enclave 0.1.0

data/ext/enclave/mruby/src/vm.c

@@ -0,0 +1,3696 @@
+/*
+** vm.c - virtual machine for mruby
+**
+** See Copyright Notice in mruby.h
+*/
+
+#include <mruby.h>
+#include <mruby/array.h>
+#include <mruby/class.h>
+#include <mruby/hash.h>
+#include <mruby/irep.h>
+#include <mruby/numeric.h>
+#include <mruby/proc.h>
+#include <mruby/range.h>
+#include <mruby/string.h>
+#include <mruby/variable.h>
+#include <mruby/error.h>
+#include <mruby/opcode.h>
+#include "value_array.h"
+#include <mruby/throw.h>
+#include <mruby/dump.h>
+#include <mruby/internal.h>
+#include <mruby/presym.h>
+
+#ifdef MRB_NO_STDIO
+#if defined(__cplusplus)
+extern "C" {
+#endif
+void abort(void);
+#if defined(__cplusplus)
+}  /* extern "C" */
+#endif
+#endif
+
+#define STACK_INIT_SIZE 128
+#define CALLINFO_INIT_SIZE 32
+
+/* Define amount of linear stack growth. */
+#ifndef MRB_STACK_GROWTH
+#define MRB_STACK_GROWTH 128
+#endif
+
+/* Maximum recursive depth. Should be set lower on memory constrained systems. */
+#ifdef __clang__
+#if __has_feature(address_sanitizer) && !defined(__SANITIZE_ADDRESS__)
+#define __SANITIZE_ADDRESS__
+#endif
+#endif
+
+#ifndef MRB_CALL_LEVEL_MAX
+#if defined(__SANITIZE_ADDRESS__)
+#define MRB_CALL_LEVEL_MAX 128
+#else
+#define MRB_CALL_LEVEL_MAX 512
+#endif
+#endif
+
+/* Maximum stack depth. Should be set lower on memory constrained systems.
+The value below allows about 60000 recursive calls in the simplest case. */
+#ifndef MRB_STACK_MAX
+#define MRB_STACK_MAX (0x40000 - MRB_STACK_GROWTH)
+#endif
+
+#ifdef VM_DEBUG
+# define DEBUG(x) (x)
+#else
+# define DEBUG(x)
+#endif
+
+
+#ifndef MRB_GC_FIXED_ARENA
+static void
+mrb_gc_arena_shrink(mrb_state *mrb, int idx)
+{
+  mrb_gc *gc = &mrb->gc;
+  int capa = gc->arena_capa;
+
+  gc->arena_idx = idx;
+  if (idx < capa / 4) {
+    capa >>= 2;
+    if (capa < MRB_GC_ARENA_SIZE) {
+      capa = MRB_GC_ARENA_SIZE;
+    }
+    if (capa != gc->arena_capa) {
+      gc->arena = (struct RBasic**)mrb_realloc(mrb, gc->arena, sizeof(struct RBasic*)*capa);
+      gc->arena_capa = capa;
+    }
+  }
+}
+#else
+#define mrb_gc_arena_shrink(mrb, idx) mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, idx)
+#endif
+
+#define CALL_MAXARGS 15
+#define CALL_VARARGS (CALL_MAXARGS<<4 | CALL_MAXARGS)
+
+static inline void
+stack_clear(mrb_value *from, size_t count)
+{
+  while (count-- > 0) {
+    SET_NIL_VALUE(*from);
+    from++;
+  }
+}
+
+static inline void
+stack_copy(mrb_value *dst, const mrb_value *src, size_t size)
+{
+  if (!src) return;
+  memcpy(dst, src, sizeof(mrb_value)*size);
+}
+
+static void
+stack_init(mrb_state *mrb)
+{
+  struct mrb_context *c = mrb->c;
+
+  /* mrb_assert(mrb->stack == NULL); */
+  c->stbase = (mrb_value*)mrb_malloc(mrb, STACK_INIT_SIZE * sizeof(mrb_value));
+  c->stend = c->stbase + STACK_INIT_SIZE;
+  stack_clear(c->stbase, STACK_INIT_SIZE);
+
+  /* mrb_assert(ci == NULL); */
+  static const mrb_callinfo ci_zero = { 0 };
+  c->cibase = (mrb_callinfo*)mrb_malloc(mrb, CALLINFO_INIT_SIZE * sizeof(mrb_callinfo));
+  c->ciend = c->cibase + CALLINFO_INIT_SIZE;
+  c->cibase[0] = ci_zero;
+  c->ci = c->cibase;
+  c->ci->u.target_class = mrb->object_class;
+  c->ci->stack = c->stbase;
+  c->ci->vis = 1;                     /* private (2-bit packed) */
+}
+
+static inline void
+envadjust(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value *oldbase, mrb_value *newbase)
+{
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->cibase;
+  ptrdiff_t delta = newbase - oldbase;
+
+  if (delta == 0) return;
+  while (ci <= mrb->c->ci) {
+    struct REnv *e = mrb_vm_ci_env(ci);
+
+    if (e) {
+      mrb_assert(e->cxt == mrb->c && MRB_ENV_ONSTACK_P(e));
+      mrb_assert(e->stack == ci->stack);
+
+      e->stack += delta;
+    }
+    ci->stack += delta;
+    ci++;
+  }
+}
+
+/** def rec; $deep =+ 1; if $deep > 1000; return 0; end; rec; end **/
+
+static void
+stack_extend_alloc(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_int room)
+{
+  mrb_value *oldbase = mrb->c->stbase;
+  size_t oldsize = mrb->c->stend - mrb->c->stbase;
+  size_t size = oldsize;
+  size_t off = mrb->c->ci->stack ? mrb->c->stend - mrb->c->ci->stack : 0;
+
+  if (off > size) size = off;
+#ifdef MRB_STACK_EXTEND_DOUBLING
+  if ((size_t)room <= size)
+    size *= 2;
+  else
+    size += room;
+#else
+  /* Use 1.5x stack growth.
+     It is slightly slower than doubling the stack space,
+     but it saves memory on small devices. */
+  {
+    size_t newsize = size + (size >> 1); /* 1.5x growth */
+    if (newsize < size + MRB_STACK_GROWTH)
+      newsize = size + MRB_STACK_GROWTH;
+    if (newsize < size + (size_t)room)
+      newsize = size + room;
+    size = newsize;
+  }
+#endif
+
+  mrb_value *newstack = (mrb_value*)mrb_realloc(mrb, mrb->c->stbase, sizeof(mrb_value) * size);
+  stack_clear(&(newstack[oldsize]), size - oldsize);
+  envadjust(mrb, oldbase, newstack);
+  mrb->c->stbase = newstack;
+  mrb->c->stend = mrb->c->stbase + size;
+
+  /* Raise an exception if the new stack size will be too large,
+     to prevent infinite recursion. However, do this only after resizing the stack, so mrb_raise has stack space to work with. */
+  if (size > MRB_STACK_MAX) {
+    mrb_exc_raise(mrb, mrb_obj_value(mrb->stack_err));
+  }
+}
+
+static inline void
+stack_extend(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_int room)
+{
+  if (mrb_unlikely(!mrb->c->ci->stack || mrb->c->ci->stack + room >= mrb->c->stend)) {
+    stack_extend_alloc(mrb, room);
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extends the VM stack.
+ *
+ * This function extends the virtual machine stack to accommodate more values.
+ * If the current stack size is insufficient, it reallocates the stack
+ * with a larger size.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param room The additional number of mrb_value slots required.
+ */
+MRB_API void
+mrb_stack_extend(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_int room)
+{
+  stack_extend(mrb, room);
+}
+
+static void
+stack_extend_adjust(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_int room, const mrb_value **argp)
+{
+  const struct mrb_context *c = mrb->c;
+  ptrdiff_t voff = *argp - c->stbase;
+
+  if (voff < 0 || voff >= c->stend - c->stbase) {
+    stack_extend(mrb, room);
+  }
+  else {
+    stack_extend(mrb, room);
+    *argp = c->stbase + voff;
+  }
+}
+
+static inline struct REnv*
+uvenv(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_int up)
+{
+  const struct RProc *proc = mrb->c->ci->proc;
+
+  while (up--) {
+    proc = proc->upper;
+    if (!proc) return NULL;
+  }
+  struct REnv *e = MRB_PROC_ENV(proc);
+  if (e) return e;              /* proc has enclosed env */
+  return NULL;
+}
+
+static inline const struct RProc*
+top_proc(mrb_state *mrb, const struct RProc *proc, const struct REnv **envp)
+{
+  while (proc->upper) {
+    if (MRB_PROC_SCOPE_P(proc) || MRB_PROC_STRICT_P(proc))
+      return proc;
+    *envp = proc->e.env;
+    proc = proc->upper;
+  }
+  return proc;
+}
+
+#define CI_PROC_SET(ci, p) do {\
+  ci->proc = p;\
+  mrb_assert(!p || !MRB_PROC_ALIAS_P(p));\
+  ci->pc = (p && !MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p) && p->body.irep) ? p->body.irep->iseq : NULL;\
+} while (0)
+
+void
+mrb_vm_ci_proc_set(mrb_callinfo *ci, const struct RProc *p)
+{
+  CI_PROC_SET(ci, p);
+}
+
+#define MRB_PROC_RESOLVE_ALIAS(ci, p) do {\
+  if (MRB_PROC_ALIAS_P(p)) {\
+    (ci)->mid = (p)->body.mid;\
+    (p) = (p)->upper;\
+  }\
+} while (0)
+
+#define CI_TARGET_CLASS(ci) (((ci)->u.env && (ci)->u.env->tt == MRB_TT_ENV)? (ci)->u.env->c : (ci)->u.target_class)
+
+struct RClass*
+mrb_vm_ci_target_class(const mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  return CI_TARGET_CLASS(ci);
+}
+
+void
+mrb_vm_ci_target_class_set(mrb_callinfo *ci, struct RClass *tc)
+{
+  struct REnv *e = ci->u.env;
+  if (e && e->tt == MRB_TT_ENV) {
+    e->c = tc;
+  }
+  else {
+    ci->u.target_class = tc;
+  }
+}
+
+#define CI_ENV(ci) (((ci)->u.env && (ci)->u.env->tt == MRB_TT_ENV)? (ci)->u.env : NULL)
+
+struct REnv*
+mrb_vm_ci_env(const mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  return CI_ENV(ci);
+}
+
+static inline void
+ci_env_set(mrb_callinfo *ci, struct REnv *e)
+{
+  if (ci->u.env) {
+    if (ci->u.env->tt == MRB_TT_ENV) {
+      if (e) {
+        e->c = ci->u.env->c;
+        ci->u.env = e;
+      }
+      else {
+        ci->u.target_class = ci->u.env->c;
+      }
+    }
+    else if (e) {
+      e->c = ci->u.target_class;
+      ci->u.env = e;
+    }
+  }
+  else {
+    ci->u.env = e;
+  }
+}
+
+void
+mrb_vm_ci_env_set(mrb_callinfo *ci, struct REnv *e)
+{
+  ci_env_set(ci, e);
+}
+
+MRB_API void
+mrb_vm_ci_env_clear(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  struct REnv *e = ci->u.env;
+  if (e && e->tt == MRB_TT_ENV) {
+    ci->u.target_class = e->c;
+    mrb_env_unshare(mrb, e, FALSE);
+  }
+}
+
+#define CINFO_NONE    0 // called method from mruby VM (without C functions)
+#define CINFO_SKIP    1 // ignited mruby VM from C
+#define CINFO_DIRECT  2 // called method from C
+#define CINFO_RESUMED 3 // resumed by `Fiber.yield` (probably the main call is `mrb_fiber_resume()`)
+
+#define BLK_PTR(b) ((mrb_proc_p(b)) ? mrb_proc_ptr(b) : NULL)
+
+static inline mrb_callinfo*
+cipush(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_int push_stacks, uint8_t cci, struct RClass *target_class,
+       const struct RProc *proc, struct RProc *blk, mrb_sym mid, uint16_t argc)
+{
+  struct mrb_context *c = mrb->c;
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = c->ci + 1;
+
+  if (ci < c->ciend) {
+    c->ci = ci;
+  }
+  else {
+    ptrdiff_t size = ci - c->cibase;
+
+    if (size >= MRB_CALL_LEVEL_MAX) {
+      mrb_exc_raise(mrb, mrb_obj_value(mrb->stack_err));
+    }
+    c->cibase = (mrb_callinfo*)mrb_realloc(mrb, c->cibase, sizeof(mrb_callinfo)*size*2);
+    c->ci = ci = c->cibase + size;
+    c->ciend = c->cibase + size * 2;
+  }
+  ci->mid = mid;
+  CI_PROC_SET(ci, proc);
+  ci->blk = blk;
+  ci->stack = ci[-1].stack + push_stacks;
+  ci->n = argc & 0xf;
+  ci->nk = (argc>>4) & 0xf;
+  ci->cci = cci;
+  ci->vis = MRB_METHOD_PUBLIC_FL;
+  ci->u.target_class = target_class;
+
+  return ci;
+}
+
+static void
+fiber_terminate(mrb_state *mrb, struct mrb_context *c, mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  mrb_assert(c != mrb->root_c);
+
+  struct REnv *env = CI_ENV(ci);
+  mrb_assert(env == NULL || MRB_ENV_LEN(env) <= c->stend - ci->stack);
+
+  c->status = MRB_FIBER_TERMINATED;
+  mrb_free(mrb, c->cibase);
+  c->cibase = c->ciend = c->ci = NULL;
+  mrb_value *stack = c->stbase;
+  c->stbase = c->stend = NULL;
+
+  if (!env) {
+    mrb_free(mrb, stack);
+  }
+  else {
+    size_t len = (size_t)MRB_ENV_LEN(env);
+    if (len == 0) {
+      env->stack = NULL;
+      MRB_ENV_CLOSE(env);
+      mrb_free(mrb, stack);
+    }
+    else {
+      mrb_assert(stack == env->stack);
+      mrb_write_barrier(mrb, (struct RBasic*)env);
+
+      // don't call MRB_ENV_CLOSE() before mrb_realloc().
+      // the reason is that env->stack may be freed by mrb_realloc() if MRB_DEBUG + MRB_GC_STRESS are enabled.
+      // realloc() on a freed heap will cause double-free.
+
+      stack = (mrb_value*)mrb_realloc(mrb, stack, len * sizeof(mrb_value));
+      if (mrb_object_dead_p(mrb, (struct RBasic*)env)) {
+        mrb_free(mrb, stack);
+      }
+      else {
+        env->stack = stack;
+        MRB_ENV_CLOSE(env);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /* fiber termination should automatic yield or transfer to root */
+  mrb->c = c->prev;
+  if (!mrb->c) mrb->c = mrb->root_c;
+  else c->prev = NULL;
+  mrb->c->status = MRB_FIBER_RUNNING;
+}
+
+mrb_bool
+mrb_env_unshare(mrb_state *mrb, struct REnv *e, mrb_bool noraise)
+{
+  mrb_assert(e != NULL);
+  mrb_assert(MRB_ENV_ONSTACK_P(e));
+
+  size_t len = (size_t)MRB_ENV_LEN(e);
+  if (len == 0) {
+    e->stack = NULL;
+    MRB_ENV_CLOSE(e);
+    return TRUE;
+  }
+
+  size_t live = mrb->gc.live;
+  mrb_value *p = (mrb_value*)mrb_malloc_simple(mrb, sizeof(mrb_value)*len);
+  if (live != mrb->gc.live && mrb_object_dead_p(mrb, (struct RBasic*)e)) {
+    // The e object is now subject to GC inside mrb_malloc_simple().
+    // Moreover, if NULL is returned due to mrb_malloc_simple() failure, simply ignore it.
+    mrb_free(mrb, p);
+    return TRUE;
+  }
+  else if (p) {
+    stack_copy(p, e->stack, len);
+    e->stack = p;
+    MRB_ENV_CLOSE(e);
+    mrb_write_barrier(mrb, (struct RBasic*)e);
+    return TRUE;
+  }
+  else {
+    e->stack = NULL;
+    MRB_ENV_CLOSE(e);
+    MRB_ENV_SET_LEN(e, 0);
+    MRB_ENV_SET_BIDX(e, 0);
+    if (!noraise) {
+      mrb_exc_raise(mrb, mrb_obj_value(mrb->nomem_err));
+    }
+    return FALSE;
+  }
+}
+
+static inline mrb_callinfo*
+cipop(mrb_state *mrb)
+{
+  struct mrb_context *c = mrb->c;
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = c->ci;
+  struct REnv *env = CI_ENV(ci);
+
+  ci_env_set(ci, NULL); // make possible to free env by GC if not needed
+  struct RProc *b = ci->blk;
+  if (b && !MRB_PROC_STRICT_P(b) && MRB_PROC_ENV(b) == CI_ENV(&ci[-1])) {
+    b->flags |= MRB_PROC_ORPHAN;
+  }
+  if (env && !mrb_env_unshare(mrb, env, TRUE)) {
+    c->ci--; // exceptions are handled at the method caller; see #3087
+    mrb_exc_raise(mrb, mrb_obj_value(mrb->nomem_err));
+  }
+  c->ci--;
+  return c->ci;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Protects a C function call from mruby exceptions.
+ *
+ * This function executes a C function (`body`) within a protected environment.
+ * If an mruby exception occurs during the execution of `body`, this function
+ * catches the exception, sets the `error` flag, and returns the exception object.
+ * Otherwise, it returns the result of the `body` function and `error` remains FALSE.
+ *
+ * This is crucial for calling mruby-related C functions from within C code
+ * that needs to handle potential mruby exceptions gracefully.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param body A pointer to the C function to be executed.
+ *             The function should have the signature: `mrb_value func(mrb_state *mrb, void *userdata)`
+ * @param userdata A pointer to arbitrary data that will be passed to the `body` function.
+ * @param error A pointer to an mrb_bool that will be set to TRUE if an exception
+ *              occurred, and FALSE otherwise. Can be NULL if not needed.
+ * @return The value returned by the `body` function if no exception occurred,
+ *         or the exception object if an exception occurred.
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_protect_error(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_protect_error_func *body, void *userdata, mrb_bool *error)
+{
+  struct mrb_jmpbuf *prev_jmp = mrb->jmp;
+  struct mrb_jmpbuf c_jmp;
+  mrb_value result;
+  int ai = mrb_gc_arena_save(mrb);
+  const struct mrb_context *c = mrb->c;
+  ptrdiff_t ci_index = c->ci - c->cibase;
+
+  if (error) { *error = FALSE; }
+
+  MRB_TRY(&c_jmp) {
+    mrb->jmp = &c_jmp;
+    result = body(mrb, userdata);
+    mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+  }
+  MRB_CATCH(&c_jmp) {
+    mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+    result = mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc);
+    mrb->exc = NULL;
+    if (error) { *error = TRUE; }
+    if (mrb->c == c) {
+      while (c->ci - c->cibase > ci_index) {
+        cipop(mrb);
+      }
+    }
+    else {
+      // It was probably switched by mrb_fiber_resume().
+      // Simply destroy all successive CINFO_DIRECTs once the fiber has been switched.
+      c = mrb->c;
+      while (c->ci > c->cibase && c->ci->cci == CINFO_DIRECT) {
+        cipop(mrb);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  MRB_END_EXC(&c_jmp);
+
+  mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+  mrb_gc_protect(mrb, result);
+  return result;
+}
+
+void mrb_exc_set(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value exc);
+static mrb_value mrb_run(mrb_state *mrb, const struct RProc* proc, mrb_value self);
+
+#ifndef MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX
+#define MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX 16
+#endif
+
+/**
+ * @brief Calls a method on an object.
+ *
+ * This function invokes a method identified by its name on the `self` object,
+ * passing the given arguments.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param self The receiver object of the method call.
+ * @param name The name of the method to call (C string).
+ * @param argc The number of arguments to pass to the method.
+ * @param ... The variable arguments to pass to the method.
+ *            Each argument must be of type `mrb_value`.
+ * @return The result of the method call.
+ * @raise E_ARGUMENT_ERROR if `argc` is greater than `MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX`.
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_funcall(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, const char *name, mrb_int argc, ...)
+{
+  mrb_value argv[MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX];
+  mrb_sym mid = mrb_intern_cstr(mrb, name);
+
+  if (argc > MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX) {
+    mrb_raise(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, "Too long arguments. (limit=" MRB_STRINGIZE(MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX) ")");
+  }
+
+  va_list ap;
+  va_start(ap, argc);
+  for (mrb_int i = 0; i < argc; i++) {
+    argv[i] = va_arg(ap, mrb_value);
+  }
+  va_end(ap);
+  return mrb_funcall_argv(mrb, self, mid, argc, argv);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Calls a method on an object using a method ID.
+ *
+ * This function invokes a method identified by its symbol ID (`mid`) on
+ * the `self` object, passing the given arguments. Using a method ID
+ * can be more efficient than using a string name if the method is called
+ * frequently, as it avoids repeated string-to-symbol lookups.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param self The receiver object of the method call.
+ * @param mid The symbol ID of the method to call.
+ * @param argc The number of arguments to pass to the method.
+ * @param ... The variable arguments to pass to the method.
+ *            Each argument must be of type `mrb_value`.
+ * @return The result of the method call.
+ * @raise E_ARGUMENT_ERROR if `argc` is greater than `MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX`.
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_funcall_id(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, mrb_sym mid, mrb_int argc, ...)
+{
+  mrb_value argv[MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX];
+
+  if (argc > MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX) {
+    mrb_raise(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, "Too long arguments. (limit=" MRB_STRINGIZE(MRB_FUNCALL_ARGC_MAX) ")");
+  }
+
+  va_list ap;
+  va_start(ap, argc);
+  for (mrb_int i = 0; i < argc; i++) {
+    argv[i] = va_arg(ap, mrb_value);
+  }
+  va_end(ap);
+  return mrb_funcall_argv(mrb, self, mid, argc, argv);
+}
+
+static mrb_int
+mrb_ci_kidx(const mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  if (ci->nk == 0) return -1;
+  return (ci->n == CALL_MAXARGS) ? 2 : ci->n + 1;
+}
+
+static inline mrb_int
+mrb_bidx(uint8_t n, uint8_t k)
+{
+  if (n == 15) n = 1;
+  if (k == 15) n += 1;
+  else n += k*2;
+  return n + 1;                 /* self + args + kargs */
+}
+
+static inline mrb_int
+ci_bidx(mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  return mrb_bidx(ci->n, ci->nk);
+}
+
+mrb_int
+mrb_ci_bidx(mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  return ci_bidx(ci);
+}
+
+mrb_int
+mrb_ci_nregs(mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  if (!ci) return 4;
+  mrb_int nregs = ci_bidx(ci) + 1; /* self + args + kargs + blk */
+  const struct RProc *p = ci->proc;
+  if (p && !MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p) && p->body.irep && p->body.irep->nregs > nregs) {
+    return p->body.irep->nregs;
+  }
+  return nregs;
+}
+
+mrb_value mrb_obj_missing(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value mod);
+
+static mrb_method_t
+prepare_missing(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_callinfo *ci, mrb_value recv, mrb_sym mid, mrb_value blk, mrb_bool super)
+{
+  mrb_sym missing = MRB_SYM(method_missing);
+  mrb_value *argv = &ci->stack[1];
+  mrb_value args;
+  mrb_method_t m;
+
+  /* pack positional arguments */
+  if (ci->n == 15) args = argv[0];
+  else args = mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, ci->n, argv);
+
+  if (mrb_func_basic_p(mrb, recv, missing, mrb_obj_missing)) {
+  method_missing:
+    if (super) mrb_no_method_error(mrb, mid, args, "no superclass method '%n' for %T", mid, recv);
+    else mrb_method_missing(mrb, mid, recv, args);
+    /* not reached */
+  }
+  if (mid != missing) {
+    ci->u.target_class = mrb_class(mrb, recv);
+  }
+  m = mrb_vm_find_method(mrb, ci->u.target_class, &ci->u.target_class, missing);
+  if (MRB_METHOD_UNDEF_P(m)) goto method_missing; /* just in case */
+  stack_extend(mrb, 4);
+
+  argv = &ci->stack[1];         /* maybe reallocated */
+  if (ci->nk == 0) {
+    argv[1] = blk;
+  }
+  else {
+    mrb_assert(ci->nk == 15);
+    argv[1] = argv[ci->n];
+    argv[2] = blk;
+  }
+  argv[0] = args;               /* must be replaced after saving argv[0] as it may be a keyword argument */
+  ci->n = CALL_MAXARGS;
+  /* ci->nk is already set to zero or CALL_MAXARGS */
+  mrb_ary_unshift(mrb, args, mrb_symbol_value(mid));
+  ci->mid = missing;
+  return m;
+}
+
+static void
+funcall_args_capture(mrb_state *mrb, int stoff, mrb_int argc, const mrb_value *argv, mrb_value block, mrb_callinfo *ci)
+{
+  if (argc < 0 || argc > INT32_MAX) {
+    mrb_raisef(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, "negative or too big argc for funcall (%i)", argc);
+  }
+
+  ci->nk = 0;                   /* funcall does not support keyword arguments */
+  if (argc < CALL_MAXARGS) {
+    mrb_int extends = stoff + argc + 2 /* self + block */;
+    stack_extend_adjust(mrb, extends, &argv);
+
+    mrb_value *args = mrb->c->ci->stack + stoff + 1 /* self */;
+    stack_copy(args, argv, argc);
+    args[argc] = block;
+    ci->n = (uint8_t)argc;
+  }
+  else {
+    int extends = stoff + 3 /* self + splat + block */;
+    stack_extend_adjust(mrb, extends, &argv);
+
+    mrb_value *args = mrb->c->ci->stack + stoff + 1 /* self */;
+    args[0] = mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, argc, argv);
+    args[1] = block;
+    ci->n = CALL_MAXARGS;
+  }
+}
+
+static inline mrb_value
+ensure_block(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value blk)
+{
+  if (!mrb_nil_p(blk) && !mrb_proc_p(blk)) {
+    blk = mrb_type_convert(mrb, blk, MRB_TT_PROC, MRB_SYM(to_proc));
+    /* The stack might have been reallocated during mrb_type_convert(), see #3622 */
+  }
+  return blk;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Calls a method on an object with a block.
+ *
+ * This function invokes a method identified by its symbol ID (`mid`) on
+ * the `self` object, passing the given arguments (`argv`) and a block (`blk`).
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param self The receiver object of the method call.
+ * @param mid The symbol ID of the method to call.
+ * @param argc The number of arguments in `argv`.
+ * @param argv A pointer to an array of `mrb_value` arguments.
+ * @param blk The block to pass to the method. If no block is to be passed,
+ *            use `mrb_nil_value()`. If `blk` is not nil and not a proc,
+ *            it will be converted to a proc using `to_proc`.
+ * @return The result of the method call.
+ * @raise E_ARGUMENT_ERROR if `argc` is negative or too large.
+ * @raise E_STACK_ERROR if the call level exceeds `MRB_CALL_LEVEL_MAX`.
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_funcall_with_block(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, mrb_sym mid, mrb_int argc, const mrb_value *argv, mrb_value blk)
+{
+  mrb_value val;
+  int ai = mrb_gc_arena_save(mrb);
+
+  if (!mrb->jmp) {
+    struct mrb_jmpbuf c_jmp;
+    ptrdiff_t nth_ci = mrb->c->ci - mrb->c->cibase;
+
+    MRB_TRY(&c_jmp) {
+      mrb->jmp = &c_jmp;
+      /* recursive call */
+      val = mrb_funcall_with_block(mrb, self, mid, argc, argv, blk);
+      mrb->jmp = NULL;
+    }
+    MRB_CATCH(&c_jmp) { /* error */
+      while (nth_ci < (mrb->c->ci - mrb->c->cibase)) {
+        cipop(mrb);
+      }
+      mrb->jmp = 0;
+      val = mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc);
+    }
+    MRB_END_EXC(&c_jmp);
+    mrb->jmp = NULL;
+  }
+  else {
+    mrb_method_t m;
+    mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+    mrb_int n = mrb_ci_nregs(ci);
+
+    if (!mrb->c->stbase) {
+      stack_init(mrb);
+    }
+    if (ci - mrb->c->cibase > MRB_CALL_LEVEL_MAX) {
+      mrb_exc_raise(mrb, mrb_obj_value(mrb->stack_err));
+    }
+    blk = ensure_block(mrb, blk);
+    ci = cipush(mrb, n, CINFO_DIRECT, NULL, NULL, BLK_PTR(blk), 0, 0);
+    funcall_args_capture(mrb, 0, argc, argv, blk, ci);
+    ci->u.target_class = mrb_class(mrb, self);
+    m = mrb_vm_find_method(mrb, ci->u.target_class, &ci->u.target_class, mid);
+    if (MRB_METHOD_UNDEF_P(m)) {
+      m = prepare_missing(mrb, ci, self, mid, mrb_nil_value(), FALSE);
+    }
+    else {
+      ci->mid = mid;
+    }
+    ci->proc = MRB_METHOD_PROC_P(m) ? MRB_METHOD_PROC(m) : NULL;
+
+    if (MRB_METHOD_CFUNC_P(m)) {
+      mrb->exc = NULL;
+      ci->stack[0] = self;
+      val = MRB_METHOD_CFUNC(m)(mrb, self);
+      cipop(mrb);
+      if (mrb->exc != NULL) {
+        mrb_exc_raise(mrb, mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc));
+      }
+    }
+    else {
+      /* handle alias */
+      MRB_PROC_RESOLVE_ALIAS(ci, ci->proc);
+      ci->cci = CINFO_SKIP;
+      val = mrb_run(mrb, ci->proc, self);
+    }
+  }
+  mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+  mrb_gc_protect(mrb, val);
+  return val;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Calls a method on an object with an array of arguments.
+ *
+ * This function is similar to `mrb_funcall_with_block` but takes arguments
+ * as a C array (`argv`) and does not take an explicit block argument.
+ * If a block is needed, `mrb_funcall_with_block` should be used.
+ * This function is essentially a convenience wrapper around
+ * `mrb_funcall_with_block` with `mrb_nil_value()` for the block.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param self The receiver object of the method call.
+ * @param mid The symbol ID of the method to call.
+ * @param argc The number of arguments in `argv`.
+ * @param argv A pointer to an array of `mrb_value` arguments.
+ * @return The result of the method call.
+ * @see mrb_funcall_with_block
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_funcall_argv(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, mrb_sym mid, mrb_int argc, const mrb_value *argv)
+{
+  return mrb_funcall_with_block(mrb, self, mid, argc, argv, mrb_nil_value());
+}
+
+static void
+check_argument_count(mrb_state *mrb, const mrb_callinfo *ci, mrb_aspec aspec)
+{
+  mrb_int argc = ci->n;
+  if (mrb_unlikely(argc == CALL_MAXARGS)) {
+    argc = RARRAY_LEN(ci->stack[1]);
+  }
+  /* keyword hash counts as positional if method doesn't accept keywords */
+  if (ci->nk > 0 && MRB_ASPEC_KEY(aspec) == 0 && !MRB_ASPEC_KDICT(aspec)) {
+    mrb_value kdict = ci->stack[mrb_ci_kidx(ci)];
+    if (mrb_hash_p(kdict) && !mrb_hash_empty_p(mrb, kdict)) {
+      argc++;
+    }
+  }
+  int min = MRB_ASPEC_REQ(aspec) + MRB_ASPEC_POST(aspec);
+  int max = MRB_ASPEC_REST(aspec) ? -1 : min + MRB_ASPEC_OPT(aspec);
+  if (mrb_unlikely(argc < min || (max >= 0 && argc > max))) {
+    mrb_argnum_error(mrb, argc, min, max);
+  }
+}
+
+static mrb_value
+exec_irep(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, const struct RProc *p)
+{
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+
+  ci->stack[0] = self;
+  /* handle alias */
+  MRB_PROC_RESOLVE_ALIAS(ci, p);
+  CI_PROC_SET(ci, p);
+  if (MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p)) {
+    if (MRB_PROC_NOARG_P(p) && (ci->n > 0 || ci->nk > 0)) {
+      check_argument_count(mrb, ci, 0);
+    }
+    return MRB_PROC_CFUNC(p)(mrb, self);
+  }
+  mrb_int nregs = p->body.irep->nregs;
+  mrb_int keep = ci_bidx(ci)+1;
+  if (nregs < keep) {
+    stack_extend(mrb, keep);
+  }
+  else {
+    stack_extend(mrb, nregs);
+    stack_clear(ci->stack+keep, nregs-keep);
+  }
+
+  cipush(mrb, 0, 0, NULL, NULL, NULL, 0, 0);
+
+  return self;
+}
+
+mrb_value
+mrb_exec_irep(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, const struct RProc *p)
+{
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+  if (ci->cci == CINFO_NONE) {
+    return exec_irep(mrb, self, p);
+  }
+  else {
+    mrb_value ret;
+    if (MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p)) {
+      if (MRB_PROC_NOARG_P(p) && (ci->n > 0 || ci->nk > 0)) {
+        check_argument_count(mrb, ci, 0);
+      }
+      ci = cipush(mrb, 0, CINFO_DIRECT, CI_TARGET_CLASS(ci), p, NULL, ci->mid, ci->n|(ci->nk<<4));
+      mrb->exc = NULL;
+      ret = MRB_PROC_CFUNC(p)(mrb, self);
+      cipop(mrb);
+    }
+    else {
+      mrb_int keep = ci_bidx(ci) + 1; /* receiver + block */
+      ci = cipush(mrb, 0, CINFO_SKIP, CI_TARGET_CLASS(ci), p, NULL, ci->mid, ci->n|(ci->nk<<4));
+      ret = mrb_vm_run(mrb, p, self, keep);
+    }
+    if (mrb->exc && mrb->jmp) {
+      mrb_exc_raise(mrb, mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc));
+    }
+    return ret;
+  }
+}
+
+mrb_value
+mrb_object_exec(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, struct RClass *target_class)
+{
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+  mrb_int bidx = ci_bidx(ci);
+  mrb_value blk = ci->stack[bidx];
+  if (mrb_nil_p(blk)) {
+    mrb_raise(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, "no block given");
+  }
+
+  mrb_assert(mrb_proc_p(blk));
+  mrb_gc_protect(mrb, blk);
+  ci->stack[bidx] = mrb_nil_value();
+  mrb_vm_ci_target_class_set(ci, target_class);
+  return mrb_exec_irep(mrb, self, mrb_proc_ptr(blk));
+}
+
+static mrb_noreturn void
+vis_error(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_sym mid, mrb_value args, mrb_value recv, mrb_bool priv)
+{
+  mrb_no_method_error(mrb, mid, args, "%s method '%n' called for %T", (priv ? "private" : "protected"), mid, recv);
+}
+
+static mrb_value
+send_method(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, mrb_bool pub)
+{
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+  int n = ci->n;
+  mrb_sym name;
+
+  if (ci->cci > CINFO_NONE) {
+  funcall:;
+    const mrb_value *argv;
+    mrb_int argc;
+    mrb_value block;
+    mrb_get_args(mrb, "n*&", &name, &argv, &argc, &block);
+    return mrb_funcall_with_block(mrb, self, name, argc, argv, block);
+  }
+
+  mrb_method_t m;
+  mrb_value *regs = mrb->c->ci->stack+1;
+
+  if (n == 0) {
+  argnum_error:
+    mrb_argnum_error(mrb, 0, 1, -1);
+  }
+  else if (n == 15) {
+    if (RARRAY_LEN(regs[0]) == 0) goto argnum_error;
+    name = mrb_obj_to_sym(mrb, RARRAY_PTR(regs[0])[0]);
+  }
+  else {
+    name = mrb_obj_to_sym(mrb, regs[0]);
+  }
+
+  struct RClass *c = mrb_class(mrb, self);
+  m = mrb_vm_find_method(mrb, c, &c, name);
+  if (MRB_METHOD_UNDEF_P(m)) {            /* call method_missing */
+    goto funcall;
+  }
+
+  if (pub) {
+    mrb_bool priv = TRUE;
+    if (m.flags & MRB_METHOD_PRIVATE_FL) {
+    vis_err:;
+      if (n == 15) {
+        n = (int)(RARRAY_LEN(regs[0]) - 1);
+        regs = RARRAY_PTR(regs[0]);
+      }
+      vis_error(mrb, name, mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, n, regs+1), self, priv);
+    }
+    else if ((m.flags & MRB_METHOD_PROTECTED_FL) && mrb_obj_is_kind_of(mrb, self, ci->u.target_class)) {
+      priv = FALSE;
+      goto vis_err;
+    }
+  }
+
+  ci->mid = name;
+  ci->u.target_class = c;
+  /* remove first symbol from arguments */
+  if (n == 15) {     /* variable length arguments */
+    regs[0] = mrb_ary_subseq(mrb, regs[0], 1, RARRAY_LEN(regs[0]) - 1);
+  }
+  else { /* n > 0 */
+    for (int i=0; i<n; i++) {
+      regs[i] = regs[i+1];
+    }
+    regs[n] = regs[n+1];        /* copy kdict or block */
+    if (ci->nk > 0) {
+      regs[n+1] = regs[n+2];    /* copy block */
+    }
+    ci->n--;
+  }
+
+  if (MRB_METHOD_FUNC_P(m)) {
+    check_argument_count(mrb, ci, MRB_MT_ASPEC(m.flags));
+    return MRB_METHOD_FUNC(m)(mrb, self);
+  }
+  const struct RProc *p = MRB_METHOD_PROC(m);
+  MRB_PROC_RESOLVE_ALIAS(ci, p);
+  CI_PROC_SET(ci, p);
+  if (MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p)) {
+    if (MRB_PROC_NOARG_P(p) && (ci->n > 0 || ci->nk > 0)) {
+      check_argument_count(mrb, ci, 0);
+    }
+    return MRB_PROC_CFUNC(p)(mrb, self);
+  }
+  return exec_irep(mrb, self, p);
+}
+
+/* 15.3.1.3.4  */
+/* 15.3.1.3.44 */
+/*
+ *  call-seq:
+ *     obj.send(symbol [, args...])        -> obj
+ *     obj.__send__(symbol [, args...])      -> obj
+ *
+ *  Invokes the method identified by _symbol_, passing it any
+ *  arguments specified. You can use `__send__` if the name
+ *  `send` clashes with an existing method in _obj_.
+ *
+ *     class Klass
+ *       def hello(*args)
+ *         "Hello " + args.join(' ')
+ *       end
+ *     end
+ *     k = Klass.new
+ *     k.send :hello, "gentle", "readers"   #=> "Hello gentle readers"
+ */
+mrb_value
+mrb_f_send(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self)
+{
+  return send_method(mrb, self, FALSE);
+}
+
+/*
+ *  call-seq:
+ *     obj.public_send(symbol [, args...])  -> obj
+ *
+ * Invokes the method identified by symbol, passing it any
+ * arguments specified. Unlike send, public_send calls public methods only.
+ * When the method is identified by a string, the string is converted to a
+ * symbol.
+ *
+ *  1.public_send(:puts, "hello")  # causes NoMethodError
+ */
+mrb_value
+mrb_f_public_send(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self)
+{
+  return send_method(mrb, self, TRUE);
+}
+
+static void
+check_block(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value blk)
+{
+  if (mrb_nil_p(blk)) {
+    mrb_raise(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, "no block given");
+  }
+  if (!mrb_proc_p(blk)) {
+    mrb_raise(mrb, E_TYPE_ERROR, "not a block");
+  }
+}
+
+static mrb_value
+eval_under(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self, mrb_value blk, struct RClass *c)
+{
+  check_block(mrb, blk);
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+  if (ci->cci == CINFO_DIRECT) {
+    return mrb_yield_with_class(mrb, blk, 1, &self, self, c);
+  }
+  ci->u.target_class = c;
+  const struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_ptr(blk);
+  /* just in case irep is NULL; #6065 */
+  if (p->body.irep == NULL) return mrb_nil_value();
+  CI_PROC_SET(ci, p);
+  ci->n = 1;
+  ci->nk = 0;
+  ci->mid = ci[-1].mid;
+  MRB_CI_SET_VISIBILITY_BREAK(ci);
+  if (MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p)) {
+    stack_extend(mrb, 4);
+    mrb->c->ci->stack[0] = self;
+    mrb->c->ci->stack[1] = self;
+    mrb->c->ci->stack[2] = mrb_nil_value();
+    return MRB_PROC_CFUNC(p)(mrb, self);
+  }
+  int nregs = p->body.irep->nregs;
+  if (nregs < 4) nregs = 4;
+  stack_extend(mrb, nregs);
+  mrb->c->ci->stack[0] = self;
+  mrb->c->ci->stack[1] = self;
+  stack_clear(mrb->c->ci->stack+2, nregs-2);
+  cipush(mrb, 0, 0, NULL, NULL, NULL, 0, 0);
+
+  return self;
+}
+
+/* 15.2.2.4.35 */
+/*
+ *  call-seq:
+ *     mod.class_eval {| | block }  -> obj
+ *     mod.module_eval {| | block } -> obj
+ *
+ *  Evaluates block in the context of _mod_. This can
+ *  be used to add methods to a class. `module_eval` returns
+ *  the result of evaluating its argument.
+ */
+mrb_value
+mrb_mod_module_eval(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value mod)
+{
+  mrb_value a, b;
+
+  if (mrb_get_args(mrb, "|S&", &a, &b) == 1) {
+    mrb_raise(mrb, E_NOTIMP_ERROR, "module_eval/class_eval with string not implemented");
+  }
+  return eval_under(mrb, mod, b, mrb_class_ptr(mod));
+}
+
+/* 15.3.1.3.18 */
+/*
+ *  call-seq:
+ *     obj.instance_eval {| | block }                       -> obj
+ *
+ *  Evaluates the given block,within  the context of the receiver (_obj_).
+ *  In order to set the context, the variable `self` is set to _obj_ while
+ *  the code is executing, giving the code access to _obj_'s
+ *  instance variables. In the version of `instance_eval`
+ *  that takes a `String`, the optional second and third
+ *  parameters supply a filename and starting line number that are used
+ *  when reporting compilation errors.
+ *
+ *     class KlassWithSecret
+ *       def initialize
+ *         @secret = 99
+ *       end
+ *     end
+ *     k = KlassWithSecret.new
+ *     k.instance_eval { @secret }   #=> 99
+ */
+mrb_value
+mrb_obj_instance_eval(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value self)
+{
+  mrb_value a, b;
+
+  if (mrb_get_args(mrb, "|S&", &a, &b) == 1) {
+    mrb_raise(mrb, E_NOTIMP_ERROR, "instance_eval with string not implemented");
+  }
+  return eval_under(mrb, self, b, mrb_singleton_class_ptr(mrb, self));
+}
+
+static mrb_value
+yield_with_attr(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value b, mrb_int argc, const mrb_value *argv, mrb_value self, struct RClass *c,
+                mrb_bool vis_break)
+{
+  check_block(mrb, b);
+
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+  mrb_int n = mrb_ci_nregs(ci);
+  const struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_ptr(b);
+  mrb_sym mid;
+
+  if (MRB_PROC_ENV_P(p)) {
+    mid = p->e.env->mid;
+  }
+  else {
+    mid = ci->mid;
+  }
+  ci = cipush(mrb, n, CINFO_DIRECT, NULL, NULL, NULL, mid, 0);
+  funcall_args_capture(mrb, 0, argc, argv, mrb_nil_value(), ci);
+  ci->u.target_class = c;
+  ci->proc = p;
+  if (vis_break) {
+    MRB_CI_SET_VISIBILITY_BREAK(ci);
+  }
+
+  mrb_value val;
+  if (MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p)) {
+    mrb->exc = NULL;
+    ci->stack[0] = self;
+    val = MRB_PROC_CFUNC(p)(mrb, self);
+    cipop(mrb);
+    if (mrb->exc && mrb->jmp) {
+      mrb_exc_raise(mrb, mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc));
+    }
+  }
+  else {
+    ci->cci = CINFO_SKIP;
+    val = mrb_run(mrb, p, self);
+  }
+  return val;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Yields to a block with a specific `self` object and class context.
+ *
+ * This function executes a given block (`b`) with the provided arguments (`argv`).
+ * The `self` object within the block will be `self`, and the class context
+ * will be `c`. This allows for more control over the execution environment of
+ * the block. The `vis_break` flag is set to TRUE, meaning visibility checks
+ * (public/private/protected) are enforced.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param b The block (proc) to yield to.
+ * @param argc The number of arguments in `argv`.
+ * @param argv A pointer to an array of `mrb_value` arguments to pass to the block.
+ * @param self The object that will be `self` inside the block.
+ * @param c The class context for the block execution.
+ * @return The result of the block execution.
+ * @raise E_TYPE_ERROR if `b` is not a proc or nil.
+ * @see mrb_yield_argv
+ * @see mrb_yield
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_yield_with_class(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value b, mrb_int argc, const mrb_value *argv, mrb_value self, struct RClass *c)
+{
+  return yield_with_attr(mrb, b, argc, argv, self, c, TRUE);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Yields to a block with an array of arguments.
+ *
+ * This function executes a given block (`b`) with the provided arguments (`argv`).
+ * The `self` object and class context for the block execution are determined
+ * from the block itself (its captured environment).
+ * Visibility checks (public/private/protected) are not strictly enforced
+ * in the same way as `mrb_yield_with_class` (vis_break is FALSE).
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param b The block (proc) to yield to.
+ * @param argc The number of arguments in `argv`.
+ * @param argv A pointer to an array of `mrb_value` arguments to pass to the block.
+ * @return The result of the block execution.
+ * @raise E_TYPE_ERROR if `b` is not a proc or nil.
+ * @see mrb_yield_with_class
+ * @see mrb_yield
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_yield_argv(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value b, mrb_int argc, const mrb_value *argv)
+{
+  const struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_ptr(b);
+  struct RClass *tc;
+  mrb_value self = mrb_proc_get_self(mrb, p, &tc);
+
+  return yield_with_attr(mrb, b, argc, argv, self, tc, FALSE);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Yields to a block with a single argument.
+ *
+ * This function executes a given block (`b`) with a single argument (`arg`).
+ * It's a convenience function for the common case of yielding with one argument.
+ * The `self` object and class context for the block execution are determined
+ * from the block itself.
+ * Visibility checks are not strictly enforced (vis_break is FALSE).
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param b The block (proc) to yield to.
+ * @param arg The single `mrb_value` argument to pass to the block.
+ * @return The result of the block execution.
+ * @raise E_TYPE_ERROR if `b` is not a proc or nil.
+ * @see mrb_yield_with_class
+ * @see mrb_yield_argv
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_yield(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value b, mrb_value arg)
+{
+  const struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_ptr(b);
+  struct RClass *tc;
+  mrb_value self = mrb_proc_get_self(mrb, p, &tc);
+
+  return yield_with_attr(mrb, b, 1, &arg, self, tc, FALSE);
+}
+
+mrb_value
+mrb_yield_cont(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_value b, mrb_value self, mrb_int argc, const mrb_value *argv)
+{
+  check_block(mrb, b);
+
+  const struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_ptr(b);
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+
+  stack_extend_adjust(mrb, 4, &argv);
+  mrb->c->ci->stack[1] = mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, argc, argv);
+  mrb->c->ci->stack[2] = mrb_nil_value();
+  mrb->c->ci->stack[3] = mrb_nil_value();
+  ci->n = 15;
+  ci->nk = 0;
+  return exec_irep(mrb, self, p);
+}
+
+#define RBREAK_TAG_FOREACH(f) \
+  f(RBREAK_TAG_BREAK, 0) \
+  f(RBREAK_TAG_JUMP, 1) \
+  f(RBREAK_TAG_STOP, 2)
+
+#define RBREAK_TAG_DEFINE(tag, i) tag = i,
+enum {
+  RBREAK_TAG_FOREACH(RBREAK_TAG_DEFINE)
+};
+#undef RBREAK_TAG_DEFINE
+
+#define RBREAK_TAG_BIT          3
+#define RBREAK_TAG_BIT_OFF      8
+#define RBREAK_TAG_MASK         (~(~UINT32_C(0) << RBREAK_TAG_BIT))
+
+static inline uint32_t
+mrb_break_tag_get(struct RBreak *brk)
+{
+  return (brk->flags >> RBREAK_TAG_BIT_OFF) & RBREAK_TAG_MASK;
+}
+
+static inline void
+mrb_break_tag_set(struct RBreak *brk, uint32_t tag)
+{
+  brk->flags &= ~(RBREAK_TAG_MASK << RBREAK_TAG_BIT_OFF);
+  brk->flags |= (tag & RBREAK_TAG_MASK) << RBREAK_TAG_BIT_OFF;
+}
+
+static struct RBreak*
+break_new(mrb_state *mrb, uint32_t tag, const mrb_callinfo *return_ci, mrb_value val)
+{
+  mrb_assert((size_t)(return_ci - mrb->c->cibase) <= (size_t)(mrb->c->ci - mrb->c->cibase));
+
+  struct RBreak *brk = MRB_OBJ_ALLOC(mrb, MRB_TT_BREAK, NULL);
+  brk->ci_break_index = return_ci - mrb->c->cibase;
+  mrb_break_value_set(brk, val);
+  mrb_break_tag_set(brk, tag);
+
+  return brk;
+}
+
+#define MRB_CATCH_FILTER_RESCUE (UINT32_C(1) << MRB_CATCH_RESCUE)
+#define MRB_CATCH_FILTER_ENSURE (UINT32_C(1) << MRB_CATCH_ENSURE)
+#define MRB_CATCH_FILTER_ALL    (MRB_CATCH_FILTER_RESCUE | MRB_CATCH_FILTER_ENSURE)
+
+static const struct mrb_irep_catch_handler *
+catch_handler_find(const mrb_irep *irep, const mrb_code *pc, uint32_t filter)
+{
+/* The comparison operators use `>` and `<=` because pc already points to the next instruction */
+#define catch_cover_p(pc, beg, end) ((pc) > (ptrdiff_t)(beg) && (pc) <= (ptrdiff_t)(end))
+
+  mrb_assert(irep && irep->clen > 0);
+  ptrdiff_t xpc = pc - irep->iseq;
+  /* If it retry at the top level, pc will be 0, so check with -1 as the start position */
+  mrb_assert(catch_cover_p(xpc, -1, irep->ilen));
+  if (!catch_cover_p(xpc, -1, irep->ilen)) return NULL;
+
+  /* Currently uses a simple linear search to avoid processing complexity. */
+  size_t cnt = irep->clen;
+  const struct mrb_irep_catch_handler *e = mrb_irep_catch_handler_table(irep) + cnt - 1;
+  for (; cnt > 0; cnt--, e--) {
+    if (((UINT32_C(1) << e->type) & filter) &&
+        catch_cover_p(xpc, mrb_irep_catch_handler_unpack(e->begin), mrb_irep_catch_handler_unpack(e->end))) {
+      return e;
+    }
+  }
+
+#undef catch_cover_p
+
+  return NULL;
+}
+
+#define RAISE_EXC(mrb, exc) do { \
+  mrb_value exc_value = (exc); \
+  mrb_exc_set(mrb, exc_value); \
+  goto L_RAISE; \
+} while (0)
+
+#define RAISE_LIT(mrb, c, str)          RAISE_EXC(mrb, mrb_exc_new_lit(mrb, c, str))
+#define RAISE_FORMAT(mrb, c, fmt, ...)  RAISE_EXC(mrb, mrb_exc_new_str(mrb, c, mrb_format(mrb, fmt, __VA_ARGS__)))
+
+static void
+argnum_error(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_int num)
+{
+  mrb_int argc = mrb->c->ci->n;
+
+  if (argc == 15) {
+    mrb_value args = mrb->c->ci->stack[1];
+    if (mrb_array_p(args)) {
+      argc = RARRAY_LEN(args);
+    }
+  }
+  if (argc == 0 && mrb->c->ci->nk != 0 && !mrb_hash_empty_p(mrb, mrb->c->ci->stack[1])) {
+    argc++;
+  }
+  mrb_value str = mrb_format(mrb, "wrong number of arguments (given %i, expected %i)", argc, num);
+  mrb_value exc = mrb_exc_new_str(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, str);
+  mrb_exc_set(mrb, exc);
+}
+
+static mrb_bool
+break_tag_p(struct RBreak *brk, uint32_t tag)
+{
+  return (brk != NULL && brk->tt == MRB_TT_BREAK) ? TRUE : FALSE;
+}
+
+static void
+prepare_tagged_break(mrb_state *mrb, uint32_t tag, const mrb_callinfo *return_ci, mrb_value val)
+{
+  if (break_tag_p((struct RBreak*)mrb->exc, tag)) {
+    mrb_break_tag_set((struct RBreak*)mrb->exc, tag);
+  }
+  else {
+    mrb->exc = (struct RObject*)break_new(mrb, tag, return_ci, val);
+  }
+}
+
+#define THROW_TAGGED_BREAK(mrb, tag, return_ci, val) \
+  do { \
+    prepare_tagged_break(mrb, tag, return_ci, val); \
+    goto L_CATCH_TAGGED_BREAK; \
+  } while (0)
+
+#define UNWIND_ENSURE(mrb, ci, pc, tag, return_ci, val) \
+  do { \
+    const struct RProc *proc = (ci)->proc; \
+    if (proc && !MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(proc) && (irep = proc->body.irep) && irep->clen > 0 && \
+        (ch = catch_handler_find(irep, pc, MRB_CATCH_FILTER_ENSURE))) { \
+      THROW_TAGGED_BREAK(mrb, tag, return_ci, val); \
+    } \
+  } while (0)
+
+/*
+ *  CHECKPOINT_RESTORE(tag) {
+ *    This part is executed when jumping by the same "tag" of RBreak (it is not executed the first time).
+ *    Write the code required (initialization of variables, etc.) for the subsequent processing.
+ *  }
+ *  CHECKPOINT_MAIN(tag) {
+ *    This part is always executed.
+ *  }
+ *  CHECKPOINT_END(tag);
+ *
+ *  ...
+ *
+ *  // Jump to CHECKPOINT_RESTORE with the same "tag".
+ *  goto CHECKPOINT_LABEL_MAKE(tag);
+ */
+
+#define CHECKPOINT_LABEL_MAKE(tag) L_CHECKPOINT_ ## tag
+
+#define CHECKPOINT_RESTORE(tag) \
+  do { \
+    if (FALSE) { \
+      CHECKPOINT_LABEL_MAKE(tag): \
+      do {
+
+#define CHECKPOINT_MAIN(tag) \
+      } while (0); \
+    } \
+    do {
+
+#define CHECKPOINT_END(tag) \
+    } while (0); \
+  } while (0)
+
+#ifdef MRB_USE_DEBUG_HOOK
+#define CODE_FETCH_HOOK(mrb, irep, pc, regs) if ((mrb)->code_fetch_hook) (mrb)->code_fetch_hook((mrb), (irep), (pc), (regs));
+#else
+#define CODE_FETCH_HOOK(mrb, irep, pc, regs)
+#endif
+
+#ifdef MRB_BYTECODE_DECODE_OPTION
+#define BYTECODE_DECODER(x) ((mrb)->bytecode_decoder)?(mrb)->bytecode_decoder((mrb), (x)):(x)
+#else
+#define BYTECODE_DECODER(x) (x)
+#endif
+
+#ifndef MRB_USE_VM_SWITCH_DISPATCH
+#if !defined __GNUC__ && !defined __clang__ && !defined __INTEL_COMPILER
+#define MRB_USE_VM_SWITCH_DISPATCH
+#endif
+#endif /* ifndef MRB_USE_VM_SWITCH_DISPATCH */
+
+#ifdef MRB_USE_VM_SWITCH_DISPATCH
+
+#define INIT_DISPATCH for (;;) { CALL_CODE_HOOKS(); switch (insn) {
+#define CASE(insn,ops) case insn: DECODE_OPERANDS(ops); L_ ## insn ## _BODY:
+#define NEXT goto L_END_DISPATCH
+#define JUMP NEXT
+#define END_DISPATCH L_END_DISPATCH: RETURN_IF_TASK_STOPPED(mrb);}}
+
+#else
+
+#define INIT_DISPATCH JUMP; return mrb_nil_value();
+#define CASE(insn,ops) L_ ## insn: DECODE_OPERANDS(ops); L_ ## insn ## _BODY:
+#define NEXT RETURN_IF_TASK_STOPPED(mrb); CALL_CODE_HOOKS(); goto *optable[insn]
+#define JUMP NEXT
+#define END_DISPATCH RETURN_IF_TASK_STOPPED(mrb)
+
+#endif
+
+#define DECODE_OPERANDS(ops) do { const mrb_code *pc = ci->pc+1; FETCH_ ## ops (); ci->pc = pc; } while (0)
+#define CALL_CODE_HOOKS() do { insn = BYTECODE_DECODER(*ci->pc); CODE_FETCH_HOOK(mrb, irep, ci->pc, regs); } while (0)
+
+#ifdef MRB_USE_TASK_SCHEDULER
+#define RETURN_IF_TASK_STOPPED(mrb) do { \
+  if ((mrb)->task.switching || (mrb)->c->status == MRB_TASK_STOPPED) \
+    return mrb_nil_value(); \
+} while (0)
+#define TASK_STOP(mrb) do { \
+  if (mrb->c->status != MRB_TASK_STOPPED) \
+    mrb->c->status = MRB_TASK_STOPPED; \
+} while (0)
+#else
+#define RETURN_IF_TASK_STOPPED(mrb)
+#define TASK_STOP(mrb)
+#endif
+
+/**
+ * @brief Executes a mruby bytecode sequence (iseq) within the VM.
+ *
+ * This function is a core part of the mruby execution process. It sets up
+ * the VM environment for executing the bytecode instructions associated with
+ * the given proc (Ruby procedure/method).
+ *
+ * It initializes the stack if necessary, extends it to accommodate the
+ * required number of registers for the proc, and then calls `mrb_vm_exec`
+ * to actually execute the bytecode.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param proc The RProc object containing the bytecode (iseq) to execute.
+ *             This proc represents a Ruby method or block.
+ * @param self The `self` object for the context of this execution.
+ * @param stack_keep The number of values to preserve on the stack from the
+ *                   previous context. This is used for managing nested calls
+ *                   and ensuring that arguments or local variables from the
+ *                   caller are accessible if needed, or that the stack is
+ *                   correctly cleared.
+ * @return The result of the bytecode execution (typically the value of the
+ *         last evaluated expression).
+ * @see mrb_vm_exec
+ * @see mrb_top_run
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_vm_run(mrb_state *mrb, const struct RProc *proc, mrb_value self, mrb_int stack_keep)
+{
+  const mrb_irep *irep = proc->body.irep;
+  struct mrb_context *c = mrb->c;
+#ifdef MRB_DEBUG
+  ptrdiff_t cioff = c->ci - c->cibase;
+#endif
+  mrb_int nregs = irep->nregs;
+
+  if (!c->stbase) {
+    stack_init(mrb);
+  }
+  if (stack_keep > nregs)
+    nregs = stack_keep;
+  else {
+    struct REnv *e = CI_ENV(mrb->c->ci);
+    if (e && (stack_keep == 0 || irep->nlocals < MRB_ENV_LEN(e))) {
+      ci_env_set(mrb->c->ci, NULL);
+      mrb_env_unshare(mrb, e, FALSE);
+    }
+  }
+  stack_extend(mrb, nregs);
+  stack_clear(c->ci->stack + stack_keep, nregs - stack_keep);
+  c->ci->stack[0] = self;
+  mrb_value result = mrb_vm_exec(mrb, proc, irep->iseq);
+  mrb_assert(mrb->c == c);      /* do not switch fibers via mrb_vm_run(), unlike mrb_vm_exec() */
+  mrb_assert(c->ci == c->cibase || (c->ci - c->cibase) == cioff - 1);
+  return result;
+}
+
+static struct RClass*
+check_target_class(mrb_state *mrb)
+{
+  struct RClass *target = CI_TARGET_CLASS(mrb->c->ci);
+  if (!target) {
+    mrb_raise(mrb, E_TYPE_ERROR, "no class/module to add method");
+  }
+  return target;
+}
+
+#define regs (ci->stack)
+
+static mrb_value
+hash_new_from_regs(mrb_state *mrb, mrb_int argc, mrb_int idx)
+{
+  mrb_value hash = mrb_hash_new_capa(mrb, argc);
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+  while (argc--) {
+    mrb_hash_set(mrb, hash, regs[idx+0], regs[idx+1]);
+    ci = mrb->c->ci;
+    idx += 2;
+  }
+  return hash;
+}
+
+#define ary_new_from_regs(mrb, argc, idx) mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, (argc), &regs[idx]);
+
+/**
+ * @brief Executes a sequence of mruby bytecode instructions.
+ *
+ * This is the main bytecode interpreter loop. It takes a starting proc
+ * (`begin_proc`) and a pointer to the initial instruction (`iseq`) within
+ * that proc's instruction sequence. It then enters a loop, fetching and
+ * dispatching bytecode operations until an OP_STOP instruction is encountered,
+ * an exception occurs, or a C function call returns.
+ *
+ * This function handles the low-level details of instruction decoding,
+ * stack manipulation, exception handling (try/catch blocks within mruby code),
+ * and calling C functions or other mruby methods.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param begin_proc The initial RProc whose bytecode is to be executed.
+ *                   While the name suggests it's the "beginning" proc,
+ *                   execution might involve other procs called from this one.
+ * @param iseq A pointer to the first bytecode instruction to execute within
+ *             `begin_proc`'s instruction sequence.
+ * @return The result of the execution. This could be the return value of
+ *         the executed Ruby code, an exception object if an unhandled
+ *         exception occurred, or the result of a fiber switch.
+ * @note This function is highly complex and central to mruby's operation.
+ *       It uses a jump table (`optable`) for efficient instruction dispatch
+ *       when not using switch-based dispatch. It also manages the callinfo
+ *       stack (`ci`) for tracking method/block calls.
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_vm_exec(mrb_state *mrb, const struct RProc *begin_proc, const mrb_code *iseq)
+{
+  /* mrb_assert(MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(begin_proc)) */
+  const mrb_irep *irep = begin_proc->body.irep;
+  mrb_code insn;
+  int ai = mrb_gc_arena_save(mrb);
+  struct mrb_jmpbuf *prev_jmp = mrb->jmp;
+  struct mrb_jmpbuf c_jmp;
+  uint32_t a;
+  uint16_t b;
+  uint16_t c;
+  mrb_sym mid;
+  struct RClass *tc;  /* target class for OP_TDEF/OP_SDEF */
+  const struct mrb_irep_catch_handler *ch;
+
+#ifndef MRB_USE_VM_SWITCH_DISPATCH
+  static const void * const optable[] = {
+#define OPCODE(x,_) &&L_OP_ ## x,
+#include <mruby/ops.h>
+#undef OPCODE
+  };
+#endif
+
+  mrb->exc = NULL;
+
+  mrb_callinfo *ci = mrb->c->ci;
+  CI_PROC_SET(ci, begin_proc);
+  ci->pc = iseq;
+
+RETRY_TRY_BLOCK:
+
+  MRB_TRY(&c_jmp) {
+
+  if (mrb_unlikely(mrb->exc)) {
+    mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+    if (mrb->exc->tt == MRB_TT_BREAK)
+      goto L_BREAK;
+    goto L_RAISE;
+  }
+  /* Intentionally store stack variable address for exception handling.
+   * This is safe because the pointer is cleared before function returns.
+   * Suppress GCC 12+ warning about dangling pointer. */
+#if defined(__GNUC__) && !defined(__clang__)
+  #if __GNUC__ >= 12
+    #pragma GCC diagnostic push
+    #pragma GCC diagnostic ignored "-Wdangling-pointer"
+  #endif
+#endif
+  mrb->jmp = &c_jmp;
+#if defined(__GNUC__) && !defined(__clang__)
+  #if __GNUC__ >= 12
+    #pragma GCC diagnostic pop
+  #endif
+#endif
+
+  INIT_DISPATCH {
+    CASE(OP_NOP, Z) {
+      /* do nothing */
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_MOVE, BB) {
+      regs[a] = regs[b];
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADL, BB) {
+      switch (irep->pool[b].tt) {   /* number */
+      case IREP_TT_INT32:
+        regs[a] = mrb_int_value(mrb, (mrb_int)irep->pool[b].u.i32);
+        break;
+      case IREP_TT_INT64:
+#if defined(MRB_INT64)
+        regs[a] = mrb_int_value(mrb, (mrb_int)irep->pool[b].u.i64);
+        break;
+#else
+#if defined(MRB_64BIT)
+        if (INT32_MIN <= irep->pool[b].u.i64 && irep->pool[b].u.i64 <= INT32_MAX) {
+          regs[a] = mrb_int_value(mrb, (mrb_int)irep->pool[b].u.i64);
+          break;
+        }
+#endif
+        goto L_INT_OVERFLOW;
+#endif
+      case IREP_TT_BIGINT:
+#ifdef MRB_USE_BIGINT
+        {
+          const char *s = irep->pool[b].u.str;
+          regs[a] = mrb_bint_new_str(mrb, s+2, (uint8_t)s[0], (int8_t)s[1]);
+        }
+        break;
+#else
+        goto L_INT_OVERFLOW;
+#endif
+#ifndef MRB_NO_FLOAT
+      case IREP_TT_FLOAT:
+        regs[a] = mrb_float_value(mrb, irep->pool[b].u.f);
+        break;
+#endif
+      default:
+        /* should not happen (tt:string) */
+        regs[a] = mrb_nil_value();
+        break;
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADI8, BB) {
+      SET_FIXNUM_VALUE(regs[a], b);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADINEG, BB) {
+      SET_FIXNUM_VALUE(regs[a], -b);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADI__1,B) goto L_LOADI;
+    CASE(OP_LOADI_0,B) goto L_LOADI;
+    CASE(OP_LOADI_1,B) goto L_LOADI;
+    CASE(OP_LOADI_2,B) goto L_LOADI;
+    CASE(OP_LOADI_3,B) goto L_LOADI;
+    CASE(OP_LOADI_4,B) goto L_LOADI;
+    CASE(OP_LOADI_5,B) goto L_LOADI;
+    CASE(OP_LOADI_6,B) goto L_LOADI;
+    CASE(OP_LOADI_7, B) {
+    L_LOADI:
+      SET_FIXNUM_VALUE(regs[a], (mrb_int)insn - (mrb_int)OP_LOADI_0);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADI16, BS) {
+      SET_FIXNUM_VALUE(regs[a], (mrb_int)(int16_t)b);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADI32, BSS) {
+      SET_INT_VALUE(mrb, regs[a], (int32_t)(((uint32_t)b<<16)+c));
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADSYM, BB) {
+      SET_SYM_VALUE(regs[a], irep->syms[b]);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADNIL, B) {
+      SET_NIL_VALUE(regs[a]);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADSELF, B) {
+      regs[a] = regs[0];
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADTRUE, B) {
+      SET_TRUE_VALUE(regs[a]);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LOADFALSE, B) {
+      SET_FALSE_VALUE(regs[a]);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETGV, BB) {
+      mrb_value val = mrb_gv_get(mrb, irep->syms[b]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = val;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SETGV, BB) {
+      mrb_gv_set(mrb, irep->syms[b], regs[a]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETSV, BB) {
+      mrb_value val = mrb_vm_special_get(mrb, irep->syms[b]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = val;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SETSV, BB) {
+      mrb_vm_special_set(mrb, irep->syms[b], regs[a]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETIV, BB) {
+      regs[a] = mrb_iv_get(mrb, regs[0], irep->syms[b]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SETIV, BB) {
+      mrb_iv_set(mrb, regs[0], irep->syms[b], regs[a]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETCV, BB) {
+      mrb_value val;
+      val = mrb_vm_cv_get(mrb, irep->syms[b]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = val;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SETCV, BB) {
+      mrb_vm_cv_set(mrb, irep->syms[b], regs[a]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETIDX, B) {
+      mrb_value va = regs[a], vb = regs[a+1];
+      enum mrb_vtype tt = mrb_type(va);
+
+      /* Array case is most common - check first with branch hint */
+      if (mrb_likely(tt == MRB_TT_ARRAY)) {
+        struct RArray *ary = mrb_ary_ptr(va);
+        /* optimize only for Array class; subclasses/singleton may override [] */
+        if (mrb_unlikely(ary->c != mrb->array_class)) goto getidx_fallback;
+        if (mrb_likely(mrb_integer_p(vb))) {
+          mrb_int idx = mrb_integer(vb);
+          mrb_int len;
+          mrb_value *ptr;
+
+          /* Single ARY_EMBED_P check instead of two */
+          if (ARY_EMBED_P(ary)) {
+            len = ARY_EMBED_LEN(ary);
+            ptr = ary->as.ary;
+          }
+          else {
+            len = ary->as.heap.len;
+            ptr = ary->as.heap.ptr;
+          }
+
+          /* Unsigned comparison: handles negative idx as large positive */
+          if (mrb_likely((mrb_uint)idx < (mrb_uint)len)) {
+            regs[a] = ptr[idx];
+          }
+          else {
+            regs[a] = mrb_ary_entry(va, idx);
+          }
+          NEXT;
+        }
+        goto getidx_fallback;
+      }
+      else if (tt == MRB_TT_HASH) {
+        /* optimize only for Hash class; subclasses/singleton may override [] */
+        if (mrb_obj_ptr(va)->c != mrb->hash_class) goto getidx_fallback;
+        va = mrb_hash_get(mrb, va, vb);
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+        regs[a] = va;
+        NEXT;
+      }
+      else if (tt == MRB_TT_STRING) {
+        /* optimize only for String class; subclasses/singleton may override [] */
+        if (mrb_obj_ptr(va)->c != mrb->string_class) goto getidx_fallback;
+        switch (mrb_type(vb)) {
+        case MRB_TT_INTEGER:
+        case MRB_TT_STRING:
+        case MRB_TT_RANGE:
+          va = mrb_str_aref(mrb, va, vb, mrb_undef_value());
+          regs[a] = va;
+          NEXT;
+        default:
+          break;
+        }
+      }
+    getidx_fallback:
+      mid = MRB_OPSYM(aref);
+      goto L_SEND_SYM;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETIDX0, BB) {
+      mrb_value recv = regs[b];
+      enum mrb_vtype tt = mrb_type(recv);
+
+      if (mrb_likely(tt == MRB_TT_ARRAY)) {
+        struct RArray *ary = mrb_ary_ptr(recv);
+        if (mrb_unlikely(ary->c != mrb->array_class)) goto getidx0_fallback;
+        if (ARY_EMBED_P(ary)) {
+          regs[a] = ARY_EMBED_LEN(ary) > 0 ? ary->as.ary[0] : mrb_nil_value();
+        }
+        else {
+          regs[a] = ary->as.heap.len > 0 ? ary->as.heap.ptr[0] : mrb_nil_value();
+        }
+        NEXT;
+      }
+      else if (tt == MRB_TT_HASH) {
+        if (mrb_obj_ptr(recv)->c != mrb->hash_class) goto getidx0_fallback;
+        regs[a] = mrb_hash_get(mrb, recv, mrb_fixnum_value(0));
+        NEXT;
+      }
+    getidx0_fallback:
+      regs[a] = recv;
+      SET_FIXNUM_VALUE(regs[a+1], 0);
+      mid = MRB_OPSYM(aref);
+      goto L_SEND_SYM;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SETIDX, B) {
+      mrb_value va = regs[a], vb = regs[a+1], vc = regs[a+2];
+      switch (mrb_type(va)) {
+      case MRB_TT_ARRAY:
+        /* optimize only for Array class; subclasses/singleton may override []= */
+        if (mrb_obj_ptr(va)->c != mrb->array_class) goto setidx_fallback;
+        if (!mrb_integer_p(vb)) goto setidx_fallback;
+        mrb_ary_set(mrb, va, mrb_integer(vb), vc);
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+        regs[a] = vc;
+        NEXT;
+      case MRB_TT_HASH:
+        /* optimize only for Hash class; subclasses/singleton may override []= */
+        if (mrb_obj_ptr(va)->c != mrb->hash_class) goto setidx_fallback;
+        mrb_hash_set(mrb, va, vb, vc);
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+        regs[a] = vc;
+        NEXT;
+      default:
+      setidx_fallback:
+        c = 2;
+        mid = MRB_OPSYM(aset);
+        SET_NIL_VALUE(regs[a+3]);
+        goto L_SENDB_SYM;
+      }
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETCONST, BB) {
+      mrb_value v = mrb_vm_const_get(mrb, irep->syms[b]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = v;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SETCONST, BB) {
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      struct RClass *c = MRB_PROC_TARGET_CLASS(ci->proc);
+      if (!c) c = mrb->object_class;
+      mrb_const_set(mrb, mrb_obj_value(c), irep->syms[b], regs[a]);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETMCNST, BB) {
+      mrb_value v = mrb_const_get(mrb, regs[a], irep->syms[b]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = v;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SETMCNST, BB) {
+      mrb_const_set(mrb, regs[a+1], irep->syms[b], regs[a]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GETUPVAR, BBB) {
+      struct REnv *e = uvenv(mrb, c);
+
+      if (e && b < MRB_ENV_LEN(e)) {
+        regs[a] = e->stack[b];
+      }
+      else {
+        regs[a] = mrb_nil_value();
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SETUPVAR, BBB) {
+      struct REnv *e = uvenv(mrb, c);
+
+      if (e) {
+        if (b < MRB_ENV_LEN(e)) {
+          e->stack[b] = regs[a];
+          mrb_write_barrier(mrb, (struct RBasic*)e);
+        }
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_JMP, S) {
+      ci->pc += (int16_t)a;
+      JUMP;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_JMPIF, BS) {
+      if (mrb_test(regs[a])) {
+        ci->pc += (int16_t)b;
+        JUMP;
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_JMPNOT, BS) {
+      if (!mrb_test(regs[a])) {
+        ci->pc += (int16_t)b;
+        JUMP;
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_JMPNIL, BS) {
+      if (mrb_nil_p(regs[a])) {
+        ci->pc += (int16_t)b;
+        JUMP;
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_JMPUW, S) {
+      a = (uint32_t)((ci->pc - irep->iseq) + (int16_t)a);
+      CHECKPOINT_RESTORE(RBREAK_TAG_JUMP) {
+        struct RBreak *brk = (struct RBreak*)mrb->exc;
+        mrb_value target = mrb_break_value_get(brk);
+        mrb_assert(mrb_integer_p(target));
+        a = (uint32_t)mrb_integer(target);
+        mrb_assert(a >= 0 && a < irep->ilen);
+      }
+      CHECKPOINT_MAIN(RBREAK_TAG_JUMP) {
+        if (irep->clen > 0 &&
+            (ch = catch_handler_find(irep, ci->pc, MRB_CATCH_FILTER_ENSURE))) {
+          /* avoiding a jump from a catch handler into the same handler */
+          if (a < mrb_irep_catch_handler_unpack(ch->begin) || a > mrb_irep_catch_handler_unpack(ch->end)) {
+            THROW_TAGGED_BREAK(mrb, RBREAK_TAG_JUMP, mrb->c->ci, mrb_fixnum_value(a));
+          }
+        }
+      }
+      CHECKPOINT_END(RBREAK_TAG_JUMP);
+
+      mrb->exc = NULL; /* clear break object */
+      ci->pc = irep->iseq + a;
+      JUMP;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_EXCEPT, B) {
+      mrb_value exc;
+
+      if (mrb->exc == NULL) {
+        exc = mrb_nil_value();
+      }
+      else {
+        switch (mrb->exc->tt) {
+        case MRB_TT_BREAK:
+        case MRB_TT_EXCEPTION:
+          exc = mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc);
+          break;
+        default:
+          mrb_assert(!"bad mrb_type");
+          exc = mrb_nil_value();
+          break;
+        }
+        mrb->exc = NULL;
+      }
+      regs[a] = exc;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_RESCUE, BB) {
+      mrb_value exc = regs[a];  /* exc on stack */
+      mrb_value e = regs[b];
+      struct RClass *ec;
+
+      switch (mrb_type(e)) {
+      case MRB_TT_CLASS:
+      case MRB_TT_MODULE:
+        break;
+      default:
+        RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_TYPE_ERROR, "class or module required for rescue clause");
+      }
+      ec = mrb_class_ptr(e);
+      regs[b] = mrb_bool_value(mrb_obj_is_kind_of(mrb, exc, ec));
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_RAISEIF, B) {
+      mrb_value exc;
+      exc = regs[a];
+      if (mrb_likely(mrb_nil_p(exc))) {
+        mrb->exc = NULL;
+      }
+      else if (mrb_break_p(exc)) {
+        struct RBreak *brk;
+        mrb->exc = mrb_obj_ptr(exc);
+      L_BREAK:
+        brk = (struct RBreak*)mrb->exc;
+        switch (mrb_break_tag_get(brk)) {
+#define DISPATCH_CHECKPOINTS(n, i) case n: goto CHECKPOINT_LABEL_MAKE(n);
+          RBREAK_TAG_FOREACH(DISPATCH_CHECKPOINTS)
+#undef DISPATCH_CHECKPOINTS
+          default:
+            mrb_assert(!"wrong break tag");
+        }
+      }
+      else {
+        mrb_exc_set(mrb, exc);
+      L_RAISE:
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+        while (!ci->proc || MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(ci->proc) || !(irep = ci->proc->body.irep) || irep->clen < 1 ||
+               (ch = catch_handler_find(irep, ci->pc, MRB_CATCH_FILTER_ALL)) == NULL) {
+          if (ci != mrb->c->cibase) {
+            ci = cipop(mrb);
+            if (ci[1].cci == CINFO_SKIP) {
+              mrb_assert(prev_jmp != NULL);
+              mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+              MRB_THROW(prev_jmp);
+            }
+          }
+          else if (mrb->c == mrb->root_c) {
+            ci->stack = mrb->c->stbase;
+            mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+            return mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc);
+          }
+          else {
+            struct mrb_context *c = mrb->c;
+
+            fiber_terminate(mrb, c, ci);
+            if (mrb_unlikely(!c->vmexec)) goto L_RAISE;
+            mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+            if (!prev_jmp) return mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc);
+            MRB_THROW(prev_jmp);
+          }
+        }
+
+        if (FALSE) {
+        L_CATCH_TAGGED_BREAK: /* from THROW_TAGGED_BREAK() or UNWIND_ENSURE() */
+          ci = mrb->c->ci;
+        }
+        irep = ci->proc->body.irep;
+        stack_extend(mrb, irep->nregs);
+        ci->pc = irep->iseq + mrb_irep_catch_handler_unpack(ch->target);
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_MATCHERR, B) {
+      if (mrb_unlikely(!mrb_test(regs[a]))) {
+        RAISE_LIT(mrb, mrb_exc_get_id(mrb, MRB_ERROR_SYM(NoMatchingPatternError)), "pattern not matched");
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SSEND, BBB) {
+      regs[a] = regs[0];
+    }
+    goto L_SENDB;
+
+    CASE(OP_SSEND0, BB) {
+      regs[a] = regs[0];
+      c = 0;
+    }
+    goto L_SENDB;
+
+    CASE(OP_SSENDB, BBB) {
+      regs[a] = regs[0];
+    }
+    goto L_SENDB;
+
+    CASE(OP_SEND, BBB)
+    goto L_SENDB;
+
+    CASE(OP_SEND0, BB) {
+      c = 0;
+    }
+    goto L_SENDB;
+
+    L_SEND_SYM:
+    c = 1;
+    /* push nil after arguments */
+    SET_NIL_VALUE(regs[a+2]);
+    goto L_SENDB_SYM;
+
+    CASE(OP_SENDB, BBB)
+    L_SENDB:
+    mid = irep->syms[b];
+    L_SENDB_SYM:
+    {
+      mrb_method_t m;
+      mrb_value recv, blk;
+      mrb_int bidx, new_bidx;
+
+      if (mrb_likely(c < CALL_MAXARGS)) {
+        /* fast path limited to fixed length arguments of less than 15 */
+        bidx = a + c + 1 /* self */;
+        new_bidx = bidx;
+      }
+      else {
+        int n = c&0xf;
+        int nk = (c>>4)&0xf;
+        bidx = a + mrb_bidx(n,nk);
+        new_bidx = bidx;
+        if (nk == CALL_MAXARGS) {
+          mrb_ensure_hash_type(mrb, regs[a+(n==CALL_MAXARGS?1:n)+1]);
+        }
+        else if (nk > 0) {  /* pack keyword arguments */
+          mrb_int kidx = a+(n==CALL_MAXARGS?1:n)+1;
+          mrb_value kdict = hash_new_from_regs(mrb, nk, kidx);
+          ci = mrb->c->ci;
+          regs[kidx] = kdict;
+          nk = CALL_MAXARGS;
+          c = n | (nk<<4);
+          new_bidx = a+mrb_bidx(n, nk);
+        }
+      }
+
+      mrb_assert(bidx < irep->nregs);
+      if (insn == OP_SEND || insn == OP_SEND0 || insn == OP_SSEND || insn == OP_SSEND0) {
+        /* clear block argument */
+        SET_NIL_VALUE(regs[new_bidx]);
+        SET_NIL_VALUE(blk);
+      }
+      else {
+        blk = ensure_block(mrb, regs[bidx]);
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+        regs[new_bidx] = blk;
+      }
+
+      ci = cipush(mrb, a, CINFO_DIRECT, NULL, NULL, BLK_PTR(blk), 0, c);
+      recv = regs[0];
+      ci->u.target_class = (insn == OP_SUPER) ? CI_TARGET_CLASS(ci - 1)->super : mrb_class(mrb, recv);
+      m = mrb_vm_find_method(mrb, ci->u.target_class, &ci->u.target_class, mid);
+      if (mrb_unlikely(MRB_METHOD_UNDEF_P(m))) {
+        m = prepare_missing(mrb, ci, recv, mid, blk, (insn == OP_SUPER));
+      }
+      else {
+        ci->mid = mid;
+      }
+      if (insn == OP_SEND || insn == OP_SEND0 || insn == OP_SENDB) {
+        mrb_bool priv = TRUE;
+        if (m.flags & MRB_METHOD_PRIVATE_FL) {
+        vis_err:;
+          mrb_value args = (ci->n == 15) ? regs[1] : mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, ci->n, regs+1);
+          vis_error(mrb, mid, args, recv, priv);
+        }
+        else if ((m.flags & MRB_METHOD_PROTECTED_FL) && mrb_obj_is_kind_of(mrb, recv, ci->u.target_class)) {
+          priv = FALSE;
+          goto vis_err;
+        }
+      }
+      ci->cci = CINFO_NONE;
+
+      if (MRB_METHOD_PROC_P(m)) {
+        const struct RProc *p = MRB_METHOD_PROC(m);
+        /* handle alias */
+        MRB_PROC_RESOLVE_ALIAS(ci, p);
+        CI_PROC_SET(ci, p);
+        if (!MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p)) {
+          /* setup environment for calling method */
+          irep = p->body.irep;
+          stack_extend(mrb, (irep->nregs < 4) ? 4 : irep->nregs);
+          ci->pc = irep->iseq;
+          JUMP;
+        }
+        else {
+          if (MRB_PROC_NOARG_P(p) && (ci->n > 0 || ci->nk > 0)) {
+            check_argument_count(mrb, ci, 0);
+          }
+          recv = MRB_PROC_CFUNC(p)(mrb, recv);
+        }
+      }
+      else {
+        check_argument_count(mrb, ci, MRB_MT_ASPEC(m.flags));
+        recv = MRB_METHOD_FUNC(m)(mrb, recv);
+      }
+
+      /* cfunc epilogue */
+      mrb_gc_arena_shrink(mrb, ai);
+      if (mrb_unlikely(mrb->exc)) goto L_RAISE;
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      if (!ci->u.keep_context) { /* return from context modifying method (resume/yield) */
+        if (ci->cci == CINFO_RESUMED) {
+          mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+          return recv;
+        }
+        else {
+          mrb_assert(!MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(ci[-1].proc));
+          irep = ci[-1].proc->body.irep;
+        }
+      }
+      mrb_assert(ci > mrb->c->cibase);
+      ci->stack[0] = recv;
+      /* pop stackpos */
+      ci = cipop(mrb);
+      JUMP;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_CALL, Z) {
+      mrb_value recv = ci->stack[0];
+      const struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_ptr(recv);
+
+      /* handle alias */
+      MRB_PROC_RESOLVE_ALIAS(ci, p);
+      if (MRB_PROC_ENV_P(p)) {
+        ci->mid = MRB_PROC_ENV(p)->mid;
+      }
+      /* replace callinfo */
+      ci->u.target_class = MRB_PROC_TARGET_CLASS(p);
+      CI_PROC_SET(ci, p);
+
+      /* prepare stack */
+      if (MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p)) {
+        recv = MRB_PROC_CFUNC(p)(mrb, recv);
+        mrb_gc_arena_shrink(mrb, ai);
+        if (mrb_unlikely(mrb->exc)) goto L_RAISE;
+        /* pop stackpos */
+        ci = cipop(mrb);
+        ci[1].stack[0] = recv;
+        irep = ci->proc->body.irep;
+      }
+      else {
+        /* setup environment for calling method */
+        irep = p->body.irep;
+        if (!irep) {
+          ci->stack[0] = mrb_nil_value();
+          a = 0;
+          goto L_OP_RETURN_BODY;
+        }
+        mrb_int nargs = ci_bidx(ci)+1;
+        if (nargs < irep->nregs) {
+          stack_extend(mrb, irep->nregs);
+          stack_clear(regs+nargs, irep->nregs-nargs);
+        }
+        if (MRB_PROC_ENV_P(p)) {
+          regs[0] = MRB_PROC_ENV(p)->stack[0];
+        }
+        ci->pc = irep->iseq;
+      }
+      JUMP;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_BLKCALL, BB) {
+      /* Direct block call: R[a] = R[a].call(R[a+1],...,R[a+b]) */
+      /* Skip method dispatch - directly invoke the proc */
+      mrb_value recv = regs[a];
+      const struct RProc *p;
+
+      if (mrb_unlikely(!mrb_proc_p(recv))) {
+        mrb_raisef(mrb, E_TYPE_ERROR, "wrong type %T (expected Proc)", recv);
+      }
+      p = mrb_proc_ptr(recv);
+
+      /* push callinfo */
+      ci = cipush(mrb, a, CINFO_DIRECT, NULL, NULL, NULL, 0, b);
+      ci->cci = CINFO_NONE;  /* mark as VM-to-VM call for proper break handling */
+
+      /* handle alias */
+      MRB_PROC_RESOLVE_ALIAS(ci, p);
+      if (MRB_PROC_ENV_P(p)) {
+        ci->mid = MRB_PROC_ENV(p)->mid;
+      }
+      ci->u.target_class = MRB_PROC_TARGET_CLASS(p);
+      CI_PROC_SET(ci, p);
+
+      if (MRB_PROC_CFUNC_P(p)) {
+        recv = MRB_PROC_CFUNC(p)(mrb, recv);
+        mrb_gc_arena_shrink(mrb, ai);
+        if (mrb_unlikely(mrb->exc)) goto L_RAISE;
+        ci = cipop(mrb);
+        ci[1].stack[0] = recv;
+        irep = ci->proc->body.irep;
+      }
+      else {
+        irep = p->body.irep;
+        if (!irep) {
+          ci->stack[0] = mrb_nil_value();
+          a = 0;
+          goto L_OP_RETURN_BODY;
+        }
+        mrb_int nargs = b + 1;  /* args + self */
+        if (nargs < irep->nregs) {
+          stack_extend(mrb, irep->nregs);
+          stack_clear(regs+nargs, irep->nregs-nargs);
+        }
+        if (MRB_PROC_ENV_P(p)) {
+          regs[0] = MRB_PROC_ENV(p)->stack[0];
+        }
+        ci->pc = irep->iseq;
+      }
+      JUMP;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SUPER, BB) {
+      mrb_value recv;
+      struct RClass* target_class = CI_TARGET_CLASS(ci);
+
+      mid = ci->mid;
+      if (mid == 0 || !target_class) {
+        RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_NOMETHOD_ERROR, "super called outside of method");
+      }
+      if ((target_class->flags & MRB_FL_CLASS_IS_PREPENDED) || target_class->tt == MRB_TT_MODULE) {
+        goto super_typeerror;
+      }
+      recv = regs[0];
+      if (!mrb_obj_is_kind_of(mrb, recv, target_class)) {
+      super_typeerror:
+        RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_TYPE_ERROR, "self has wrong type to call super in this context");
+      }
+
+      c = b; // arg info
+      regs[a] = recv;
+      goto L_SENDB_SYM;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ARGARY, BS) {
+      mrb_int m1 = (b>>11)&0x3f;
+      mrb_int r  = (b>>10)&0x1;
+      mrb_int m2 = (b>>5)&0x1f;
+      mrb_int kd = (b>>4)&0x1;
+      mrb_int lv = (b>>0)&0xf;
+      mrb_value *stack;
+
+      if (ci->mid == 0 || CI_TARGET_CLASS(ci) == NULL) {
+      L_NOSUPER:
+        RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_NOMETHOD_ERROR, "super called outside of method");
+      }
+      if (lv == 0) stack = regs + 1;
+      else {
+        struct REnv *e = uvenv(mrb, lv-1);
+        if (!e) goto L_NOSUPER;
+        if (MRB_ENV_LEN(e) <= m1+r+m2+1)
+          goto L_NOSUPER;
+        stack = e->stack + 1;
+      }
+      if (r == 0) {
+        regs[a] = mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, m1+m2, stack);
+      }
+      else {
+        mrb_value *pp = NULL;
+        struct RArray *rest;
+        mrb_int len = 0;
+
+        if (mrb_array_p(stack[m1])) {
+          struct RArray *ary = mrb_ary_ptr(stack[m1]);
+
+          pp = ARY_PTR(ary);
+          len = ARY_LEN(ary);
+        }
+        regs[a] = mrb_ary_new_capa(mrb, m1+len+m2);
+        rest = mrb_ary_ptr(regs[a]);
+        if (m1 > 0) {
+          stack_copy(ARY_PTR(rest), stack, m1);
+        }
+        if (len > 0) {
+          stack_copy(ARY_PTR(rest)+m1, pp, len);
+        }
+        if (m2 > 0) {
+          stack_copy(ARY_PTR(rest)+m1+len, stack+m1+1, m2);
+        }
+        ARY_SET_LEN(rest, m1+len+m2);
+      }
+      if (kd) {
+        regs[a+1] = stack[m1+r+m2];
+        regs[a+2] = stack[m1+r+m2+1];
+      }
+      else {
+        regs[a+1] = stack[m1+r+m2];
+      }
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ENTER, W) {
+      mrb_int argc = ci->n;
+      mrb_value *argv = regs+1;
+
+      mrb_int m1 = MRB_ASPEC_REQ(a);
+
+       /* no other args */
+      if ((a & ~0x7c0001) == 0 && argc < 15 && MRB_PROC_STRICT_P(ci->proc)) {
+        if (mrb_unlikely(argc+(ci->nk==15) != m1)) { /* count kdict too */
+          argnum_error(mrb, m1);
+          goto L_RAISE;
+        }
+        /* clear local (but non-argument) variables */
+        mrb_int pos = m1+2;     /* self+m1+blk */
+        if (irep->nlocals-pos  > 0) {
+          stack_clear(&regs[pos], irep->nlocals-pos);
+        }
+        NEXT;
+      }
+
+      mrb_int o  = MRB_ASPEC_OPT(a);
+      mrb_int r  = MRB_ASPEC_REST(a);
+      mrb_int m2 = MRB_ASPEC_POST(a);
+      mrb_int kd = (MRB_ASPEC_KEY(a) > 0 || MRB_ASPEC_KDICT(a))? 1 : 0;
+      /* unused
+      int b  = MRB_ASPEC_BLOCK(a);
+      */
+      mrb_int const len = m1 + o + r + m2;
+
+      mrb_value * const argv0 = argv;
+      mrb_value blk = regs[ci_bidx(ci)];
+
+      /* &nil: reject block */
+      if (MRB_ASPEC_NOBLOCK(a) && !mrb_nil_p(blk)) {
+        RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, "no block accepted");
+      }
+
+      mrb_value kdict = mrb_nil_value();
+
+      /* keyword arguments */
+      if (ci->nk == 15) {
+        kdict = regs[mrb_ci_kidx(ci)];
+      }
+      if (!kd) {
+        if (!mrb_nil_p(kdict) && mrb_hash_p(kdict) && mrb_hash_size(mrb, kdict) > 0) {
+          if (argc < 14) {
+            ci->n++;
+            argc++;    /* include kdict in normal arguments */
+          }
+          else if (argc == 14) {
+            /* pack arguments and kdict */
+            regs[1] = ary_new_from_regs(mrb, argc+1, 1);
+            argc = ci->n = 15;
+          }
+          else {/* argc == 15 */
+            /* push kdict to packed arguments */
+            mrb_ary_push(mrb, regs[1], kdict);
+          }
+        }
+        kdict = mrb_nil_value();
+        ci->nk = 0;
+      }
+      else if (!mrb_nil_p(kdict)) {
+        mrb_gc_protect(mrb, kdict);
+      }
+
+      /* arguments is passed with Array */
+      if (argc == 15) {
+        struct RArray *ary = mrb_ary_ptr(regs[1]);
+        argv = ARY_PTR(ary);
+        argc = (int)ARY_LEN(ary);
+        mrb_gc_protect(mrb, regs[1]);
+      }
+
+      /* strict argument check */
+      if (ci->proc && MRB_PROC_STRICT_P(ci->proc)) {
+        if (mrb_unlikely(argc < m1 + m2 || (r == 0 && argc > len))) {
+          argnum_error(mrb, m1+m2);
+          goto L_RAISE;
+        }
+      }
+      /* extract first argument array to arguments */
+      else if (len > 1 && argc == 1 && mrb_array_p(argv[0])) {
+        mrb_gc_protect(mrb, argv[0]);
+        argc = (int)RARRAY_LEN(argv[0]);
+        argv = RARRAY_PTR(argv[0]);
+      }
+
+      /* rest arguments */
+      mrb_value rest;
+      if (argc < len) {
+        mrb_int mlen = m2;
+        if (argc < m1+m2) {
+          mlen = m1 < argc ? argc - m1 : 0;
+        }
+
+        /* copy mandatory and optional arguments */
+        if (argv0 != argv && argv) {
+          value_move(&regs[1], argv, argc-mlen); /* m1 + o */
+        }
+        if (argc < m1) {
+          stack_clear(&regs[argc+1], m1-argc);
+        }
+        /* copy post mandatory arguments */
+        if (mlen) {
+          value_move(&regs[len-m2+1], &argv[argc-mlen], mlen);
+        }
+        if (mlen < m2) {
+          stack_clear(&regs[len-m2+mlen+1], m2-mlen);
+        }
+        /* initialize rest arguments with empty Array */
+        if (r) {
+          rest = mrb_ary_new_capa(mrb, 0);
+          regs[m1+o+1] = rest;
+        }
+        /* skip initializer of passed arguments */
+        if (o > 0 && argc > m1+m2)
+          ci->pc += (argc - m1 - m2)*3;
+      }
+      else {
+        mrb_int rnum = 0;
+        if (argv0 != argv) {
+          mrb_gc_protect(mrb, blk);
+          value_move(&regs[1], argv, m1+o);
+        }
+        if (r) {
+          rnum = argc-m1-o-m2;
+          rest = mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, rnum, argv+m1+o);
+          regs[m1+o+1] = rest;
+        }
+        if (m2 > 0 && argc-m2 > m1) {
+          value_move(&regs[m1+o+r+1], &argv[m1+o+rnum], m2);
+        }
+        ci->pc += o*3;
+      }
+
+      /* need to be update blk first to protect blk from GC */
+      mrb_int const kw_pos = len + kd;    /* where kwhash should be */
+      mrb_int const blk_pos = kw_pos + 1; /* where block should be */
+      regs[blk_pos] = blk;                /* move block */
+      if (kd) {
+        if (mrb_nil_p(kdict)) {
+          kdict = mrb_hash_new_capa(mrb, 0);
+        }
+        regs[kw_pos] = kdict;             /* set kwhash */
+        ci->nk = 15;
+      }
+
+      /* format arguments for generated code */
+      ci->n = (uint8_t)len;
+
+      /* clear local (but non-argument) variables */
+      if (irep->nlocals-blk_pos-1 > 0) {
+        stack_clear(&regs[blk_pos+1], irep->nlocals-blk_pos-1);
+      }
+      JUMP;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_KARG, BB) {
+      mrb_value k = mrb_symbol_value(irep->syms[b]);
+      mrb_int kidx = mrb_ci_kidx(ci);
+      mrb_value kdict, v;
+
+      if (kidx < 0 || !mrb_hash_p(kdict=regs[kidx]) || !mrb_hash_key_p(mrb, kdict, k)) {
+        RAISE_FORMAT(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, "missing keyword: %v", k);
+      }
+      v = mrb_hash_get(mrb, kdict, k);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = v;
+      mrb_hash_delete_key(mrb, kdict, k);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_KEY_P, BB) {
+      mrb_value k = mrb_symbol_value(irep->syms[b]);
+      mrb_int kidx = mrb_ci_kidx(ci);
+      mrb_value kdict;
+      mrb_bool key_p = FALSE;
+
+      if (kidx >= 0 && mrb_hash_p(kdict=regs[kidx])) {
+        key_p = mrb_hash_key_p(mrb, kdict, k);
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      }
+      regs[a] = mrb_bool_value(key_p);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_KEYEND, Z) {
+      mrb_int kidx = mrb_ci_kidx(ci);
+      mrb_value kdict;
+
+      if (kidx >= 0 && mrb_hash_p(kdict=regs[kidx]) && !mrb_hash_empty_p(mrb, kdict)) {
+        mrb_value key1 = mrb_hash_first_key(mrb, kdict);
+        RAISE_FORMAT(mrb, E_ARGUMENT_ERROR, "unknown keyword: %v", key1);
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_BREAK, B) {
+      if (MRB_PROC_STRICT_P(ci->proc)) goto NORMAL_RETURN;
+      if (!MRB_PROC_ORPHAN_P(ci->proc) && MRB_PROC_ENV_P(ci->proc) && ci->proc->e.env->cxt == mrb->c) {
+        const struct RProc *dst = ci->proc->upper;
+        for (ptrdiff_t i = ci - mrb->c->cibase; i > 0; i--, ci--) {
+          if (ci[-1].proc == dst) {
+            goto L_UNWINDING;
+          }
+        }
+      }
+      RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_LOCALJUMP_ERROR, "break from proc-closure");
+      /* not reached */
+    }
+    CASE(OP_RETURN_BLK, B) {
+      if (!MRB_PROC_ENV_P(ci->proc) || MRB_PROC_STRICT_P(ci->proc)) {
+        goto NORMAL_RETURN;
+      }
+
+      const struct REnv *env = ci->u.env;
+      const struct RProc *dst = top_proc(mrb, ci->proc, &env);
+      if (!MRB_PROC_ENV_P(dst) || dst->e.env->cxt == mrb->c) {
+        /* check jump destination */
+        for (ptrdiff_t i = ci - mrb->c->cibase; i >= 0; i--, ci--) {
+          if (ci->u.env == env) {
+            goto L_UNWINDING;
+          }
+        }
+      }
+      /* no jump destination */
+      RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_LOCALJUMP_ERROR, "unexpected return");
+      /* not reached */
+    }
+    CASE(OP_RETSELF, Z) {
+      a = 0;
+      goto NORMAL_RETURN;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_RETNIL, Z) {
+      a = 0;
+      goto L_RETURN_NIL;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_RETTRUE, Z) {
+      a = 0;
+      goto L_RETURN_TRUE;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_RETFALSE, Z) {
+      a = 0;
+      goto L_RETURN_FALSE;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_RETURN, B) {
+      mrb_int acc;
+      mrb_value v;
+      mrb_callinfo *return_ci;
+
+    NORMAL_RETURN:
+      v = regs[a];
+      goto L_RETURN;
+    L_RETURN_NIL:
+      v = mrb_nil_value();
+      goto L_RETURN;
+    L_RETURN_TRUE:
+      v = mrb_true_value();
+      goto L_RETURN;
+    L_RETURN_FALSE:
+      v = mrb_false_value();
+    L_RETURN:
+      mrb_gc_protect(mrb, v);
+      return_ci = ci;
+      CHECKPOINT_RESTORE(RBREAK_TAG_BREAK) {
+        if (TRUE) {
+          struct RBreak *brk = (struct RBreak*)mrb->exc;
+          return_ci = &mrb->c->cibase[brk->ci_break_index];
+          v = mrb_break_value_get(brk);
+        }
+        else {
+        L_UNWINDING:
+          return_ci = ci;
+          ci = mrb->c->ci;
+          v = ci->stack[a];
+        }
+        mrb_gc_protect(mrb, v);
+      }
+      CHECKPOINT_MAIN(RBREAK_TAG_BREAK) {
+        for (;;) {
+          UNWIND_ENSURE(mrb, ci, ci->pc, RBREAK_TAG_BREAK, return_ci, v);
+
+          if (ci == return_ci) {
+            break;
+          }
+          ci = cipop(mrb);
+          if (ci[1].cci != CINFO_NONE) {
+            mrb_assert(prev_jmp != NULL);
+            mrb->exc = (struct RObject*)break_new(mrb, RBREAK_TAG_BREAK, return_ci, v);
+            mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+            mrb->c->vmexec = FALSE;
+            mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+            MRB_THROW(prev_jmp);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+      CHECKPOINT_END(RBREAK_TAG_BREAK);
+      mrb->exc = NULL; /* clear break object */
+
+      if (ci == mrb->c->cibase) {
+        struct mrb_context *c = mrb->c;
+        if (c == mrb->root_c) {
+          /* toplevel return */
+          mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+          mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+          return v;
+        }
+
+#ifdef MRB_USE_TASK_SCHEDULER
+        if (mrb->c->status == MRB_TASK_CREATED) {
+          mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+          mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+          TASK_STOP(mrb);
+          return v;
+        }
+#endif
+
+        fiber_terminate(mrb, c, ci);
+        if (c->vmexec ||
+            (mrb->c == mrb->root_c && mrb->c->ci == mrb->c->cibase) /* case using Fiber#transfer in mrb_fiber_resume() */) {
+          mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+          c->vmexec = FALSE;
+          mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+          return v;
+        }
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      }
+
+      if (mrb->c->vmexec && !ci->u.keep_context) {
+        mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+        mrb->c->vmexec = FALSE;
+        mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+        return v;
+      }
+      acc = ci->cci;
+      ci = cipop(mrb);
+      if (acc == CINFO_SKIP || acc == CINFO_DIRECT) {
+        mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+        mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+        return v;
+      }
+      DEBUG(fprintf(stderr, "from :%s\n", mrb_sym_name(mrb, ci->mid)));
+      irep = ci->proc->body.irep;
+
+      ci[1].stack[0] = v;
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      JUMP;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_BLKPUSH, BS) {
+      int m1 = (b>>11)&0x3f;
+      int r  = (b>>10)&0x1;
+      int m2 = (b>>5)&0x1f;
+      int kd = (b>>4)&0x1;
+      int lv = (b>>0)&0xf;
+      int offset = m1+r+m2+kd;
+      mrb_value *stack;
+
+      if (lv == 0) stack = regs + 1;
+      else {
+        struct REnv *e = uvenv(mrb, lv-1);
+        if (!e || (!MRB_ENV_ONSTACK_P(e) && e->mid == 0) ||
+            MRB_ENV_LEN(e) <= offset+1) {
+          RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_LOCALJUMP_ERROR, "unexpected yield");
+        }
+        stack = e->stack + 1;
+      }
+      if (mrb_nil_p(stack[offset])) {
+        RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_LOCALJUMP_ERROR, "unexpected yield");
+      }
+      regs[a] = stack[offset];
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+#if !defined(MRB_USE_BIGINT) || defined(MRB_INT32)
+  L_INT_OVERFLOW:
+    RAISE_LIT(mrb, E_RANGE_ERROR, "integer overflow");
+#endif
+
+#define TYPES2(a,b) ((((uint16_t)(a))<<8)|(((uint16_t)(b))&0xff))
+#define OP_MATH(op_name) do {                                               \
+  /* need to check if op is overridden */                                   \
+  uint16_t tt = TYPES2(mrb_type(regs[a]),mrb_type(regs[a+1]));              \
+  if (mrb_likely(tt == TYPES2(MRB_TT_INTEGER, MRB_TT_INTEGER))) {           \
+    mrb_int x = mrb_integer(regs[a]), y = mrb_integer(regs[a+1]), z;        \
+    if (mrb_int_##op_name##_overflow(x, y, &z)) {                           \
+      OP_MATH_OVERFLOW_INT(op_name,x,y);                                    \
+    }                                                                       \
+    else                                                                    \
+      SET_INT_VALUE(mrb,regs[a], z);                                        \
+  }                                                                         \
+  else switch (tt) {                                                        \
+    OP_MATH_CASE_FLOAT(op_name, integer, float);                            \
+    OP_MATH_CASE_FLOAT(op_name, float,  integer);                           \
+    OP_MATH_CASE_FLOAT(op_name, float,  float);                             \
+    OP_MATH_CASE_STRING_##op_name();                                        \
+    default:                                                                \
+      mid = MRB_OPSYM(op_name);                                             \
+      goto L_SEND_SYM;                                                      \
+  }                                                                         \
+} while(0);                                                                 \
+  NEXT;
+#define OP_MATH_CASE_INTEGER(op_name)                                       \
+  case TYPES2(MRB_TT_INTEGER, MRB_TT_INTEGER):                              \
+    {                                                                       \
+      mrb_int x = mrb_integer(regs[a]), y = mrb_integer(regs[a+1]), z;      \
+      if (mrb_int_##op_name##_overflow(x, y, &z)) {                         \
+        OP_MATH_OVERFLOW_INT(op_name,x,y);                                  \
+      }                                                                     \
+      else                                                                  \
+        SET_INT_VALUE(mrb,regs[a], z);                                      \
+    }                                                                       \
+    break
+#ifdef MRB_NO_FLOAT
+#define OP_MATH_CASE_FLOAT(op_name, t1, t2) (void)0
+#else
+#define OP_MATH_CASE_FLOAT(op_name, t1, t2)                                     \
+  case TYPES2(OP_MATH_TT_##t1, OP_MATH_TT_##t2):                                \
+    {                                                                           \
+      mrb_float z = mrb_##t1(regs[a]) OP_MATH_OP_##op_name mrb_##t2(regs[a+1]); \
+      SET_FLOAT_VALUE(mrb, regs[a], z);                                         \
+    }                                                                           \
+    break
+#endif
+#ifdef MRB_USE_BIGINT
+#define OP_MATH_OVERFLOW_INT(op,x,y) regs[a] = mrb_bint_##op##_ii(mrb,x,y)
+#else
+#define OP_MATH_OVERFLOW_INT(op,x,y) goto L_INT_OVERFLOW
+#endif
+#define OP_MATH_CASE_STRING_add()                                           \
+  case TYPES2(MRB_TT_STRING, MRB_TT_STRING):                                \
+    regs[a] = mrb_str_plus(mrb, regs[a], regs[a+1]);                        \
+    mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);                                          \
+    break
+#define OP_MATH_CASE_STRING_sub() (void)0
+#define OP_MATH_CASE_STRING_mul() (void)0
+#define OP_MATH_OP_add +
+#define OP_MATH_OP_sub -
+#define OP_MATH_OP_mul *
+#define OP_MATH_TT_integer MRB_TT_INTEGER
+#define OP_MATH_TT_float   MRB_TT_FLOAT
+
+    CASE(OP_ADD, B) {
+      OP_MATH(add);
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SUB, B) {
+      OP_MATH(sub);
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_MUL, B) {
+      OP_MATH(mul);
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_DIV, B) {
+#ifndef MRB_NO_FLOAT
+      mrb_float x, y, f;
+#endif
+
+      /* need to check if op is overridden */
+      switch (TYPES2(mrb_type(regs[a]),mrb_type(regs[a+1]))) {
+      case TYPES2(MRB_TT_INTEGER,MRB_TT_INTEGER):
+        {
+          mrb_int x = mrb_integer(regs[a]);
+          mrb_int y = mrb_integer(regs[a+1]);
+          regs[a] = mrb_div_int_value(mrb, x, y);
+        }
+        NEXT;
+#ifndef MRB_NO_FLOAT
+      case TYPES2(MRB_TT_INTEGER,MRB_TT_FLOAT):
+        x = (mrb_float)mrb_integer(regs[a]);
+        y = mrb_float(regs[a+1]);
+        break;
+      case TYPES2(MRB_TT_FLOAT,MRB_TT_INTEGER):
+        x = mrb_float(regs[a]);
+        y = (mrb_float)mrb_integer(regs[a+1]);
+        break;
+      case TYPES2(MRB_TT_FLOAT,MRB_TT_FLOAT):
+        x = mrb_float(regs[a]);
+        y = mrb_float(regs[a+1]);
+        break;
+#endif
+      default:
+        mid = MRB_OPSYM(div);
+        goto L_SEND_SYM;
+      }
+
+#ifndef MRB_NO_FLOAT
+      f = mrb_div_float(x, y);
+      SET_FLOAT_VALUE(mrb, regs[a], f);
+#endif
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+#define OP_MATHI(op_name) do {                                              \
+  /* need to check if op is overridden */                                   \
+  if (mrb_likely(mrb_integer_p(regs[a]))) {                                 \
+    mrb_int x = mrb_integer(regs[a]), y = (mrb_int)b, z;                    \
+    if (mrb_int_##op_name##_overflow(x, y, &z)) {                           \
+      OP_MATH_OVERFLOW_INT(op_name,x,y);                                    \
+    }                                                                       \
+    else                                                                    \
+      SET_INT_VALUE(mrb,regs[a], z);                                        \
+  }                                                                         \
+  else switch (mrb_type(regs[a])) {                                         \
+    OP_MATHI_CASE_FLOAT(op_name);                                           \
+    default:                                                                \
+      SET_INT_VALUE(mrb,regs[a+1], b);                                      \
+      mid = MRB_OPSYM(op_name);                                             \
+      goto L_SEND_SYM;                                                      \
+  }                                                                         \
+} while(0);                                                                 \
+  NEXT;
+#define OP_MATHI_CASE_INTEGER(op_name)                                      \
+  case MRB_TT_INTEGER:                                                      \
+    {                                                                       \
+      mrb_int x = mrb_integer(regs[a]), y = (mrb_int)b, z;                  \
+      if (mrb_int_##op_name##_overflow(x, y, &z)) {                         \
+        OP_MATH_OVERFLOW_INT(op_name,x,y);                                  \
+      }                                                                     \
+      else                                                                  \
+        SET_INT_VALUE(mrb,regs[a], z);                                      \
+    }                                                                       \
+    break
+#ifdef MRB_NO_FLOAT
+#define OP_MATHI_CASE_FLOAT(op_name) (void)0
+#else
+#define OP_MATHI_CASE_FLOAT(op_name)                                        \
+  case MRB_TT_FLOAT:                                                        \
+    {                                                                       \
+      mrb_float z = mrb_float(regs[a]) OP_MATH_OP_##op_name b;              \
+      SET_FLOAT_VALUE(mrb, regs[a], z);                                     \
+    }                                                                       \
+    break
+#endif
+
+    CASE(OP_ADDI, BB) {
+      OP_MATHI(add);
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SUBI, BB) {
+      OP_MATHI(sub);
+    }
+
+#ifdef MRB_NO_FLOAT
+#define OP_MATHILV_CASE_FLOAT(op_name) (void)0
+#else
+#define OP_MATHILV_CASE_FLOAT(op_name)                                      \
+  case MRB_TT_FLOAT:                                                        \
+    {                                                                       \
+      mrb_float z = mrb_float(regs[a]) OP_MATH_OP_##op_name c;              \
+      SET_FLOAT_VALUE(mrb, regs[a], z);                                     \
+    }                                                                       \
+    break
+#endif
+#define OP_MATHILV(op_name)                                                 \
+  /* a=local, b=working space, c=immediate */                               \
+  switch (mrb_type(regs[a])) {                                              \
+    case MRB_TT_INTEGER:                                                    \
+      {                                                                     \
+        mrb_int x = mrb_integer(regs[a]), y = (mrb_int)c, z;                \
+        if (mrb_int_##op_name##_overflow(x, y, &z)) {                       \
+          OP_MATH_OVERFLOW_INT(op_name,x,y);                                \
+        }                                                                   \
+        else {                                                              \
+          SET_INT_VALUE(mrb,regs[a], z);                                    \
+        }                                                                   \
+      }                                                                     \
+      break;                                                                \
+    OP_MATHILV_CASE_FLOAT(op_name);                                         \
+    default:                                                                \
+      {                                                                     \
+        mrb_value arg = mrb_int_value(mrb, c);                              \
+        mrb_sym mid = MRB_OPSYM(op_name);                                   \
+        regs[a] = mrb_funcall_argv(mrb, regs[a], mid, 1, &arg);             \
+        mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);                                      \
+      }                                                                     \
+      break;                                                                \
+  }                                                                         \
+  NEXT
+
+    CASE(OP_ADDILV, BBB) {
+      OP_MATHILV(add);
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SUBILV, BBB) {
+      OP_MATHILV(sub);
+    }
+
+#define OP_CMP_BODY(op,v1,v2) (v1(regs[a]) op v2(regs[a+1]))
+
+#ifdef MRB_NO_FLOAT
+#define OP_CMP(op,sym) do {\
+  int result;\
+  /* need to check if op is overridden */\
+  if (mrb_likely(TYPES2(mrb_type(regs[a]),mrb_type(regs[a+1])) == \
+                 TYPES2(MRB_TT_INTEGER,MRB_TT_INTEGER))) {\
+    result = OP_CMP_BODY(op,mrb_fixnum,mrb_fixnum);\
+  }\
+  else {\
+    mid = MRB_OPSYM(sym);\
+    goto L_SEND_SYM;\
+  }\
+  if (result) {\
+    SET_TRUE_VALUE(regs[a]);\
+  }\
+  else {\
+    SET_FALSE_VALUE(regs[a]);\
+  }\
+} while(0)
+#else
+#define OP_CMP(op, sym) do {\
+  int result;\
+  /* need to check if op is overridden */\
+  uint16_t tt = TYPES2(mrb_type(regs[a]),mrb_type(regs[a+1]));\
+  if (mrb_likely(tt == TYPES2(MRB_TT_INTEGER,MRB_TT_INTEGER))) {\
+    result = OP_CMP_BODY(op,mrb_integer,mrb_integer);\
+  }\
+  else switch (tt) {\
+  case TYPES2(MRB_TT_INTEGER,MRB_TT_FLOAT):\
+    result = OP_CMP_BODY(op,mrb_integer,mrb_float);\
+    break;\
+  case TYPES2(MRB_TT_FLOAT,MRB_TT_INTEGER):\
+    result = OP_CMP_BODY(op,mrb_float,mrb_integer);\
+    break;\
+  case TYPES2(MRB_TT_FLOAT,MRB_TT_FLOAT):\
+    result = OP_CMP_BODY(op,mrb_float,mrb_float);\
+    break;\
+  default:\
+    mid = MRB_OPSYM(sym);\
+    goto L_SEND_SYM;\
+  }\
+  if (result) {\
+    SET_TRUE_VALUE(regs[a]);\
+  }\
+  else {\
+    SET_FALSE_VALUE(regs[a]);\
+  }\
+} while(0)
+#endif
+
+    CASE(OP_EQ, B) {
+      if (mrb_obj_eq(mrb, regs[a], regs[a+1])) {
+        SET_TRUE_VALUE(regs[a]);
+      }
+      else if (mrb_symbol_p(regs[a])) {
+        SET_FALSE_VALUE(regs[a]);
+      }
+      else {
+        OP_CMP(==,eq);
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LT, B) {
+      OP_CMP(<,lt);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LE, B) {
+      OP_CMP(<=,le);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GT, B) {
+      OP_CMP(>,gt);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_GE, B) {
+      OP_CMP(>=,ge);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ARRAY, BB) {
+      regs[a] = ary_new_from_regs(mrb, b, a);
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_ARRAY2, BBB) {
+      regs[a] = ary_new_from_regs(mrb, c, b);
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ARYCAT, B) {
+      mrb_value splat = mrb_ary_splat(mrb, regs[a+1]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      if (mrb_nil_p(regs[a])) {
+        regs[a] = splat;
+      }
+      else {
+        mrb_ensure_array_type(mrb, regs[a]);
+        mrb_ary_concat(mrb, regs[a], splat);
+      }
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ARYPUSH, BB) {
+      mrb_ensure_array_type(mrb, regs[a]);
+      for (mrb_int i=0; i<b; i++) {
+        mrb_ary_push(mrb, regs[a], regs[a+i+1]);
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ARYSPLAT, B) {
+      mrb_value ary = mrb_ary_splat(mrb, regs[a]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = ary;
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_AREF, BBB) {
+      mrb_value v = regs[b];
+
+      if (!mrb_array_p(v)) {
+        if (c == 0) {
+          regs[a] = v;
+        }
+        else {
+          SET_NIL_VALUE(regs[a]);
+        }
+      }
+      else {
+        v = mrb_ary_ref(mrb, v, c);
+        regs[a] = v;
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ASET, BBB) {
+      mrb_ensure_array_type(mrb, regs[b]);
+      mrb_ary_set(mrb, regs[b], c, regs[a]);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_APOST, BBB) {
+      mrb_value v = regs[a];
+      int pre  = b;
+      int post = c;
+
+      if (!mrb_array_p(v)) {
+        v = ary_new_from_regs(mrb, 1, a);
+      }
+      struct RArray *ary = mrb_ary_ptr(v);
+      int len = (int)ARY_LEN(ary);
+      if (len > pre + post) {
+        v = mrb_ary_new_from_values(mrb, len - pre - post, ARY_PTR(ary)+pre);
+        regs[a++] = v;
+        while (post--) {
+          regs[a++] = ARY_PTR(ary)[len-post-1];
+        }
+      }
+      else {
+        v = mrb_ary_new_capa(mrb, 0);
+        regs[a++] = v;
+
+        int idx;
+        for (idx=0; idx+pre<len; idx++) {
+          regs[a+idx] = ARY_PTR(ary)[pre+idx];
+        }
+        while (idx < post) {
+          SET_NIL_VALUE(regs[a+idx]);
+          idx++;
+        }
+      }
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_INTERN, B) {
+      mrb_ensure_string_type(mrb, regs[a]);
+      mrb_sym sym = mrb_intern_str(mrb, regs[a]);
+      regs[a] = mrb_symbol_value(sym);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SYMBOL, BB) {
+      size_t len;
+      mrb_sym sym;
+
+      mrb_assert((irep->pool[b].tt&IREP_TT_NFLAG)==0);
+      len = irep->pool[b].tt >> 2;
+      if (irep->pool[b].tt & IREP_TT_SFLAG) {
+        sym = mrb_intern_static(mrb, irep->pool[b].u.str, len);
+      }
+      else {
+        sym = mrb_intern(mrb, irep->pool[b].u.str, len);
+      }
+      regs[a] = mrb_symbol_value(sym);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_STRING, BB) {
+      mrb_int len;
+
+      mrb_assert((irep->pool[b].tt&IREP_TT_NFLAG)==0);
+      len = irep->pool[b].tt >> 2;
+      if (irep->pool[b].tt & IREP_TT_SFLAG) {
+        regs[a] = mrb_str_new_static(mrb, irep->pool[b].u.str, len);
+      }
+      else {
+        regs[a] = mrb_str_new(mrb, irep->pool[b].u.str, len);
+      }
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_STRCAT, B) {
+      mrb_ensure_string_type(mrb, regs[a]);
+      mrb_str_concat(mrb, regs[a], regs[a+1]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_HASH, BB) {
+      mrb_value hash = mrb_hash_new_capa(mrb, b);
+      int lim = a+b*2;
+
+      for (int i=a; i<lim; i+=2) {
+        mrb_hash_set(mrb, hash, regs[i], regs[i+1]);
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      }
+      regs[a] = hash;
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_HASHADD, BB) {
+      mrb_value hash;
+      int lim = a+b*2+1;
+
+      hash = regs[a];
+      mrb_ensure_hash_type(mrb, hash);
+      for (int i=a+1; i<lim; i+=2) {
+        mrb_hash_set(mrb, hash, regs[i], regs[i+1]);
+        ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      }
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_HASHCAT, B) {
+      mrb_value hash = regs[a];
+
+      mrb_ensure_hash_type(mrb, hash);
+      mrb_hash_merge(mrb, hash, regs[a+1]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_LAMBDA, BB)
+    c = OP_L_LAMBDA;
+    L_MAKE_LAMBDA:
+    {
+      struct RProc *p;
+      const mrb_irep *nirep = irep->reps[b];
+
+      if (c & OP_L_CAPTURE) {
+        p = mrb_closure_new(mrb, nirep);
+      }
+      else {
+        p = mrb_proc_new(mrb, nirep);
+        p->flags |= MRB_PROC_SCOPE;
+      }
+      if (c & OP_L_STRICT) p->flags |= MRB_PROC_STRICT;
+      regs[a] = mrb_obj_value(p);
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_BLOCK, BB) {
+      c = OP_L_BLOCK;
+      goto L_MAKE_LAMBDA;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_METHOD, BB) {
+      c = OP_L_METHOD;
+      goto L_MAKE_LAMBDA;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_RANGE_INC, B) {
+      mrb_value v = mrb_range_new(mrb, regs[a], regs[a+1], FALSE);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = v;
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_RANGE_EXC, B) {
+      mrb_value v = mrb_range_new(mrb, regs[a], regs[a+1], TRUE);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = v;
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_OCLASS, B) {
+      regs[a] = mrb_obj_value(mrb->object_class);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_CLASS, BB) {
+      struct RClass *c = 0, *baseclass;
+      mrb_sym id = irep->syms[b];
+      mrb_value base = regs[a];
+      mrb_value super = regs[a+1];
+
+      if (mrb_nil_p(base)) {
+        baseclass = MRB_PROC_TARGET_CLASS(ci->proc);
+        if (!baseclass) baseclass = mrb->object_class;
+        base = mrb_obj_value(baseclass);
+      }
+      c = mrb_vm_define_class(mrb, base, super, id);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = mrb_obj_value(c);
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_MODULE, BB) {
+      struct RClass *cls = 0, *baseclass;
+      mrb_sym id = irep->syms[b];
+      mrb_value base = regs[a];
+
+      if (mrb_nil_p(base)) {
+        baseclass = MRB_PROC_TARGET_CLASS(ci->proc);
+        if (!baseclass) baseclass = mrb->object_class;
+        base = mrb_obj_value(baseclass);
+      }
+      cls = mrb_vm_define_module(mrb, base, id);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      regs[a] = mrb_obj_value(cls);
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_EXEC, BB)
+    {
+      mrb_value recv = regs[a];
+      struct RClass *c = mrb_class_ptr(recv);
+      const mrb_irep *nirep = irep->reps[b];
+
+      /* prepare closure */
+      struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_new(mrb, nirep);
+      p->c = NULL;
+      mrb_field_write_barrier(mrb, (struct RBasic*)p, (struct RBasic*)ci->proc);
+      MRB_PROC_SET_TARGET_CLASS(p, c);
+      p->flags |= MRB_PROC_SCOPE;
+
+      /* prepare call stack */
+      ci = cipush(mrb, a, 0, c, p, NULL, 0, 0);
+
+      irep = p->body.irep;
+      stack_extend(mrb, irep->nregs);
+      stack_clear(regs+1, irep->nregs-1);
+      ci->pc = irep->iseq;
+      JUMP;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_DEF, BB) {
+      struct RClass *target = mrb_class_ptr(regs[a]);
+      const struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_ptr(regs[a+1]);
+      mrb_method_t m;
+      mrb_sym mid = irep->syms[b];
+
+      MRB_METHOD_FROM_PROC(m, p);
+      MRB_METHOD_SET_VISIBILITY(m, MRB_METHOD_VDEFAULT_FL);
+      mrb_define_method_raw(mrb, target, mid, m);
+      mrb_method_added(mrb, target, mid);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      regs[a] = mrb_symbol_value(mid);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_TDEF, BBB) {
+      tc = check_target_class(mrb);
+      if (mrb_unlikely(!tc)) goto L_RAISE;
+    }
+    goto L_DEF_METHOD;
+
+    CASE(OP_SDEF, BBB) {
+      tc = mrb_class_ptr(mrb_singleton_class(mrb, regs[a]));
+    }
+    L_DEF_METHOD:
+    {
+      struct RProc *p = mrb_proc_new(mrb, irep->reps[c]);
+      mrb_method_t m;
+
+      mid = irep->syms[b];
+      p->flags |= MRB_PROC_SCOPE | MRB_PROC_STRICT;
+      MRB_METHOD_FROM_PROC(m, p);
+      MRB_METHOD_SET_VISIBILITY(m, MRB_METHOD_VDEFAULT_FL);
+      mrb_define_method_raw(mrb, tc, mid, m);
+      mrb_method_added(mrb, tc, mid);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      regs[a] = mrb_symbol_value(mid);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_SCLASS, B) {
+      regs[a] = mrb_singleton_class(mrb, regs[a]);
+      mrb_gc_arena_restore(mrb, ai);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_TCLASS, B) {
+      struct RClass *target = check_target_class(mrb);
+      if (mrb_unlikely(!target)) goto L_RAISE;
+      regs[a] = mrb_obj_value(target);
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ALIAS, BB) {
+      struct RClass *target = check_target_class(mrb);
+
+      if (mrb_unlikely(!target)) goto L_RAISE;
+      mrb_alias_method(mrb, target, irep->syms[a], irep->syms[b]);
+      mrb_method_added(mrb, target, irep->syms[a]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_UNDEF, B) {
+      struct RClass *target = check_target_class(mrb);
+
+      if (mrb_unlikely(!target)) goto L_RAISE;
+      mrb_undef_method_id(mrb, target, irep->syms[a]);
+      ci = mrb->c->ci;
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_DEBUG, BBB) {
+#ifdef MRB_USE_DEBUG_HOOK
+      if (mrb->debug_op_hook) mrb->debug_op_hook(mrb, irep, ci->pc, regs);
+#else
+#ifndef MRB_NO_STDIO
+      printf("OP_DEBUG %d %d %d\n", a, b, c);
+#else
+      abort();
+#endif
+#endif
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_ERR, B) {
+      size_t len = irep->pool[a].tt >> 2;
+      mrb_value exc;
+
+      mrb_assert((irep->pool[a].tt&IREP_TT_NFLAG)==0);
+      exc = mrb_exc_new(mrb, E_LOCALJUMP_ERROR, irep->pool[a].u.str, len);
+      RAISE_EXC(mrb, exc);
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_EXT1, Z) {
+      const mrb_code *pc = ci->pc;
+      insn = READ_B();
+      switch (insn) {
+#define OPCODE(insn,ops) case OP_ ## insn: FETCH_ ## ops ## _1(); ci->pc = pc; goto L_OP_ ## insn ## _BODY;
+#include <mruby/ops.h>
+#undef OPCODE
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_EXT2, Z) {
+      const mrb_code *pc = ci->pc;
+      insn = READ_B();
+      switch (insn) {
+#define OPCODE(insn,ops) case OP_ ## insn: FETCH_ ## ops ## _2(); ci->pc = pc; goto L_OP_ ## insn ## _BODY;
+#include <mruby/ops.h>
+#undef OPCODE
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+    CASE(OP_EXT3, Z) {
+      const mrb_code *pc = ci->pc;
+      insn = READ_B();
+      switch (insn) {
+#define OPCODE(insn,ops) case OP_ ## insn: FETCH_ ## ops ## _3(); ci->pc = pc; goto L_OP_ ## insn ## _BODY;
+#include <mruby/ops.h>
+#undef OPCODE
+      }
+      NEXT;
+    }
+
+    CASE(OP_STOP, Z) {
+      /*        stop VM */
+      mrb_value v;
+      v = mrb->exc ? mrb_obj_value(mrb->exc) : mrb_nil_value();
+      CHECKPOINT_RESTORE(RBREAK_TAG_STOP) {
+        struct RBreak *brk = (struct RBreak*)mrb->exc;
+        v = mrb_break_value_get(brk);
+      }
+      CHECKPOINT_MAIN(RBREAK_TAG_STOP) {
+        UNWIND_ENSURE(mrb, ci, ci->pc, RBREAK_TAG_STOP, ci, v);
+      }
+      CHECKPOINT_END(RBREAK_TAG_STOP);
+      mrb->jmp = prev_jmp;
+      if (!mrb_nil_p(v)) {
+        mrb->exc = mrb_obj_ptr(v);
+        TASK_STOP(mrb);
+        return v;
+      }
+      mrb->exc = NULL;
+      TASK_STOP(mrb);
+      return regs[irep->nlocals];
+    }
+  }
+  END_DISPATCH;
+#undef regs
+  }
+  MRB_CATCH(&c_jmp) {
+    mrb_assert(mrb->exc != NULL);
+
+    ci = mrb->c->ci;
+    while (ci > mrb->c->cibase && ci->cci == CINFO_DIRECT) {
+      ci = cipop(mrb);
+    }
+    goto RETRY_TRY_BLOCK;
+  }
+  MRB_END_EXC(&c_jmp);
+}
+
+static mrb_value
+mrb_run(mrb_state *mrb, const struct RProc *proc, mrb_value self)
+{
+  return mrb_vm_run(mrb, proc, self, ci_bidx(mrb->c->ci) + 1);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Executes a mruby proc in the top-level environment.
+ *
+ * This function is used to execute a proc (like a script loaded from a file
+ * or a string) at the top level of the mruby environment. It's similar to
+ * `mrb_vm_run` but is specifically designed for top-level execution.
+ *
+ * It ensures that if there's an existing callinfo stack, the new execution
+ * is pushed on top with `CINFO_SKIP`, indicating it's a new, distinct
+ * execution context rather than a nested call from within the VM.
+ *
+ * @param mrb The mruby state.
+ * @param proc The RProc object (representing the script or code) to execute.
+ * @param self The `self` object for this top-level execution. Typically,
+ *             this is the main `top_self` object in mruby.
+ * @param stack_keep The number of values to preserve on the stack. For
+ *                   top-level execution, this is often 0 or a small number
+ *                   to set up initial local variables if any.
+ * @return The result of the proc's execution.
+ * @see mrb_vm_run
+ */
+MRB_API mrb_value
+mrb_top_run(mrb_state *mrb, const struct RProc *proc, mrb_value self, mrb_int stack_keep)
+{
+  if (mrb->c->cibase && mrb->c->ci > mrb->c->cibase) {
+    cipush(mrb, 0, CINFO_SKIP, mrb->object_class, NULL, NULL, 0, 0);
+  }
+  return mrb_vm_run(mrb, proc, self, stack_keep);
+}
+#undef CASE