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data/test/results/3.091-04.srt

@@ -0,0 +1,2594 @@
+00:00:00
+Let's get started.
+A couple of announcements.
+
+00:00:04.428
+A remember about the Periodic Table
+test which will be added next week
+
+00:00:08.856
+on the 23rd. You can see the
+website if you want to download a
+
+00:00:13.284
+copy of this to practice on it.
+You are required only to put the
+
+00:00:17.712
+one or two-letter chemical
+abbreviation, the symbol.
+
+00:00:22.140
+Some people ask me if I want you to
+know the molecular weights and so on,
+
+00:00:26.57
+and I thought that
+was bit excessive.
+
+00:00:31
+So I think if you just know the
+symbols for the ones that are up
+
+00:00:37.444
+there, that would be just dandy.
+Here is the lady's scarf, very hot,
+
+00:00:43.888
+black. See, trim lines, blue and
+gold, and it has elements on it.
+
+00:00:50.332
+Very hot. And there is a necktie,
+comparable fabric, comparable
+
+00:00:56.777
+pattern. It is not geeky.
+This is very hot.
+
+00:01:02.307
+You need this. Let's get on with
+the lesson. Last day we looked at
+
+00:01:06.921
+Rutherford, Geiger,
+Marsden and the experiment that they
+
+00:01:11.536
+conducted on the gold foil.
+And out of that came the
+
+00:01:16.152
+recognition that Thompson's plum
+pudding model is not sustainable in
+
+00:01:20.768
+the light of this evidence.
+And in its stead Rutherford
+
+00:01:25.384
+proposed something akin
+to a planetary system.
+
+00:01:30
+And there is something I would like
+you to be tuned into here.
+
+00:01:34.714
+People to this day are looking for
+a theory of everything.
+
+00:01:39.428
+And there is something very
+appealing about the notion that the
+
+00:01:44.142
+rules that govern the motion of
+heavenly bodies might be applicable
+
+00:01:48.856
+down at atomic dimensions.
+This is very cosmic. There is a
+
+00:01:53.570
+gestalt here. We ended the day with
+Bohr's model of the atom,
+
+00:01:58.284
+which derived from the
+conceptualization of Rutherford.
+
+00:02:03
+And this model is quantitative.
+And I think I put up the postulates.
+
+00:02:07.152
+And what I am going to do today is
+go in some detail through the Bohr
+
+00:02:11.306
+model, so let's do that.
+I am going to put up the most
+
+00:02:15.460
+primitive version.
+It is a one electron atom.
+
+00:02:19.614
+It has a nucleus at the center
+charged positively.
+
+00:02:23.768
+This is where most of the mass
+resides and the positive
+
+00:02:27.922
+charge resides.
+And orbiting around this is a lone
+
+00:02:32
+electron out at some distance r.
+And I don't have to worry about
+
+00:02:36
+these relative dimensions because we
+know from Marsden's calculations
+
+00:02:40
+that, on the length scale that I
+have shown here,
+
+00:02:44
+these would be just tiny little dots.
+It is about 10,
+
+00:02:48
+00 to one, the ratio of the nuclear
+dimension to the entire atomic
+
+00:02:52
+dimension. And so we have a
+positive charge in the nucleus which
+
+00:02:56
+is given by the number of protons.
+This is a one electron atom.
+
+00:03:00
+It could be hydrogen,
+it could be helium plus,
+
+00:03:04.142
+it could be lithium double plus and
+so on. These are all one electron
+
+00:03:08.284
+atoms, and they are gas,
+a single atom. This will be Z times
+
+00:03:12.426
+the elementary charge.
+Remember, e represents the
+
+00:03:16.568
+elementary charge,
+not the charge on the electron.
+
+00:03:20.712
+The charge on the electron is minus
+e. This is Z times e in the center.
+
+00:03:24.856
+And out here we have the charge on
+the electron as simply equal to e.
+
+00:03:29
+I am going to highlight this by
+calling this q1,
+
+00:03:33.666
+lower case q being the charge here
+on the nucleus.
+
+00:03:38.332
+And lower case q sub 2 is the
+charge on the electron.
+
+00:03:42.998
+And that is given by minus e.
+And so the other thing that we
+
+00:03:47.664
+consider is the nucleus as being
+stationary. We have an orbiting
+
+00:03:52.330
+electron but a stationary nucleus.
+And Rutherford, who I have already
+
+00:03:56.998
+described to you as being a little
+bit colorful in his language,
+
+00:04:01.666
+backed up Bohr on this.
+He said when an elephant has fleas
+
+00:04:05.882
+it is the fleas that do the jumping.
+That is why we don't worry about
+
+00:04:09.646
+the motion of the nucleus because
+the ratio of mass is about 2,
+
+00:04:13.410
+00 to one. What I am going to do is
+use these postulates and go through
+
+00:04:17.174
+the basis for the Bohr model.
+The first thing we are going to do
+
+00:04:20.938
+is describe the energy of the system.
+The total energy of the system,
+
+00:04:24.702
+which we are going to get from
+postulate number four,
+
+00:04:28.468
+which says the energy of the
+electron, which is the energy of the
+
+00:04:32.234
+system, is the sum of the kinetic
+and the potential energy.
+
+00:04:36
+Let's write that.
+And, as I reminded you at the end
+
+00:04:39.428
+of last day, the only reason I am
+doing this for you right now is I
+
+00:04:42.856
+want to elucidate the principles.
+It is not because I favor
+
+00:04:46.284
+derivations in class.
+I've been teaching long enough to
+
+00:04:49.712
+know that doing derivations in class
+is equivalent to pouring ice water
+
+00:04:53.140
+on the proceedings,
+so I do this sparingly.
+
+00:04:56.57
+It is a Newtonian system from the
+mechanical standpoint.
+
+00:05:00
+This is going to have one-half mv
+squared where this is the mass of
+
+00:05:04.266
+the electron. And then the
+potential energy,
+
+00:05:08.532
+the energy is stored here due to the
+coulombic force of attraction
+
+00:05:12.798
+between the electron and the nucleus.
+So, in the most general form,
+
+00:05:17.064
+Coulomb's law is the product of the
+charge, q1q2 divided by their
+
+00:05:21.330
+separation, which is r.
+And, in order to rationalize
+
+00:05:25.598
+electrostatic units with mechanical
+units, we have to put
+
+00:05:29.866
+a factor in here.
+Otherwise, the units that come out
+
+00:05:34.545
+of this calculation won't dovetail
+with the units that come out of this
+
+00:05:39.635
+calculation. And that factor is 4
+pi times epsilon zero.
+
+00:05:44.725
+Epsilon zero is the permittivity of
+vacuum. And now we can plug in q1
+
+00:05:49.816
+and q2. We know that we have
+one-half mv squared.
+
+00:05:54.908
+And then q1 is plus qe,
+q2 is minus e.
+
+00:06:00
+So then that will give us a net
+minus Z times the square of the
+
+00:06:04.856
+elementary charge over 4 pi epsilon
+zero r. And I am going to label
+
+00:06:09.712
+this as equation one.
+And so this is really a mechanical
+
+00:06:14.568
+term, if you like,
+and this is electrostatic or
+
+00:06:19.426
+coulombic. I am going to use
+different words for that.
+
+00:06:24.284
+And where do we find these things?
+You can find values of all of these
+
+00:06:29.142
+if you look at your
+Table of Constants.
+
+00:06:34
+This is the table of constants in
+its entirety. If you look up really
+
+00:06:38.460
+close, there is the elementary
+charge e. There is the mass of the
+
+00:06:42.921
+electron. All of these are given
+here. This is 9.
+
+00:06:47.383
+1 times 10 to the minus 31 kilograms.
+It is 1.6 times 10 to minus 19
+
+00:06:51.845
+coulombs. There is the permittivity
+vacuum. It is all up there.
+
+00:06:56.307
+So you have these at your disposal.
+Now let's do the next step which is
+
+00:07:00.769
+a force balance.
+That comes out of postulate three.
+
+00:07:05.384
+Out of postulate three it says
+Newtonian mechanics applicable.
+
+00:07:10.152
+Let's put a force balance. I am
+going to say if that electron is to
+
+00:07:14.920
+stay in its orbit,
+that is to say it doesn't flee the
+
+00:07:19.69
+atom, it doesn't collapse under the
+nucleus then the sum of the forces
+
+00:07:24.46
+on the electron must be zero.
+No net force. And so that will be
+
+00:07:29.23
+the sum of a dynamic force
+plus an electrostatic.
+
+00:07:34
+Or just to be pluralistic in our
+language, coulombic force.
+
+00:07:37.714
+And so, you know from your
+Newtonian mechanics,
+
+00:07:41.428
+as you were learning in 8.
+1, the dynamic force here is mv
+
+00:07:45.142
+squared over r.
+Again, m is the mass of the
+
+00:07:48.856
+electron. And now the force,
+in its most general term is q1q2
+
+00:07:52.570
+over 4 pi epsilon zero,
+which is the conversion factor r
+
+00:07:56.284
+squared. Force goes as
+one over r squared.
+
+00:08:00
+Energy goes as one over r.
+And, if you ever get confused,
+
+00:08:03.846
+the way to remember these is that
+you know energy is the integral of a
+
+00:08:07.692
+force moving through a distance.
+Energy is the integral of force
+
+00:08:11.538
+moving through a distance.
+So the integral of one over r
+
+00:08:15.384
+squared gives you one over r.
+If you get them backwards, you will
+
+00:08:19.230
+integrate one over r and will get
+log r. That makes no sense.
+
+00:08:23.076
+So there we are.
+And we plug in our values and end up
+
+00:08:27.428
+with mv squared over r minus Ze
+squared over 4 pi epsilon zero r
+
+00:08:32.284
+squared. And I am going to call
+this equation two.
+
+00:08:37.140
+That is our force balance.
+And then, for the next piece of
+
+00:08:41.997
+information, I am going to go to
+postulate number five.
+
+00:08:46.854
+And postulate number five is some
+of Bohr's early genius.
+
+00:08:51.712
+Bohr says that the energy is
+quantized through its
+
+00:08:56.570
+angular momentum.
+He is talking about the energy of an
+
+00:09:01.333
+electron. No one,
+until this time, had suggested that
+
+00:09:05.999
+a system would be subjected to
+quantization except for light.
+
+00:09:10.665
+Planck had already enunciated back
+in 1900 this e equals h nu.
+
+00:09:15.331
+In other words, that the photon has
+a quantum of energy h nu.
+
+00:09:19.998
+So quantization of radiation was
+already established
+
+00:09:24.665
+as of about 1900.
+But no one dared say we have this
+
+00:09:29.352
+little planetary model,
+I've got an electron orbiting a
+
+00:09:34.057
+central nucleus and I am going to
+endow that electron with quantized
+
+00:09:38.763
+states. That was a big leap and
+that was Bohr in postulate five.
+
+00:09:43.469
+Postulate five I am just going to
+reproduce. That is mvr,
+
+00:09:48.175
+which is its angular momentum,
+does not take continuous values.
+
+00:09:52.881
+It takes discrete values, multiples
+of some integer n,
+
+00:09:57.587
+and the multiplication factor is the
+ratio of the Planck constant divided
+
+00:10:02.293
+by 2 pi where n takes one,
+two, three and so on.
+
+00:10:07
+And I am going to call this one
+equation three.
+
+00:10:11
+So I have three equations and three
+unknowns. And I am not going to
+
+00:10:15
+take the time to solve it because I
+think that is a waste of class time,
+
+00:10:19
+but those are the three unknowns.
+The radius of the orbit,
+
+00:10:23
+the energy of the system and the
+velocity of the electron,
+
+00:10:27
+I am just going to present you the
+solutions. Let's look first of all
+
+00:10:31
+at the radius of the orbit.
+If you solve for r,
+
+00:10:35.25
+you will end up with this.
+This is the permittivity of vacuum.
+
+00:10:39.75
+Square of the Planck constant times
+pi mass of the electron.
+
+00:10:44.25
+I am going to stop putting
+subscript e. It is the mass of the
+
+00:10:48.75
+electron. Times the square of the
+elementary charge times n squared
+
+00:10:53.25
+over Z. Z is the proton number,
+number of protons in the nucleus.
+
+00:10:57.75
+What do I see?
+I see that r takes on discrete
+
+00:11:02.307
+values. R is a function of n and
+takes on discrete values.
+
+00:11:06.921
+And, in fact, the functionality is
+that of the square of this number
+
+00:11:11.535
+times a constant.
+So this tells us that the radius of
+
+00:11:16.151
+the electron orbit,
+first of all, there is more than one
+
+00:11:20.767
+radius. There is a plurality of
+values. Secondly,
+
+00:11:25.383
+that those values are discrete.
+They are quantized.
+
+00:11:30
+And, third, it is nonlinear.
+If I look at something that goes as
+
+00:11:35
+n squared, if this is the edge of
+the nucleus here and if this is r1,
+
+00:11:40
+it says when n goes to two the
+radius goes to four.
+
+00:11:45
+Let's say this is r1,
+this is r2 and then this will be r3
+
+00:11:50
+and this will be r4.
+And even that is not to scale.
+
+00:11:55
+The higher the n number the greater
+the radius by far.
+
+00:12:00
+And this applies to all one electron
+atoms. Let's look at the simplest
+
+00:12:06.181
+case. Suppose we look at elemental
+hydrogen. In the case of elemental
+
+00:12:12.363
+hydrogen, Z will equal one.
+And then let's look at the lowest
+
+00:12:18.545
+orbit, n equals one.
+That is the electron in its lowest
+
+00:12:24.727
+orbit to the nucleus of atomic
+hydrogen. And this lowest orbit is
+
+00:12:30.909
+termed the ground state.
+First floor. If we put one here and
+
+00:12:36.5
+one here, the value is simply given
+by this constant.
+
+00:12:41.5
+And if you evaluate the constant
+you get that r1 is equal to 5.
+
+00:12:46.5
+9 times 10 to the minus 11 meters or
+0.529 angstroms.
+
+00:12:51.5
+I like the angstrom.
+It is 10 to the minus 10 meters.
+
+00:12:56.5
+It is not an SI unit because it is
+not a multiple of 10 to the 3rd,
+
+00:13:01.5
+but I like the angstrom.
+I don't like the nanometer.
+
+00:13:06.272
+I like the angstrom because atomic
+dimensions are conveniently measured
+
+00:13:10.816
+by angstroms. And this is given a
+special symbol A nought.
+
+00:13:15.362
+It is the value of the radius of
+the ground state electron orbit in
+
+00:13:19.908
+atomic hydrogen.
+And this quantity is termed the
+
+00:13:24.454
+Bohr radius. And you don't even
+have to look it up.
+
+00:13:29
+Because it, too,
+is given on your Table of Constants.
+
+00:13:33.470
+There is the Planck Constant,
+number five. There is the Bohr
+
+00:13:37.940
+radius down there,
+number 24. So you just look that up.
+
+00:13:42.410
+And anything else is going to be
+some multiple of it.
+
+00:13:46.880
+The other thing I would like to
+draw your attention to is this.
+
+00:13:51.350
+I can simplify this in the
+following manner and say that r n,
+
+00:13:55.820
+now that I have a Bohr radius for
+this bracketed quantity,
+
+00:14:00.292
+I can write that as the product of
+the Bohr radius for the value of the
+
+00:14:04.764
+orbit in any one electron atom.
+Specify the quantum number n and
+
+00:14:09.444
+divide by Z. That is this rewritten
+in a much more compact notation
+
+00:14:14.332
+because you have the value of this.
+And note that as Z increases, as
+
+00:14:19.220
+the proton number increases the
+radius decreases for a given n
+
+00:14:24.11
+number. If you look at the ground
+state in two different systems --
+
+00:14:29
+If you look at the ground state
+which is n equals one,
+
+00:14:32.714
+think about this, if I increase the
+proton charge,
+
+00:14:36.428
+the Coulombic force of attraction is
+greater. And so,
+
+00:14:40.142
+therefore, all other things being
+equal, the first orbit should be at
+
+00:14:43.856
+a smaller distance.
+So this is making physical sense.
+
+00:14:47.570
+Now let's look at energy. Let's
+quantify the energy value.
+
+00:14:51.284
+If you go through and solve for
+energy, you will get this equation.
+
+00:14:55
+E is equal to minus mass of the
+electron times the elementary charge
+
+00:15:00.384
+raised to the fourth power divided
+by e times the square of the
+
+00:15:05.768
+permittivity of vacuum times the
+square of the Planck constant times
+
+00:15:11.152
+Z squared over n squared.
+Again, we see that e is a function
+
+00:15:16.536
+of n. You see,
+the quantum condition,
+
+00:15:21.920
+by putting quantization into the
+angular momentum it is propagated
+
+00:15:27.306
+through the entire system.
+Orbit dimensions are quantized.
+
+00:15:32.416
+Energy is quantized. Velocity is
+quantized. Everything is quantized.
+
+00:15:37.248
+Energy is quantized. It has a
+different n dependence.
+
+00:15:42.081
+If I lump all of this together in
+some constant,
+
+00:15:46.915
+I can then represent that formula as
+minus K times Z squared over n
+
+00:15:51.749
+squared where n again chooses
+integer values one, two,
+
+00:15:56.583
+three and so on.
+And we can go through and calculate
+
+00:16:01.25
+the value of this quantity in
+parenthesis. And,
+
+00:16:05.75
+when we do so, we get the value 2.
+8 times 10 to the minus 18 joules.
+
+00:16:10.25
+This is 10 to the minus 18 joules
+for this one atom.
+
+00:16:14.75
+I am going to draw attention to
+this. It is joules per atom.
+
+00:16:19.25
+Or, if you multiply by Avogadro's
+number then you will
+
+00:16:23.75
+get joules per mole.
+And if you do so,
+
+00:16:28.285
+you will end up with 1.
+12 mega joules per mole for this
+
+00:16:32.855
+quantity K. And you can find that
+one, too. That is on your chart.
+
+00:16:37.425
+If you multiply entry 23, which is
+13.6 electron volts,
+
+00:16:41.997
+I will show you what the electron
+volt is in a few minutes.
+
+00:16:46.569
+We will just put it up here
+prematurely. But that is given in
+
+00:16:51.141
+your chart. And then the conversion
+of joules to electron
+
+00:16:55.713
+volts is entry 42.
+If you multiply those two together
+
+00:17:00.214
+you will end up with this quantity.
+And so let's take a look at what
+
+00:17:04.642
+that does in terms of graphical
+representation.
+
+00:17:09.070
+I tried to give you a simple
+graphical representation.
+
+00:17:13.498
+That was Cartesian space.
+When I plot r as a distance out
+
+00:17:17.926
+from the nucleus that is sort of our
+simple-minded planetary model.
+
+00:17:22.355
+Now let's look at energy. I am
+going to put energy in
+
+00:17:26.784
+the following manner.
+It is a conservative system so all
+
+00:17:30.933
+the energies are negative.
+That quantity in parenthesis,
+
+00:17:34.799
+I have a mass which is a positive
+number. Something raised to the
+
+00:17:38.665
+fourth power has got to be positive.
+Something raised to the second
+
+00:17:42.531
+power has got to be positive.
+Everything inside the parenthesis
+
+00:17:46.397
+is positive, so minus a positive
+number. All the energies are
+
+00:17:50.263
+negative because it is a bound
+system. I start up here with n
+
+00:17:54.131
+equals one. And over here this is
+the value of minus K.
+
+00:17:58
+And then, if we go to n equals two,
+what happens? We go to n equals two
+
+00:18:03.636
+for a fixed value of Z.
+Let's make this Z equals one.
+
+00:18:09.272
+We will do it for atomic hydrogen.
+It is K over four. And then we go
+
+00:18:14.908
+to n equals three.
+And this is not to scale.
+
+00:18:20.544
+And so on. This is what the energy
+level diagram looks like.
+
+00:18:26.181
+This is for atomic hydrogen gas.
+And I am going to put on here "not
+
+00:18:31.071
+to scale." There are some relative,
+the notion that the energy gap
+
+00:18:35.213
+between n equals one and n equals
+two is greater than that for n
+
+00:18:39.355
+equals two to n equals three.
+That is correctly represented.
+
+00:18:43.497
+These are definitely not equally
+spaced, but they should be even more
+
+00:18:47.639
+disproportionate than I have shown
+it. And finally up here we have n
+
+00:18:51.783
+equals infinity.
+When n equals infinity,
+
+00:18:55.927
+r equals infinity.
+And so the energy is zero because
+
+00:19:00.214
+the electron is no longer bound.
+It is free. The electron has been
+
+00:19:04.642
+liberated. This represents the free
+electron. It is no longer tethered
+
+00:19:09.070
+to the nucleus so there is no energy
+stored in the system.
+
+00:19:13.498
+And the closer it gets to the
+nucleus the greater the amount of
+
+00:19:17.926
+energy, which means that you see
+this in the following manner.
+
+00:19:22.355
+This is called the ground state,
+n equals one. I already mentioned
+
+00:19:26.784
+that. It's like the ground floor.
+I know some of you come from Europe
+
+00:19:31.142
+and other parts of the world where
+the ground floor is rez-de-chauss�e
+
+00:19:35.427
+or some silly thing like this and
+you push a button on the elevator to
+
+00:19:39.712
+one and you go up to the first floor.
+You are in American now,
+
+00:19:43.998
+and the International Chemical
+Community calls the ground state n
+
+00:19:48.284
+equals one, not n equals zero.
+Please observe the traditions of
+
+00:19:52.570
+the International Union of Pure and
+Applied Chemistry, not
+
+00:19:56.856
+to mention Niels Bohr.
+So this is ground state,
+
+00:20:02.111
+these are the excited states and
+free electron at n equals infinity.
+
+00:20:08.333
+And, at this point, we say that the
+atom has become ionized.
+
+00:20:14.555
+That is to say an electron has been
+ejected. And so now we have net
+
+00:20:20.777
+charge. And we can calculate the
+ionization energy.
+
+00:20:27
+The ionization energy must then be
+nothing more than,
+
+00:20:31.75
+that is the energy to go from the
+ground state here to n equals
+
+00:20:36.5
+infinity, so that would be the
+energy at state infinity minus the
+
+00:20:41.25
+energy of the ground state.
+Well, the energy at infinity is
+
+00:20:46
+zero and the energy in the ground
+state is minus K.
+
+00:20:50.75
+So minus minus K is plus K.
+K, in fact, is the ionization
+
+00:20:55.5
+energy. And, in fact,
+if you go to the chart,
+
+00:21:00.25
+to your Periodic Table indeed there
+it is.
+
+00:21:05
+This is a slightly different version
+from the one you have,
+
+00:21:09
+but it is the same order.
+If you look on the Periodic Table
+
+00:21:13
+this is atomic hydrogen.
+And, sure enough, there is 13.
+
+00:21:17
+98, which is this number here in
+electron volts.
+
+00:21:21
+That is the ground state energy of
+atomic hydrogen.
+
+00:21:25
+The other thing to note is look at
+the dependence upon Z.
+
+00:21:29
+Suppose instead of hydrogen we
+considered lithium 2plus.
+
+00:21:33
+Lithium 2plus is a one electron atom.
+Lithium has three electrons.
+
+00:21:37.266
+If it loses two one remains. What
+is this formula telling us?
+
+00:21:41.532
+It is telling us that the ground
+state in lithium would be Z squared.
+
+00:21:45.798
+It would be nine times more intense.
+It would be nine times less.
+
+00:21:50.064
+That is to say minus nine is less
+than minus one.
+
+00:21:54.330
+And that makes sense,
+too, because the positive three
+
+00:21:58.597
+pulling on minus one has a tighter
+binding energy than positive one
+
+00:22:02.865
+pulling on minus one.
+So this drops by the square,
+
+00:22:09.5
+whereas, you saw how the orbit goes.
+Just picking up on this ionization
+
+00:22:18.5
+energy. The ionization energy we
+can define, this is the minimum
+
+00:22:27.5
+energy to remove an electron from
+the ground state of an
+
+00:22:36.5
+atom in the gas phase.
+All the things we are talking about
+
+00:22:43.7
+here are with reference to the gas
+phase. Gas phase single atom.
+
+00:22:49.100
+So we don't have to deal with work
+function or any kind of energies
+
+00:22:54.5
+associated with some condensed form
+of matter. So we are really looking
+
+00:22:59.900
+at this reaction here for ionization.
+It is H gas neutral goes to H plus
+
+00:23:05.299
+in the gas phase plus the electron.
+And, furthermore,
+
+00:23:09.909
+we can have multiple ionization
+energies. If you have multiple
+
+00:23:13.727
+electrons we can lose them in
+sequence. For example,
+
+00:23:17.545
+I could look at the ionization of
+lithium. Again,
+
+00:23:21.363
+lithium gas loses an electron to
+become lithium ion plus electron.
+
+00:23:25.181
+I can then subsequently lose an
+electron from the lithium ion.
+
+00:23:29
+Lithium ion loses an electron to
+become lithium 2plus.
+
+00:23:33.428
+And then a lithium 2plus still has
+an electron. Let's denude lithium
+
+00:23:37.856
+2plus. So lithium 2plus loses its
+electron. This is the analogy to
+
+00:23:42.284
+the alpha particle.
+The alpha particle was the helium
+
+00:23:46.712
+nucleus. This is the lithium
+nucleus plus electron.
+
+00:23:51.140
+We call these first, second,
+third ionization energies in
+
+00:23:55.569
+sequence. This is the first
+ionization energy.
+
+00:24:00
+This is the second ionization energy.
+That is to say the ionization
+
+00:24:04.832
+energy of the second most electron.
+And this is the third ionization
+
+00:24:09.664
+energy. Now, where do we find these
+values? Well,
+
+00:24:14.497
+if we look on the chart,
+the first ionization energy is what
+
+00:24:19.331
+is reported in your Periodic Table.
+The first ionization energy of
+
+00:24:24.165
+lithium is about 5.4 electron
+volts per atom.
+
+00:24:29
+We can get this from the Periodic
+Table, so reported is Periodic Table.
+
+00:24:34.166
+And this is determined by
+measurement. This one here,
+
+00:24:39.332
+I cannot do anything for you.
+You will have to look that one up.
+
+00:24:44.498
+What about this one? This one is
+calculable by the Bohr model because
+
+00:24:49.664
+lithium 2plus is a one electron
+system. I just go through these
+
+00:24:54.832
+equations, but be careful to put in
+Z equals three.
+
+00:25:00
+And I can calculate this from Bohr
+model. Let's say calculable by Bohr
+
+00:25:06.444
+model. And then remember Z equals
+three. I am showing some
+
+00:25:12.888
+versatility here.
+And, let's see, we've talked about
+
+00:25:19.332
+radius, we've talked about energy.
+Let's talk about velocity just for
+
+00:25:25.777
+completeness.
+
+
+00:25:34
+So the velocity is given by this
+product of the quantum number n
+
+00:25:39.090
+Planck constant 2 pi mass of the
+electron times the radius of the
+
+00:25:44.180
+orbit, which itself is a function of
+n. We can make some substitutions
+
+00:25:49.270
+here using some of the derivation on
+the previous board which will give
+
+00:25:54.362
+us the Planck constant divided by 2
+pi mass of the electron
+
+00:25:59.454
+times the Bohr radius.
+All of this times the ratio of Z
+
+00:26:04.071
+over n where n equals one,
+two, three and so on
+
+00:26:08.213
+**v=hZ/(2*pi*m*a0*n)**.
+And we rarely look at velocity
+
+00:26:12.355
+because, as you will learn very
+quickly in 3.091,
+
+00:26:16.497
+we are going to abandon this strict
+adherence to a planetary model
+
+00:26:20.639
+pretty soon. But it is interesting.
+Let's just, for an order of
+
+00:26:24.783
+magnitude say what happens for
+ground state electron
+
+00:26:28.927
+in atomic hydrogen?
+So we are going to put atomic
+
+00:26:33.909
+hydrogen Z equals one,
+ground state n equals one.
+
+00:26:39.727
+That is just this quantity here.
+So let's find out. V1 in atomic
+
+00:26:45.545
+hydrogen, is it fast?
+Is it slow? What is the number?
+
+00:26:51.363
+Plug in the values. You get 2.18
+times 10 to the plus 6 meters per
+
+00:26:57.181
+second, which is about 1% of the
+value of the speed of light.
+
+00:27:03
+By the way, c,
+the value of speed of light,
+
+00:27:07.142
+in case you cannot remember it,
+is the number one entry in your
+
+00:27:11.284
+Table of Constants.
+So 1% the speed of light.
+
+00:27:15.426
+I would say that is relatively fast.
+That is a pun.
+
+00:27:19.568
+I think about this as relatively
+fast. You people have no sense of
+
+00:27:23.711
+humor, no sense of joy,
+no sense of joie de vivre.
+
+00:27:27.855
+You are so young. You've only been
+here a week and are so jaded.
+
+00:27:32
+You've got four years to go.
+So where does c come from? How
+
+00:27:36.306
+come the speed of light has the
+symbol c? Where is the symbol c?
+
+00:27:40.614
+It comes from the Latin word
+celeritas which means swiftness.
+
+00:27:44.922
+We get the English word accelerate
+from the same root word.
+
+00:27:49.23
+That is why we have one.
+That's why we have c. We are in
+
+00:27:53.538
+pretty good shape here.
+We have a Bohr model, which is
+
+00:27:57.846
+quantitative.
+It makes predictions that can be
+
+00:28:02.133
+tested. We have energies.
+We have radii. Is there any
+
+00:28:06.399
+experimental evidence that can put
+this to the test?
+
+00:28:10.665
+And the answer is yes.
+In the early 1850s, Angstrom,
+
+00:28:14.931
+up at the University of Uppsala in
+Sweden was conducting experiments on
+
+00:28:19.197
+atomic hydrogen.
+He was doing experiments in a gas
+
+00:28:23.463
+discharge tube.
+He had a tube with electrodes
+
+00:28:27.731
+potted in it filled with
+atomic hydrogen.
+
+00:28:32
+And by applying a voltage,
+he was able to get the gas to glow.
+
+00:28:36
+And then he analyzed the components
+of that radiation and this is what
+
+00:28:40
+he found. First of all,
+let's take a look at his experiment.
+
+00:28:44
+There it is. He used the prism
+spectrograph to analyze his results.
+
+00:28:48
+So what do we have here? Here is
+the gas discharge tube.
+
+00:28:52
+This is the diagram taken right
+from your text,
+
+00:28:56
+there are the two electrodes coming
+in and this is atomic hydrogen
+
+00:29:00
+in the gas tube.
+And so if he gets the voltage high
+
+00:29:04
+enough, this gas discharge tube will
+glow. And the light will be going
+
+00:29:08
+in all directions,
+obviously. It is a glass tube.
+
+00:29:12
+He wants to narrow the light so he
+puts a couple of slits here.
+
+00:29:16
+And then he just takes that narrow
+column of light and he admits it to
+
+00:29:20
+a prism. And what the prism does is
+takes a tiny, tiny difference in
+
+00:29:24
+wavelength and refracts it through a
+different angle.
+
+00:29:28
+And if the prism is of sufficient
+dimension that angle can be
+
+00:29:31.554
+magnified. And then further you put
+some recording device,
+
+00:29:35.108
+which in those days was a
+photographic plate,
+
+00:29:38.664
+far across a room. So you take a
+tiny, tiny angle and you go far
+
+00:29:42.22
+enough across the room.
+And now you get separation on the
+
+00:29:45.776
+order of centimeters.
+And we record here. And this is
+
+00:29:49.332
+the blowup of what is on that
+photographic plate.
+
+00:29:52.887
+And this was painstaking work.
+What you have here is the
+
+00:29:56.443
+photographic plate demonstrating
+a spread.
+
+00:30:00
+First of all, the glow is made up of
+constituents. There are distinct
+
+00:30:06
+lines here. What appears to the
+naked eye to be just glowing is
+
+00:30:12
+actually superposition of different
+lines of distinct frequency.
+
+00:30:18
+So, you see, this is quantized.
+And so he published his results
+
+00:30:24
+around 1853. And so
+they lay. 1853.
+
+00:30:30
+Let's get Angstrom up on the board
+here since he did the work.
+
+00:30:37.5
+He was Uppsala, in Sweden. He
+measured the line spectra of atomic
+
+00:30:45
+hydrogen. By the way,
+your text has a glaring error.
+
+00:30:52.5
+The label above this figure refers
+to H2.
+
+00:31:00
+Take the fattest marking pen you
+have, scratch that out and replace
+
+00:31:04.614
+it with atomic hydrogen.
+You do not get this line from
+
+00:31:09.228
+molecular hydrogen.
+We have the line spectra lying out
+
+00:31:13.844
+there in the literature,
+and people read the literature.
+
+00:31:18.46
+They read. And one of the people
+that was reading this literature was
+
+00:31:23.076
+a high school teacher who was
+teaching mathematics in
+
+00:31:27.692
+Basil, Switzerland.
+This man also had the initials J.
+
+00:31:32.538
+. as in J.J. Thompson. This is J.
+. Balmer. And J.J. Balmer in 1885
+
+00:31:37.614
+playing with the numbers associated
+with the lines there,
+
+00:31:42.690
+you notice how the lines are colored?
+Your book isn't colored.
+
+00:31:47.766
+See, I colored them for you.
+I care about you. I wanted to
+
+00:31:52.844
+illustrate that this is representing
+different wavelengths in the visible.
+
+00:31:57.922
+And the doctor told me it is good
+for me to express my creative urges.
+
+00:32:03
+So I got out my pen and I did that.
+Where was I? What Balmer did, all
+
+00:32:08.230
+he has is those four numbers.
+He has the wavelengths of those
+
+00:32:13.460
+four numbers. And he is playing
+with those numbers.
+
+00:32:18.690
+He is determined to make sense of
+those four numbers in some kind of a
+
+00:32:23.920
+sequence, and this is what he came
+up with finally.
+
+00:32:29.152
+He came up with the relationship
+that nu bar, which is
+
+00:32:34.384
+called wave number --
+He found the reciprocal.
+
+00:32:39.599
+What he did was coined this.
+But he found that by taking the
+
+00:32:44.799
+reciprocal of the wavelengths,
+you have four numbers, he took the
+
+00:32:49.999
+reciprocals of those wavelengths and
+found that they fit a numerical
+
+00:32:55.199
+sequence. One over two squared
+minus one over n squared where n
+
+00:33:00.399
+takes values three, four, five, six.
+And there is a constant out here.
+
+00:33:07
+And the constant, if we redo it in
+modern SI units,
+
+00:33:15
+would take on the value of 1.
+times 10 to the 7th reciprocal
+
+00:33:23
+meters. How does this support
+the Bohr model?
+
+00:33:31
+Well, in order to answer that
+question, I have to give you a
+
+00:33:35.306
+little more background information.
+The first thing I have to do is
+
+00:33:39.614
+give you the understanding of the
+physics of the gas discharge tube.
+
+00:33:43.922
+Let's take a look inside that tube.
+Let me redraw it. I am going to
+
+00:33:48.23
+redraw it horizontally.
+This is a glass tube. There are
+
+00:33:52.538
+some feedthroughs here to allow
+electrodes to be potted.
+
+00:33:56.846
+These are gas-tight feedthroughs.
+And these electrodes are then
+
+00:34:01.384
+connected to a variable voltage
+power supply. And it is possible to
+
+00:34:06.152
+change the voltage on the plates.
+And the way I have this configured,
+
+00:34:10.920
+the left electrode is going to be
+charged negatively and the right
+
+00:34:15.690
+electrode is going to be charged
+positively. So the left electrode
+
+00:34:20.459
+will be the cathode as I have
+configured it,
+
+00:34:25.229
+and the right electrode will be
+anode.
+
+00:34:30
+And what is inside the gas discharge
+tube is gas at low pressure.
+
+00:34:35.332
+As we increase the voltage, we get
+to a critical value at which it is
+
+00:34:40.664
+possible to actually draw electrons
+across the gap.
+
+00:34:45.998
+Electrons will actually boil off
+the cathode and accelerate across.
+
+00:34:51.331
+You have a positive electrode here
+and the electron is charged
+
+00:34:56.665
+negatively. It will be drawn to the
+positive electrode.
+
+00:35:02
+So it will accelerate from rest and
+crash into the anode.
+
+00:35:06.266
+If we have nothing here,
+we see nothing. If we have too much
+
+00:35:10.532
+gas in here, in other words,
+if the gas is at too high a pressure,
+
+00:35:14.798
+the collisions with the gas
+molecules will consume the energy of
+
+00:35:19.064
+the electrons and,
+again, we will see nothing.
+
+00:35:23.330
+If we get the pressure in there
+just right, we will allow for gas
+
+00:35:27.597
+electron collisions and then we get
+the glow that ultimately was sent
+
+00:35:31.865
+through the slits.
+That is the operation of the gas
+
+00:35:36.5
+discharge tube.
+Now let's look at the physics.
+
+00:35:41.5
+What is the energy of the electron,
+the energy of this electron
+
+00:35:46.5
+accelerating from rest and crashing
+into the anode here?
+
+00:35:51.5
+Well, it is going to be mechanical.
+One-half mv squared. And how about
+
+00:35:56.5
+potential energy? It is not bound.
+It is a free electron so there is no
+
+00:36:01.333
+potential energy to be accounted for.
+So it is simply one-half mv squared.
+
+00:36:05.999
+But I can equate the amount of
+mechanical energy in the electron to
+
+00:36:10.665
+the amount of electrical energy that
+was imparted through the electrodes.
+
+00:36:15.331
+And the electrical energy is the
+product of the charge on the
+
+00:36:19.998
+electron times the voltage which is
+the potential difference through
+
+00:36:24.665
+which the electron was accelerated.
+And so this allows me to,
+
+00:36:29.199
+by increasing the voltage,
+increase the energy on the electron.
+
+00:36:33.599
+You can see low voltage, low energy,
+high voltage, high energy.
+
+00:36:37.999
+It is a linear function. And how
+about order of magnitude?
+
+00:36:42.399
+Let's see. Let's do everything
+unit. That is a good way.
+
+00:36:46.799
+What is the unit charge? The
+smallest charge I could put here
+
+00:36:51.199
+would be 1.6 times 10 to the minus
+19 coulombs. And what if I took a
+
+00:36:55.599
+unit charge and I multiplied it
+times unit voltage, one volt?
+
+00:37:00
+Unit charge times unit voltage then
+would give me what?
+
+00:37:05
+If I multiply these two,
+what is the coulomb times a volt?
+
+00:37:10
+Here is the value of using SI units.
+SI units means everything goes in,
+
+00:37:15
+in SI, everything comes out in SI.
+What is the energy unit in SI?
+
+00:37:20
+The joule. What is the unit of
+charge in SI? Coulomb.
+
+00:37:25
+What is the unit of potential
+difference? Volt.
+
+00:37:30
+With impunity.
+If I use coulombs here and volts
+
+00:37:33.764
+here, I don't even think.
+I write 1.0 times 1.6. Even that I
+
+00:37:37.528
+can do in my head.
+That is 1.6 times 10 to the minus
+
+00:37:41.292
+19 and I write joules.
+That is the power of having a
+
+00:37:45.056
+rationalized system of units.
+That is the good news. The bad
+
+00:37:48.820
+news is I hate this number.
+Look it. 1.6 times 10 to the minus
+
+00:37:52.585
+18, excuse me,
+we have 1.6 times 10 to the minus 19,
+
+00:37:56.350
+2.18 times 10 to the minus 18,
+etc. Cannot we get simple numbers
+
+00:38:00.116
+like three and seven?
+Whatever happened to good-old
+
+00:38:04.333
+numbers? I have an idea.
+Why don't we define a new unit of
+
+00:38:08.999
+energy that is nearer to what we
+have to measure?
+
+00:38:13.665
+And that was done.
+What people did is they said let's
+
+00:38:18.331
+define a unit of energy that
+represents a unit charge accelerated
+
+00:38:22.998
+across a unit potential difference,
+and let's call that the electron
+
+00:38:27.665
+volt. That is one electron volt.
+The electron volt is not a unit of
+
+00:38:32.5
+potential difference.
+It is a unit of energy.
+
+00:38:37.5
+Now, this is 1.0 eV. Now you can
+see 2.18 times 10 to the minus 18
+
+00:38:42.5
+joules can be 13.
+eV. Now, I don't have to fill my
+
+00:38:47.5
+head with 2.18 times 10 to the minus
+18. 13.6, that's a cool number.
+
+00:38:52.5
+I can remember that. That is how
+that works. By the way,
+
+00:38:57.5
+this is the cathode.
+And we have a beam.
+
+00:39:02.357
+It is an electron beam.
+In the 1890s, the latter part of
+
+00:39:07.071
+the 19th century a very fashionable
+word was "ray."
+
+00:39:11.785
+Because it came from optics,
+you know, rays of sunlight and so on.
+
+00:39:16.499
+And, in fact,
+even when we first started pulling
+
+00:39:21.213
+synthetic fiber,
+the first synthetic fiber cellulose
+
+00:39:25.927
+was referred to as rayon because it
+looked like a ray that
+
+00:39:30.641
+was being pulled.
+So rather than calling this an
+
+00:39:35.153
+electron beam,
+this was called a cathode ray.
+
+00:39:39.46
+And this was a tube at low pressure.
+And if I evacuate it,
+
+00:39:43.768
+I have a cathode ray tube.
+And, in fact, instead of having
+
+00:39:48.076
+just an electrode here,
+what I could do is I could have an
+
+00:39:52.384
+electrode that is hollow.
+And then I could put a flat end
+
+00:39:56.692
+here and I could put
+phosphorus here.
+
+00:40:01
+And then I could put a couple of
+plates and I could raster the beam
+
+00:40:05.5
+so that when I am looking here the
+beam goes back and forth about 80
+
+00:40:10
+times a second.
+And the phosphorus glow.
+
+00:40:14.5
+And I can be watching a science
+documentary.
+
+00:40:19
+
+All right. The other thing I have
+
+00:40:32.727
+to teach you is matter-energy
+interaction so that we can see how
+
+00:40:38.181
+the Balmer series validates the Bohr
+model. So there is one more thing
+
+00:40:43.635
+you need to know.
+And I am going to put up this
+
+00:40:49.089
+energy level diagram again.
+This is infinity. Let's call this
+
+00:40:54.543
+3, 2, 1. This is E1 ground state,
+E2, E3 and so on. And this is zero.
+
+00:41:00
+Let's look at the energetics of one
+of those electrons crashing into a
+
+00:41:06.666
+hydrogen atom inside the gas tube.
+Here is an electron. And I am
+
+00:41:13.332
+going to let this arrow somehow
+indicate the value of the incident
+
+00:41:19.998
+energy. And I am saying electron,
+but more generally it applies to any
+
+00:41:26.665
+incident particle.
+Later on we could do this with a
+
+00:41:32.307
+proton. We could do it with a
+neutron. Rutherford used alpha
+
+00:41:36.921
+particles. We could use argon ion.
+There are all kinds of different
+
+00:41:41.536
+ways of bombarding,
+in this case, hydrogen gas.
+
+00:41:46.152
+Now, if this incident energy is
+great enough it will take an
+
+00:41:50.768
+electron out of the ground state and
+promote it. But the electron cannot
+
+00:41:55.384
+reside anywhere except in one of
+these quantized states.
+
+00:42:00
+Suppose the E incident is greater
+than the energy in the transition
+
+00:42:05.090
+going from ground state to n equals
+two. What will happen?
+
+00:42:10.180
+That energy will be absorbed by the
+hydrogen atom,
+
+00:42:15.270
+the electron will rise from n equals
+one to n equals two.
+
+00:42:20.361
+And that amount of energy will be
+subtracted. And then over here this
+
+00:42:25.453
+electron will continue.
+And I have purposely made the arrow
+
+00:42:30.384
+shorter to indicate that it has been
+slowed because we are going to argue
+
+00:42:35.152
+its mass didn't change,
+so the only way to change its energy
+
+00:42:39.920
+is to change its velocity.
+This will we call scattered now.
+
+00:42:44.690
+It's interacted. This is the
+scattered particle.
+
+00:42:49.459
+But it doesn't end there.
+So how much energy is there?
+
+00:42:54.229
+Let this represent the total energy
+of the incident electron.
+
+00:42:59
+And if that is the energy to go from
+n equals one to n equals two then
+
+00:43:02.646
+this is the amount of energy that
+has to be left as kinetic energy of
+
+00:43:06.292
+the electron. It is like an elastic
+collision between billiard balls.
+
+00:43:09.938
+You've seen these things. But it
+doesn't end there because the
+
+00:43:13.584
+electron is sitting up here at n
+equals two very nervous because
+
+00:43:17.231
+there is a lower energy state and
+there is a coulombic attraction to
+
+00:43:20.879
+the nucleus. So what happens almost
+instantaneously after the collision,
+
+00:43:24.527
+the electron up here falls back down.
+And when it falls back down that
+
+00:43:28.175
+energy is given off.
+And it is given off in the form of a
+
+00:43:33.666
+photon. And what is the energy of
+that photon? Well,
+
+00:43:40.998
+the energy of the photon,
+we know from Planck, is h nu,
+
+00:43:48.331
+which is hc over lambda. Now I have
+lambdas associated with transitions
+
+00:43:55.665
+between energy levels
+in atomic hydrogen.
+
+00:44:03
+Gee, I wonder if I could come up
+with a set of transitions occurring
+
+00:44:09.444
+inside atomic hydrogen that just
+might match what Angstrom measured
+
+00:44:15.888
+back in 1853. That is going to be
+the challenge.
+
+00:44:22.332
+The interesting thing here is that
+I can change the incident
+
+00:44:28.777
+velocity continuously.
+This is continuously variable
+
+00:44:34.230
+because I can vary voltage
+continuously. Change the voltage,
+
+00:44:38.690
+I change the incident energy. What
+about the energy of the emitted
+
+00:44:43.152
+photons? Are they continuously
+variable? No,
+
+00:44:47.613
+they are discrete.
+They are discrete.
+
+00:44:52.075
+And, furthermore, they are
+characteristic of the target gas
+
+00:44:56.537
+element. Let's say I got up late
+and I am racing to get to class.
+
+00:45:01
+I just burst in now,
+I look up there and go that's atomic
+
+00:45:06
+hydrogen. Because only atomic
+hydrogen has that set of lines which
+
+00:45:11
+means I could then take the spectra
+of gas phase species and use that
+
+00:45:16
+information to identify.
+This is now a technique of analysis.
+
+00:45:21
+I could take an unknown gas and put
+it in and measure it and then say,
+
+00:45:26
+wow, those are the lines that are
+characteristic of sodium.
+
+00:45:31
+Gee, have you ever wondered how they
+know the composition of stars that
+
+00:45:35.908
+are light-years away?
+Do they get sample bottles coming
+
+00:45:40.816
+in? How do they get that
+information? What is a star,
+
+00:45:45.724
+if not just a giant gas bottle,
+containerless? It is glowing. And
+
+00:45:50.634
+why is it glowing?
+It is glowing because electrons are
+
+00:45:55.544
+excited.
+And they are excited and they are
+
+00:46:00
+jumping up and down and they are
+emitting. But they are just not
+
+00:46:04
+emitting anything.
+I mean, why are some stars this
+
+00:46:08
+color and some stars that color?
+Did somebody paint them that way?
+
+00:46:12
+They are different because they
+have different compositions.
+
+00:46:16
+So you could use this in order to
+identify the contents of stars.
+
+00:46:20
+All of this. What did Bohr do?
+I want to tell you a couple more
+
+00:46:24
+Bohr stories. The guy was great.
+Here is what happens. Here is a
+
+00:46:28
+story.
+Capstone of Bohr's work on the
+
+00:46:31.928
+Balmer formula.
+Let me simply tell you that in time
+
+00:46:35.784
+I am going to show you that this
+formula is inconsistent with the
+
+00:46:39.640
+Bohr model. You will see that at
+the beginning of next lecture.
+
+00:46:43.497
+In 1896, Charles Pickering from
+Harvard found a series of lines in
+
+00:46:47.354
+starlight which he attributed to
+hydrogen, even though they did not
+
+00:46:51.212
+fit Balmer. They were off by a
+factor of four.
+
+00:46:55.070
+Now, what do you know about energy?
+Already from this class,
+
+00:46:59.357
+if I told you that I gave you
+energies in some spectrum but they
+
+00:47:04.071
+were off by a factor of four,
+what would you think? Maybe the Z
+
+00:47:08.785
+is wrong. So,
+even though the lines were wrong,
+
+00:47:13.499
+he says, no, that is hydrogen. Bohr
+says, no, that is not hydrogen.
+
+00:47:18.213
+It is helium. That star has
+ionized helium,
+
+00:47:22.927
+helium plus. Z equals two.
+Energy will be four times more
+
+00:47:27.641
+intense.
+Pickering was a nasty SOB and said
+
+00:47:32
+you are wrong.
+Because, in fact,
+
+00:47:36
+it is 4.0016. And the 0.
+016 is greater than what I would
+
+00:47:40
+have as experimental error,
+so your theory is wrong. Bohr says
+
+00:47:44
+oh, yeah? He goes back and redoes
+the calculation,
+
+00:47:48
+only in this case he says what I am
+going to do is I am going to redo
+
+00:47:52
+the calculation for helium,
+but I am going to consider not just
+
+00:47:56
+the mass of the electron but the
+reduced mass of the system.
+
+00:48:00
+So I will take into account that
+there is some contribution of both
+
+00:48:05
+the nucleus and the electron.
+And he gets, you are absolutely
+
+00:48:10
+right, it is not 4.
+, it is 4.00163. Take that.
+
+00:48:15
+What you have is with a simple
+calculation five significant figures.
+
+00:48:20
+That shut him up.
+Now, just to show it doesn't end,
+
+00:48:25
+more nonsense at Harvard. This is
+Cecilia Payne.
+
+00:48:30
+First woman graduate student in
+astronomy. First PhD in astronomy.
+
+00:48:33.262
+First woman to receive tenure at
+Harvard. She was awarded tenure in
+
+00:48:36.524
+1938, denied a professorship for 18
+years, and when she presented her Ph.
+
+00:48:39.786
+thesis she was the one that
+determined that the sun is made
+
+00:48:43.048
+dominantly of hydrogen,
+not ion, the way most of the old
+
+00:48:46.311
+goats thought.
+Because the earth is made of iron,
+
+00:48:49.575
+heaven knows everything is made of
+the same stuff,
+
+00:48:52.839
+all heavenly bodies.
+Even though the sun is glowing and
+
+00:48:56.103
+the earth isn't,
+but they must be made of the same
+
+00:48:59.367
+thing.
+And, after all,
+
+00:49:03
+we are Harvard so we know.
+Here is what she did. She was
+
+00:49:07
+fastidious. Look at this.
+What do you see there? Well,
+
+00:49:11
+you see iron. But this is
+misspelled. You would make an
+
+00:49:15
+excuse and say the detector isn't
+working. This is a noisy system.
+
+00:49:19
+That is what everybody else is
+doing. But what Cecilia is doing is
+
+00:49:23
+saying I have got to keep looking.
+I need a consistent picture. This
+
+00:49:27
+is what spectroscopy is.
+Spectroscopy is how you go and look
+
+00:49:31.909
+at patterns, not just individual
+lines. When she defended her thesis,
+
+00:49:37.727
+she was forced to put this phrase in
+her thesis. "The enormous abundance
+
+00:49:43.545
+of hydrogen is almost certainly not
+real." This is the way science
+
+00:49:49.363
+welcomes newcomers.
+This is the way science on some
+
+00:49:55.181
+occasions welcomes new findings.
+Just up the street.
+
+00:50:01
+And I am not talking about the 1600s.
+This was in the �30s.
+
+00:50:06.272
+This is a painting of her.
+Dudley Herschbach, a Harvard
+
+00:50:11.544
+chemistry professor who has a Nobel
+prize had this painting hung at one
+
+00:50:16.816
+of the halls. And it is obviously
+referential to Vermeer's "The
+
+00:50:22.088
+Astronomer." We have come a long
+way from the gas discharge
+
+00:50:27.362
+tube to the heavens.
+But it shows you that with a little
+
+00:50:32.25
+bit of understanding of quantization
+you can go a long way.
+
+00:50:36.75
+OK, we will see you Friday.