> 00:36:14
+well, is there something wrong
+with the analysis that we did?
+
+709
+00:36:12.500,0:36:18.500
+Is ours perhaps better
+than this one?
+
+710
+00:36:15 --> 00:36:21
+Well, it's a different one.
+
+711
+00:36:17 --> 00:36:23
+We came to the conclusion
+
+712
+00:36:18 --> 00:36:24
+that the time that it takes
+for the apple to fall
+
+713
+00:36:20 --> 00:36:26
+is independent of the mass.
+
+714
+00:36:22 --> 00:36:28
+Do we believe that?
+
+715
+00:36:25 --> 00:36:31
+Yes, we do.
+
+716
+00:36:27.800,0:36:33.800
+On the other hand, there are
+very prestigious physicists
+
+717
+00:36:32 --> 00:36:38
+who even nowadays do
+very fancy experiments
+
+718
+00:36:36 --> 00:36:42
+and they try to demonstrate that
+the time for an apple to fall
+
+719
+00:36:39 --> 00:36:45
+does depend on its mass
+
+720
+00:36:41.900,0:36:47.900
+even though it probably is
+only very small, if it's true
+
+721
+00:36:45 --> 00:36:51
+but they try to prove that.
+
+722
+00:36:46.600,0:36:52.600
+And if any of them succeeds
+or any one of you succeeds
+
+723
+00:36:49.400,0:36:55.400
+that's certainly worth
+a Nobel Prize.
+
+724
+00:36:52 --> 00:36:58
+So we do believe that it's
+independent of the mass.
+
+725
+00:36:55 --> 00:37:01
+However, this, what I did
+with you, was not a proof
+
+726
+00:37:00 --> 00:37:06
+because if you do it this way,
+you get stuck.
+
+727
+00:37:04.300,0:37:10.300
+On the other hand, I'm
+quite pleased with the fact
+
+728
+00:37:06.600,0:37:12.600
+that we found that the time
+is proportional
+
+729
+00:37:08.200,0:37:14.200
+with the square root of h.
+
+730
+00:37:10 --> 00:37:16
+I think that's very useful.
+
+731
+00:37:11 --> 00:37:17
+We confirmed that
+with experiment
+
+732
+00:37:13 --> 00:37:19
+and indeed it came out that way.
+
+733
+00:37:16 --> 00:37:22
+So it was not a complete
+waste of time.
+
+734
+00:37:18.100,0:37:24.100
+But when you do a dimensional
+analysis, you better be careful.
+
+735
+00:37:25 --> 00:37:31
+I'd like you to think this over,
+the comparison between the two
+
+736
+00:37:31.500,0:37:37.500
+at dinner and maybe at breakfast
+
+737
+00:37:34.100,0:37:40.100
+and maybe even while
+you are taking a shower
+
+738
+00:37:37 --> 00:37:43
+whether it's needed or not.
+
+739
+00:37:39.800,0:37:45.800
+It is important that you
+digest and appreciate
+
+740
+00:37:43 --> 00:37:49
+the difference between
+these two approaches.
+
+741
+00:37:46 --> 00:37:52
+It will give you an insight
+in the power
+
+742
+00:37:49.800,0:37:55.800
+and also into the limitations
+of dimensional analysis.
+
+743
+00:37:53 --> 00:37:59
+This goes to the very heart
+
+744
+00:37:55 --> 00:38:01
+of our understanding
+and appreciation of physics.
+
+745
+00:37:59 --> 00:38:05
+It's important that
+you get a feel for this.
+
+746
+00:38:02 --> 00:38:08
+You're now at MIT.
+
+747
+00:38:04 --> 00:38:10
+This is the time.
+
+748
+00:38:05.800,0:38:11.800
+Thank you.
+
+749
+00:38:06 --> 00:38:12
+See you Friday.
+
+750
+00:38:08 --> 00:38:14.000