sm-transcript 0.0.6 → 0.0.7

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@@ -0,0 +1,2594 @@
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+ 00:00:00
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+ Let's get started.
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+ A couple of announcements.
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+
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+ 00:00:04.428
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+ A remember about the Periodic Table
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+ test which will be added next week
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+
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+ 00:00:08.856
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+ on the 23rd. You can see the
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+ website if you want to download a
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+
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+ 00:00:13.284
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+ copy of this to practice on it.
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+ You are required only to put the
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+
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+ 00:00:17.712
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+ one or two-letter chemical
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+ abbreviation, the symbol.
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+
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+ 00:00:22.140
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+ Some people ask me if I want you to
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+ know the molecular weights and so on,
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+
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+ 00:00:26.57
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+ and I thought that
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+ was bit excessive.
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+
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+ 00:00:31
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+ So I think if you just know the
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+ symbols for the ones that are up
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+
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+ 00:00:37.444
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+ there, that would be just dandy.
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+ Here is the lady's scarf, very hot,
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+
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+ 00:00:43.888
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+ black. See, trim lines, blue and
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+ gold, and it has elements on it.
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+
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+ 00:00:50.332
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+ Very hot. And there is a necktie,
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+ comparable fabric, comparable
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+
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+ 00:00:56.777
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+ pattern. It is not geeky.
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+ This is very hot.
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+
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+ 00:01:02.307
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+ You need this. Let's get on with
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+ the lesson. Last day we looked at
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+
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+ 00:01:06.921
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+ Rutherford, Geiger,
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+ Marsden and the experiment that they
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+
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+ 00:01:11.536
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+ conducted on the gold foil.
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+ And out of that came the
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+
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+ 00:01:16.152
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+ recognition that Thompson's plum
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+ pudding model is not sustainable in
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+
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+ 00:01:20.768
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+ the light of this evidence.
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+ And in its stead Rutherford
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+
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+ 00:01:25.384
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+ proposed something akin
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+ to a planetary system.
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+
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+ 00:01:30
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+ And there is something I would like
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+ you to be tuned into here.
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+
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+ 00:01:34.714
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+ People to this day are looking for
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+ a theory of everything.
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+
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+ 00:01:39.428
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+ And there is something very
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+ appealing about the notion that the
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+
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+ 00:01:44.142
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+ rules that govern the motion of
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+ heavenly bodies might be applicable
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+
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+ 00:01:48.856
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+ down at atomic dimensions.
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+ This is very cosmic. There is a
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+
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+ 00:01:53.570
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+ gestalt here. We ended the day with
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+ Bohr's model of the atom,
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+
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+ 00:01:58.284
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+ which derived from the
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+ conceptualization of Rutherford.
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+
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+ 00:02:03
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+ And this model is quantitative.
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+ And I think I put up the postulates.
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+
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+ 00:02:07.152
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+ And what I am going to do today is
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+ go in some detail through the Bohr
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+
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+ 00:02:11.306
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+ model, so let's do that.
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+ I am going to put up the most
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+
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+ 00:02:15.460
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+ primitive version.
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+ It is a one electron atom.
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+
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+ 00:02:19.614
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+ It has a nucleus at the center
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+ charged positively.
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+
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+ 00:02:23.768
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+ This is where most of the mass
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+ resides and the positive
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+
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+ 00:02:27.922
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+ charge resides.
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+ And orbiting around this is a lone
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+
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+ 00:02:32
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+ electron out at some distance r.
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+ And I don't have to worry about
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+
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+ 00:02:36
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+ these relative dimensions because we
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+ know from Marsden's calculations
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+
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+ 00:02:40
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+ that, on the length scale that I
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+ have shown here,
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+
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+ 00:02:44
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+ these would be just tiny little dots.
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+ It is about 10,
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+
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+ 00:02:48
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+ 00 to one, the ratio of the nuclear
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+ dimension to the entire atomic
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+
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+ 00:02:52
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+ dimension. And so we have a
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+ positive charge in the nucleus which
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+
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+ 00:02:56
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+ is given by the number of protons.
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+ This is a one electron atom.
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+
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+ 00:03:00
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+ It could be hydrogen,
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+ it could be helium plus,
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+
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+ 00:03:04.142
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+ it could be lithium double plus and
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+ so on. These are all one electron
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+
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+ 00:03:08.284
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+ atoms, and they are gas,
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+ a single atom. This will be Z times
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+
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+ 00:03:12.426
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+ the elementary charge.
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+ Remember, e represents the
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+
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+ 00:03:16.568
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+ elementary charge,
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+ not the charge on the electron.
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+
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+ 00:03:20.712
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+ The charge on the electron is minus
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+ e. This is Z times e in the center.
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+
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+ 00:03:24.856
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+ And out here we have the charge on
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+ the electron as simply equal to e.
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+
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+ 00:03:29
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+ I am going to highlight this by
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+ calling this q1,
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+
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+ 00:03:33.666
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+ lower case q being the charge here
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+ on the nucleus.
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+
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+ 00:03:38.332
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+ And lower case q sub 2 is the
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+ charge on the electron.
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+
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+ 00:03:42.998
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+ And that is given by minus e.
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+ And so the other thing that we
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+
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+ 00:03:47.664
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+ consider is the nucleus as being
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+ stationary. We have an orbiting
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+
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+ 00:03:52.330
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+ electron but a stationary nucleus.
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+ And Rutherford, who I have already
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+
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+ 00:03:56.998
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+ described to you as being a little
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+ bit colorful in his language,
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+
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+ 00:04:01.666
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+ backed up Bohr on this.
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+ He said when an elephant has fleas
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+
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+ 00:04:05.882
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+ it is the fleas that do the jumping.
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+ That is why we don't worry about
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+
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+ 00:04:09.646
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+ the motion of the nucleus because
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+ the ratio of mass is about 2,
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+
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+ 00:04:13.410
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+ 00 to one. What I am going to do is
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+ use these postulates and go through
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+
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+ 00:04:17.174
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+ the basis for the Bohr model.
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+ The first thing we are going to do
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+
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+ 00:04:20.938
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+ is describe the energy of the system.
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+ The total energy of the system,
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+
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+ 00:04:24.702
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+ which we are going to get from
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+ postulate number four,
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+
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+ 00:04:28.468
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+ which says the energy of the
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+ electron, which is the energy of the
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+
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+ 00:04:32.234
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+ system, is the sum of the kinetic
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+ and the potential energy.
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+
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+ 00:04:36
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+ Let's write that.
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+ And, as I reminded you at the end
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+
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+ 00:04:39.428
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+ of last day, the only reason I am
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+ doing this for you right now is I
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+
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+ 00:04:42.856
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+ want to elucidate the principles.
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+ It is not because I favor
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+
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+ 00:04:46.284
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+ derivations in class.
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+ I've been teaching long enough to
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+
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+ 00:04:49.712
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+ know that doing derivations in class
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+ is equivalent to pouring ice water
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+
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+ 00:04:53.140
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+ on the proceedings,
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+ so I do this sparingly.
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+
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+ 00:04:56.57
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+ It is a Newtonian system from the
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+ mechanical standpoint.
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+
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+ 00:05:00
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+ This is going to have one-half mv
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+ squared where this is the mass of
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+
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+ 00:05:04.266
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+ the electron. And then the
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+ potential energy,
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+
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+ 00:05:08.532
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+ the energy is stored here due to the
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+ coulombic force of attraction
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+
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+ 00:05:12.798
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+ between the electron and the nucleus.
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+ So, in the most general form,
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+
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+ 00:05:17.064
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+ Coulomb's law is the product of the
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+ charge, q1q2 divided by their
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+
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+ 00:05:21.330
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+ separation, which is r.
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+ And, in order to rationalize
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+
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+ 00:05:25.598
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+ electrostatic units with mechanical
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+ units, we have to put
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+
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+ 00:05:29.866
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+ a factor in here.
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+ Otherwise, the units that come out
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+
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+ 00:05:34.545
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+ of this calculation won't dovetail
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+ with the units that come out of this
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+
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+ 00:05:39.635
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+ calculation. And that factor is 4
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+ pi times epsilon zero.
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+
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+ 00:05:44.725
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+ Epsilon zero is the permittivity of
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+ vacuum. And now we can plug in q1
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+
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+ 00:05:49.816
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+ and q2. We know that we have
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+ one-half mv squared.
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+
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+ 00:05:54.908
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+ And then q1 is plus qe,
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+ q2 is minus e.
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+
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+ 00:06:00
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+ So then that will give us a net
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+ minus Z times the square of the
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+
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+ 00:06:04.856
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+ elementary charge over 4 pi epsilon
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+ zero r. And I am going to label
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+
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+ 00:06:09.712
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+ this as equation one.
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+ And so this is really a mechanical
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+
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+ 00:06:14.568
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+ term, if you like,
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+ and this is electrostatic or
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+
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+ 00:06:19.426
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+ coulombic. I am going to use
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+ different words for that.
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+
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+ 00:06:24.284
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+ And where do we find these things?
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+ You can find values of all of these
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+
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+ 00:06:29.142
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+ if you look at your
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+ Table of Constants.
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+
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+ 00:06:34
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+ This is the table of constants in
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+ its entirety. If you look up really
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+
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+ 00:06:38.460
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+ close, there is the elementary
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+ charge e. There is the mass of the
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+
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+ 00:06:42.921
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+ electron. All of these are given
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+ here. This is 9.
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+
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+ 00:06:47.383
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+ 1 times 10 to the minus 31 kilograms.
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+ It is 1.6 times 10 to minus 19
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+
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+ 00:06:51.845
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+ coulombs. There is the permittivity
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+ vacuum. It is all up there.
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+
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+ 00:06:56.307
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+ So you have these at your disposal.
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+ Now let's do the next step which is
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+
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+ 00:07:00.769
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+ a force balance.
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+ That comes out of postulate three.
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+
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+ 00:07:05.384
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+ Out of postulate three it says
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+ Newtonian mechanics applicable.
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+
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+ 00:07:10.152
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+ Let's put a force balance. I am
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+ going to say if that electron is to
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+
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+ 00:07:14.920
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+ stay in its orbit,
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+ that is to say it doesn't flee the
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+
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+ 00:07:19.69
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+ atom, it doesn't collapse under the
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+ nucleus then the sum of the forces
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+
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+ 00:07:24.46
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+ on the electron must be zero.
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+ No net force. And so that will be
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+
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+ 00:07:29.23
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+ the sum of a dynamic force
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+ plus an electrostatic.
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+
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+ 00:07:34
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+ Or just to be pluralistic in our
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+ language, coulombic force.
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+
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+ 00:07:37.714
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+ And so, you know from your
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+ Newtonian mechanics,
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+
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+ 00:07:41.428
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+ as you were learning in 8.
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+ 1, the dynamic force here is mv
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+
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+ 00:07:45.142
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+ squared over r.
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+ Again, m is the mass of the
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+
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+ 00:07:48.856
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+ electron. And now the force,
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+ in its most general term is q1q2
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+
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+ 00:07:52.570
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+ over 4 pi epsilon zero,
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+ which is the conversion factor r
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+
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+ 00:07:56.284
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+ squared. Force goes as
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+ one over r squared.
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+
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+ 00:08:00
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+ Energy goes as one over r.
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+ And, if you ever get confused,
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+
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+ 00:08:03.846
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+ the way to remember these is that
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+ you know energy is the integral of a
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+
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+ 00:08:07.692
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+ force moving through a distance.
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+ Energy is the integral of force
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+
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+ 00:08:11.538
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+ moving through a distance.
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+ So the integral of one over r
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+
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+ 00:08:15.384
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+ squared gives you one over r.
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+ If you get them backwards, you will
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+
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+ 00:08:19.230
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+ integrate one over r and will get
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+ log r. That makes no sense.
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+
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+ 00:08:23.076
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+ So there we are.
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+ And we plug in our values and end up
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+
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+ 00:08:27.428
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+ with mv squared over r minus Ze
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+ squared over 4 pi epsilon zero r
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+
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+ 00:08:32.284
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+ squared. And I am going to call
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+ this equation two.
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+
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+ 00:08:37.140
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+ That is our force balance.
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+ And then, for the next piece of
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+
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+ 00:08:41.997
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+ information, I am going to go to
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+ postulate number five.
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+
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+ 00:08:46.854
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+ And postulate number five is some
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+ of Bohr's early genius.
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+
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+ 00:08:51.712
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+ Bohr says that the energy is
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+ quantized through its
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+
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+ 00:08:56.570
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+ angular momentum.
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+ He is talking about the energy of an
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+
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+ 00:09:01.333
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+ electron. No one,
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+ until this time, had suggested that
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+
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+ 00:09:05.999
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+ a system would be subjected to
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+ quantization except for light.
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+
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+ 00:09:10.665
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+ Planck had already enunciated back
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+ in 1900 this e equals h nu.
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+
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+ 00:09:15.331
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+ In other words, that the photon has
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+ a quantum of energy h nu.
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+
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+ 00:09:19.998
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+ So quantization of radiation was
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+ already established
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+
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+ 00:09:24.665
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+ as of about 1900.
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+ But no one dared say we have this
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+
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+ 00:09:29.352
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+ little planetary model,
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+ I've got an electron orbiting a
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+
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+ 00:09:34.057
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+ central nucleus and I am going to
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+ endow that electron with quantized
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+
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+ 00:09:38.763
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+ states. That was a big leap and
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+ that was Bohr in postulate five.
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+
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+ 00:09:43.469
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+ Postulate five I am just going to
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+ reproduce. That is mvr,
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+
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+ 00:09:48.175
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+ which is its angular momentum,
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+ does not take continuous values.
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+
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+ 00:09:52.881
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+ It takes discrete values, multiples
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+ of some integer n,
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+
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+ 00:09:57.587
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+ and the multiplication factor is the
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+ ratio of the Planck constant divided
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+
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+ 00:10:02.293
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+ by 2 pi where n takes one,
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+ two, three and so on.
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+
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+ 00:10:07
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+ And I am going to call this one
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+ equation three.
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+
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+ 00:10:11
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+ So I have three equations and three
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+ unknowns. And I am not going to
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+
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+ 00:10:15
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+ take the time to solve it because I
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+ think that is a waste of class time,
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+
561
+ 00:10:19
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+ but those are the three unknowns.
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+ The radius of the orbit,
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+
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+ 00:10:23
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+ the energy of the system and the
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+ velocity of the electron,
568
+
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+ 00:10:27
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+ I am just going to present you the
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+ solutions. Let's look first of all
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+
573
+ 00:10:31
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+ at the radius of the orbit.
575
+ If you solve for r,
576
+
577
+ 00:10:35.25
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+ you will end up with this.
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+ This is the permittivity of vacuum.
580
+
581
+ 00:10:39.75
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+ Square of the Planck constant times
583
+ pi mass of the electron.
584
+
585
+ 00:10:44.25
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+ I am going to stop putting
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+ subscript e. It is the mass of the
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+
589
+ 00:10:48.75
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+ electron. Times the square of the
591
+ elementary charge times n squared
592
+
593
+ 00:10:53.25
594
+ over Z. Z is the proton number,
595
+ number of protons in the nucleus.
596
+
597
+ 00:10:57.75
598
+ What do I see?
599
+ I see that r takes on discrete
600
+
601
+ 00:11:02.307
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+ values. R is a function of n and
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+ takes on discrete values.
604
+
605
+ 00:11:06.921
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+ And, in fact, the functionality is
607
+ that of the square of this number
608
+
609
+ 00:11:11.535
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+ times a constant.
611
+ So this tells us that the radius of
612
+
613
+ 00:11:16.151
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+ the electron orbit,
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+ first of all, there is more than one
616
+
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+ 00:11:20.767
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+ radius. There is a plurality of
619
+ values. Secondly,
620
+
621
+ 00:11:25.383
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+ that those values are discrete.
623
+ They are quantized.
624
+
625
+ 00:11:30
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+ And, third, it is nonlinear.
627
+ If I look at something that goes as
628
+
629
+ 00:11:35
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+ n squared, if this is the edge of
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+ the nucleus here and if this is r1,
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+
633
+ 00:11:40
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+ it says when n goes to two the
635
+ radius goes to four.
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+
637
+ 00:11:45
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+ Let's say this is r1,
639
+ this is r2 and then this will be r3
640
+
641
+ 00:11:50
642
+ and this will be r4.
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+ And even that is not to scale.
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+
645
+ 00:11:55
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+ The higher the n number the greater
647
+ the radius by far.
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+
649
+ 00:12:00
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+ And this applies to all one electron
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+ atoms. Let's look at the simplest
652
+
653
+ 00:12:06.181
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+ case. Suppose we look at elemental
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+ hydrogen. In the case of elemental
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+
657
+ 00:12:12.363
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+ hydrogen, Z will equal one.
659
+ And then let's look at the lowest
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+
661
+ 00:12:18.545
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+ orbit, n equals one.
663
+ That is the electron in its lowest
664
+
665
+ 00:12:24.727
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+ orbit to the nucleus of atomic
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+ hydrogen. And this lowest orbit is
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+
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+ 00:12:30.909
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+ termed the ground state.
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+ First floor. If we put one here and
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+
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+ 00:12:36.5
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+ one here, the value is simply given
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+ by this constant.
676
+
677
+ 00:12:41.5
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+ And if you evaluate the constant
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+ you get that r1 is equal to 5.
680
+
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+ 00:12:46.5
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+ 9 times 10 to the minus 11 meters or
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+ 0.529 angstroms.
684
+
685
+ 00:12:51.5
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+ I like the angstrom.
687
+ It is 10 to the minus 10 meters.
688
+
689
+ 00:12:56.5
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+ It is not an SI unit because it is
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+ not a multiple of 10 to the 3rd,
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+
693
+ 00:13:01.5
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+ but I like the angstrom.
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+ I don't like the nanometer.
696
+
697
+ 00:13:06.272
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+ I like the angstrom because atomic
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+ dimensions are conveniently measured
700
+
701
+ 00:13:10.816
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+ by angstroms. And this is given a
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+ special symbol A nought.
704
+
705
+ 00:13:15.362
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+ It is the value of the radius of
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+ the ground state electron orbit in
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+
709
+ 00:13:19.908
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+ atomic hydrogen.
711
+ And this quantity is termed the
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+
713
+ 00:13:24.454
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+ Bohr radius. And you don't even
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+ have to look it up.
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+
717
+ 00:13:29
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+ Because it, too,
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+ is given on your Table of Constants.
720
+
721
+ 00:13:33.470
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+ There is the Planck Constant,
723
+ number five. There is the Bohr
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+
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+ 00:13:37.940
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+ radius down there,
727
+ number 24. So you just look that up.
728
+
729
+ 00:13:42.410
730
+ And anything else is going to be
731
+ some multiple of it.
732
+
733
+ 00:13:46.880
734
+ The other thing I would like to
735
+ draw your attention to is this.
736
+
737
+ 00:13:51.350
738
+ I can simplify this in the
739
+ following manner and say that r n,
740
+
741
+ 00:13:55.820
742
+ now that I have a Bohr radius for
743
+ this bracketed quantity,
744
+
745
+ 00:14:00.292
746
+ I can write that as the product of
747
+ the Bohr radius for the value of the
748
+
749
+ 00:14:04.764
750
+ orbit in any one electron atom.
751
+ Specify the quantum number n and
752
+
753
+ 00:14:09.444
754
+ divide by Z. That is this rewritten
755
+ in a much more compact notation
756
+
757
+ 00:14:14.332
758
+ because you have the value of this.
759
+ And note that as Z increases, as
760
+
761
+ 00:14:19.220
762
+ the proton number increases the
763
+ radius decreases for a given n
764
+
765
+ 00:14:24.11
766
+ number. If you look at the ground
767
+ state in two different systems --
768
+
769
+ 00:14:29
770
+ If you look at the ground state
771
+ which is n equals one,
772
+
773
+ 00:14:32.714
774
+ think about this, if I increase the
775
+ proton charge,
776
+
777
+ 00:14:36.428
778
+ the Coulombic force of attraction is
779
+ greater. And so,
780
+
781
+ 00:14:40.142
782
+ therefore, all other things being
783
+ equal, the first orbit should be at
784
+
785
+ 00:14:43.856
786
+ a smaller distance.
787
+ So this is making physical sense.
788
+
789
+ 00:14:47.570
790
+ Now let's look at energy. Let's
791
+ quantify the energy value.
792
+
793
+ 00:14:51.284
794
+ If you go through and solve for
795
+ energy, you will get this equation.
796
+
797
+ 00:14:55
798
+ E is equal to minus mass of the
799
+ electron times the elementary charge
800
+
801
+ 00:15:00.384
802
+ raised to the fourth power divided
803
+ by e times the square of the
804
+
805
+ 00:15:05.768
806
+ permittivity of vacuum times the
807
+ square of the Planck constant times
808
+
809
+ 00:15:11.152
810
+ Z squared over n squared.
811
+ Again, we see that e is a function
812
+
813
+ 00:15:16.536
814
+ of n. You see,
815
+ the quantum condition,
816
+
817
+ 00:15:21.920
818
+ by putting quantization into the
819
+ angular momentum it is propagated
820
+
821
+ 00:15:27.306
822
+ through the entire system.
823
+ Orbit dimensions are quantized.
824
+
825
+ 00:15:32.416
826
+ Energy is quantized. Velocity is
827
+ quantized. Everything is quantized.
828
+
829
+ 00:15:37.248
830
+ Energy is quantized. It has a
831
+ different n dependence.
832
+
833
+ 00:15:42.081
834
+ If I lump all of this together in
835
+ some constant,
836
+
837
+ 00:15:46.915
838
+ I can then represent that formula as
839
+ minus K times Z squared over n
840
+
841
+ 00:15:51.749
842
+ squared where n again chooses
843
+ integer values one, two,
844
+
845
+ 00:15:56.583
846
+ three and so on.
847
+ And we can go through and calculate
848
+
849
+ 00:16:01.25
850
+ the value of this quantity in
851
+ parenthesis. And,
852
+
853
+ 00:16:05.75
854
+ when we do so, we get the value 2.
855
+ 8 times 10 to the minus 18 joules.
856
+
857
+ 00:16:10.25
858
+ This is 10 to the minus 18 joules
859
+ for this one atom.
860
+
861
+ 00:16:14.75
862
+ I am going to draw attention to
863
+ this. It is joules per atom.
864
+
865
+ 00:16:19.25
866
+ Or, if you multiply by Avogadro's
867
+ number then you will
868
+
869
+ 00:16:23.75
870
+ get joules per mole.
871
+ And if you do so,
872
+
873
+ 00:16:28.285
874
+ you will end up with 1.
875
+ 12 mega joules per mole for this
876
+
877
+ 00:16:32.855
878
+ quantity K. And you can find that
879
+ one, too. That is on your chart.
880
+
881
+ 00:16:37.425
882
+ If you multiply entry 23, which is
883
+ 13.6 electron volts,
884
+
885
+ 00:16:41.997
886
+ I will show you what the electron
887
+ volt is in a few minutes.
888
+
889
+ 00:16:46.569
890
+ We will just put it up here
891
+ prematurely. But that is given in
892
+
893
+ 00:16:51.141
894
+ your chart. And then the conversion
895
+ of joules to electron
896
+
897
+ 00:16:55.713
898
+ volts is entry 42.
899
+ If you multiply those two together
900
+
901
+ 00:17:00.214
902
+ you will end up with this quantity.
903
+ And so let's take a look at what
904
+
905
+ 00:17:04.642
906
+ that does in terms of graphical
907
+ representation.
908
+
909
+ 00:17:09.070
910
+ I tried to give you a simple
911
+ graphical representation.
912
+
913
+ 00:17:13.498
914
+ That was Cartesian space.
915
+ When I plot r as a distance out
916
+
917
+ 00:17:17.926
918
+ from the nucleus that is sort of our
919
+ simple-minded planetary model.
920
+
921
+ 00:17:22.355
922
+ Now let's look at energy. I am
923
+ going to put energy in
924
+
925
+ 00:17:26.784
926
+ the following manner.
927
+ It is a conservative system so all
928
+
929
+ 00:17:30.933
930
+ the energies are negative.
931
+ That quantity in parenthesis,
932
+
933
+ 00:17:34.799
934
+ I have a mass which is a positive
935
+ number. Something raised to the
936
+
937
+ 00:17:38.665
938
+ fourth power has got to be positive.
939
+ Something raised to the second
940
+
941
+ 00:17:42.531
942
+ power has got to be positive.
943
+ Everything inside the parenthesis
944
+
945
+ 00:17:46.397
946
+ is positive, so minus a positive
947
+ number. All the energies are
948
+
949
+ 00:17:50.263
950
+ negative because it is a bound
951
+ system. I start up here with n
952
+
953
+ 00:17:54.131
954
+ equals one. And over here this is
955
+ the value of minus K.
956
+
957
+ 00:17:58
958
+ And then, if we go to n equals two,
959
+ what happens? We go to n equals two
960
+
961
+ 00:18:03.636
962
+ for a fixed value of Z.
963
+ Let's make this Z equals one.
964
+
965
+ 00:18:09.272
966
+ We will do it for atomic hydrogen.
967
+ It is K over four. And then we go
968
+
969
+ 00:18:14.908
970
+ to n equals three.
971
+ And this is not to scale.
972
+
973
+ 00:18:20.544
974
+ And so on. This is what the energy
975
+ level diagram looks like.
976
+
977
+ 00:18:26.181
978
+ This is for atomic hydrogen gas.
979
+ And I am going to put on here "not
980
+
981
+ 00:18:31.071
982
+ to scale." There are some relative,
983
+ the notion that the energy gap
984
+
985
+ 00:18:35.213
986
+ between n equals one and n equals
987
+ two is greater than that for n
988
+
989
+ 00:18:39.355
990
+ equals two to n equals three.
991
+ That is correctly represented.
992
+
993
+ 00:18:43.497
994
+ These are definitely not equally
995
+ spaced, but they should be even more
996
+
997
+ 00:18:47.639
998
+ disproportionate than I have shown
999
+ it. And finally up here we have n
1000
+
1001
+ 00:18:51.783
1002
+ equals infinity.
1003
+ When n equals infinity,
1004
+
1005
+ 00:18:55.927
1006
+ r equals infinity.
1007
+ And so the energy is zero because
1008
+
1009
+ 00:19:00.214
1010
+ the electron is no longer bound.
1011
+ It is free. The electron has been
1012
+
1013
+ 00:19:04.642
1014
+ liberated. This represents the free
1015
+ electron. It is no longer tethered
1016
+
1017
+ 00:19:09.070
1018
+ to the nucleus so there is no energy
1019
+ stored in the system.
1020
+
1021
+ 00:19:13.498
1022
+ And the closer it gets to the
1023
+ nucleus the greater the amount of
1024
+
1025
+ 00:19:17.926
1026
+ energy, which means that you see
1027
+ this in the following manner.
1028
+
1029
+ 00:19:22.355
1030
+ This is called the ground state,
1031
+ n equals one. I already mentioned
1032
+
1033
+ 00:19:26.784
1034
+ that. It's like the ground floor.
1035
+ I know some of you come from Europe
1036
+
1037
+ 00:19:31.142
1038
+ and other parts of the world where
1039
+ the ground floor is rez-de-chauss�e
1040
+
1041
+ 00:19:35.427
1042
+ or some silly thing like this and
1043
+ you push a button on the elevator to
1044
+
1045
+ 00:19:39.712
1046
+ one and you go up to the first floor.
1047
+ You are in American now,
1048
+
1049
+ 00:19:43.998
1050
+ and the International Chemical
1051
+ Community calls the ground state n
1052
+
1053
+ 00:19:48.284
1054
+ equals one, not n equals zero.
1055
+ Please observe the traditions of
1056
+
1057
+ 00:19:52.570
1058
+ the International Union of Pure and
1059
+ Applied Chemistry, not
1060
+
1061
+ 00:19:56.856
1062
+ to mention Niels Bohr.
1063
+ So this is ground state,
1064
+
1065
+ 00:20:02.111
1066
+ these are the excited states and
1067
+ free electron at n equals infinity.
1068
+
1069
+ 00:20:08.333
1070
+ And, at this point, we say that the
1071
+ atom has become ionized.
1072
+
1073
+ 00:20:14.555
1074
+ That is to say an electron has been
1075
+ ejected. And so now we have net
1076
+
1077
+ 00:20:20.777
1078
+ charge. And we can calculate the
1079
+ ionization energy.
1080
+
1081
+ 00:20:27
1082
+ The ionization energy must then be
1083
+ nothing more than,
1084
+
1085
+ 00:20:31.75
1086
+ that is the energy to go from the
1087
+ ground state here to n equals
1088
+
1089
+ 00:20:36.5
1090
+ infinity, so that would be the
1091
+ energy at state infinity minus the
1092
+
1093
+ 00:20:41.25
1094
+ energy of the ground state.
1095
+ Well, the energy at infinity is
1096
+
1097
+ 00:20:46
1098
+ zero and the energy in the ground
1099
+ state is minus K.
1100
+
1101
+ 00:20:50.75
1102
+ So minus minus K is plus K.
1103
+ K, in fact, is the ionization
1104
+
1105
+ 00:20:55.5
1106
+ energy. And, in fact,
1107
+ if you go to the chart,
1108
+
1109
+ 00:21:00.25
1110
+ to your Periodic Table indeed there
1111
+ it is.
1112
+
1113
+ 00:21:05
1114
+ This is a slightly different version
1115
+ from the one you have,
1116
+
1117
+ 00:21:09
1118
+ but it is the same order.
1119
+ If you look on the Periodic Table
1120
+
1121
+ 00:21:13
1122
+ this is atomic hydrogen.
1123
+ And, sure enough, there is 13.
1124
+
1125
+ 00:21:17
1126
+ 98, which is this number here in
1127
+ electron volts.
1128
+
1129
+ 00:21:21
1130
+ That is the ground state energy of
1131
+ atomic hydrogen.
1132
+
1133
+ 00:21:25
1134
+ The other thing to note is look at
1135
+ the dependence upon Z.
1136
+
1137
+ 00:21:29
1138
+ Suppose instead of hydrogen we
1139
+ considered lithium 2plus.
1140
+
1141
+ 00:21:33
1142
+ Lithium 2plus is a one electron atom.
1143
+ Lithium has three electrons.
1144
+
1145
+ 00:21:37.266
1146
+ If it loses two one remains. What
1147
+ is this formula telling us?
1148
+
1149
+ 00:21:41.532
1150
+ It is telling us that the ground
1151
+ state in lithium would be Z squared.
1152
+
1153
+ 00:21:45.798
1154
+ It would be nine times more intense.
1155
+ It would be nine times less.
1156
+
1157
+ 00:21:50.064
1158
+ That is to say minus nine is less
1159
+ than minus one.
1160
+
1161
+ 00:21:54.330
1162
+ And that makes sense,
1163
+ too, because the positive three
1164
+
1165
+ 00:21:58.597
1166
+ pulling on minus one has a tighter
1167
+ binding energy than positive one
1168
+
1169
+ 00:22:02.865
1170
+ pulling on minus one.
1171
+ So this drops by the square,
1172
+
1173
+ 00:22:09.5
1174
+ whereas, you saw how the orbit goes.
1175
+ Just picking up on this ionization
1176
+
1177
+ 00:22:18.5
1178
+ energy. The ionization energy we
1179
+ can define, this is the minimum
1180
+
1181
+ 00:22:27.5
1182
+ energy to remove an electron from
1183
+ the ground state of an
1184
+
1185
+ 00:22:36.5
1186
+ atom in the gas phase.
1187
+ All the things we are talking about
1188
+
1189
+ 00:22:43.7
1190
+ here are with reference to the gas
1191
+ phase. Gas phase single atom.
1192
+
1193
+ 00:22:49.100
1194
+ So we don't have to deal with work
1195
+ function or any kind of energies
1196
+
1197
+ 00:22:54.5
1198
+ associated with some condensed form
1199
+ of matter. So we are really looking
1200
+
1201
+ 00:22:59.900
1202
+ at this reaction here for ionization.
1203
+ It is H gas neutral goes to H plus
1204
+
1205
+ 00:23:05.299
1206
+ in the gas phase plus the electron.
1207
+ And, furthermore,
1208
+
1209
+ 00:23:09.909
1210
+ we can have multiple ionization
1211
+ energies. If you have multiple
1212
+
1213
+ 00:23:13.727
1214
+ electrons we can lose them in
1215
+ sequence. For example,
1216
+
1217
+ 00:23:17.545
1218
+ I could look at the ionization of
1219
+ lithium. Again,
1220
+
1221
+ 00:23:21.363
1222
+ lithium gas loses an electron to
1223
+ become lithium ion plus electron.
1224
+
1225
+ 00:23:25.181
1226
+ I can then subsequently lose an
1227
+ electron from the lithium ion.
1228
+
1229
+ 00:23:29
1230
+ Lithium ion loses an electron to
1231
+ become lithium 2plus.
1232
+
1233
+ 00:23:33.428
1234
+ And then a lithium 2plus still has
1235
+ an electron. Let's denude lithium
1236
+
1237
+ 00:23:37.856
1238
+ 2plus. So lithium 2plus loses its
1239
+ electron. This is the analogy to
1240
+
1241
+ 00:23:42.284
1242
+ the alpha particle.
1243
+ The alpha particle was the helium
1244
+
1245
+ 00:23:46.712
1246
+ nucleus. This is the lithium
1247
+ nucleus plus electron.
1248
+
1249
+ 00:23:51.140
1250
+ We call these first, second,
1251
+ third ionization energies in
1252
+
1253
+ 00:23:55.569
1254
+ sequence. This is the first
1255
+ ionization energy.
1256
+
1257
+ 00:24:00
1258
+ This is the second ionization energy.
1259
+ That is to say the ionization
1260
+
1261
+ 00:24:04.832
1262
+ energy of the second most electron.
1263
+ And this is the third ionization
1264
+
1265
+ 00:24:09.664
1266
+ energy. Now, where do we find these
1267
+ values? Well,
1268
+
1269
+ 00:24:14.497
1270
+ if we look on the chart,
1271
+ the first ionization energy is what
1272
+
1273
+ 00:24:19.331
1274
+ is reported in your Periodic Table.
1275
+ The first ionization energy of
1276
+
1277
+ 00:24:24.165
1278
+ lithium is about 5.4 electron
1279
+ volts per atom.
1280
+
1281
+ 00:24:29
1282
+ We can get this from the Periodic
1283
+ Table, so reported is Periodic Table.
1284
+
1285
+ 00:24:34.166
1286
+ And this is determined by
1287
+ measurement. This one here,
1288
+
1289
+ 00:24:39.332
1290
+ I cannot do anything for you.
1291
+ You will have to look that one up.
1292
+
1293
+ 00:24:44.498
1294
+ What about this one? This one is
1295
+ calculable by the Bohr model because
1296
+
1297
+ 00:24:49.664
1298
+ lithium 2plus is a one electron
1299
+ system. I just go through these
1300
+
1301
+ 00:24:54.832
1302
+ equations, but be careful to put in
1303
+ Z equals three.
1304
+
1305
+ 00:25:00
1306
+ And I can calculate this from Bohr
1307
+ model. Let's say calculable by Bohr
1308
+
1309
+ 00:25:06.444
1310
+ model. And then remember Z equals
1311
+ three. I am showing some
1312
+
1313
+ 00:25:12.888
1314
+ versatility here.
1315
+ And, let's see, we've talked about
1316
+
1317
+ 00:25:19.332
1318
+ radius, we've talked about energy.
1319
+ Let's talk about velocity just for
1320
+
1321
+ 00:25:25.777
1322
+ completeness.
1323
+
1324
+
1325
+ 00:25:34
1326
+ So the velocity is given by this
1327
+ product of the quantum number n
1328
+
1329
+ 00:25:39.090
1330
+ Planck constant 2 pi mass of the
1331
+ electron times the radius of the
1332
+
1333
+ 00:25:44.180
1334
+ orbit, which itself is a function of
1335
+ n. We can make some substitutions
1336
+
1337
+ 00:25:49.270
1338
+ here using some of the derivation on
1339
+ the previous board which will give
1340
+
1341
+ 00:25:54.362
1342
+ us the Planck constant divided by 2
1343
+ pi mass of the electron
1344
+
1345
+ 00:25:59.454
1346
+ times the Bohr radius.
1347
+ All of this times the ratio of Z
1348
+
1349
+ 00:26:04.071
1350
+ over n where n equals one,
1351
+ two, three and so on
1352
+
1353
+ 00:26:08.213
1354
+ **v=hZ/(2*pi*m*a0*n)**.
1355
+ And we rarely look at velocity
1356
+
1357
+ 00:26:12.355
1358
+ because, as you will learn very
1359
+ quickly in 3.091,
1360
+
1361
+ 00:26:16.497
1362
+ we are going to abandon this strict
1363
+ adherence to a planetary model
1364
+
1365
+ 00:26:20.639
1366
+ pretty soon. But it is interesting.
1367
+ Let's just, for an order of
1368
+
1369
+ 00:26:24.783
1370
+ magnitude say what happens for
1371
+ ground state electron
1372
+
1373
+ 00:26:28.927
1374
+ in atomic hydrogen?
1375
+ So we are going to put atomic
1376
+
1377
+ 00:26:33.909
1378
+ hydrogen Z equals one,
1379
+ ground state n equals one.
1380
+
1381
+ 00:26:39.727
1382
+ That is just this quantity here.
1383
+ So let's find out. V1 in atomic
1384
+
1385
+ 00:26:45.545
1386
+ hydrogen, is it fast?
1387
+ Is it slow? What is the number?
1388
+
1389
+ 00:26:51.363
1390
+ Plug in the values. You get 2.18
1391
+ times 10 to the plus 6 meters per
1392
+
1393
+ 00:26:57.181
1394
+ second, which is about 1% of the
1395
+ value of the speed of light.
1396
+
1397
+ 00:27:03
1398
+ By the way, c,
1399
+ the value of speed of light,
1400
+
1401
+ 00:27:07.142
1402
+ in case you cannot remember it,
1403
+ is the number one entry in your
1404
+
1405
+ 00:27:11.284
1406
+ Table of Constants.
1407
+ So 1% the speed of light.
1408
+
1409
+ 00:27:15.426
1410
+ I would say that is relatively fast.
1411
+ That is a pun.
1412
+
1413
+ 00:27:19.568
1414
+ I think about this as relatively
1415
+ fast. You people have no sense of
1416
+
1417
+ 00:27:23.711
1418
+ humor, no sense of joy,
1419
+ no sense of joie de vivre.
1420
+
1421
+ 00:27:27.855
1422
+ You are so young. You've only been
1423
+ here a week and are so jaded.
1424
+
1425
+ 00:27:32
1426
+ You've got four years to go.
1427
+ So where does c come from? How
1428
+
1429
+ 00:27:36.306
1430
+ come the speed of light has the
1431
+ symbol c? Where is the symbol c?
1432
+
1433
+ 00:27:40.614
1434
+ It comes from the Latin word
1435
+ celeritas which means swiftness.
1436
+
1437
+ 00:27:44.922
1438
+ We get the English word accelerate
1439
+ from the same root word.
1440
+
1441
+ 00:27:49.23
1442
+ That is why we have one.
1443
+ That's why we have c. We are in
1444
+
1445
+ 00:27:53.538
1446
+ pretty good shape here.
1447
+ We have a Bohr model, which is
1448
+
1449
+ 00:27:57.846
1450
+ quantitative.
1451
+ It makes predictions that can be
1452
+
1453
+ 00:28:02.133
1454
+ tested. We have energies.
1455
+ We have radii. Is there any
1456
+
1457
+ 00:28:06.399
1458
+ experimental evidence that can put
1459
+ this to the test?
1460
+
1461
+ 00:28:10.665
1462
+ And the answer is yes.
1463
+ In the early 1850s, Angstrom,
1464
+
1465
+ 00:28:14.931
1466
+ up at the University of Uppsala in
1467
+ Sweden was conducting experiments on
1468
+
1469
+ 00:28:19.197
1470
+ atomic hydrogen.
1471
+ He was doing experiments in a gas
1472
+
1473
+ 00:28:23.463
1474
+ discharge tube.
1475
+ He had a tube with electrodes
1476
+
1477
+ 00:28:27.731
1478
+ potted in it filled with
1479
+ atomic hydrogen.
1480
+
1481
+ 00:28:32
1482
+ And by applying a voltage,
1483
+ he was able to get the gas to glow.
1484
+
1485
+ 00:28:36
1486
+ And then he analyzed the components
1487
+ of that radiation and this is what
1488
+
1489
+ 00:28:40
1490
+ he found. First of all,
1491
+ let's take a look at his experiment.
1492
+
1493
+ 00:28:44
1494
+ There it is. He used the prism
1495
+ spectrograph to analyze his results.
1496
+
1497
+ 00:28:48
1498
+ So what do we have here? Here is
1499
+ the gas discharge tube.
1500
+
1501
+ 00:28:52
1502
+ This is the diagram taken right
1503
+ from your text,
1504
+
1505
+ 00:28:56
1506
+ there are the two electrodes coming
1507
+ in and this is atomic hydrogen
1508
+
1509
+ 00:29:00
1510
+ in the gas tube.
1511
+ And so if he gets the voltage high
1512
+
1513
+ 00:29:04
1514
+ enough, this gas discharge tube will
1515
+ glow. And the light will be going
1516
+
1517
+ 00:29:08
1518
+ in all directions,
1519
+ obviously. It is a glass tube.
1520
+
1521
+ 00:29:12
1522
+ He wants to narrow the light so he
1523
+ puts a couple of slits here.
1524
+
1525
+ 00:29:16
1526
+ And then he just takes that narrow
1527
+ column of light and he admits it to
1528
+
1529
+ 00:29:20
1530
+ a prism. And what the prism does is
1531
+ takes a tiny, tiny difference in
1532
+
1533
+ 00:29:24
1534
+ wavelength and refracts it through a
1535
+ different angle.
1536
+
1537
+ 00:29:28
1538
+ And if the prism is of sufficient
1539
+ dimension that angle can be
1540
+
1541
+ 00:29:31.554
1542
+ magnified. And then further you put
1543
+ some recording device,
1544
+
1545
+ 00:29:35.108
1546
+ which in those days was a
1547
+ photographic plate,
1548
+
1549
+ 00:29:38.664
1550
+ far across a room. So you take a
1551
+ tiny, tiny angle and you go far
1552
+
1553
+ 00:29:42.22
1554
+ enough across the room.
1555
+ And now you get separation on the
1556
+
1557
+ 00:29:45.776
1558
+ order of centimeters.
1559
+ And we record here. And this is
1560
+
1561
+ 00:29:49.332
1562
+ the blowup of what is on that
1563
+ photographic plate.
1564
+
1565
+ 00:29:52.887
1566
+ And this was painstaking work.
1567
+ What you have here is the
1568
+
1569
+ 00:29:56.443
1570
+ photographic plate demonstrating
1571
+ a spread.
1572
+
1573
+ 00:30:00
1574
+ First of all, the glow is made up of
1575
+ constituents. There are distinct
1576
+
1577
+ 00:30:06
1578
+ lines here. What appears to the
1579
+ naked eye to be just glowing is
1580
+
1581
+ 00:30:12
1582
+ actually superposition of different
1583
+ lines of distinct frequency.
1584
+
1585
+ 00:30:18
1586
+ So, you see, this is quantized.
1587
+ And so he published his results
1588
+
1589
+ 00:30:24
1590
+ around 1853. And so
1591
+ they lay. 1853.
1592
+
1593
+ 00:30:30
1594
+ Let's get Angstrom up on the board
1595
+ here since he did the work.
1596
+
1597
+ 00:30:37.5
1598
+ He was Uppsala, in Sweden. He
1599
+ measured the line spectra of atomic
1600
+
1601
+ 00:30:45
1602
+ hydrogen. By the way,
1603
+ your text has a glaring error.
1604
+
1605
+ 00:30:52.5
1606
+ The label above this figure refers
1607
+ to H2.
1608
+
1609
+ 00:31:00
1610
+ Take the fattest marking pen you
1611
+ have, scratch that out and replace
1612
+
1613
+ 00:31:04.614
1614
+ it with atomic hydrogen.
1615
+ You do not get this line from
1616
+
1617
+ 00:31:09.228
1618
+ molecular hydrogen.
1619
+ We have the line spectra lying out
1620
+
1621
+ 00:31:13.844
1622
+ there in the literature,
1623
+ and people read the literature.
1624
+
1625
+ 00:31:18.46
1626
+ They read. And one of the people
1627
+ that was reading this literature was
1628
+
1629
+ 00:31:23.076
1630
+ a high school teacher who was
1631
+ teaching mathematics in
1632
+
1633
+ 00:31:27.692
1634
+ Basil, Switzerland.
1635
+ This man also had the initials J.
1636
+
1637
+ 00:31:32.538
1638
+ . as in J.J. Thompson. This is J.
1639
+ . Balmer. And J.J. Balmer in 1885
1640
+
1641
+ 00:31:37.614
1642
+ playing with the numbers associated
1643
+ with the lines there,
1644
+
1645
+ 00:31:42.690
1646
+ you notice how the lines are colored?
1647
+ Your book isn't colored.
1648
+
1649
+ 00:31:47.766
1650
+ See, I colored them for you.
1651
+ I care about you. I wanted to
1652
+
1653
+ 00:31:52.844
1654
+ illustrate that this is representing
1655
+ different wavelengths in the visible.
1656
+
1657
+ 00:31:57.922
1658
+ And the doctor told me it is good
1659
+ for me to express my creative urges.
1660
+
1661
+ 00:32:03
1662
+ So I got out my pen and I did that.
1663
+ Where was I? What Balmer did, all
1664
+
1665
+ 00:32:08.230
1666
+ he has is those four numbers.
1667
+ He has the wavelengths of those
1668
+
1669
+ 00:32:13.460
1670
+ four numbers. And he is playing
1671
+ with those numbers.
1672
+
1673
+ 00:32:18.690
1674
+ He is determined to make sense of
1675
+ those four numbers in some kind of a
1676
+
1677
+ 00:32:23.920
1678
+ sequence, and this is what he came
1679
+ up with finally.
1680
+
1681
+ 00:32:29.152
1682
+ He came up with the relationship
1683
+ that nu bar, which is
1684
+
1685
+ 00:32:34.384
1686
+ called wave number --
1687
+ He found the reciprocal.
1688
+
1689
+ 00:32:39.599
1690
+ What he did was coined this.
1691
+ But he found that by taking the
1692
+
1693
+ 00:32:44.799
1694
+ reciprocal of the wavelengths,
1695
+ you have four numbers, he took the
1696
+
1697
+ 00:32:49.999
1698
+ reciprocals of those wavelengths and
1699
+ found that they fit a numerical
1700
+
1701
+ 00:32:55.199
1702
+ sequence. One over two squared
1703
+ minus one over n squared where n
1704
+
1705
+ 00:33:00.399
1706
+ takes values three, four, five, six.
1707
+ And there is a constant out here.
1708
+
1709
+ 00:33:07
1710
+ And the constant, if we redo it in
1711
+ modern SI units,
1712
+
1713
+ 00:33:15
1714
+ would take on the value of 1.
1715
+ times 10 to the 7th reciprocal
1716
+
1717
+ 00:33:23
1718
+ meters. How does this support
1719
+ the Bohr model?
1720
+
1721
+ 00:33:31
1722
+ Well, in order to answer that
1723
+ question, I have to give you a
1724
+
1725
+ 00:33:35.306
1726
+ little more background information.
1727
+ The first thing I have to do is
1728
+
1729
+ 00:33:39.614
1730
+ give you the understanding of the
1731
+ physics of the gas discharge tube.
1732
+
1733
+ 00:33:43.922
1734
+ Let's take a look inside that tube.
1735
+ Let me redraw it. I am going to
1736
+
1737
+ 00:33:48.23
1738
+ redraw it horizontally.
1739
+ This is a glass tube. There are
1740
+
1741
+ 00:33:52.538
1742
+ some feedthroughs here to allow
1743
+ electrodes to be potted.
1744
+
1745
+ 00:33:56.846
1746
+ These are gas-tight feedthroughs.
1747
+ And these electrodes are then
1748
+
1749
+ 00:34:01.384
1750
+ connected to a variable voltage
1751
+ power supply. And it is possible to
1752
+
1753
+ 00:34:06.152
1754
+ change the voltage on the plates.
1755
+ And the way I have this configured,
1756
+
1757
+ 00:34:10.920
1758
+ the left electrode is going to be
1759
+ charged negatively and the right
1760
+
1761
+ 00:34:15.690
1762
+ electrode is going to be charged
1763
+ positively. So the left electrode
1764
+
1765
+ 00:34:20.459
1766
+ will be the cathode as I have
1767
+ configured it,
1768
+
1769
+ 00:34:25.229
1770
+ and the right electrode will be
1771
+ anode.
1772
+
1773
+ 00:34:30
1774
+ And what is inside the gas discharge
1775
+ tube is gas at low pressure.
1776
+
1777
+ 00:34:35.332
1778
+ As we increase the voltage, we get
1779
+ to a critical value at which it is
1780
+
1781
+ 00:34:40.664
1782
+ possible to actually draw electrons
1783
+ across the gap.
1784
+
1785
+ 00:34:45.998
1786
+ Electrons will actually boil off
1787
+ the cathode and accelerate across.
1788
+
1789
+ 00:34:51.331
1790
+ You have a positive electrode here
1791
+ and the electron is charged
1792
+
1793
+ 00:34:56.665
1794
+ negatively. It will be drawn to the
1795
+ positive electrode.
1796
+
1797
+ 00:35:02
1798
+ So it will accelerate from rest and
1799
+ crash into the anode.
1800
+
1801
+ 00:35:06.266
1802
+ If we have nothing here,
1803
+ we see nothing. If we have too much
1804
+
1805
+ 00:35:10.532
1806
+ gas in here, in other words,
1807
+ if the gas is at too high a pressure,
1808
+
1809
+ 00:35:14.798
1810
+ the collisions with the gas
1811
+ molecules will consume the energy of
1812
+
1813
+ 00:35:19.064
1814
+ the electrons and,
1815
+ again, we will see nothing.
1816
+
1817
+ 00:35:23.330
1818
+ If we get the pressure in there
1819
+ just right, we will allow for gas
1820
+
1821
+ 00:35:27.597
1822
+ electron collisions and then we get
1823
+ the glow that ultimately was sent
1824
+
1825
+ 00:35:31.865
1826
+ through the slits.
1827
+ That is the operation of the gas
1828
+
1829
+ 00:35:36.5
1830
+ discharge tube.
1831
+ Now let's look at the physics.
1832
+
1833
+ 00:35:41.5
1834
+ What is the energy of the electron,
1835
+ the energy of this electron
1836
+
1837
+ 00:35:46.5
1838
+ accelerating from rest and crashing
1839
+ into the anode here?
1840
+
1841
+ 00:35:51.5
1842
+ Well, it is going to be mechanical.
1843
+ One-half mv squared. And how about
1844
+
1845
+ 00:35:56.5
1846
+ potential energy? It is not bound.
1847
+ It is a free electron so there is no
1848
+
1849
+ 00:36:01.333
1850
+ potential energy to be accounted for.
1851
+ So it is simply one-half mv squared.
1852
+
1853
+ 00:36:05.999
1854
+ But I can equate the amount of
1855
+ mechanical energy in the electron to
1856
+
1857
+ 00:36:10.665
1858
+ the amount of electrical energy that
1859
+ was imparted through the electrodes.
1860
+
1861
+ 00:36:15.331
1862
+ And the electrical energy is the
1863
+ product of the charge on the
1864
+
1865
+ 00:36:19.998
1866
+ electron times the voltage which is
1867
+ the potential difference through
1868
+
1869
+ 00:36:24.665
1870
+ which the electron was accelerated.
1871
+ And so this allows me to,
1872
+
1873
+ 00:36:29.199
1874
+ by increasing the voltage,
1875
+ increase the energy on the electron.
1876
+
1877
+ 00:36:33.599
1878
+ You can see low voltage, low energy,
1879
+ high voltage, high energy.
1880
+
1881
+ 00:36:37.999
1882
+ It is a linear function. And how
1883
+ about order of magnitude?
1884
+
1885
+ 00:36:42.399
1886
+ Let's see. Let's do everything
1887
+ unit. That is a good way.
1888
+
1889
+ 00:36:46.799
1890
+ What is the unit charge? The
1891
+ smallest charge I could put here
1892
+
1893
+ 00:36:51.199
1894
+ would be 1.6 times 10 to the minus
1895
+ 19 coulombs. And what if I took a
1896
+
1897
+ 00:36:55.599
1898
+ unit charge and I multiplied it
1899
+ times unit voltage, one volt?
1900
+
1901
+ 00:37:00
1902
+ Unit charge times unit voltage then
1903
+ would give me what?
1904
+
1905
+ 00:37:05
1906
+ If I multiply these two,
1907
+ what is the coulomb times a volt?
1908
+
1909
+ 00:37:10
1910
+ Here is the value of using SI units.
1911
+ SI units means everything goes in,
1912
+
1913
+ 00:37:15
1914
+ in SI, everything comes out in SI.
1915
+ What is the energy unit in SI?
1916
+
1917
+ 00:37:20
1918
+ The joule. What is the unit of
1919
+ charge in SI? Coulomb.
1920
+
1921
+ 00:37:25
1922
+ What is the unit of potential
1923
+ difference? Volt.
1924
+
1925
+ 00:37:30
1926
+ With impunity.
1927
+ If I use coulombs here and volts
1928
+
1929
+ 00:37:33.764
1930
+ here, I don't even think.
1931
+ I write 1.0 times 1.6. Even that I
1932
+
1933
+ 00:37:37.528
1934
+ can do in my head.
1935
+ That is 1.6 times 10 to the minus
1936
+
1937
+ 00:37:41.292
1938
+ 19 and I write joules.
1939
+ That is the power of having a
1940
+
1941
+ 00:37:45.056
1942
+ rationalized system of units.
1943
+ That is the good news. The bad
1944
+
1945
+ 00:37:48.820
1946
+ news is I hate this number.
1947
+ Look it. 1.6 times 10 to the minus
1948
+
1949
+ 00:37:52.585
1950
+ 18, excuse me,
1951
+ we have 1.6 times 10 to the minus 19,
1952
+
1953
+ 00:37:56.350
1954
+ 2.18 times 10 to the minus 18,
1955
+ etc. Cannot we get simple numbers
1956
+
1957
+ 00:38:00.116
1958
+ like three and seven?
1959
+ Whatever happened to good-old
1960
+
1961
+ 00:38:04.333
1962
+ numbers? I have an idea.
1963
+ Why don't we define a new unit of
1964
+
1965
+ 00:38:08.999
1966
+ energy that is nearer to what we
1967
+ have to measure?
1968
+
1969
+ 00:38:13.665
1970
+ And that was done.
1971
+ What people did is they said let's
1972
+
1973
+ 00:38:18.331
1974
+ define a unit of energy that
1975
+ represents a unit charge accelerated
1976
+
1977
+ 00:38:22.998
1978
+ across a unit potential difference,
1979
+ and let's call that the electron
1980
+
1981
+ 00:38:27.665
1982
+ volt. That is one electron volt.
1983
+ The electron volt is not a unit of
1984
+
1985
+ 00:38:32.5
1986
+ potential difference.
1987
+ It is a unit of energy.
1988
+
1989
+ 00:38:37.5
1990
+ Now, this is 1.0 eV. Now you can
1991
+ see 2.18 times 10 to the minus 18
1992
+
1993
+ 00:38:42.5
1994
+ joules can be 13.
1995
+ eV. Now, I don't have to fill my
1996
+
1997
+ 00:38:47.5
1998
+ head with 2.18 times 10 to the minus
1999
+ 18. 13.6, that's a cool number.
2000
+
2001
+ 00:38:52.5
2002
+ I can remember that. That is how
2003
+ that works. By the way,
2004
+
2005
+ 00:38:57.5
2006
+ this is the cathode.
2007
+ And we have a beam.
2008
+
2009
+ 00:39:02.357
2010
+ It is an electron beam.
2011
+ In the 1890s, the latter part of
2012
+
2013
+ 00:39:07.071
2014
+ the 19th century a very fashionable
2015
+ word was "ray."
2016
+
2017
+ 00:39:11.785
2018
+ Because it came from optics,
2019
+ you know, rays of sunlight and so on.
2020
+
2021
+ 00:39:16.499
2022
+ And, in fact,
2023
+ even when we first started pulling
2024
+
2025
+ 00:39:21.213
2026
+ synthetic fiber,
2027
+ the first synthetic fiber cellulose
2028
+
2029
+ 00:39:25.927
2030
+ was referred to as rayon because it
2031
+ looked like a ray that
2032
+
2033
+ 00:39:30.641
2034
+ was being pulled.
2035
+ So rather than calling this an
2036
+
2037
+ 00:39:35.153
2038
+ electron beam,
2039
+ this was called a cathode ray.
2040
+
2041
+ 00:39:39.46
2042
+ And this was a tube at low pressure.
2043
+ And if I evacuate it,
2044
+
2045
+ 00:39:43.768
2046
+ I have a cathode ray tube.
2047
+ And, in fact, instead of having
2048
+
2049
+ 00:39:48.076
2050
+ just an electrode here,
2051
+ what I could do is I could have an
2052
+
2053
+ 00:39:52.384
2054
+ electrode that is hollow.
2055
+ And then I could put a flat end
2056
+
2057
+ 00:39:56.692
2058
+ here and I could put
2059
+ phosphorus here.
2060
+
2061
+ 00:40:01
2062
+ And then I could put a couple of
2063
+ plates and I could raster the beam
2064
+
2065
+ 00:40:05.5
2066
+ so that when I am looking here the
2067
+ beam goes back and forth about 80
2068
+
2069
+ 00:40:10
2070
+ times a second.
2071
+ And the phosphorus glow.
2072
+
2073
+ 00:40:14.5
2074
+ And I can be watching a science
2075
+ documentary.
2076
+
2077
+ 00:40:19
2078
+
2079
+ All right. The other thing I have
2080
+
2081
+ 00:40:32.727
2082
+ to teach you is matter-energy
2083
+ interaction so that we can see how
2084
+
2085
+ 00:40:38.181
2086
+ the Balmer series validates the Bohr
2087
+ model. So there is one more thing
2088
+
2089
+ 00:40:43.635
2090
+ you need to know.
2091
+ And I am going to put up this
2092
+
2093
+ 00:40:49.089
2094
+ energy level diagram again.
2095
+ This is infinity. Let's call this
2096
+
2097
+ 00:40:54.543
2098
+ 3, 2, 1. This is E1 ground state,
2099
+ E2, E3 and so on. And this is zero.
2100
+
2101
+ 00:41:00
2102
+ Let's look at the energetics of one
2103
+ of those electrons crashing into a
2104
+
2105
+ 00:41:06.666
2106
+ hydrogen atom inside the gas tube.
2107
+ Here is an electron. And I am
2108
+
2109
+ 00:41:13.332
2110
+ going to let this arrow somehow
2111
+ indicate the value of the incident
2112
+
2113
+ 00:41:19.998
2114
+ energy. And I am saying electron,
2115
+ but more generally it applies to any
2116
+
2117
+ 00:41:26.665
2118
+ incident particle.
2119
+ Later on we could do this with a
2120
+
2121
+ 00:41:32.307
2122
+ proton. We could do it with a
2123
+ neutron. Rutherford used alpha
2124
+
2125
+ 00:41:36.921
2126
+ particles. We could use argon ion.
2127
+ There are all kinds of different
2128
+
2129
+ 00:41:41.536
2130
+ ways of bombarding,
2131
+ in this case, hydrogen gas.
2132
+
2133
+ 00:41:46.152
2134
+ Now, if this incident energy is
2135
+ great enough it will take an
2136
+
2137
+ 00:41:50.768
2138
+ electron out of the ground state and
2139
+ promote it. But the electron cannot
2140
+
2141
+ 00:41:55.384
2142
+ reside anywhere except in one of
2143
+ these quantized states.
2144
+
2145
+ 00:42:00
2146
+ Suppose the E incident is greater
2147
+ than the energy in the transition
2148
+
2149
+ 00:42:05.090
2150
+ going from ground state to n equals
2151
+ two. What will happen?
2152
+
2153
+ 00:42:10.180
2154
+ That energy will be absorbed by the
2155
+ hydrogen atom,
2156
+
2157
+ 00:42:15.270
2158
+ the electron will rise from n equals
2159
+ one to n equals two.
2160
+
2161
+ 00:42:20.361
2162
+ And that amount of energy will be
2163
+ subtracted. And then over here this
2164
+
2165
+ 00:42:25.453
2166
+ electron will continue.
2167
+ And I have purposely made the arrow
2168
+
2169
+ 00:42:30.384
2170
+ shorter to indicate that it has been
2171
+ slowed because we are going to argue
2172
+
2173
+ 00:42:35.152
2174
+ its mass didn't change,
2175
+ so the only way to change its energy
2176
+
2177
+ 00:42:39.920
2178
+ is to change its velocity.
2179
+ This will we call scattered now.
2180
+
2181
+ 00:42:44.690
2182
+ It's interacted. This is the
2183
+ scattered particle.
2184
+
2185
+ 00:42:49.459
2186
+ But it doesn't end there.
2187
+ So how much energy is there?
2188
+
2189
+ 00:42:54.229
2190
+ Let this represent the total energy
2191
+ of the incident electron.
2192
+
2193
+ 00:42:59
2194
+ And if that is the energy to go from
2195
+ n equals one to n equals two then
2196
+
2197
+ 00:43:02.646
2198
+ this is the amount of energy that
2199
+ has to be left as kinetic energy of
2200
+
2201
+ 00:43:06.292
2202
+ the electron. It is like an elastic
2203
+ collision between billiard balls.
2204
+
2205
+ 00:43:09.938
2206
+ You've seen these things. But it
2207
+ doesn't end there because the
2208
+
2209
+ 00:43:13.584
2210
+ electron is sitting up here at n
2211
+ equals two very nervous because
2212
+
2213
+ 00:43:17.231
2214
+ there is a lower energy state and
2215
+ there is a coulombic attraction to
2216
+
2217
+ 00:43:20.879
2218
+ the nucleus. So what happens almost
2219
+ instantaneously after the collision,
2220
+
2221
+ 00:43:24.527
2222
+ the electron up here falls back down.
2223
+ And when it falls back down that
2224
+
2225
+ 00:43:28.175
2226
+ energy is given off.
2227
+ And it is given off in the form of a
2228
+
2229
+ 00:43:33.666
2230
+ photon. And what is the energy of
2231
+ that photon? Well,
2232
+
2233
+ 00:43:40.998
2234
+ the energy of the photon,
2235
+ we know from Planck, is h nu,
2236
+
2237
+ 00:43:48.331
2238
+ which is hc over lambda. Now I have
2239
+ lambdas associated with transitions
2240
+
2241
+ 00:43:55.665
2242
+ between energy levels
2243
+ in atomic hydrogen.
2244
+
2245
+ 00:44:03
2246
+ Gee, I wonder if I could come up
2247
+ with a set of transitions occurring
2248
+
2249
+ 00:44:09.444
2250
+ inside atomic hydrogen that just
2251
+ might match what Angstrom measured
2252
+
2253
+ 00:44:15.888
2254
+ back in 1853. That is going to be
2255
+ the challenge.
2256
+
2257
+ 00:44:22.332
2258
+ The interesting thing here is that
2259
+ I can change the incident
2260
+
2261
+ 00:44:28.777
2262
+ velocity continuously.
2263
+ This is continuously variable
2264
+
2265
+ 00:44:34.230
2266
+ because I can vary voltage
2267
+ continuously. Change the voltage,
2268
+
2269
+ 00:44:38.690
2270
+ I change the incident energy. What
2271
+ about the energy of the emitted
2272
+
2273
+ 00:44:43.152
2274
+ photons? Are they continuously
2275
+ variable? No,
2276
+
2277
+ 00:44:47.613
2278
+ they are discrete.
2279
+ They are discrete.
2280
+
2281
+ 00:44:52.075
2282
+ And, furthermore, they are
2283
+ characteristic of the target gas
2284
+
2285
+ 00:44:56.537
2286
+ element. Let's say I got up late
2287
+ and I am racing to get to class.
2288
+
2289
+ 00:45:01
2290
+ I just burst in now,
2291
+ I look up there and go that's atomic
2292
+
2293
+ 00:45:06
2294
+ hydrogen. Because only atomic
2295
+ hydrogen has that set of lines which
2296
+
2297
+ 00:45:11
2298
+ means I could then take the spectra
2299
+ of gas phase species and use that
2300
+
2301
+ 00:45:16
2302
+ information to identify.
2303
+ This is now a technique of analysis.
2304
+
2305
+ 00:45:21
2306
+ I could take an unknown gas and put
2307
+ it in and measure it and then say,
2308
+
2309
+ 00:45:26
2310
+ wow, those are the lines that are
2311
+ characteristic of sodium.
2312
+
2313
+ 00:45:31
2314
+ Gee, have you ever wondered how they
2315
+ know the composition of stars that
2316
+
2317
+ 00:45:35.908
2318
+ are light-years away?
2319
+ Do they get sample bottles coming
2320
+
2321
+ 00:45:40.816
2322
+ in? How do they get that
2323
+ information? What is a star,
2324
+
2325
+ 00:45:45.724
2326
+ if not just a giant gas bottle,
2327
+ containerless? It is glowing. And
2328
+
2329
+ 00:45:50.634
2330
+ why is it glowing?
2331
+ It is glowing because electrons are
2332
+
2333
+ 00:45:55.544
2334
+ excited.
2335
+ And they are excited and they are
2336
+
2337
+ 00:46:00
2338
+ jumping up and down and they are
2339
+ emitting. But they are just not
2340
+
2341
+ 00:46:04
2342
+ emitting anything.
2343
+ I mean, why are some stars this
2344
+
2345
+ 00:46:08
2346
+ color and some stars that color?
2347
+ Did somebody paint them that way?
2348
+
2349
+ 00:46:12
2350
+ They are different because they
2351
+ have different compositions.
2352
+
2353
+ 00:46:16
2354
+ So you could use this in order to
2355
+ identify the contents of stars.
2356
+
2357
+ 00:46:20
2358
+ All of this. What did Bohr do?
2359
+ I want to tell you a couple more
2360
+
2361
+ 00:46:24
2362
+ Bohr stories. The guy was great.
2363
+ Here is what happens. Here is a
2364
+
2365
+ 00:46:28
2366
+ story.
2367
+ Capstone of Bohr's work on the
2368
+
2369
+ 00:46:31.928
2370
+ Balmer formula.
2371
+ Let me simply tell you that in time
2372
+
2373
+ 00:46:35.784
2374
+ I am going to show you that this
2375
+ formula is inconsistent with the
2376
+
2377
+ 00:46:39.640
2378
+ Bohr model. You will see that at
2379
+ the beginning of next lecture.
2380
+
2381
+ 00:46:43.497
2382
+ In 1896, Charles Pickering from
2383
+ Harvard found a series of lines in
2384
+
2385
+ 00:46:47.354
2386
+ starlight which he attributed to
2387
+ hydrogen, even though they did not
2388
+
2389
+ 00:46:51.212
2390
+ fit Balmer. They were off by a
2391
+ factor of four.
2392
+
2393
+ 00:46:55.070
2394
+ Now, what do you know about energy?
2395
+ Already from this class,
2396
+
2397
+ 00:46:59.357
2398
+ if I told you that I gave you
2399
+ energies in some spectrum but they
2400
+
2401
+ 00:47:04.071
2402
+ were off by a factor of four,
2403
+ what would you think? Maybe the Z
2404
+
2405
+ 00:47:08.785
2406
+ is wrong. So,
2407
+ even though the lines were wrong,
2408
+
2409
+ 00:47:13.499
2410
+ he says, no, that is hydrogen. Bohr
2411
+ says, no, that is not hydrogen.
2412
+
2413
+ 00:47:18.213
2414
+ It is helium. That star has
2415
+ ionized helium,
2416
+
2417
+ 00:47:22.927
2418
+ helium plus. Z equals two.
2419
+ Energy will be four times more
2420
+
2421
+ 00:47:27.641
2422
+ intense.
2423
+ Pickering was a nasty SOB and said
2424
+
2425
+ 00:47:32
2426
+ you are wrong.
2427
+ Because, in fact,
2428
+
2429
+ 00:47:36
2430
+ it is 4.0016. And the 0.
2431
+ 016 is greater than what I would
2432
+
2433
+ 00:47:40
2434
+ have as experimental error,
2435
+ so your theory is wrong. Bohr says
2436
+
2437
+ 00:47:44
2438
+ oh, yeah? He goes back and redoes
2439
+ the calculation,
2440
+
2441
+ 00:47:48
2442
+ only in this case he says what I am
2443
+ going to do is I am going to redo
2444
+
2445
+ 00:47:52
2446
+ the calculation for helium,
2447
+ but I am going to consider not just
2448
+
2449
+ 00:47:56
2450
+ the mass of the electron but the
2451
+ reduced mass of the system.
2452
+
2453
+ 00:48:00
2454
+ So I will take into account that
2455
+ there is some contribution of both
2456
+
2457
+ 00:48:05
2458
+ the nucleus and the electron.
2459
+ And he gets, you are absolutely
2460
+
2461
+ 00:48:10
2462
+ right, it is not 4.
2463
+ , it is 4.00163. Take that.
2464
+
2465
+ 00:48:15
2466
+ What you have is with a simple
2467
+ calculation five significant figures.
2468
+
2469
+ 00:48:20
2470
+ That shut him up.
2471
+ Now, just to show it doesn't end,
2472
+
2473
+ 00:48:25
2474
+ more nonsense at Harvard. This is
2475
+ Cecilia Payne.
2476
+
2477
+ 00:48:30
2478
+ First woman graduate student in
2479
+ astronomy. First PhD in astronomy.
2480
+
2481
+ 00:48:33.262
2482
+ First woman to receive tenure at
2483
+ Harvard. She was awarded tenure in
2484
+
2485
+ 00:48:36.524
2486
+ 1938, denied a professorship for 18
2487
+ years, and when she presented her Ph.
2488
+
2489
+ 00:48:39.786
2490
+ thesis she was the one that
2491
+ determined that the sun is made
2492
+
2493
+ 00:48:43.048
2494
+ dominantly of hydrogen,
2495
+ not ion, the way most of the old
2496
+
2497
+ 00:48:46.311
2498
+ goats thought.
2499
+ Because the earth is made of iron,
2500
+
2501
+ 00:48:49.575
2502
+ heaven knows everything is made of
2503
+ the same stuff,
2504
+
2505
+ 00:48:52.839
2506
+ all heavenly bodies.
2507
+ Even though the sun is glowing and
2508
+
2509
+ 00:48:56.103
2510
+ the earth isn't,
2511
+ but they must be made of the same
2512
+
2513
+ 00:48:59.367
2514
+ thing.
2515
+ And, after all,
2516
+
2517
+ 00:49:03
2518
+ we are Harvard so we know.
2519
+ Here is what she did. She was
2520
+
2521
+ 00:49:07
2522
+ fastidious. Look at this.
2523
+ What do you see there? Well,
2524
+
2525
+ 00:49:11
2526
+ you see iron. But this is
2527
+ misspelled. You would make an
2528
+
2529
+ 00:49:15
2530
+ excuse and say the detector isn't
2531
+ working. This is a noisy system.
2532
+
2533
+ 00:49:19
2534
+ That is what everybody else is
2535
+ doing. But what Cecilia is doing is
2536
+
2537
+ 00:49:23
2538
+ saying I have got to keep looking.
2539
+ I need a consistent picture. This
2540
+
2541
+ 00:49:27
2542
+ is what spectroscopy is.
2543
+ Spectroscopy is how you go and look
2544
+
2545
+ 00:49:31.909
2546
+ at patterns, not just individual
2547
+ lines. When she defended her thesis,
2548
+
2549
+ 00:49:37.727
2550
+ she was forced to put this phrase in
2551
+ her thesis. "The enormous abundance
2552
+
2553
+ 00:49:43.545
2554
+ of hydrogen is almost certainly not
2555
+ real." This is the way science
2556
+
2557
+ 00:49:49.363
2558
+ welcomes newcomers.
2559
+ This is the way science on some
2560
+
2561
+ 00:49:55.181
2562
+ occasions welcomes new findings.
2563
+ Just up the street.
2564
+
2565
+ 00:50:01
2566
+ And I am not talking about the 1600s.
2567
+ This was in the �30s.
2568
+
2569
+ 00:50:06.272
2570
+ This is a painting of her.
2571
+ Dudley Herschbach, a Harvard
2572
+
2573
+ 00:50:11.544
2574
+ chemistry professor who has a Nobel
2575
+ prize had this painting hung at one
2576
+
2577
+ 00:50:16.816
2578
+ of the halls. And it is obviously
2579
+ referential to Vermeer's "The
2580
+
2581
+ 00:50:22.088
2582
+ Astronomer." We have come a long
2583
+ way from the gas discharge
2584
+
2585
+ 00:50:27.362
2586
+ tube to the heavens.
2587
+ But it shows you that with a little
2588
+
2589
+ 00:50:32.25
2590
+ bit of understanding of quantization
2591
+ you can go a long way.
2592
+
2593
+ 00:50:36.75
2594
+ OK, we will see you Friday.