psychopy 2025.2.4__py3-none-any.whl

psychopy/tools/mathtools.py

@@ -0,0 +1,4910 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+
+"""Various math functions for working with vectors, matrices, and quaternions.
+"""
+
+# Part of the PsychoPy library
+# Copyright (C) 2002-2018 Jonathan Peirce (C) 2019-2025 Open Science Tools Ltd.
+# Distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL).
+
+__all__ = [
+    'VEC_AXES',  # constants
+    'VEC_AXIS_FORWARD',
+    'VEC_AXIS_BACKWARD',
+    'VEC_AXIS_UP',
+    'VEC_AXIS_DOWN',
+    'VEC_AXIS_RIGHT',
+    'VEC_AXIS_LEFT',
+    'VEC_AXIS_POS_X',
+    'VEC_AXIS_NEG_X',
+    'VEC_AXIS_POS_Y',
+    'VEC_AXIS_NEG_Y',
+    'VEC_AXIS_POS_Z',
+    'VEC_AXIS_NEG_Z',
+    'RigidBodyPose',  # rigid body pose class
+    'BoundingBox',
+    'length',  # vector functions
+    'normalize',
+    'orthogonalize',
+    'reflect',
+    'dot',
+    'cross',
+    'project',
+    'lerp',
+    'distance',
+    'perp',
+    'bisector',
+    'angleTo',
+    'sortClockwise',
+    'surfaceNormal',
+    'surfaceBitangent',
+    'surfaceTangent',
+    'vertexNormal',
+    'fixTangentHandedness',
+    'fitBBox',
+    'computeBBoxCorners',
+    'intersectRayPlane',
+    'intersectRaySphere',
+    'intersectRayAABB',
+    'intersectRayOBB',
+    'intersectRayTriangle',
+    'ortho3Dto2D',
+    'articulate',
+    'slerp',  # quaternion functions
+    'quatToAxisAngle',
+    'quatFromAxisAngle',
+    'quatYawPitchRoll',
+    'quatMagnitude',
+    'multQuat',
+    'invertQuat',
+    'applyQuat',
+    'accumQuat',
+    'alignTo',
+    'matrixToQuat',
+    'identityMatrix',  # matrix functions
+    'quatToMatrix',
+    'scaleMatrix',
+    'rotationMatrix',
+    'translationMatrix',
+    'invertMatrix',
+    'multMatrix',
+    'concatenate',
+    'matrixFromEulerAngles',
+    'isOrthogonal',
+    'isAffine',
+    'applyMatrix',
+    'posOriToMatrix',
+    'transform',
+    'scale',
+    'normalMatrix',
+    'forwardProject',
+    'reverseProject',
+    'lookAt',
+    'zeroFix',  # misc functions
+    'lensCorrection',
+    'lensCorrectionSpherical',
+    'infrange',
+    'setDefaultPrecision'
+]
+
+
+import numpy as np
+import functools
+import itertools
+
+VEC_AXES = {  # mapping of axis names to vectors
+    '+x': (1, 0, 0), '-x': (-1, 0, 0),
+    '+y': (0, 1, 0), '-y': (0, -1, 0),
+    '+z': (0, 0, 1), '-z': (0, 0, -1)}
+
+# vectors for common axes
+VEC_AXIS_BACKWARD = VEC_AXIS_POS_Z = VEC_AXES['+z']
+VEC_AXIS_FORWARD = VEC_AXIS_NEG_Z = VEC_AXES['-z']
+VEC_AXIS_UP = VEC_AXIS_POS_Y = VEC_AXES['+y']
+VEC_AXIS_DOWN = VEC_AXIS_NEG_Y = VEC_AXES['-y']
+VEC_AXIS_RIGHT = VEC_AXIS_POS_X = VEC_AXES['+x']
+VEC_AXIS_LEFT = VEC_AXIS_NEG_X = VEC_AXES['-x']
+
+DEFAULT_DTYPE = float
+
+
+def setDefaultPrecision(dtype='float64'):
+    """Set the default precision for math functions.
+
+    Once set, all math functions in this module will use the specified data type 
+    for computations in successive calls. This is useful when you want to ensure
+    a specific precision for all math operations.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    dtype : dtype or str
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'.
+
+    """
+    global DEFAULT_DTYPE
+    DEFAULT_DTYPE = np.dtype(dtype).type
+    
+
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Classes for working with rigid body poses
+#
+
+class RigidBodyPose:
+    """Class for representing rigid body poses.
+
+    This class is an abstract representation of a rigid body pose, where the
+    position of the body in a scene is represented by a vector/coordinate and
+    the orientation with a quaternion. Pose can be manipulated and interacted
+    with using class methods and attributes. Rigid body poses assume a
+    right-handed coordinate system (-Z is forward and +Y is up).
+
+    Poses can be converted to 4x4 transformation matrices with `getModelMatrix`.
+    One can use these matrices when rendering to transform the vertices of a
+    model associated with the pose by passing them to OpenGL. Matrices are
+    cached internally to avoid recomputing them if `pos` and `ori` attributes
+    have not been updated.
+
+    Operators `*` and `~` can be used on `RigidBodyPose` objects to combine and
+    invert poses. For instance, you can multiply (`*`) poses to get a new pose
+    which is the combination of both orientations and translations by::
+
+        newPose = rb1 * rb2
+
+    Likewise, a pose can be inverted by using the `~` operator::
+
+        invPose = ~rb
+
+    Multiplying a pose by its inverse will result in an identity pose with no
+    translation and default orientation where `pos=[0, 0, 0]` and
+    `ori=[0, 0, 0, 1]`::
+
+        identityPose = ~rb * rb
+
+    Warnings
+    --------
+    This class is experimental and may result in undefined behavior.
+
+    """
+    def __init__(self, pos=(0., 0., 0.), ori=(0., 0., 0., 1.), dtype=None):
+        """
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        pos : array_like
+            Position vector `[x, y, z]` for the origin of the rigid body.
+        ori : array_like
+            Orientation quaternion `[x, y, z, w]` where `x`, `y`, `z` are
+            imaginary and `w` is real.
+        dtype : dtype or str, optional
+            Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'.
+            Default is `None` which uses the default data configured by
+            `setDefaultPrecision`.
+
+        """
+        # set the data type for computations
+        self._dtype = \
+            np.dtype(dtype).type if dtype is not None else DEFAULT_DTYPE
+
+        # position and orientation
+        self._pos = np.ascontiguousarray(pos, dtype=self.dtype)
+        self._ori = np.ascontiguousarray(ori, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+        self._modelMatrix = posOriToMatrix(
+            self._pos, self._ori, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+        # computed only if needed
+        self._normalMatrix = np.zeros((4, 4), dtype=self.dtype, order='C')
+        self._invModelMatrix = np.zeros((4, 4), dtype=self.dtype, order='C')
+        self._viewMatrix = np.zeros((4, 4), dtype=self.dtype, order='C')
+        self._invViewMatrix = np.zeros((4, 4), dtype=self.dtype, order='C')
+
+        # additional useful vectors
+        self._at = np.zeros((3,), dtype=self.dtype, order='C')
+        self._up = np.zeros((3,), dtype=self.dtype, order='C')
+        self._viewAxes = np.array(  # cache for view matrix calculations
+            [VEC_AXIS_FORWARD, VEC_AXIS_UP], dtype=self.dtype, order='C')
+
+        # compute matrices only if `pos` and `ori` attributes have been updated,
+        # we track the state of the matrices with these flags
+        self._cacheFlags = {
+            'model': True,  # already computed
+            'imodel': False,
+            'normal': False,
+            'view': False,
+            'iview': False
+        }
+
+        self.pos = pos
+        self.ori = ori
+
+        self._bounds = None
+
+    def __repr__(self):
+        return 'RigidBodyPose(pos={}, ori={})'.format(self.pos, self.ori)
+
+    @property
+    def dtype(self):
+        """Data type used for computations and arrays (`numpy.dtype`).
+
+        Cannot be changed after object creation.
+
+        """
+        return self._dtype
+
+    @property
+    def bounds(self):
+        """Bounding box associated with this pose.
+        """
+        return self._bounds
+
+    @bounds.setter
+    def bounds(self, value):
+        self._bounds = value
+
+    @property
+    def pos(self):
+        """Position vector (X, Y, Z).
+        """
+        return self._pos
+
+    @pos.setter
+    def pos(self, value):
+        self._pos = np.ascontiguousarray(value, dtype=self.dtype)
+        self._cacheFlags = dict.fromkeys(self._cacheFlags.keys(), True)
+
+    @property
+    def ori(self):
+        """Orientation quaternion (X, Y, Z, W).
+        """
+        return self._ori
+
+    @ori.setter
+    def ori(self, value):
+        self._ori = np.ascontiguousarray(value, dtype=self.dtype)
+        self._cacheFlags = dict.fromkeys(self._cacheFlags.keys(), True)
+
+    @property
+    def posOri(self):
+        """The position (x, y, z) and orientation (x, y, z, w).
+        """
+        return self._pos, self._ori
+
+    @posOri.setter
+    def posOri(self, value):
+        self._pos = np.ascontiguousarray(value[0], dtype=self.dtype)
+        self._ori = np.ascontiguousarray(value[1], dtype=self.dtype)
+        self._cacheFlags = dict.fromkeys(self._cacheFlags.keys(), True)
+
+    @property
+    def at(self):
+        """Vector defining the forward direction (-Z) of this pose.
+        """
+        # matrix needs update, this need to be too
+        if self._cacheFlags['model']:  
+            self._at = applyQuat(
+                self.ori, self._viewAxes[0, :], out=self._at, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+        return self._at
+
+    @property
+    def up(self):
+        """Vector defining the up direction (+Y) of this pose.
+        """
+        if self._cacheFlags['model']:
+            self._up = applyQuat(
+                self.ori, self._viewAxes[1, :], out=self._up, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+        return self._up
+
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        """Multiply two poses, combining them to get a new pose.
+        """
+        newOri = multQuat(self._ori, other.ori)
+        return RigidBodyPose(transform(other.pos, newOri, self._pos), newOri)
+
+    def __imul__(self, other):
+        """Inplace multiplication. Transforms this pose by another.
+        """
+        self._ori = multQuat(self._ori, other.ori)
+        self._pos = transform(other.pos, self._ori, self._pos)
+
+    def copy(self):
+        """Get a new `RigidBodyPose` object which copies the position and
+        orientation of this one. Copies are independent and do not reference
+        each others data.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        RigidBodyPose
+            Copy of this pose.
+
+        """
+        return RigidBodyPose(self._pos, self._ori)
+
+    def isEqual(self, other):
+        """Check if poses have similar orientation and position.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        other : `RigidBodyPose`
+            Other pose to compare.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bool
+            Returns `True` is poses are effectively equal.
+
+        """
+        return np.isclose(self._pos, other.pos) and \
+            np.isclose(self._ori, other.ori)
+
+    def clear(self):
+        """Clear the pose, setting position and orientation to zero.
+        """
+        self._pos.fill(0.0)
+        self._ori[:3] = 0.0
+        self._ori[3] = 1.0
+        self._cacheFlags = dict.fromkeys(a.keys(), True)
+
+    def setIdentity(self):
+        """Clear rigid body transformations (alias for `clear`).
+        """
+        self.clear()
+
+    def getOriAxisAngle(self, degrees=True):
+        """Get the axis and angle of rotation for the rigid body. Converts the
+        orientation defined by the `ori` quaternion to and axis-angle
+        representation.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        degrees : bool, optional
+            Specify ``True`` if `angle` is in degrees, or else it will be
+            treated as radians. Default is ``True``.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        tuple
+            Axis [rx, ry, rz] and angle.
+
+        """
+        return quatToAxisAngle(self._ori, degrees, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+    def setOriAxisAngle(self, axis, angle, degrees=True):
+        """Set the orientation of the rigid body using an `axis` and
+        `angle`. This sets the quaternion at `ori`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        axis : array_like
+            Axis of rotation [rx, ry, rz].
+        angle : float
+            Angle of rotation.
+        degrees : bool, optional
+            Specify ``True`` if `angle` is in degrees, or else it will be
+            treated as radians. Default is ``True``.
+
+        """
+        self.ori = quatFromAxisAngle(axis, angle, degrees, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+    def getYawPitchRoll(self, degrees=True):
+        """Get the yaw, pitch and roll angles for this pose relative to the -Z
+        world axis.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        degrees : bool, optional
+            Specify ``True`` if `angle` is in degrees, or else it will be
+            treated as radians. Default is ``True``.
+
+        """
+        return quatYawPitchRoll(self._ori, degrees, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+    @property
+    def modelMatrix(self):
+        """Pose as a 4x4 model matrix (read-only)."""
+        if not self._cacheFlags['model']:
+            return self._modelMatrix
+        else:
+            return self.getModelMatrix()
+
+    @property
+    def inverseModelMatrix(self):
+        """Inverse of the pose as a 4x4 model matrix (read-only)."""
+        if not self._cacheFlags['imodel']:
+            return self._invModelMatrix
+        else:
+            return self.getModelMatrix(inverse=True)
+
+    @property
+    def normalMatrix(self):
+        """The 4x4 normal transformation matrix (read-only)."""
+        if not self._cacheFlags['normal']:
+            return self._normalMatrix
+        else:
+            return self.getNormalMatrix()
+
+    @property
+    def viewMatrix(self):
+        """The 4x4 view matrix for this pose (read-only)."""
+        if not self._cacheFlags['view']:
+            return self._viewMatrix
+        else:
+            return self.getViewMatrix()
+
+    @property
+    def inverseViewMatrix(self):
+        """The inverse of the 4x4 view matrix for this pose (read-only)."""
+        if not self._cacheFlags['iview']:
+            return self._invViewMatrix
+        else:
+            return self.getViewMatrix(inverse=True)
+
+    def getNormalMatrix(self, out=None):
+        """Get the present normal matrix.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        out : ndarray or None
+            Optional 4x4 array to write values to. Values written are computed
+            using 32-bit float precision regardless of the data type of `out`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ndarray
+            4x4 normal transformation matrix.
+
+        """
+        if not self._cacheFlags['normal']:
+            return self._normalMatrix
+
+        self._normalMatrix[:, :] = np.linalg.inv(self.modelMatrix).T
+        self._cacheFlags['normal'] = False
+
+        if out is not None:
+            out[:, :] = self._normalMatrix[:, :]
+            return out
+
+        return self._normalMatrix
+
+    def getModelMatrix(self, inverse=False, out=None):
+        """Get the present rigid body transformation as a 4x4 matrix.
+
+        Matrices are computed only if the `pos` and `ori` attributes have been
+        updated since the last call to `getModelMatrix`. The returned matrix is
+        an `ndarray` and row-major.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        inverse : bool, optional
+            Return the inverse of the model matrix.
+        out : ndarray or None
+            Optional 4x4 array to write values to. Values written are computed
+            using 32-bit float precision regardless of the data type of `out`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ndarray
+            4x4 transformation matrix.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        Using a rigid body pose to transform something in OpenGL::
+
+            rb = RigidBodyPose((0, 0, -2))  # 2 meters away from origin
+
+            # Use `array2pointer` from `psychopy.tools.arraytools` to convert
+            # array to something OpenGL accepts.
+            mv = array2pointer(rb.modelMatrix)
+
+            # use the matrix to transform the scene
+            glMatrixMode(GL_MODELVIEW)
+            glPushMatrix()
+            glLoadIdentity()
+            glMultTransposeMatrixf(mv)
+
+            # draw the thing here ...
+
+            glPopMatrix()
+
+        """
+        if self._cacheFlags['model']:
+            self._modelMatrix = posOriToMatrix(
+                self._pos, self._ori, 
+                out=self._modelMatrix,
+                dtype=self.dtype)
+
+            # all other matrices need update when next accessed
+            self._cacheFlags['model'] = False
+            self._cacheFlags['imodel'] = True
+            self._cacheFlags['normal'] = True
+            self._cacheFlags['view'] = True
+            self._cacheFlags['iview'] = True
+
+        if not inverse:
+            toReturn = self._modelMatrix
+        else:
+            if self._cacheFlags['imodel']:
+                self._invModelMatrix = invertMatrix(
+                    self._modelMatrix, out=self._invModelMatrix, 
+                    dtype=self.dtype)
+                self._cacheFlags['imodel'] = False
+            
+            toReturn = self._invModelMatrix
+
+        if out is not None:
+            out[:, :] = toReturn[:, :]
+            return out
+
+        return toReturn
+
+    def getViewMatrix(self, inverse=False, out=None):
+        """Convert this pose into a view matrix.
+
+        Creates a view matrix which transforms points into eye space using the
+        current pose as the eye position in the scene. Furthermore, you can use
+        view matrices for rendering shadows if light positions are defined
+        as `RigidBodyPose` objects.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        inverse : bool
+            Return the inverse of the view matrix. Default is `False`.
+        out : ndarray or None
+            Optional 4x4 array to write values to. Values written are computed
+            using 32-bit float precision regardless of the data type of `out`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ndarray
+            4x4 transformation matrix.
+
+        """
+        if self._cacheFlags['view']:  # needs update?
+            # compute the view matrix
+            rotMatrix = quatToMatrix(self._ori, dtype=self.dtype)
+            transformedAxes = applyMatrix(
+                rotMatrix, self._viewAxes, 
+                dtype=self.dtype)
+
+            fwdVec = transformedAxes[0, :] + self._pos
+            upVec = transformedAxes[1, :]
+
+            self._viewMatrix = lookAt(
+                self._pos, fwdVec, upVec, 
+                out=self._viewMatrix,
+                dtype=self.dtype)
+
+            self._cacheFlags['view'] = False
+            self._cacheFlags['iview'] = True  # inverse needs update
+
+        if not inverse:
+            toReturn = self._viewMatrix
+        else:
+            if self._cacheFlags['iview']:
+                self._invViewMatrix = invertMatrix(
+                    self._viewMatrix, 
+                    out=self._invViewMatrix, 
+                    dtype=self.dtype)
+                self._cacheFlags['iview'] = False
+            
+            toReturn = self._invViewMatrix
+
+        if out is not None:
+            out[:, :] = toReturn[:, :]
+            return out
+
+        return toReturn
+
+    def transform(self, v, out=None):
+        """Transform a vector using this pose.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        v : array_like
+            Vector to transform [x, y, z].
+        out : ndarray or None, optional
+            Optional array to write values to. Must have the same shape as
+            `v`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ndarray
+            Transformed points.
+
+        """
+        return transform(
+            self._pos, self._ori, points=v, out=out, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+    def transformNormal(self, n):
+        """Rotate a normal vector with respect to this pose.
+
+        Rotates a normal vector `n` using the orientation quaternion at `ori`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        n : array_like
+            Normal to rotate (1-D with length 3).
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ndarray
+            Rotated normal `n`.
+
+        """
+        pout = np.zeros((3,), dtype=self.dtype)
+        pout[:] = n
+        t = np.cross(self._ori[:3], n[:3]) * 2.0
+        u = np.cross(self._ori[:3], t)
+        t *= self._ori[3]
+        pout[:3] += t
+        pout[:3] += u
+
+        return pout
+
+    def __invert__(self):
+        """Operator `~` to invert the pose. Returns a `RigidBodyPose` object.
+        """
+        return RigidBodyPose(
+            -self._pos, invertQuat(self._ori, dtype=self.dtype))
+
+    def invert(self):
+        """Invert this pose.
+        """
+        self._ori = invertQuat(self._ori, dtype=self.dtype)
+        self._pos *= -1.0
+
+    def inverted(self):
+        """Get a pose which is the inverse of this one.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        RigidBodyPose
+            This pose inverted.
+
+        """
+        return RigidBodyPose(
+            -self._pos, invertQuat(self._ori, dtype=self.dtype))
+
+    def distanceTo(self, v):
+        """Get the distance to a pose or point in scene units.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        v : RigidBodyPose or array_like
+            Pose or point [x, y, z] to compute distance to.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        float
+            Distance to `v` from this pose's origin.
+
+        """
+        if hasattr(v, 'pos'):  # v is pose-like object
+            targetPos = v.pos
+        else:
+            targetPos = np.asarray(v[:3])
+
+        return np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(targetPos - self.pos)))
+
+    def interp(self, end, s):
+        """Interpolate between poses.
+
+        Linear interpolation is used on position (Lerp) while the orientation
+        has spherical linear interpolation (Slerp) applied taking the shortest
+        arc on the hypersphere.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        end : RigidBodyPose
+            End pose.
+        s : float
+            Interpolation factor between interval 0.0 and 1.0.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        RigidBodyPose
+            Rigid body pose whose position and orientation is at `s` between
+            this pose and `end`.
+
+        """
+        if not (hasattr(end, 'pos') and hasattr(end, 'ori')):
+            raise TypeError("Object for `end` does not have attributes "
+                            "`pos` and `ori`.")
+
+        interpPos = lerp(self._pos, end.pos, s, dtype=self.dtype)
+        interpOri = slerp(self._ori, end.ori, s, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+        return RigidBodyPose(interpPos, interpOri)
+
+    def alignTo(self, alignTo):
+        """Align this pose to another point or pose.
+
+        This sets the orientation of this pose to one which orients the forward
+        axis towards `alignTo`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        alignTo : array_like or RigidBodyPose
+            Position vector [x, y, z] or pose to align to.
+
+        """
+        if hasattr(alignTo, 'pos'):  # v is pose-like object
+            targetPos = alignTo.pos
+        else:
+            targetPos = np.asarray(alignTo[:3]) # handle array_like
+
+        fwd = np.asarray([0, 0, -1], dtype=self.dtype)
+        toTarget = targetPos - self._pos
+        invOri = invertQuat(self._ori, dtype=self.dtype)
+        invPos = applyQuat(invOri, toTarget, dtype=self.dtype)
+        invPos = normalize(invPos, dtype=self.dtype)
+
+        self.ori = multQuat(
+            self._ori, alignTo(fwd, invPos, dtype=self.dtype))
+
+
+
+class BoundingBox:
+    """Class for representing object bounding boxes.
+
+    A bounding box is a construct which represents a 3D rectangular volume about
+    some pose, defined by its minimum and maximum extents in the reference frame
+    of the pose. The axes of the bounding box are aligned to the axes of the
+    world or the associated pose.
+
+    Bounding boxes are primarily used for visibility testing; to determine if
+    the extents of an object associated with a pose (eg. the vertices of a
+    model) falls completely outside of the viewing frustum. If so, the model can
+    be culled during rendering to avoid wasting CPU/GPU resources on objects not
+    visible to the viewer.
+
+    """
+    def __init__(self, extents=None, dtype=None):
+        self._dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type if dtype is not None else DEFAULT_DTYPE
+
+        self._extents = np.zeros((2, 3), self.dtype)
+        self._posCorners = np.zeros((8, 4), self.dtype)
+
+        if extents is not None:
+            self._extents[0, :] = extents[0]
+            self._extents[1, :] = extents[1]
+        else:
+            self.clear()
+
+        self._computeCorners()
+
+    def _computeCorners(self):
+        """Compute the corners of the bounding box.
+
+        These values are cached to speed up computations if extents hasn't been
+        updated.
+
+        """
+        for i in range(8):
+            self._posCorners[i, 0] = \
+                self._extents[1, 0] if (i & 1) else self._extents[0, 0]
+            self._posCorners[i, 1] = \
+                self._extents[1, 1] if (i & 2) else self._extents[0, 1]
+            self._posCorners[i, 2] = \
+                self._extents[1, 2] if (i & 4) else self._extents[0, 2]
+            self._posCorners[i, 3] = 1.0
+
+    @property
+    def dtype(self):
+        """Data type used for computations and arrays (`numpy.dtype`).
+        """
+        # we use 32-bit float precision for all computations, this will be 
+        # settable in the future
+        return self._dtype
+
+    @property
+    def isValid(self):
+        """`True` if the bounding box is valid."""
+        return np.all(self._extents[0, :] <= self._extents[1, :])
+
+    @property
+    def extents(self):
+        return self._extents
+
+    @extents.setter
+    def extents(self, value):
+        self._extents[0, :] = value[0]
+        self._extents[1, :] = value[1]
+        self._computeCorners()
+
+    def fit(self, verts):
+        """Fit the bounding box to vertices."""
+        np.amin(verts, axis=0, out=self._extents[0])
+        np.amax(verts, axis=0, out=self._extents[1])
+        self._computeCorners()
+
+    def clear(self):
+        """Clear a bounding box, invalidating it."""
+        self._extents[0, :] = np.finfo(self.dtype).max
+        self._extents[1, :] = np.finfo(self.dtype).min
+        self._computeCorners()
+
+
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Vector Operations
+#
+
+def length(v, squared=False, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the length of a vector.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v : array_like
+        Vector to normalize, can be Nx2, Nx3, or Nx4. If a 2D array is
+        specified, rows are treated as separate vectors.
+    squared : bool, optional
+        If ``True`` the squared length is returned. The default is ``False``.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    float or ndarray
+        Length of vector `v`.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        toReturn = np.array(v, dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        toReturn = out
+
+    v = np.asarray(v, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if v.ndim == 2:
+        assert v.shape[1] <= 4
+        toReturn = np.zeros((v.shape[0],), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        v2d, vr = np.atleast_2d(v, toReturn)  # 2d view of array
+        if squared:
+            vr[:, :] = np.sum(np.square(v2d), axis=1)
+        else:
+            vr[:, :] = np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(v2d), axis=1))
+    elif v.ndim == 1:
+        assert v.shape[0] <= 4
+        if squared:
+            toReturn = np.sum(np.square(v))
+        else:
+            toReturn = np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(v)))
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input arguments have invalid dimensions.")
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def normalize(v, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Normalize a vector or quaternion.
+
+    v : array_like
+        Vector to normalize, can be Nx2, Nx3, or Nx4. If a 2D array is
+        specified, rows are treated as separate vectors. All vectors should have
+        nonzero length.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Normalized vector `v`.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * If the vector has length is zero, a vector of all zeros is returned after
+      normalization.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Normalize a vector::
+
+        v = [1., 2., 3., 4.]
+        vn = normalize(v)
+
+    The `normalize` function is vectorized. It's considerably faster to
+    normalize large arrays of vectors than to call `normalize` separately for
+    each one::
+
+        v = np.random.uniform(-1.0, 1.0, (1000, 4,))  # 1000 length 4 vectors
+        vn = np.zeros((1000, 4))  # place to write values
+        normalize(v, out=vn)  # very fast!
+
+        # don't do this!
+        for i in range(1000):
+            vn[i, :] = normalize(v[i, :])
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        toReturn = np.array(v, dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        toReturn = out
+
+    v2d = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)  # 2d view of array
+    norm = np.linalg.norm(v2d, axis=1)
+    norm[norm == 0.0] = np.nan  # make sure if length==0 division succeeds
+    v2d /= norm[:, np.newaxis]
+    np.nan_to_num(v2d, copy=False)  # fix NaNs
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def orthogonalize(v, n, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Orthogonalize a vector relative to a normal vector.
+
+    This function ensures that `v` is perpendicular (or orthogonal) to `n`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v : array_like
+        Vector to orthogonalize, can be Nx2, Nx3, or Nx4. If a 2D array is
+        specified, rows are treated as separate vectors.
+    n : array_like
+        Normal vector, must have same shape as `v`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Orthogonalized vector `v` relative to normal vector `n`.
+
+    Warnings
+    --------
+    If `v` and `n` are the same, the direction of the perpendicular vector is
+    indeterminate. The resulting vector is degenerate (all zeros).
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v = np.asarray(v, dtype=dtype)
+    n = np.asarray(n, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if out is None:
+        toReturn = np.zeros_like(v, dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        toReturn = out
+        toReturn.fill(0.0)
+
+    v, n, vr = np.atleast_2d(v, n, toReturn)
+    vr[:, :] = v
+    vr[:, :] -= n * np.sum(n * v, axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]  # dot product
+    normalize(vr, out=vr)
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def reflect(v, n, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Reflection of a vector.
+
+    Get the reflection of `v` relative to normal `n`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v : array_like
+        Vector to reflect, can be Nx2, Nx3, or Nx4. If a 2D array is specified,
+        rows are treated as separate vectors.
+    n : array_like
+        Normal vector, must have same shape as `v`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Reflected vector `v` off normal `n`.
+
+    """
+    # based off https://github.com/glfw/glfw/blob/master/deps/linmath.h
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v = np.asarray(v, dtype=dtype)
+    n = np.asarray(n, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if out is None:
+        toReturn = np.zeros_like(v, dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        toReturn = out
+        toReturn.fill(0.0)
+
+    v, n, vr = np.atleast_2d(v, n, toReturn)
+
+    vr[:, :] = v
+    vr[:, :] -= (dtype(2.0) * np.sum(n * v, axis=1))[:, np.newaxis] * n
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def dot(v0, v1, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Dot product of two vectors.
+
+    The behaviour of this function depends on the format of the input arguments:
+
+    * If `v0` and `v1` are 1D, the dot product is returned as a scalar and `out`
+      is ignored.
+    * If `v0` and `v1` are 2D, a 1D array of dot products between corresponding
+      row vectors are returned.
+    * If either `v0` and `v1` are 1D and 2D, an array of dot products
+      between each row of the 2D vector and the 1D vector are returned.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v0, v1 : array_like
+        Vector(s) to compute dot products of (e.g. [x, y, z]). `v0` must have
+        equal or fewer dimensions than `v1`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Dot product(s) of `v0` and `v1`.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v0 = np.asarray(v0, dtype=dtype)
+    v1 = np.asarray(v1, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if v0.ndim == v1.ndim == 2 or v0.ndim == 2 and v1.ndim == 1:
+        toReturn = np.zeros((v0.shape[0],), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        vr = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)  # make sure we have a 2d view
+        vr[:] = np.sum(v1 * v0, axis=1)
+    elif v0.ndim == v1.ndim == 1:
+        toReturn = np.sum(v1 * v0)
+    elif v0.ndim == 1 and v1.ndim == 2:
+        toReturn = np.zeros((v1.shape[0],), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        vr = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)  # make sure we have a 2d view
+        vr[:] = np.sum(v1 * v0, axis=1)
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input arguments have invalid dimensions.")
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def cross(v0, v1, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Cross product of 3D vectors.
+
+    The behavior of this function depends on the dimensions of the inputs:
+
+    * If `v0` and `v1` are 1D, the cross product is returned as 1D vector.
+    * If `v0` and `v1` are 2D, a 2D array of cross products between
+      corresponding row vectors are returned.
+    * If either `v0` and `v1` are 1D and 2D, an array of cross products
+      between each row of the 2D vector and the 1D vector are returned.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v0, v1 : array_like
+        Vector(s) in form [x, y, z] or [x, y, z, 1].
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Cross product of `v0` and `v1`.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * If input vectors are 4D, the last value of cross product vectors is always
+      set to one.
+    * If input vectors `v0` and `v1` are Nx3 and `out` is Nx4, the cross product
+      is computed and the last column of `out` is filled with ones.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+
+    Find the cross product of two vectors::
+
+        a = normalize([1, 2, 3])
+        b = normalize([3, 2, 1])
+        c = cross(a, b)
+
+    If input arguments are 2D, the function returns the cross products of
+    corresponding rows::
+
+        # create two 6x3 arrays with random numbers
+        shape = (6, 3,)
+        a = normalize(np.random.uniform(-1.0, 1.0, shape))
+        b = normalize(np.random.uniform(-1.0, 1.0, shape))
+        cprod = np.zeros(shape)  # output has the same shape as inputs
+        cross(a, b, out=cprod)
+
+    If a 1D and 2D vector are specified, the cross product of each row of the
+    2D array and the 1D array is returned as a 2D array::
+
+        a = normalize([1, 2, 3])
+        b = normalize(np.random.uniform(-1.0, 1.0, (6, 3,)))
+        cprod = np.zeros(a.shape)
+        cross(a, b, out=cprod)
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v0 = np.asarray(v0, dtype=dtype)
+    v1 = np.asarray(v1, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if v0.ndim == v1.ndim == 2:  # 2D x 2D
+        assert v0.shape == v1.shape
+        toReturn = np.zeros(v0.shape, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        vr = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)
+        vr[:, 0] = v0[:, 1] * v1[:, 2] - v0[:, 2] * v1[:, 1]
+        vr[:, 1] = v0[:, 2] * v1[:, 0] - v0[:, 0] * v1[:, 2]
+        vr[:, 2] = v0[:, 0] * v1[:, 1] - v0[:, 1] * v1[:, 0]
+
+        if vr.shape[1] == 4:
+            vr[:, 3] = dtype(1.0)
+
+    elif v0.ndim == v1.ndim == 1:  # 1D x 1D
+        assert v0.shape == v1.shape
+        toReturn = np.zeros(v0.shape, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        toReturn[0] = v0[1] * v1[2] - v0[2] * v1[1]
+        toReturn[1] = v0[2] * v1[0] - v0[0] * v1[2]
+        toReturn[2] = v0[0] * v1[1] - v0[1] * v1[0]
+
+        if toReturn.shape[0] == 4:
+            toReturn[3] = dtype(1.0)
+
+    elif v0.ndim == 2 and v1.ndim == 1:  # 2D x 1D
+        toReturn = np.zeros(v0.shape, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        vr = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)
+        vr[:, 0] = v0[:, 1] * v1[2] - v0[:, 2] * v1[1]
+        vr[:, 1] = v0[:, 2] * v1[0] - v0[:, 0] * v1[2]
+        vr[:, 2] = v0[:, 0] * v1[1] - v0[:, 1] * v1[0]
+
+        if vr.shape[1] == 4:
+            vr[:, 3] = dtype(1.0)
+
+    elif v0.ndim == 1 and v1.ndim == 2:  # 1D x 2D
+        toReturn = np.zeros(v1.shape, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        vr = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)
+        vr[:, 0] = v1[:, 2] * v0[1] - v1[:, 1] * v0[2]
+        vr[:, 1] = v1[:, 0] * v0[2] - v1[:, 2] * v0[0]
+        vr[:, 2] = v1[:, 1] * v0[0] - v1[:, 0] * v0[1]
+
+        if vr.shape[1] == 4:
+            vr[:, 3] = dtype(1.0)
+
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input arguments have incorrect dimensions.")
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def project(v0, v1, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Project a vector onto another.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v0 : array_like
+        Vector can be Nx2, Nx3, or Nx4. If a 2D array is specified, rows are
+        treated as separate vectors.
+    v1 : array_like
+        Vector to project onto `v0`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray or float
+        Projection of vector `v0` on `v1`.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v0 = np.asarray(v0, dtype=dtype)
+    v1 = np.asarray(v1, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if v0.ndim == v1.ndim == 2 or v0.ndim == 1 and v1.ndim == 2:
+        toReturn = np.zeros_like(v1, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        toReturn[:, :] = v1[:, :]
+        toReturn *= (dot(v0, v1, dtype=dtype) / length(v1))[:, np.newaxis]
+    elif v0.ndim == v1.ndim == 1:
+        toReturn = v1 * (dot(v0, v1, dtype=dtype) / np.sum(np.square(v1)))
+    elif v0.ndim == 2 and v1.ndim == 1:
+        toReturn = np.zeros_like(v0, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        toReturn[:, :] = v1[:]
+        toReturn *= (dot(v0, v1, dtype=dtype) / length(v1))[:, np.newaxis]
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input arguments have invalid dimensions.")
+
+    toReturn += 0.0  # remove negative zeros
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def lerp(v0, v1, t, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Linear interpolation (LERP) between two vectors/coordinates.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v0 : array_like
+        Initial vector/coordinate. Can be 2D where each row is a point.
+    v1 : array_like
+        Final vector/coordinate. Must be the same shape as `v0`.
+    t : float
+        Interpolation weight factor [0, 1].
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Vector  at `t` with same shape as `v0` and `v1`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Find the coordinate of the midpoint between two vectors::
+
+        u = [0., 0., 0.]
+        v = [0., 0., 1.]
+        midpoint = lerp(u, v, 0.5)  # 0.5 to interpolate half-way between points
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    t = dtype(t)
+    t0 = dtype(1.0) - t
+    v0 = np.asarray(v0, dtype=dtype)
+    v1 = np.asarray(v1, dtype=dtype)
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros_like(v0, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+
+    v0, v1, vr = np.atleast_2d(v0, v1, toReturn)
+    vr[:, :] = v0 * t0
+    vr[:, :] += v1 * t
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def distance(v0, v1, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the distance between vectors/coordinates.
+
+    The behaviour of this function depends on the format of the input arguments:
+
+    * If `v0` and `v1` are 1D, the distance is returned as a scalar and `out` is
+      ignored.
+    * If `v0` and `v1` are 2D, an array of distances between corresponding row
+      vectors are returned.
+    * If either `v0` and `v1` are 1D and 2D, an array of distances
+      between each row of the 2D vector and the 1D vector are returned.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v0, v1 : array_like
+        Vectors to compute the distance between.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Distance between vectors `v0` and `v1`.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v0 = np.asarray(v0, dtype=dtype)
+    v1 = np.asarray(v1, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if v0.ndim == v1.ndim == 2 or (v0.ndim == 2 and v1.ndim == 1):
+        dist = np.zeros((v1.shape[0],), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        dist[:] = np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(v1 - v0), axis=1))
+    elif v0.ndim == v1.ndim == 1:
+        dist = np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(v1 - v0)))
+    elif v0.ndim == 1 and v1.ndim == 2:
+        dist = np.zeros((v1.shape[0],), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        dist[:] = np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(v0 - v1), axis=1))
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input arguments have invalid dimensions.")
+
+    return dist
+
+
+def perp(v, n, norm=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Project `v` to be a perpendicular axis of `n`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v : array_like
+        Vector to project [x, y, z], may be Nx3.
+    n : array_like
+        Normal vector [x, y, z], may be Nx3.
+    norm : bool
+        Normalize the resulting axis. Default is `True`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Perpendicular axis of `n` from `v`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Determine the local `up` (y-axis) of a surface or plane given `normal`::
+
+        normal = [0., 0.70710678, 0.70710678]
+        up = [1., 0., 0.]
+
+        yaxis = perp(up, normal)
+
+    Do a cross product to get the x-axis perpendicular to both::
+
+        xaxis = cross(yaxis, normal)
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v = np.asarray(v, dtype=dtype)
+    n = np.asarray(n, dtype=dtype)
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros_like(v, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    v2d, n2d, r2d = np.atleast_2d(v, n, toReturn)
+
+    # from GLM `glm/gtx/perpendicular.inl`
+    r2d[:, :] = v2d - project(v2d, n2d, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if norm:
+        normalize(toReturn, out=toReturn)
+
+    toReturn += 0.0  # clear negative zeros
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def bisector(v0, v1, norm=False, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the angle bisector.
+
+    Computes a vector which bisects the angle between `v0` and `v1`. Input
+    vectors `v0` and `v1` must be non-zero.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v0, v1 : array_like
+        Vectors to bisect [x, y, z]. Must be non-zero in length and have the
+        same shape. Inputs can be Nx3 where the bisector for corresponding
+        rows will be returned.
+    norm : bool, optional
+        Normalize the resulting bisector. Default is `False`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Bisecting vector [x, y, z].
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v0 = np.asarray(v0, dtype=dtype)
+    v1 = np.asarray(v1, dtype=dtype)
+
+    assert v0.shape == v1.shape
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros_like(v0, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+
+    v02d, v12d, r2d = np.atleast_2d(v0, v1, toReturn)
+
+    r2d[:, :] = v02d * length(v12d, dtype=dtype)[:, np.newaxis] + \
+                v12d * length(v02d, dtype=dtype)[:, np.newaxis]
+
+    if norm:
+        normalize(r2d, out=r2d)
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def angleTo(v, point, degrees=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the relative angle to a point from a vector.
+
+    The behaviour of this function depends on the format of the input arguments:
+
+    * If `v0` and `v1` are 1D, the angle is returned as a scalar and `out` is
+      ignored.
+    * If `v0` and `v1` are 2D, an array of angles between corresponding row
+      vectors are returned.
+    * If either `v0` and `v1` are 1D and 2D, an array of angles
+      between each row of the 2D vector and the 1D vector are returned.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v : array_like
+        Direction vector [x, y, z].
+    point : array_like
+        Point(s) to compute angle to from vector `v`.
+    degrees : bool, optional
+        Return the resulting angles in degrees. If `False`, angles will be
+        returned in radians. Default is `True`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Distance between vectors `v0` and `v1`.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v = np.asarray(v, dtype=dtype)
+    point = np.asarray(point, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if v.ndim == point.ndim == 2 or (v.ndim == 2 and point.ndim == 1):
+        angle = np.zeros((v.shape[0],), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        u = np.sqrt(length(v, squared=True, dtype=dtype) *
+                    length(point, squared=True, dtype=dtype))
+        angle[:] = np.arccos(dot(v, point, dtype=dtype) / u)
+    elif v.ndim == 1 and point.ndim == 2:
+        angle = np.zeros((point.shape[0],), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        u = np.sqrt(length(v, squared=True, dtype=dtype) *
+                    length(point, squared=True, dtype=dtype))
+        angle[:] = np.arccos(dot(v, point, dtype=dtype) / u)
+    elif v.ndim == point.ndim == 1:
+        u = np.sqrt(length(v, squared=True, dtype=dtype) *
+                    length(point, squared=True, dtype=dtype))
+        angle = np.arccos(dot(v, point, dtype=dtype) / u)
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input arguments have invalid dimensions.")
+
+    return np.degrees(angle) if degrees else angle
+
+
+def sortClockwise(verts):
+    """Sort vertices clockwise from 12 O'Clock (aka vertex (0, 1)).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    verts : array
+        Array of vertices to sort.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    array
+        Vertices sorted clockwise from 12 O'Clock.
+
+    """
+    # Blank array of angles
+    angles = []
+    # Calculate angle of each vertex
+    for vert in verts:
+        # Get angle
+        ang = angleTo(v=[0, 1], point=vert)
+        # Flip angle if we're past 6 O'clock
+        if vert[0] < 0:
+            ang = 360 - ang
+        # Append to angles array
+        angles.append(ang)
+    # Sort vertices by angles array values
+    verts = [x for _, x in sorted(zip(angles, verts), key=lambda pair: pair[0])]
+
+    return verts
+
+
+def surfaceNormal(tri, norm=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Compute the surface normal of a given triangle.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    tri : array_like
+        Triangle vertices as 2D (3x3) array [p0, p1, p2] where each vertex is a
+        length 3 array [vx, xy, vz]. The input array can be 3D (Nx3x3) to
+        specify multiple triangles.
+    norm : bool, optional
+        Normalize computed surface normals if ``True``, default is ``True``.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must have one fewer dimensions than `tri`. The
+        shape of the last dimension must be 3.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Surface normal of triangle `tri`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute the surface normal of a triangle::
+
+        vertices = [[-1., 0., 0.], [0., 1., 0.], [1, 0, 0]]
+        norm = surfaceNormal(vertices)
+
+    Find the normals for multiple triangles, and put results in a pre-allocated
+    array::
+
+        vertices = [[[-1., 0., 0.], [0., 1., 0.], [1, 0, 0]],  # 2x3x3
+                    [[1., 0., 0.], [0., 1., 0.], [-1, 0, 0]]]
+        normals = np.zeros((2, 3))  # normals for two triangles
+        surfaceNormal(vertices, out=normals)
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    tris = np.asarray(tri, dtype=dtype)
+    if tris.ndim == 2:
+        tris = np.expand_dims(tri, axis=0)
+
+    if tris.shape[0] == 1:
+        toReturn = np.zeros((3,), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    else:
+        if out is None:
+            toReturn = np.zeros((tris.shape[0], 3), dtype=dtype)
+        else:
+            toReturn = out
+
+    # from https://www.khronos.org/opengl/wiki/Calculating_a_Surface_Normal
+    nr = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)
+    u = tris[:, 1, :] - tris[:, 0, :]
+    v = tris[:, 2, :] - tris[:, 1, :]
+    nr[:, 0] = u[:, 1] * v[:, 2] - u[:, 2] * v[:, 1]
+    nr[:, 1] = u[:, 2] * v[:, 0] - u[:, 0] * v[:, 2]
+    nr[:, 2] = u[:, 0] * v[:, 1] - u[:, 1] * v[:, 0]
+
+    if norm:
+        normalize(nr, out=nr)
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def surfaceBitangent(tri, uv, norm=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Compute the bitangent vector of a given triangle.
+
+    This function can be used to generate bitangent vertex attributes for normal
+    mapping. After computing bitangents, one may orthogonalize them with vertex
+    normals using the :func:`orthogonalize` function, or within the fragment
+    shader. Uses texture coordinates at each triangle vertex to determine the
+    direction of the vector.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    tri : array_like
+        Triangle vertices as 2D (3x3) array [p0, p1, p2] where each vertex is a
+        length 3 array [vx, xy, vz]. The input array can be 3D (Nx3x3) to
+        specify multiple triangles.
+    uv : array_like
+        Texture coordinates associated with each face vertex as a 2D array (3x2)
+        where each texture coordinate is length 2 array [u, v]. The input array
+        can be 3D (Nx3x2) to specify multiple texture coordinates if multiple
+        triangles are specified.
+    norm : bool, optional
+        Normalize computed bitangents if ``True``, default is ``True``.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must have one fewer dimensions than `tri`. The
+        shape of the last dimension must be 3.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Surface bitangent of triangle `tri`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Computing the bitangents for two triangles from vertex and texture
+    coordinates (UVs)::
+
+        # array of triangle vertices (2x3x3)
+        tri = np.asarray([
+            [(-1.0, 1.0, 0.0), (-1.0, -1.0, 0.0), (1.0, -1.0, 0.0)],   # 1
+            [(-1.0, 1.0, 0.0), (-1.0, -1.0, 0.0), (1.0, -1.0, 0.0)]])  # 2
+
+        # array of triangle texture coordinates (2x3x2)
+        uv = np.asarray([
+            [(0.0, 1.0), (0.0, 0.0), (1.0, 0.0)],   # 1
+            [(0.0, 1.0), (0.0, 0.0), (1.0, 0.0)]])  # 2
+
+        bitangents = surfaceBitangent(tri, uv, norm=True)  # bitangets (2x3)
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    tris = np.asarray(tri, dtype=dtype)
+    if tris.ndim == 2:
+        tris = np.expand_dims(tri, axis=0)
+
+    if tris.shape[0] == 1:
+        toReturn = np.zeros((3,), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    else:
+        if out is None:
+            toReturn = np.zeros((tris.shape[0], 3), dtype=dtype)
+        else:
+            toReturn = out
+
+    uvs = np.asarray(uv, dtype=dtype)
+    if uvs.ndim == 2:
+        uvs = np.expand_dims(uvs, axis=0)
+
+    # based off the implementation from
+    # https://learnopengl.com/Advanced-Lighting/Normal-Mapping
+    e1 = tris[:, 1, :] - tris[:, 0, :]
+    e2 = tris[:, 2, :] - tris[:, 0, :]
+    d1 = uvs[:, 1, :] - uvs[:, 0, :]
+    d2 = uvs[:, 2, :] - uvs[:, 0, :]
+
+    # compute the bitangent
+    nr = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)
+    nr[:, 0] = -d2[:, 0] * e1[:, 0] + d1[:, 0] * e2[:, 0]
+    nr[:, 1] = -d2[:, 0] * e1[:, 1] + d1[:, 0] * e2[:, 1]
+    nr[:, 2] = -d2[:, 0] * e1[:, 2] + d1[:, 0] * e2[:, 2]
+
+    f = dtype(1.0) / (d1[:, 0] * d2[:, 1] - d2[:, 0] * d1[:, 1])
+    nr *= f[:, np.newaxis]
+
+    if norm:
+        normalize(toReturn, out=toReturn, dtype=dtype)
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def surfaceTangent(tri, uv, norm=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Compute the tangent vector of a given triangle.
+
+    This function can be used to generate tangent vertex attributes for normal
+    mapping. After computing tangents, one may orthogonalize them with vertex
+    normals using the :func:`orthogonalize` function, or within the fragment
+    shader. Uses texture coordinates at each triangle vertex to determine the
+    direction of the vector.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    tri : array_like
+        Triangle vertices as 2D (3x3) array [p0, p1, p2] where each vertex is a
+        length 3 array [vx, xy, vz]. The input array can be 3D (Nx3x3) to
+        specify multiple triangles.
+    uv : array_like
+        Texture coordinates associated with each face vertex as a 2D array (3x2)
+        where each texture coordinate is length 2 array [u, v]. The input array
+        can be 3D (Nx3x2) to specify multiple texture coordinates if multiple
+        triangles are specified. If so `N` must be the same size as the first
+        dimension of `tri`.
+    norm : bool, optional
+        Normalize computed tangents if ``True``, default is ``True``.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must have one fewer dimensions than `tri`. The
+        shape of the last dimension must be 3.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Surface normal of triangle `tri`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute surface normals, tangents, and bitangents for a list of triangles::
+
+        # triangle vertices (2x3x3)
+        vertices = [[[-1., 0., 0.], [0., 1., 0.], [1, 0, 0]],
+                    [[1., 0., 0.], [0., 1., 0.], [-1, 0, 0]]]
+
+        # array of triangle texture coordinates (2x3x2)
+        uv = np.asarray([
+            [(0.0, 1.0), (0.0, 0.0), (1.0, 0.0)],   # 1
+            [(0.0, 1.0), (0.0, 0.0), (1.0, 0.0)]])  # 2
+
+        normals = surfaceNormal(vertices)
+        tangents = surfaceTangent(vertices, uv)
+        bitangents = cross(normals, tangents)  # or use `surfaceBitangent`
+
+    Orthogonalize a surface tangent with a vertex normal vector to get the
+    vertex tangent and bitangent vectors::
+
+        vertexTangent = orthogonalize(faceTangent, vertexNormal)
+        vertexBitangent = cross(vertexTangent, vertexNormal)
+
+    Ensure computed vectors have the same handedness, if not, flip the tangent
+    vector (important for applications like normal mapping)::
+
+        # tangent, bitangent, and normal are 2D
+        tangent[dot(cross(normal, tangent), bitangent) < 0.0, :] *= -1.0
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    tris = np.asarray(tri, dtype=dtype)
+    if tris.ndim == 2:
+        tris = np.expand_dims(tri, axis=0)
+
+    if tris.shape[0] == 1:
+        toReturn = np.zeros((3,), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    else:
+        if out is None:
+            toReturn = np.zeros((tris.shape[0], 3), dtype=dtype)
+        else:
+            toReturn = out
+
+    uvs = np.asarray(uv, dtype=dtype)
+    if uvs.ndim == 2:
+        uvs = np.expand_dims(uvs, axis=0)
+
+    # based off the implementation from
+    # https://learnopengl.com/Advanced-Lighting/Normal-Mapping
+    e1 = tris[:, 1, :] - tris[:, 0, :]
+    e2 = tris[:, 2, :] - tris[:, 0, :]
+    d1 = uvs[:, 1, :] - uvs[:, 0, :]
+    d2 = uvs[:, 2, :] - uvs[:, 0, :]
+
+    # compute the bitangent
+    nr = np.atleast_2d(toReturn)
+    nr[:, 0] = d2[:, 1] * e1[:, 0] - d1[:, 1] * e2[:, 0]
+    nr[:, 1] = d2[:, 1] * e1[:, 1] - d1[:, 1] * e2[:, 1]
+    nr[:, 2] = d2[:, 1] * e1[:, 2] - d1[:, 1] * e2[:, 2]
+
+    f = dtype(1.0) / (d1[:, 0] * d2[:, 1] - d2[:, 0] * d1[:, 1])
+    nr *= f[:, np.newaxis]
+
+    if norm:
+        normalize(toReturn, out=toReturn, dtype=dtype)
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def vertexNormal(faceNorms, norm=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Compute a vertex normal from shared triangles.
+
+    This function computes a vertex normal by averaging the surface normals of
+    the triangles it belongs to. If model has no vertex normals, first use
+    :func:`surfaceNormal` to compute them, then run :func:`vertexNormal` to
+    compute vertex normal attributes.
+
+    While this function is mainly used to compute vertex normals, it can also
+    be supplied triangle tangents and bitangents.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    faceNorms : array_like
+        An array (Nx3) of surface normals.
+    norm : bool, optional
+        Normalize computed normals if ``True``, default is ``True``.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Vertex normal.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute a vertex normal from the face normals of the triangles it belongs
+    to::
+
+        normals = [[1., 0., 0.], [0., 1., 0.]]  # adjacent face normals
+        vertexNorm = vertexNormal(normals)
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    triNorms2d = np.atleast_2d(np.asarray(faceNorms, dtype=dtype))
+    nFaces = triNorms2d.shape[0]
+
+    if out is None:
+        toReturn = np.zeros((3,), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        toReturn = out
+
+    toReturn[0] = np.sum(triNorms2d[:, 0])
+    toReturn[1] = np.sum(triNorms2d[:, 1])
+    toReturn[2] = np.sum(triNorms2d[:, 2])
+    toReturn /= nFaces
+
+    if norm:
+        normalize(toReturn, out=toReturn, dtype=dtype)
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def fixTangentHandedness(tangents, normals, bitangents, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Ensure the handedness of tangent vectors are all the same.
+
+    Often 3D computed tangents may not have the same handedness due to how
+    texture coordinates are specified. This function takes input surface vectors
+    are ensures that tangents have the same handedness. Use this function if you
+    notice that normal mapping shading appears reversed with respect to the
+    incident light direction. The output array of corrected tangents can be used
+    inplace of the original.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    tangents, normals, bitangents : array_like
+        Input Nx3 arrays of triangle tangents, normals and bitangents. All
+        arrays must have the same size.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array for tangents. If not specified, a new array of
+        tangents will be allocated.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Array of tangents with handedness corrected.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    tangents = np.asarray(tangents, dtype=dtype)
+    normals = np.asarray(normals, dtype=dtype)
+    bitangents = np.asarray(bitangents, dtype=dtype)
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros_like(tangents, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    toReturn[:, :] = tangents
+    toReturn[dot(cross(normals, tangents, dtype=dtype),
+                 bitangents, dtype=dtype) < 0.0, :] *= -1.0
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Collision Detection, Interaction and Kinematics
+#
+def fitBBox(points, dtype=None):
+    """Fit an axis-aligned bounding box around points.
+
+    This computes the minimum and maximum extents for a bounding box to
+    completely enclose `points`. Keep in mind the output in bounds are
+    axis-aligned and may not optimally fits the points (i.e. fits the points
+    with the minimum required volume). However, this should work well enough for
+    applications such as visibility testing (see
+    `~psychopy.tools.viewtools.volumeVisible` for more information..
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    points : array_like
+        Nx3 or Nx4 array of points to fit the bounding box to.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Extents (mins, maxs) as a 2x3 array.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    computeBBoxCorners : Convert bounding box extents to corners.
+
+    """
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    points = np.asarray(points, dtype=dtype)
+    extents = np.zeros((2, 3), dtype=dtype)
+
+    extents[0, :] = (np.min(points[:, 0]),
+                     np.min(points[:, 1]),
+                     np.min(points[:, 2]))
+    extents[1, :] = (np.max(points[:, 0]),
+                     np.max(points[:, 1]),
+                     np.max(points[:, 2]))
+
+    return extents
+
+
+def computeBBoxCorners(extents, dtype=None):
+    """Get the corners of an axis-aligned bounding box.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    extents : array_like
+        2x3 array indicating the minimum and maximum extents of the bounding
+        box.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        8x4 array of points defining the corners of the bounding box.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute the corner points of a bounding box::
+
+        minExtent = [-1, -1, -1]
+        maxExtent = [1, 1, 1]
+        corners = computeBBoxCorners([minExtent, maxExtent])
+
+        # [[ 1.  1.  1.  1.]
+        #  [-1.  1.  1.  1.]
+        #  [ 1. -1.  1.  1.]
+        #  [-1. -1.  1.  1.]
+        #  [ 1.  1. -1.  1.]
+        #  [-1.  1. -1.  1.]
+        #  [ 1. -1. -1.  1.]
+        #  [-1. -1. -1.  1.]]
+
+    """
+    extents = np.asarray(extents, dtype=dtype)
+
+    assert extents.shape == (2, 3,)
+
+    corners = np.zeros((8, 4), dtype=dtype)
+    idx = np.arange(0, 8)
+    corners[:, 0] = np.where(idx[:] & 1, extents[0, 0], extents[1, 0])
+    corners[:, 1] = np.where(idx[:] & 2, extents[0, 1], extents[1, 1])
+    corners[:, 2] = np.where(idx[:] & 4, extents[0, 2], extents[1, 2])
+    corners[:, 3] = 1.0
+
+    return corners
+
+
+def intersectRayPlane(rayOrig, rayDir, planeOrig, planeNormal, dtype=None):
+    """Get the point which a ray intersects a plane.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rayOrig : array_like
+        Origin of the line in space [x, y, z].
+    rayDir : array_like
+        Direction vector of the line [x, y, z].
+    planeOrig : array_like
+        Origin of the plane to test [x, y, z].
+    planeNormal : array_like
+        Normal vector of the plane [x, y, z].
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple or None
+        Position (`ndarray`) in space which the line intersects the plane and
+        the distance the intersect occurs from the origin (`float`). `None` is
+        returned if the line does not intersect the plane at a single point or
+        at all.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Find the point in the scene a ray intersects the plane::
+
+        # plane information
+        planeOrigin = [0, 0, 0]
+        planeNormal = [0, 0, 1]
+        planeUpAxis = perp([0, 1, 0], planeNormal)
+
+        # ray
+        rayDir = [0, 0, -1]
+        rayOrigin = [0, 0, 5]
+
+        # get the intersect and distance in 3D world space
+        pnt, dist = intersectRayPlane(rayOrigin, rayDir, planeOrigin, planeNormal)
+
+    """
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    # based off the method from GLM
+    rayOrig = np.asarray(rayOrig, dtype=dtype)
+    rayDir = np.asarray(rayDir, dtype=dtype)
+    planeOrig = np.asarray(planeOrig, dtype=dtype)
+    planeNormal = np.asarray(planeNormal, dtype=dtype)
+
+    denom = dot(rayDir, planeNormal, dtype=dtype)
+    if denom == 0.0:
+        return None
+
+    # distance to collision
+    dist = dot((planeOrig - rayOrig), planeNormal, dtype=dtype) / denom
+    intersect = dist * rayDir + rayOrig
+
+    return intersect, dist
+
+
+def intersectRaySphere(rayOrig, rayDir, sphereOrig=(0., 0., 0.), sphereRadius=1.0,
+                       dtype=None):
+    """Calculate the points which a ray/line intersects a sphere (if any).
+
+    Get the 3D coordinate of the point which the ray intersects the sphere and
+    the distance to the point from `orig`. The nearest point is returned if
+    the line intersects the sphere at multiple locations. All coordinates should
+    be in world/scene units.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rayOrig : array_like
+        Origin of the ray in space [x, y, z].
+    rayDir : array_like
+        Direction vector of the ray [x, y, z], should be normalized.
+    sphereOrig : array_like
+        Origin of the sphere to test [x, y, z].
+    sphereRadius : float
+        Sphere radius to test in scene units.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        Coordinate in world space of the intersection and distance in scene
+        units from `orig`. Returns `None` if there is no intersection.
+
+    """
+    # based off example from https://antongerdelan.net/opengl/raycasting.html
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    rayOrig = np.asarray(rayOrig, dtype=dtype)
+    rayDir = np.asarray(rayDir, dtype=dtype)
+    sphereOrig = np.asarray(sphereOrig, dtype=dtype)
+    sphereRadius = np.asarray(sphereRadius, dtype=dtype)
+
+    d = rayOrig - sphereOrig
+    b = np.dot(rayDir, d)
+    c = np.dot(d, d) - np.square(sphereRadius)
+    b2mc = np.square(b) - c  # determinant
+
+    if b2mc < 0.0:  # no roots, ray does not intersect sphere
+        return None
+
+    u = np.sqrt(b2mc)
+    nearestDist = np.minimum(-b + u, -b - u)
+    pos = (rayDir * nearestDist) + rayOrig
+
+    return pos, nearestDist
+
+
+def intersectRayAABB(rayOrig, rayDir, boundsOffset, boundsExtents, dtype=None):
+    """Find the point a ray intersects an axis-aligned bounding box (AABB).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rayOrig : array_like
+        Origin of the ray in space [x, y, z].
+    rayDir : array_like
+        Direction vector of the ray [x, y, z], should be normalized.
+    boundsOffset : array_like
+        Offset of the bounding box in the scene [x, y, z].
+    boundsExtents : array_like
+        Minimum and maximum extents of the bounding box.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        Coordinate in world space of the intersection and distance in scene
+        units from `rayOrig`. Returns `None` if there is no intersection.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Get the point on an axis-aligned bounding box that the cursor is over and
+    place a 3D stimulus there. The eye location is defined by `RigidBodyPose`
+    object `camera`::
+
+        # get the mouse position on-screen
+        mx, my = mouse.getPos()
+
+        # find the point which the ray intersects on the box
+        result = intersectRayAABB(
+            camera.pos,
+            camera.transformNormal(win.coordToRay((mx, my))),
+            myStim.pos,
+            myStim.thePose.bounds.extents)
+
+        # if the ray intersects, set the position of the cursor object to it
+        if result is not None:
+            cursorModel.thePose.pos = result[0]
+            cursorModel.draw()  # don't draw anything if there is no intersect
+
+    Note that if the model is rotated, the bounding box may not be aligned
+    anymore with the axes. Use `intersectRayOBB` if your model rotates.
+
+    """
+    # based of the example provided here:
+    # https://www.scratchapixel.com/lessons/3d-basic-rendering/
+    # minimal-ray-tracer-rendering-simple-shapes/ray-box-intersection
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    rayOrig = np.asarray(rayOrig, dtype=dtype)
+    rayDir = np.asarray(rayDir, dtype=dtype)
+    boundsOffset = np.asarray(boundsOffset, dtype=dtype)
+    extents = np.asarray(boundsExtents, dtype=dtype) + boundsOffset
+
+    invDir = 1.0 / rayDir
+    sign = np.zeros((3,), dtype=int)
+    sign[invDir < 0.0] = 1
+
+    tmin = (extents[sign[0], 0] - rayOrig[0]) * invDir[0]
+    tmax = (extents[1 - sign[0], 0] - rayOrig[0]) * invDir[0]
+    tymin = (extents[sign[1], 1] - rayOrig[1]) * invDir[1]
+    tymax = (extents[1 - sign[1], 1] - rayOrig[1]) * invDir[1]
+
+    if tmin > tymax or tymin > tmax:
+        return None
+
+    if tymin > tmin:
+        tmin = tymin
+
+    if tymax < tmax:
+        tmax = tymax
+
+    tzmin = (extents[sign[2], 2] - rayOrig[2]) * invDir[2]
+    tzmax = (extents[1 - sign[2], 2] - rayOrig[2]) * invDir[2]
+
+    if tmin > tzmax or tzmin > tmax:
+        return None
+
+    if tzmin > tmin:
+        tmin = tzmin
+
+    if tzmax < tmax:
+        tmax = tzmax
+
+    if tmin < 0:
+        if tmax < 0:
+            return None
+
+    return (rayDir * tmin) + rayOrig, tmin
+
+
+def intersectRayOBB(rayOrig, rayDir, modelMatrix, boundsExtents, dtype=None):
+    """Find the point a ray intersects an oriented bounding box (OBB).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rayOrig : array_like
+        Origin of the ray in space [x, y, z].
+    rayDir : array_like
+        Direction vector of the ray [x, y, z], should be normalized.
+    modelMatrix : array_like
+        4x4 model matrix of the object and bounding box.
+    boundsExtents : array_like
+        Minimum and maximum extents of the bounding box.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        Coordinate in world space of the intersection and distance in scene
+        units from `rayOrig`. Returns `None` if there is no intersection.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Get the point on an oriented bounding box that the cursor is over and place
+    a 3D stimulus there. The eye location is defined by `RigidBodyPose` object
+    `camera`::
+
+        # get the mouse position on-screen
+        mx, my = mouse.getPos()
+
+        # find the point which the ray intersects on the box
+        result = intersectRayOBB(
+            camera.pos,
+            camera.transformNormal(win.coordToRay((mx, my))),
+            myStim.thePose.getModelMatrix(),
+            myStim.thePose.bounds.extents)
+
+        # if the ray intersects, set the position of the cursor object to it
+        if result is not None:
+            cursorModel.thePose.pos = result[0]
+            cursorModel.draw()  # don't draw anything if there is no intersect
+
+    """
+    # based off algorithm:
+    # https://www.opengl-tutorial.org/miscellaneous/clicking-on-objects/
+    # picking-with-custom-ray-obb-function/
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    rayOrig = np.asarray(rayOrig, dtype=dtype)
+    rayDir = np.asarray(rayDir, dtype=dtype)
+    modelMatrix = np.asarray(modelMatrix, dtype=dtype)
+    boundsOffset = np.asarray(modelMatrix[:3, 3], dtype=dtype)
+    extents = np.asarray(boundsExtents, dtype=dtype)
+
+    tmin = 0.0
+    tmax = np.finfo(dtype).max
+    d = boundsOffset - rayOrig
+
+    # solve intersects for each pair of planes along each axis
+    for i in range(3):
+        axis = modelMatrix[:3, i]
+        e = np.dot(axis, d)
+        f = np.dot(rayDir, axis)
+
+        if np.fabs(f) > 1e-5:
+            t1 = (e + extents[0, i]) / f
+            t2 = (e + extents[1, i]) / f
+
+            if t1 > t2:
+                temp = t1
+                t1 = t2
+                t2 = temp
+
+            if t2 < tmax:
+                tmax = t2
+
+            if t1 > tmin:
+                tmin = t1
+
+            if tmin > tmax:
+                return None
+
+        else:
+            # very close to parallel with the face
+            if -e + extents[0, i] > 0.0 or -e + extents[1, i] < 0.0:
+                return None
+
+    return (rayDir * tmin) + rayOrig, tmin
+
+
+def intersectRayTriangle(rayOrig, rayDir, tri, dtype=None):
+    """Get the intersection of a ray and triangle(s).
+
+    This function can be used to achieve 'pixel-perfect' ray picking/casting on
+    meshes defined with triangles. However, high-poly meshes may lead to
+    performance issues.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rayOrig : array_like
+        Origin of the ray in space [x, y, z].
+    rayDir : array_like
+        Direction vector of the ray [x, y, z], should be normalized.
+    tri : array_like
+        Triangle vertices as 2D (3x3) array [p0, p1, p2] where each vertex is a
+        length 3 array [vx, xy, vz]. The input array can be 3D (Nx3x3) to
+        specify multiple triangles.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        Coordinate in world space of the intersection, distance in scene
+        units from `rayOrig`, and the barycentric coordinates on the triangle
+        [x, y]. Returns `None` if there is no intersection.
+
+    """
+    # based off `intersectRayTriangle` from GLM (https://glm.g-truc.net)
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    rayOrig = np.asarray(rayOrig, dtype=dtype)
+    rayDir = np.asarray(rayDir, dtype=dtype)
+    triVerts = np.asarray(tri, dtype=dtype)
+
+    edge1 = triVerts[1, :] - triVerts[0, :]
+    edge2 = triVerts[2, :] - triVerts[0, :]
+
+    baryPos = np.zeros((2,), dtype=dtype)
+
+    p = np.cross(rayDir, edge2)
+    det = np.dot(edge1, p)
+
+    if det > np.finfo(dtype).eps:
+        dist = rayOrig - triVerts[0, :]
+
+        baryPos[0] = np.dot(dist, p)
+        if baryPos[0] < 0.0 or baryPos[0] > det:
+            return None
+
+        ortho = np.cross(dist, edge1)
+
+        baryPos[1] = np.dot(rayDir, ortho)
+        if baryPos[1] < 0.0 or baryPos[0] + baryPos[1] > det:
+            return None
+
+    elif det < -np.finfo(dtype).eps:
+        dist = rayOrig - triVerts[0, :]
+
+        baryPos[0] = np.dot(dist, p)
+        if baryPos[0] > 0.0 or baryPos[0] < det:
+            return None
+
+        ortho = np.cross(dist, edge1)
+
+        baryPos[1] = np.dot(rayDir, ortho)
+        if baryPos[1] > 0.0 or baryPos[0] + baryPos[1] < det:
+            return None
+    else:
+        return None
+
+    invDet = 1.0 / det
+    dist = np.dot(edge2, ortho) * invDet
+    baryPos *= invDet
+
+    return (rayDir * dist) + rayOrig, dist, baryPos
+
+
+def ortho3Dto2D(p, orig, normal, up, right=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the planar coordinates of an orthogonal projection of a 3D point onto
+    a 2D plane.
+
+    This function gets the nearest point on the plane which a 3D point falls on
+    the plane.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    p : array_like
+        Point to be projected on the plane.
+    orig : array_like
+        Origin of the plane to test [x, y, z].
+    normal : array_like
+        Normal vector of the plane [x, y, z], must be normalized.
+    up : array_like
+        Normalized up (+Y) direction of the plane's coordinate system. Must be
+        perpendicular to `normal`.
+    right : array_like, optional
+        Perpendicular right (+X) axis. If not provided, the axis will be
+        computed via the cross product between `normal` and `up`.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Coordinates on the plane [X, Y] where the 3D point projects towards
+        perpendicularly.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    This function can be used with :func:`intersectRayPlane` to find the
+    location on the plane the ray intersects::
+
+        # plane information
+        planeOrigin = [0, 0, 0]
+        planeNormal = [0, 0, 1]  # must be normalized
+        planeUpAxis = perp([0, 1, 0], planeNormal)  # must also be normalized
+
+        # ray
+        rayDir = [0, 0, -1]
+        rayOrigin = [0, 0, 5]
+
+        # get the intersect in 3D world space
+        pnt = intersectRayPlane(rayOrigin, rayDir, planeOrigin, planeNormal)
+
+        # get the 2D coordinates on the plane the intersect occurred
+        planeX, planeY = ortho3Dto2D(pnt, planeOrigin, planeNormal, planeUpAxis)
+
+    """
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    p = np.asarray(p, dtype=dtype)
+    orig = np.asarray(orig, dtype=dtype)
+    normal = np.asarray(normal, dtype=dtype)
+    up = np.asarray(up, dtype=dtype)
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros((2,))
+
+    offset = p - orig
+    if right is None:
+        # derive X axis with cross product
+        toReturn[0] = dot(offset, cross(normal, up, dtype=dtype), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        toReturn[0] = dot(offset, np.asarray(right, dtype=dtype), dtype=dtype)
+
+    toReturn[1] = dot(offset, up)
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def articulate(boneVecs, boneOris, dtype=None):
+    """Articulate an armature.
+
+    This function is used for forward kinematics and posing by specifying a list
+    of 'bones'. A bone has a length and orientation, where sequential bones are
+    linked end-to-end. Returns the transformed origins of the bones in scene
+    coordinates and their orientations.
+
+    There are many applications for forward kinematics such as posing armatures
+    and stimuli for display (eg. mocap data). Another application is for getting
+    the location of the end effector of coordinate measuring hardware, where
+    encoders measure the joint angles and the length of linking members are
+    known. This can be used for computing pose from "Sword of Damocles"[1]_ like
+    hardware or some other haptic input devices which the participant wears (eg.
+    a glove that measures joint angles in the hand). The computed pose of the
+    joints can be used to interact with virtual stimuli.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    boneVecs : array_like
+        Bone lengths [x, y, z] as an Nx3 array.
+    boneOris : array_like
+        Orientation of the bones as quaternions in form [x, y, z, w], relative
+        to the previous bone.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        Array of bone origins and orientations. The first origin is root
+        position which is always at [0, 0, 0]. Use :func:`transform` to
+        reposition the armature, or create a transformation matrix and use
+        `applyMatrix` to translate and rotate the whole armature into position.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Sutherland, I. E. (1968). "A head-mounted three dimensional display".
+           Proceedings of AFIPS 68, pp. 757-764
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute the orientations and origins of segments of an arm::
+
+        # bone lengths
+        boneLengths = [[0., 1., 0.], [0., 1., 0.], [0., 1., 0.]]
+
+        # create quaternions for joints
+        shoulder = mt.quatFromAxisAngle('-y', 45.0)
+        elbow = mt.quatFromAxisAngle('+z', 45.0)
+        wrist = mt.quatFromAxisAngle('+z', 45.0)
+
+        # articulate the parts of the arm
+        boxPos, boxOri = mt.articulate(pos, [shoulder, elbow, wrist])
+
+        # assign positions and orientations to 3D objects
+        shoulderModel.thePose.posOri = (boxPos[0, :], boxOri[0, :])
+        elbowModel.thePose.posOri = (boxPos[1, :], boxOri[1, :])
+        wristModel.thePose.posOri = (boxPos[2, :], boxOri[2, :])
+
+    """
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    boneVecs = np.asarray(boneVecs, dtype=dtype)
+    boneOris = np.asarray(boneOris, dtype=dtype)
+
+    jointOri = accumQuat(boneOris, dtype=dtype)  # get joint orientations
+    bonesRotated = applyQuat(jointOri, boneVecs, dtype=dtype)  # rotate bones
+
+    # accumulate
+    bonesTranslated = np.asarray(
+        tuple(itertools.accumulate(bonesRotated[:], lambda a, b: a + b)),
+        dtype=dtype)
+    bonesTranslated -= bonesTranslated[0, :]  # offset root length
+
+    return bonesTranslated, jointOri
+
+
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Quaternion Operations
+#
+
+def slerp(q0, q1, t, shortest=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Spherical linear interpolation (SLERP) between two quaternions.
+
+    The behaviour of this function depends on the types of arguments:
+
+    * If `q0` and `q1` are both 1-D and `t` is scalar, the interpolation at `t`
+      is returned.
+    * If `q0` and `q1` are both 2-D Nx4 arrays and `t` is scalar, an Nx4 array
+      is returned with each row containing the interpolation at `t` for each
+      quaternion pair at matching row indices in `q0` and `q1`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q0 : array_like
+        Initial quaternion in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components.
+    q1 : array_like
+        Final quaternion in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components.
+    t : float
+        Interpolation weight factor within interval 0.0 and 1.0.
+    shortest : bool, optional
+        Ensure interpolation occurs along the shortest arc along the 4-D
+        hypersphere (default is `True`).
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Quaternion [x, y, z, w] at `t`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Interpolate between two orientations::
+
+        q0 = quatFromAxisAngle(90.0, degrees=True)
+        q1 = quatFromAxisAngle(-90.0, degrees=True)
+        # halfway between 90 and -90 is 0.0 or quaternion [0. 0. 0. 1.]
+        qr = slerp(q0, q1, 0.5)
+
+    Example of smooth rotation of an object with fixed angular velocity::
+
+        degPerSec = 10.0  # rotate a stimulus at 10 degrees per second
+
+        # initial orientation, axis rotates in the Z direction
+        qr = quatFromAxisAngle([0., 0., -1.], 0.0, degrees=True)
+        # amount to rotate every second
+        qv = quatFromAxisAngle([0., 0., -1.], degPerSec, degrees=True)
+
+        # ---- within main experiment loop ----
+        # `frameTime` is the time elapsed in seconds from last `slerp`.
+        qr = multQuat(qr, slerp((0., 0., 0., 1.), qv, degPerSec * frameTime))
+        _, angle = quatToAxisAngle(qr)  # discard axis, only need angle
+
+        # myStim is a GratingStim or anything with an 'ori' argument which
+        # accepts angle in degrees
+        myStim.ori = angle
+        myStim.draw()
+
+    """
+    # Implementation based on code found here:
+    #  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slerp
+    #
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    q0 = normalize(q0, dtype=dtype)
+    q1 = normalize(q1, dtype=dtype)
+    assert q0.shape == q1.shape
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros(q0.shape, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    toReturn.fill(0.0)
+    t = dtype(t)
+    q0, q1, qr = np.atleast_2d(q0, q1, toReturn)
+
+    d = np.clip(np.sum(q0 * q1, axis=1), -1.0, 1.0)
+    if shortest:
+        d[d < 0.0] *= -1.0
+        q1[d < 0.0] *= -1.0
+
+    theta0 = np.arccos(d)
+    theta = theta0 * t
+    sinTheta = np.sin(theta)
+    s1 = sinTheta / np.sin(theta0)
+    s0 = np.cos(theta[:, np.newaxis]) - d[:, np.newaxis] * s1[:, np.newaxis]
+    qr[:, :] = q0 * s0
+    qr[:, :] += q1 * s1[:, np.newaxis]
+    qr[:, :] += 0.0
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def quatToAxisAngle(q, degrees=True, dtype=None):
+    """Convert a quaternion to `axis` and `angle` representation.
+
+    This allows you to use quaternions to set the orientation of stimuli that
+    have an `ori` property.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q : tuple, list or ndarray of float
+        Quaternion in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components.
+    degrees : bool, optional
+        Indicate `angle` is to be returned in degrees, otherwise `angle` will be
+        returned in radians.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        Axis and angle of quaternion in form ([ax, ay, az], angle). If `degrees`
+        is `True`, the angle returned is in degrees, radians if `False`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Using a quaternion to rotate a stimulus a fixed angle each frame::
+
+        # initial orientation, axis rotates in the Z direction
+        qr = quatFromAxisAngle([0., 0., -1.], 0.0, degrees=True)
+        # rotation per-frame, here it's 0.1 degrees per frame
+        qf = quatFromAxisAngle([0., 0., -1.], 0.1, degrees=True)
+
+        # ---- within main experiment loop ----
+        # myStim is a GratingStim or anything with an 'ori' argument which
+        # accepts angle in degrees
+        qr = multQuat(qr, qf)  # cumulative rotation
+        _, angle = quatToAxisAngle(qr)  # discard axis, only need angle
+        myStim.ori = angle
+        myStim.draw()
+
+    """
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    q = normalize(q, dtype=dtype)  # returns ndarray
+    v = np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(q[:3])))
+
+    if np.count_nonzero(q[:3]):
+        axis = q[:3] / v
+        angle = dtype(2.0) * np.arctan2(v, q[3])
+    else:
+        axis = np.zeros((3,), dtype=dtype)
+        axis[0] = 1.
+        angle = 0.0
+
+    axis += 0.0
+
+    return axis, np.degrees(angle) if degrees else angle
+
+
+def quatFromAxisAngle(axis, angle, degrees=True, dtype=None):
+    """Create a quaternion to represent a rotation about `axis` vector by
+    `angle`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    axis : tuple, list, ndarray or str
+        Axis vector components or axis name. If a vector, input must be length
+        3 [x, y, z]. A string can be specified for rotations about world axes
+        (eg. `'+x'`, `'-z'`, `'+y'`, etc.)
+    angle : float
+        Rotation angle in radians (or degrees if `degrees` is `True`. Rotations
+        are right-handed about the specified `axis`.
+    degrees : bool, optional
+        Indicate `angle` is in degrees, otherwise `angle` will be treated as
+        radians.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Quaternion [x, y, z, w].
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Create a quaternion from specified `axis` and `angle`::
+
+        axis = [0., 0., -1.]  # rotate about -Z axis
+        angle = 90.0  # angle in degrees
+        ori = quatFromAxisAngle(axis, angle, degrees=True)  # using degrees!
+
+    """
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    toReturn = np.zeros((4,), dtype=dtype)
+
+    if degrees:
+        halfRad = np.radians(angle, dtype=dtype) / dtype(2.0)
+    else:
+        halfRad = np.dtype(dtype).type(angle) / dtype(2.0)
+
+    try:
+        axis = VEC_AXES[axis] if isinstance(axis, str) else axis
+    except KeyError:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Value of `axis` must be either '+X', '-X', '+Y', '-Y', '+Z' or "
+            "'-Z' or length 3 vector.")
+
+    axis = normalize(axis, dtype=dtype)
+    if np.count_nonzero(axis) == 0:
+        raise ValueError("Value for `axis` is zero-length.")
+
+    np.multiply(axis, np.sin(halfRad), out=toReturn[:3])
+    toReturn[3] = np.cos(halfRad)
+    toReturn += 0.0  # remove negative zeros
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def quatYawPitchRoll(q, degrees=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the yaw, pitch, and roll of a quaternion's orientation relative to
+    the world -Z axis.
+
+    You can multiply the quaternion by the inverse of some other one to make the
+    returned values referenced to a local coordinate system.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q : tuple, list or ndarray of float
+        Quaternion in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components.
+    degrees : bool, optional
+        Indicate angles are to be returned in degrees, otherwise they will be
+        returned in radians.
+    out : ndarray
+        Optional output array. Must have same `shape` and `dtype` as what is
+        expected to be returned by this function of `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Yaw, pitch and roll [yaw, pitch, roll] of quaternion `q`.
+
+    """
+    # based off code found here:
+    # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_between_quaternions_and_Euler_angles
+    # Yields the same results as PsychXR's LibOVRPose.getYawPitchRoll method.
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    q = np.asarray(q, dtype=dtype)
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros((3,), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+
+    sinRcosP = 2.0 * (q[3] * q[0] + q[1] * q[2])
+    cosRcosP = 1.0 - 2.0 * (q[0] * q[0] + q[1] * q[1])
+
+    toReturn[0] = np.arctan2(sinRcosP, cosRcosP)
+
+    sinp = 2.0 * (q[3] * q[1] - q[2] * q[0])
+
+    if np.fabs(sinp) >= 1.:
+        toReturn[1] = np.copysign(np.pi / 2., sinp)
+    else:
+        toReturn[1] = np.arcsin(sinp)
+
+    sinYcosP = 2.0 * (q[3] * q[2] + q[0] * q[1])
+    cosYcosP = 1.0 - 2.0 * (q[1] * q[1] + q[2] * q[2])
+
+    toReturn[2] = np.arctan2(sinYcosP, cosYcosP)
+
+    if degrees:
+        toReturn[:] = np.degrees(toReturn[:])
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def quatMagnitude(q, squared=False, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the magnitude of a quaternion.
+
+    A quaternion is normalized if its magnitude is 1.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q : array_like
+        Quaternion(s) in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z are
+        imaginary components.
+    squared : bool, optional
+        If ``True`` return the squared magnitude. If you are just checking if a
+        quaternion is normalized, the squared magnitude will suffice to avoid
+        the square root operation.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    float or ndarray
+        Magnitude of quaternion `q`.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    q = np.asarray(q, dtype=dtype)
+    if q.ndim == 1:
+        assert q.shape[0] == 4
+        if squared:
+            toReturn = np.sum(np.square(q))
+        else:
+            toReturn = np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(q)))
+    elif q.ndim == 2:
+        assert q.shape[1] == 4
+        toReturn = np.zeros((q.shape[0],), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+        if squared:
+            toReturn[:] = np.sum(np.square(q), axis=1)
+        else:
+            toReturn[:] = np.sqrt(np.sum(np.square(q), axis=1))
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input argument 'q' has incorrect dimensions.")
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def multQuat(q0, q1, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Multiply quaternion `q0` and `q1`.
+
+    The orientation of the returned quaternion is the combination of the input
+    quaternions.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q0, q1 : array_like
+        Quaternions to multiply in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components. If 2D (Nx4) arrays are specified, quaternions
+        are multiplied row-wise between each array.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Combined orientations of `q0` amd `q1`.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * Quaternions are normalized prior to multiplication.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Combine the orientations of two quaternions::
+
+        a = quatFromAxisAngle([0, 0, -1], 45.0, degrees=True)
+        b = quatFromAxisAngle([0, 0, -1], 90.0, degrees=True)
+        c = multQuat(a, b)  # rotates 135 degrees about -Z axis
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    q0 = normalize(q0, dtype=dtype)
+    q1 = normalize(q1, dtype=dtype)
+    assert q0.shape == q1.shape
+    toReturn = np.zeros(q0.shape, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    toReturn.fill(0.0)  # clear array
+    q0, q1, qr = np.atleast_2d(q0, q1, toReturn)
+
+    # multiply quaternions for each row of the operand arrays
+    qr[:, :3] = np.cross(q0[:, :3], q1[:, :3], axis=1)
+    qr[:, :3] += q0[:, :3] * np.expand_dims(q1[:, 3], axis=1)
+    qr[:, :3] += q1[:, :3] * np.expand_dims(q0[:, 3], axis=1)
+    qr[:, 3] = q0[:, 3]
+    qr[:, 3] *= q1[:, 3]
+    qr[:, 3] -= np.sum(np.multiply(q0[:, :3], q1[:, :3]), axis=1)  # dot product
+    qr += 0.0
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def invertQuat(q, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the multiplicative inverse of a quaternion.
+
+    This gives a quaternion which rotates in the opposite direction with equal
+    magnitude. Multiplying a quaternion by its inverse returns an identity
+    quaternion as both orientations cancel out.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q : ndarray, list, or tuple of float
+        Quaternion to invert in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components. If `q` is 2D (Nx4), each row is treated as a
+        separate quaternion and inverted.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Inverse of quaternion `q`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Show that multiplying a quaternion by its inverse returns an identity
+    quaternion where [x=0, y=0, z=0, w=1]::
+
+        angle = 90.0
+        axis = [0., 0., -1.]
+        q = quatFromAxisAngle(axis, angle, degrees=True)
+        qinv = invertQuat(q)
+        qr = multQuat(q, qinv)
+        qi = np.array([0., 0., 0., 1.])  # identity quaternion
+        print(np.allclose(qi, qr))   # True
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * Quaternions are normalized prior to inverting.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    q = normalize(q, dtype=dtype)
+    toReturn = np.zeros(q.shape, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    qn, qinv = np.atleast_2d(q, toReturn)  # 2d views
+
+    # conjugate the quaternion
+    qinv[:, :3] = -qn[:, :3]
+    qinv[:, 3] = qn[:, 3]
+    qinv /= np.sum(np.square(qn), axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]
+    qinv += 0.0  # remove negative zeros
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def applyQuat(q, points, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Rotate points/coordinates using a quaternion.
+
+    This is similar to using `applyMatrix` with a rotation matrix. However, it
+    is computationally less intensive to use `applyQuat` if one only wishes to
+    rotate points.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q : array_like
+        Quaternion to invert in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components.
+    points : array_like
+        2D array of vectors or points to transform, where each row is a single
+        point. Only the x, y, and z components (the first three columns) are
+        rotated. Additional columns are copied.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Transformed points.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Rotate points using a quaternion::
+
+        points = [[1., 0., 0.], [0., -1., 0.]]
+        quat = quatFromAxisAngle(-90.0, [0., 0., -1.], degrees=True)
+        pointsRotated = applyQuat(quat, points)
+        # [[0. 1. 0.]
+        #  [1. 0. 0.]]
+
+    Show that you get the same result as a rotation matrix::
+
+        axis = [0., 0., -1.]
+        angle = -90.0
+        rotMat = rotationMatrix(axis, angle)[:3, :3]  # rotation sub-matrix only
+        rotQuat = quatFromAxisAngle(angle, axis, degrees=True)
+        points = [[1., 0., 0.], [0., -1., 0.]]
+        isClose = np.allclose(applyMatrix(rotMat, points),  # True
+                              applyQuat(rotQuat, points))
+
+    Specifying an array to `q` where each row is a quaternion transforms points
+    in corresponding rows of `points`::
+
+        points = [[1., 0., 0.], [0., -1., 0.]]
+        quats = [quatFromAxisAngle(-90.0, [0., 0., -1.], degrees=True),
+                 quatFromAxisAngle(45.0, [0., 0., -1.], degrees=True)]
+        applyQuat(quats, points)
+
+    """
+    # based on 'quat_mul_vec3' implementation from linmath.h
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    qin = np.asarray(q, dtype=dtype)
+    points = np.asarray(points, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if out is not None:
+        assert points.shape == out.shape
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros(points.shape, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    pin, pout = np.atleast_2d(points, toReturn)
+    pout[:, :] = pin[:, :]  # copy values into output array
+
+    if qin.ndim == 1:
+        assert qin.shape[0] == 4
+        t = cross(qin[:3], pin[:, :3]) * dtype(2.0)
+        u = cross(qin[:3], t)
+        t *= qin[3]
+        pout[:, :3] += t
+        pout[:, :3] += u
+    elif qin.ndim == 2:
+        assert qin.shape[1] == 4 and qin.shape[0] == pin.shape[0]
+        t = cross(qin[:, :3], pin[:, :3])
+        t *= dtype(2.0)
+        u = cross(qin[:, :3], t)
+        t *= np.expand_dims(qin[:, 3], axis=1)
+        pout[:, :3] += t
+        pout[:, :3] += u
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input arguments have invalid dimensions.")
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def accumQuat(qlist, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Accumulate quaternion rotations.
+
+    Chain multiplies an Nx4 array of quaternions, accumulating their rotations.
+    This function can be used for computing the orientation of joints in an
+    armature for forward kinematics. The first quaternion is treated as the
+    'root' and the last is the orientation of the end effector.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q : array_like
+        Nx4 array of quaternions to accumulate, where each row is a quaternion.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified. In this case, the same shape as
+        `qlist`.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Nx4 array of quaternions.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Get the orientation of joints in an armature if we know their relative
+    angles::
+
+        shoulder = quatFromAxisAngle('-x', 45.0)  # rotate shoulder down 45 deg
+        elbow = quatFromAxisAngle('+x', 45.0)  # rotate elbow up 45 deg
+        wrist = quatFromAxisAngle('-x', 45.0)  # rotate wrist down 45 deg
+        finger = quatFromAxisAngle('+x', 0.0)  # keep finger in-line with wrist
+
+        armRotations = accumQuat([shoulder, elbow, wrist, finger])
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    qlist = np.asarray(qlist, dtype=dtype)
+    qlist = np.atleast_2d(qlist)
+
+    qr = np.zeros_like(qlist, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    qr[:, :] = tuple(itertools.accumulate(
+        qlist[:], lambda a, b: multQuat(a, b, dtype=dtype)))
+
+    return qr
+
+
+def alignTo(v, t, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Compute a quaternion which rotates one vector to align with another.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v : array_like
+        Vector [x, y, z] to rotate. Can be Nx3, but must have the same shape as
+        `t`.
+    t : array_like
+        Target [x, y, z] vector to align to. Can be Nx3, but must have the same
+        shape as `v`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Quaternion which rotates `v` to `t`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Rotate some vectors to align with other vectors, inputs should be
+    normalized::
+
+        vec = [[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [1, 0, 0]]
+        targets = [[0, 1, 0], [0, -1, 0], [-1, 0, 0]]
+
+        qr = alignTo(vec, targets)
+        vecRotated = applyQuat(qr, vec)
+
+        numpy.allclose(vecRotated, targets)  # True
+
+    Get matrix which orients vertices towards a point::
+
+        point = [5, 6, 7]
+        vec = [0, 0, -1]  # initial facing is -Z (forward in GL)
+
+        targetVec = normalize(point - vec)
+        qr = alignTo(vec, targetVec)  # get rotation to align
+
+        M = quatToMatrix(qr)  # 4x4 transformation matrix
+
+    """
+    # based off Quaternion::align from Quaternion.hpp from OpenMP
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    v = normalize(v, dtype=dtype)
+    t = normalize(t, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if out is None:
+        if v.ndim == 1:
+            toReturn = np.zeros((4,), dtype=dtype)
+        else:
+            toReturn = np.zeros((v.shape[0], 4), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        toReturn = out
+
+    qr, v2d, t2d = np.atleast_2d(toReturn, v, t)
+
+    b = bisector(v2d, t2d, norm=True, dtype=dtype)
+    cosHalfAngle = dot(v2d, b, dtype=dtype)
+
+    nonparallel = cosHalfAngle > 0.0  # rotation is not 180 degrees
+    qr[nonparallel, :3] = cross(v2d[nonparallel], b[nonparallel], dtype=dtype)
+    qr[nonparallel, 3] = cosHalfAngle[nonparallel]
+
+    if np.all(nonparallel):  # don't bother handling special cases
+        return toReturn + 0.0
+
+    # deal with cases where the vectors are facing exact opposite directions
+    ry = np.logical_and(np.abs(v2d[:, 0]) >= np.abs(v2d[:, 1]), ~nonparallel)
+    rx = np.logical_and(~ry, ~nonparallel)
+
+    getLength = lambda x, y: np.sqrt(x * x + y * y)
+    if not np.all(rx):
+        invLength = getLength(v2d[ry, 0], v2d[ry, 2])
+        invLength = np.where(invLength > 0.0, 1.0 / invLength, invLength)  # avoid x / 0
+        qr[ry, 0] = -v2d[ry, 2] * invLength
+        qr[ry, 2] = v2d[ry, 0] * invLength
+
+    if not np.all(ry):  # skip if all the same edge case
+        invLength = getLength(v2d[rx, 1], v2d[rx, 2])
+        invLength = np.where(invLength > 0.0, 1.0 / invLength, invLength)
+        qr[rx, 1] = v2d[rx, 2] * invLength
+        qr[rx, 2] = -v2d[rx, 1] * invLength
+
+    return toReturn + 0.0
+
+
+def matrixToQuat(m, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Convert a rotation matrix to a quaternion.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    m : array_like
+        3x3 rotation matrix (row-major). A 4x4 affine transformation matrix may
+        be provided, assuming the top-left 3x3 sub-matrix is orthonormal and
+        is a rotation group.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Rotation quaternion.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * Depending on the input, returned quaternions may not be exactly the same
+      as the one used to construct the rotation matrix (i.e. by calling
+      `quatToMatrix`), typically when a large rotation angle is used. However,
+      the returned quaternion should result in the same rotation when applied to
+      points.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Converting a rotation matrix from the OpenGL matrix stack to a quaternion::
+
+        glRotatef(45., -1, 0, 0)
+
+        m = np.zeros((4, 4), dtype='float32')  # store the matrix
+        GL.glGetFloatv(
+            GL.GL_MODELVIEW_MATRIX,
+            m.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_float)))
+
+        qr = matrixToQuat(m.T)  # must be transposed
+
+    Interpolation between two 4x4 transformation matrices::
+
+        interpWeight = 0.5
+
+        posStart = mStart[:3, 3]
+        oriStart = matrixToQuat(mStart)
+
+        posEnd = mEnd[:3, 3]
+        oriEnd = matrixToQuat(mEnd)
+
+        oriInterp = slerp(qStart, qEnd, interpWeight)
+        posInterp = lerp(posStart, posEnd, interpWeight)
+
+        mInterp = posOriToMatrix(posInterp, oriInterp)
+
+    """
+    # based off example `Maths - Conversion Matrix to Quaternion` from
+    # https://www.euclideanspace.com/
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    m = np.asarray(m, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if m.shape == (4, 4,) or m.shape == (3, 4,):
+        m = m[:3, :3]  # keep only rotation group sub-matrix
+    elif m.shape == (3, 3,):
+        pass  # fine, nop
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Input matrix `m` must be 3x3 or 4x4.")
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros((4,), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+
+    tr = m[0, 0] + m[1, 1] + m[2, 2]
+    if tr > 0.0:
+        s = np.sqrt(tr + 1.0) * 2.0
+        toReturn[3] = dtype(0.25) * s
+        toReturn[0] = (m[2, 1] - m[1, 2]) / s
+        toReturn[1] = (m[0, 2] - m[2, 0]) / s
+        toReturn[2] = (m[1, 0] - m[0, 1]) / s
+    elif m[0, 0] > m[1, 1] and m[0, 0] > m[2, 2]:
+        s = np.sqrt(dtype(1.0) + m[0, 0] - m[1, 1] - m[2, 2]) * dtype(2.0)
+        toReturn[3] = (m[2, 1] - m[1, 2]) / s
+        toReturn[0] = dtype(0.25) * s
+        toReturn[1] = (m[0, 1] + m[1, 0]) / s
+        toReturn[2] = (m[0, 2] + m[2, 0]) / s
+    elif m[1, 1] > m[2, 2]:
+        s = np.sqrt(dtype(1.0) + m[1, 1] - m[0, 0] - m[2, 2]) * dtype(2.0)
+        toReturn[3] = (m[0, 2] - m[2, 0]) / s
+        toReturn[0] = (m[0, 1] + m[1, 0]) / s
+        toReturn[1] = dtype(0.25) * s
+        toReturn[2] = (m[1, 2] + m[2, 1]) / s
+    else:
+        s = np.sqrt(dtype(1.0) + m[2, 2] - m[0, 0] - m[1, 1]) * dtype(2.0)
+        toReturn[3] = (m[1, 0] - m[0, 1]) / s
+        toReturn[0] = (m[0, 2] + m[2, 0]) / s
+        toReturn[1] = (m[1, 2] + m[2, 1]) / s
+        toReturn[2] = dtype(0.25) * s
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Matrix Operations
+#
+
+def identityMatrix(size=4, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Create an sqaure identity matrix.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    size : int, optional
+        Size of the matrix. Default is `4` for a 4x4 identity matrix.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Identity matrix.
+
+    """
+    # this might seem overkill for creating an identity matrix, but it is
+    # necessary to ensure the correct data type is used
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        ident = np.zeros((size, size), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+        ident = out
+        ident.fill(0.0)
+
+    np.fill_diagonal(ident, 1.0)
+
+    return ident
+    
+
+def quatToMatrix(q, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Create a 4x4 rotation matrix from a quaternion.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    q : tuple, list or ndarray of float
+        Quaternion to convert in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components.
+    out : ndarray or None
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray or None
+        4x4 rotation matrix in row-major order.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Convert a quaternion to a rotation matrix::
+
+        point = [0., 1., 0., 1.]  # 4-vector form [x, y, z, 1.0]
+        ori = [0., 0., 0., 1.]
+        rotMat = quatToMatrix(ori)
+        # rotate 'point' using matrix multiplication
+        newPoint = np.matmul(rotMat.T, point)  # returns [-1., 0., 0., 1.]
+
+    Rotate all points in an array (each row is a coordinate)::
+
+        points = np.asarray([[0., 0., 0., 1.],
+                             [0., 1., 0., 1.],
+                             [1., 1., 0., 1.]])
+        newPoints = points.dot(rotMat)
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * Quaternions are normalized prior to conversion.
+
+    """
+    # based off implementations from
+    # https://github.com/glfw/glfw/blob/master/deps/linmath.h
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        R = np.zeros((4, 4,), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+        R = out
+        R.fill(0.0)
+
+    q = normalize(q, dtype=dtype)
+    b, c, d, a = q[:]
+    vsqr = np.square(q)
+
+    u = dtype(2.0)
+    R[0, 0] = vsqr[3] + vsqr[0] - vsqr[1] - vsqr[2]
+    R[1, 0] = u * (b * c + a * d)
+    R[2, 0] = u * (b * d - a * c)
+
+    R[0, 1] = u * (b * c - a * d)
+    R[1, 1] = vsqr[3] - vsqr[0] + vsqr[1] - vsqr[2]
+    R[2, 1] = u * (c * d + a * b)
+
+    R[0, 2] = u * (b * d + a * c)
+    R[1, 2] = u * (c * d - a * b)
+    R[2, 2] = vsqr[3] - vsqr[0] - vsqr[1] + vsqr[2]
+
+    R[3, 3] = dtype(1.0)
+    R[:, :] += 0.0  # remove negative zeros
+
+    return R
+
+
+def scaleMatrix(s, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Create a scaling matrix.
+
+    The resulting matrix is the same as a generated by a `glScale` call.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    s : array_like, float or int
+        Scaling factor(s). If `s` is scalar (float), scaling will be uniform.
+        Providing a vector of scaling values [sx, sy, sz] will result in an
+        anisotropic scaling matrix if any of the values differ.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        4x4 scaling matrix in row-major order.
+
+    """
+    # from glScale
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        S = np.zeros((4, 4,), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+        S = out
+        S.fill(0.0)
+
+    if isinstance(s, (float, int,)):
+        S[0, 0] = S[1, 1] = S[2, 2] = dtype(s)
+    else:
+        S[0, 0] = dtype(s[0])
+        S[1, 1] = dtype(s[1])
+        S[2, 2] = dtype(s[2])
+
+    S[3, 3] = 1.0
+
+    return S
+
+
+def rotationMatrix(angle, axis=(0., 0., -1.), out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Create a rotation matrix.
+
+    The resulting matrix will rotate points about `axis` by `angle`. The
+    resulting matrix is similar to that produced by a `glRotate` call.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    angle : float
+        Rotation angle in degrees.
+    axis : array_like or str
+        Axis vector components or axis name. If a vector, input must be length
+        3. A string can be specified for rotations about world axes (eg. `'+x'`,
+        `'-z'`, `'+y'`, etc.)
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        4x4 scaling matrix in row-major order. Will be the same array as `out`
+        if specified, if not, a new array will be allocated.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * Vector `axis` is normalized before creating the matrix.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        R = np.zeros((4, 4,), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+        R = out
+        R.fill(0.0)
+
+    try:
+        axis = VEC_AXES[axis] if isinstance(axis, str) else axis
+    except KeyError:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Value of `axis` must be either '+x', '-x', '+y', '-x', '+z' or "
+            "'-z' or length 3 vector.")
+
+    axis = normalize(axis, dtype=dtype)
+    if np.count_nonzero(axis) == 0:
+        raise ValueError("Value for `axis` is zero-length.")
+
+    angle = np.radians(angle, dtype=dtype)
+    c = np.cos(angle, dtype=dtype)
+    s = np.sin(angle, dtype=dtype)
+
+    xs, ys, zs = axis * s
+    x2, y2, z2 = np.square(axis)  # type inferred by input
+    x, y, z = axis
+    cd = dtype(1.0) - c
+
+    R[0, 0] = x2 * cd + c
+    R[0, 1] = x * y * cd - zs
+    R[0, 2] = x * z * cd + ys
+
+    R[1, 0] = y * x * cd + zs
+    R[1, 1] = y2 * cd + c
+    R[1, 2] = y * z * cd - xs
+
+    R[2, 0] = x * z * cd - ys
+    R[2, 1] = y * z * cd + xs
+    R[2, 2] = z2 * cd + c
+
+    R[3, 3] = dtype(1.0)
+    R[:, :] += 0.0  # remove negative zeros
+
+    return R
+
+
+def translationMatrix(t, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Create a translation matrix.
+
+    The resulting matrix is the same as generated by a `glTranslate` call.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    t : ndarray, tuple, or list of float
+        Translation vector [tx, ty, tz].
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        4x4 translation matrix in row-major order. Will be the same array as
+        `out` if specified, if not, a new array will be allocated.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        T = np.identity(4, dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+        T = out
+        T.fill(0.0)
+        np.fill_diagonal(T, 1.0)
+
+    T[:3, 3] = np.asarray(t, dtype=dtype)
+
+    return T
+
+
+def invertMatrix(m, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Invert a square matrix.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    m : array_like
+        Square matrix to invert. Inputs can be 4x4, 3x3 or 2x2.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Matrix which is the inverse of `m`
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = out.dtype
+
+    m = np.asarray(m, dtype=dtype)  # input as array
+    toReturn = np.empty_like(m, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    toReturn.fill(0.0)
+
+    if m.shape == (4, 4,):
+        # Special handling of 4x4 matrices, if affine and orthogonal
+        # (homogeneous), simply transpose the matrix rather than doing a full
+        # invert.
+        if isOrthogonal(m[:3, :3]) and isAffine(m):
+            rg = m[:3, :3]
+            toReturn[:3, :3] = rg.T
+            toReturn[:3, 3] = -m[:3, 3].dot(rg)
+            #toReturn[0, 3] = \
+            #    -(m[0, 0] * m[0, 3] + m[1, 0] * m[1, 3] + m[2, 0] * m[2, 3])
+            #toReturn[1, 3] = \
+            #    -(m[0, 1] * m[0, 3] + m[1, 1] * m[1, 3] + m[2, 1] * m[2, 3])
+            #toReturn[2, 3] = \
+            #    -(m[0, 2] * m[0, 3] + m[1, 2] * m[1, 3] + m[2, 2] * m[2, 3])
+            toReturn[3, 3] = 1.0
+        else:
+            toReturn[:, :] = np.linalg.inv(m)
+    elif m.shape[0] == m.shape[1]:  # square, other than 4x4
+        toReturn[:, :] = np.linalg.inv(m) if not isOrthogonal(m) else m.T
+    else:
+        toReturn[:, :] = np.linalg.inv(m)
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def multMatrix(matrices, reverse=False, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Chain multiplication of two or more matrices.
+
+    Multiply a sequence of matrices together, reducing to a single product
+    matrix. For instance, specifying `matrices` the sequence of matrices (A, B,
+    C, D) will return the product (((AB)C)D). If `reverse=True`, the product
+    will be (A(B(CD))).
+
+    Alternatively, a 3D array can be specified to `matrices` as a stack, where
+    an index along axis 0 references a 2D slice storing matrix values. The
+    product of the matrices along the axis will be returned. This is a bit more
+    efficient than specifying separate matrices in a sequence, but the
+    difference is negligible when only a few matrices are being multiplied.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    matrices : list, tuple or ndarray
+        Sequence or stack of matrices to multiply. All matrices must have the
+        same dimensions.
+    reverse : bool, optional
+        Multiply matrices right-to-left. This is useful when dealing with
+        transformation matrices, where the order of operations for transforms
+        will appear the same as the order the matrices are specified. Default is
+        'False'. When `True`, this function behaves similarly to
+        :func:`concatenate`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Matrix product.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * You may use `numpy.matmul` when dealing with only two matrices instead of
+      `multMatrix`.
+    * If a single matrix is specified, the returned product will have the same
+      values.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Chain multiplication of SRT matrices::
+
+        translate = translationMatrix((0.035, 0, -0.5))
+        rotate = rotationMatrix(90.0, (0, 1, 0))
+        scale = scaleMatrix(2.0)
+
+        SRT = multMatrix((translate, rotate, scale))
+
+    Same as above, but matrices are in a 3x4x4 array::
+
+        matStack = np.array((translate, rotate, scale))
+
+        # or ...
+        # matStack = np.zeros((3, 4, 4))
+        # matStack[0, :, :] = translate
+        # matStack[1, :, :] = rotate
+        # matStack[2, :, :] = scale
+
+        SRT = multMatrix(matStack)
+
+    Using `reverse=True` allows you to specify transformation matrices in the
+    order which they will be applied::
+
+        SRT = multMatrix(np.array((scale, rotate, translate)), reverse=True)
+
+    """
+    # convert matrix types
+    dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    matrices = np.asarray(matrices, dtype=dtype)  # convert to array
+
+    matrices = np.atleast_3d(matrices)
+    prod = functools.reduce(
+        np.matmul, matrices[:] if not reverse else matrices[::-1])
+
+    if out is not None:
+        toReturn = out
+        toReturn[:, :] = prod
+    else:
+        toReturn = prod
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def concatenate(matrices, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Concatenate matrix transformations.
+
+    Chain multiply matrices describing transform operations into a single matrix
+    product, that when applied, transforms points and vectors with each
+    operation in the order they're specified.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    matrices : list or tuple
+        List of matrices to concatenate. All matrices must all have the same
+        size, usually 4x4 or 3x3.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Matrix product.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    * multMatrix : Chain multiplication of matrices.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * This function should only be used for combining transformation matrices.
+      Use `multMatrix` for general matrix chain multiplication.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Create an SRT (scale, rotate, and translate) matrix to convert model-space
+    coordinates to world-space::
+
+        S = scaleMatrix([2.0, 2.0, 2.0])  # scale model 2x
+        R = rotationMatrix(-90., [0., 0., -1])  # rotate -90 about -Z axis
+        T = translationMatrix([0., 0., -5.])  # translate point 5 units away
+
+        # product matrix when applied to points will scale, rotate and transform
+        # in that order.
+        SRT = concatenate([S, R, T])
+
+        # transform a point in model-space coordinates to world-space
+        pointModel = np.array([0., 1., 0., 1.])
+        pointWorld = np.matmul(SRT, pointModel.T)  # point in WCS
+        # ... or ...
+        pointWorld = matrixApply(SRT, pointModel)
+
+    Create a model-view matrix from a world-space pose represented by an
+    orientation (quaternion) and position (vector). The resulting matrix will
+    transform model-space coordinates to eye-space::
+
+        # eye pose as quaternion and vector
+        stimOri = quatFromAxisAngle([0., 0., -1.], -45.0)
+        stimPos = [0., 1.5, -5.]
+
+        # create model matrix
+        R = quatToMatrix(stimOri)
+        T = translationMatrix(stimPos)
+        M = concatenate(R, T)  # model matrix
+
+        # create a view matrix, can also be represented as 'pos' and 'ori'
+        eyePos = [0., 1.5, 0.]
+        eyeFwd = [0., 0., -1.]
+        eyeUp = [0., 1., 0.]
+        V = lookAt(eyePos, eyeFwd, eyeUp)  # from viewtools
+
+        # modelview matrix
+        MV = concatenate([M, V])
+
+    You can put the created matrix in the OpenGL matrix stack as shown below.
+    Note that the matrix must have a 32-bit floating-point data type and needs
+    to be loaded transposed since OpenGL takes matrices in column-major order::
+
+        GL.glMatrixMode(GL.GL_MODELVIEW)
+
+        # pyglet
+        MV = np.asarray(MV, dtype='float32')  # must be 32-bit float!
+        ptrMV = MV.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_float))
+        GL.glLoadTransposeMatrixf(ptrMV)
+
+        # PyOpenGL
+        MV = np.asarray(MV, dtype='float32')
+        GL.glLoadTransposeMatrixf(MV)
+
+    Furthermore, you can convert a point from model-space to homogeneous
+    clip-space by concatenating the projection, view, and model matrices::
+
+        # compute projection matrix, functions here are from 'viewtools'
+        screenWidth = 0.52
+        screenAspect = w / h
+        scrDistance = 0.55
+        frustum = computeFrustum(screenWidth, screenAspect, scrDistance)
+        P = perspectiveProjectionMatrix(*frustum)
+
+        # multiply model-space points by MVP to convert them to clip-space
+        MVP = concatenate([M, V, P])
+        pointModel = np.array([0., 1., 0., 1.])
+        pointClipSpace = np.matmul(MVP, pointModel.T)
+
+    """
+    return multMatrix(matrices, reverse=True, out=out, dtype=dtype)
+
+
+def matrixFromEulerAngles(rx, ry, rz, degrees=True, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Construct a 4x4 rotation matrix from Euler angles.
+
+    Rotations are combined by first rotating about the X axis, then Y, and
+    finally Z.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rx, ry, rz : float
+        Rotation angles (pitch, yaw, and roll).
+    degrees : bool, optional
+        Rotation angles are specified in degrees. If `False`, they will be
+        assumed as radians. Default is `True`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        4x4 rotation matrix.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Demonstration of how a combination of axis-angle rotations is equivalent
+    to a single call of `matrixFromEulerAngles`::
+
+        m1 = matrixFromEulerAngles(90., 45., 135.))
+
+        # construct rotation matrix from 3 orthogonal rotations
+        rx = rotationMatrix(90., (1, 0, 0))  # x-axis
+        ry = rotationMatrix(45., (0, 1, 0))  # y-axis
+        rz = rotationMatrix(135., (0, 0, 1))  # z-axis
+        m2 = concatenate([rz, ry, rx])  # note the order
+
+        print(numpy.allclose(m1, m2))  # True
+
+    Not only does `matrixFromEulerAngles` require less code, it also is
+    considerably more efficient than constructing and multiplying multiple
+    matrices.
+
+    """
+    # from https://www.j3d.org/matrix_faq/matrfaq_latest.html
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        toReturn = np.zeros((4, 4,), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+        toReturn = out
+        toReturn.fill(0.0)
+
+    angles = np.asarray([rx, ry, rz], dtype=dtype)
+    if degrees:
+        angles = np.radians(angles)
+
+    a, c, e = np.cos(angles)
+    b, d, f = np.sin(angles)
+    ad = a * d
+    bd = b * d
+
+    toReturn[0, 0] = c * e
+    toReturn[0, 1] = -c * f
+    toReturn[0, 2] = d
+    toReturn[1, 0] = bd * e + a * f
+    toReturn[1, 1] = -bd * f + a * e
+    toReturn[1, 2] = -b * c
+    toReturn[2, 0] = -ad * e + b * f
+    toReturn[2, 1] = ad * f + b * e
+    toReturn[2, 2] = a * c
+    toReturn[3, 3] = 1.0
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def isOrthogonal(m):
+    """Check if a square matrix is orthogonal.
+
+    If a matrix is orthogonal, its columns form an orthonormal basis and is
+    non-singular. An orthogonal matrix is invertible by simply taking the
+    transpose of the matrix.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    m : array_like
+        Square matrix, either 2x2, 3x3 or 4x4.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    bool
+        `True` if the matrix is orthogonal.
+
+    """
+    if not isinstance(m, (np.ndarray,)):
+        m = np.asarray(m)
+
+    assert 2 <= m.shape[0] <= 4   # 2x2 to 4x4
+    assert m.shape[0] == m.shape[1]  # must be square
+
+    dtype = np.dtype(m.dtype).type
+    return np.allclose(np.matmul(m.T, m, dtype=dtype),
+                       np.identity(m.shape[0], dtype))
+
+
+def isAffine(m):
+    """Check if a 4x4 square matrix describes an affine transformation.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    m : array_like
+        4x4 transformation matrix.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    bool
+        `True` if the matrix is affine.
+
+    """
+    assert m.shape[0] == m.shape[1] == 4
+
+    if not isinstance(m, (np.ndarray,)):
+        m = np.asarray(m)
+
+    dtype = np.dtype(m.dtype).type
+    eps = np.finfo(dtype).eps
+
+    return np.all(m[3, :3] < eps) and (dtype(1.0) - m[3, 3]) < eps
+
+
+def applyMatrix(m, points, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Apply a matrix over a 2D array of points.
+
+    This function behaves similarly to the following `Numpy` statement::
+
+        points[:, :] = points.dot(m.T)
+
+    Transformation matrices specified to `m` must have dimensions 4x4, 3x4, 3x3
+    or 2x2. With the exception of 4x4 matrices, input `points` must have the
+    same number of columns as the matrix has rows. 4x4 matrices can be used to
+    transform both Nx4 and Nx3 arrays.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    m : array_like
+        Matrix with dimensions 2x2, 3x3, 3x4 or 4x4.
+    points : array_like
+        2D array of points/coordinates to transform. Each row should have length
+        appropriate for the matrix being used. If not, a square submatrix will 
+        be taken from the input matrix with dimensions equal to the number of 
+        columns in `points`.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Transformed coordinates.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * Input (`points`) and output (`out`) arrays cannot be the same instance for
+      this function.
+    * In the case of 4x4 input matrices, this function performs optimizations
+      based on whether the input matrix is affine, greatly improving performance
+      when working with Nx3 arrays.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Construct a matrix and transform a point::
+
+        # identity 3x3 matrix for this example
+        M = [[1.0, 0.0, 0.0],
+             [0.0, 1.0, 0.0],
+             [0.0, 0.0, 1.0]]
+
+        pnt = [1.0, 0.0, 0.0]
+
+        pntNew = applyMatrix(M, pnt)
+
+    Construct an SRT matrix (scale, rotate, transform) and transform an array of
+    points::
+
+        S = scaleMatrix([5.0, 5.0, 5.0])  # scale 5x
+        R = rotationMatrix(180., [0., 0., -1])  # rotate 180 degrees
+        T = translationMatrix([0., 1.5, -3.])  # translate point up and away
+        M = concatenate([S, R, T])  # create transform matrix
+
+        # points to transform
+        points = np.array([[0., 1., 0., 1.], [-1., 0., 0., 1.]]) # [x, y, z, w]
+        newPoints = applyMatrix(M, points)  # apply the transformation
+
+    Convert CIE-XYZ colors to sRGB::
+
+        sRGBMatrix = [[3.2404542, -1.5371385, -0.4985314],
+                      [-0.969266,  1.8760108,  0.041556 ],
+                      [0.0556434, -0.2040259,  1.0572252]]
+
+        colorsRGB = applyMatrix(sRGBMatrix, colorsXYZ)
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    m = np.asarray(m, dtype=dtype)
+    points = np.asarray(points, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if out is None:
+        toReturn = np.zeros_like(points, dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        if id(out) == id(points):
+            raise ValueError('Output array cannot be same as input.')
+        toReturn = out
+
+    pout, p = np.atleast_2d(toReturn, points)
+
+    nCols = p.shape[1]
+    if m.shape[0] > nCols:
+        if m.shape[1] < nCols:
+            raise ValueError(
+                'Input matrix dimensions are not compatible with input array.')
+        m = m[:nCols, :nCols]  # take sub matrix
+
+    if m.shape == (4, 4):  # 4x4 matrix
+        if pout.shape[1] == 3:  # Nx3
+            pout[:, :] = p.dot(m[:3, :3].T)
+            pout += m[:3, 3]
+            # find `rcpW` as suggested in OpenXR's xr_linear.h header
+            # reciprocal of `w` if the matrix is not orthonormal
+            if not isAffine(m):
+                rcpW = 1.0 / (m[3, 0] * p[:, 0] +
+                              m[3, 1] * p[:, 1] +
+                              m[3, 2] * p[:, 2] +
+                              m[3, 3])
+                pout *= rcpW[:, np.newaxis]
+        elif pout.shape[1] == 4:  # Nx4
+            pout[:, :] = p.dot(m.T)
+        else:
+            raise ValueError(
+                'Input array dimensions invalid. Should be Nx3 or Nx4 when '
+                'input matrix is 4x4.')
+    elif m.shape == (3, 4):  # 3x4 matrix
+        if pout.shape[1] == 3:  # Nx3
+            pout[:, :] = p.dot(m[:3, :3].T)
+            pout += m[:3, 3]
+        else:
+            raise ValueError(
+                'Input array dimensions invalid. Should be Nx3 when input '
+                'matrix is 3x4.')
+    elif m.shape == (3, 3):  # 3x3 matrix, e.g colors
+        if pout.shape[1] == 3:  # Nx3
+            pout[:, :] = p.dot(m.T)
+        else:
+            raise ValueError(
+                'Input array dimensions invalid. Should be Nx3 when '
+                'input matrix is 3x3.')
+    elif m.shape == (2, 2):  # 2x2 matrix
+        if pout.shape[1] == 2:  # Nx2
+            pout[:, :] = p.dot(m.T)
+        else:
+            raise ValueError(
+                'Input array dimensions invalid. Should be Nx2 when '
+                'input matrix is 2x2.')
+    else:
+        raise ValueError(
+            'Only a square matrix with dimensions 2, 3 or 4 can be used.')
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def posOriToMatrix(pos, ori, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Convert a rigid body pose to a 4x4 transformation matrix.
+
+    A pose is represented by a position coordinate `pos` and orientation
+    quaternion `ori`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    pos : ndarray, tuple, or list of float
+        Position vector [x, y, z].
+    ori : tuple, list or ndarray of float
+        Orientation quaternion in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        4x4 transformation matrix.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+        toReturn = np.zeros((4, 4,), dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+        toReturn = out
+
+    transMat = translationMatrix(pos, dtype=dtype)
+    rotMat = quatToMatrix(ori, dtype=dtype)
+
+    return np.matmul(transMat, rotMat, out=toReturn)
+
+
+def transform(pos, ori, points, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Transform points using a position and orientation. Points are rotated
+    then translated.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    pos : array_like
+        Position vector in form [x, y, z] or [x, y, z, 1].
+    ori : array_like
+        Orientation quaternion in form [x, y, z, w] where w is real and x, y, z
+        are imaginary components.
+    points : array_like
+        Point(s) [x, y, z] to transform.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Transformed points.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Transform points by a position coordinate and orientation quaternion::
+
+        # rigid body pose
+        ori = quatFromAxisAngle([0., 0., -1.], 90.0, degrees=True)
+        pos = [0., 1.5, -3.]
+        # points to transform
+        points = np.array([[0., 1., 0., 1.], [-1., 0., 0., 1.]])  # [x, y, z, 1]
+        outPoints = np.zeros_like(points)  # output array
+        transform(pos, ori, points, out=outPoints)  # do the transformation
+
+    You can get the same results as the previous example using a matrix by doing
+    the following::
+
+        R = rotationMatrix(90., [0., 0., -1])
+        T = translationMatrix([0., 1.5, -3.])
+        M = concatenate([R, T])
+        applyMatrix(M, points, out=outPoints)
+
+    If you are defining transformations with quaternions and coordinates, you
+    can skip the costly matrix creation process by using `transform`.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * In performance tests, `applyMatrix` is noticeably faster than `transform`
+      for very large arrays, however this is only true if you are applying the
+      same transformation to all points.
+    * If the input arrays for `points` or `pos` is Nx4, the last column is
+      ignored.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    pos = np.asarray(pos, dtype=dtype)
+    ori = np.asarray(ori, dtype=dtype)
+    points = np.asarray(points, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if out is None:
+        toReturn = np.zeros_like(points, dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        if out.shape != points.shape:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "Array 'out' and 'points' do not have matching shapes.")
+
+        toReturn = out
+
+    pout, points, pos2d = np.atleast_2d(toReturn, points, pos)  # create 2d views
+
+    # apply rotation
+    applyQuat(ori, points, out=pout)
+
+    # apply translation
+    pout[:, 0] += pos2d[:, 0]
+    pout[:, 1] += pos2d[:, 1]
+    pout[:, 2] += pos2d[:, 2]
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def scale(sf, points, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Scale points by a factor.
+
+    This is useful for converting points between units, and to stretch or
+    compress points along a given axis. Scaling can be uniform which the same
+    factor is applied along all axes, or anisotropic along specific axes.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    sf : array_like or float
+        Scaling factor. If scalar, all points will be scaled uniformly by that
+        factor. If a vector, scaling will be anisotropic along an axis.
+    points : array_like
+        Point(s) [x, y, z] to scale.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Scaled points.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Apply uniform scaling to points, here we scale to convert points in
+    centimeters to meters::
+
+        CM_TO_METERS = 1.0 / 100.0
+        pointsCM = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [-1, 1, 0]]
+        pointsM = scale(CM_TO_METERS, pointsCM)
+
+    Anisotropic scaling along the X and Y axis::
+
+        pointsM = scale((SCALE_FACTOR_X, SCALE_FACTOR_Y), pointsCM)
+
+    Scale only on the X axis::
+
+        pointsM = scale((SCALE_FACTOR_X,), pointsCM)
+
+    Apply scaling on the Z axis only::
+
+        pointsM = scale((1.0, 1.0, SCALE_FACTOR_Z), pointsCM)
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    points = np.asarray(points, dtype=dtype)
+    toReturn = np.zeros_like(points, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    toReturn, points = np.atleast_2d(toReturn, points)  # create 2d views
+
+    # uniform scaling
+    if isinstance(sf, (float, int)):
+        toReturn[:, :] = points * sf
+    elif isinstance(sf, (list, tuple, np.ndarray)):  # anisotropic
+        sf = np.asarray(sf, dtype=dtype)
+        sfLen = len(sf)
+        if sfLen <= 3:
+            toReturn[:, :] = points
+            toReturn[:, :len(sf)] *= sf
+        else:
+            raise ValueError("Scale factor array must have length <= 3.")
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def normalMatrix(modelMatrix, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Get the normal matrix from a model matrix.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    modelMatrix : array_like
+        4x4 homogeneous model matrix.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Normal matrix.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    modelMatrix = np.asarray(modelMatrix, dtype=dtype)
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros((4, 4), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    toReturn[:, :] = np.linalg.inv(modelMatrix).T
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def forwardProject(objPos, modelView, proj, viewport=None, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Project a point in a scene to a window coordinate.
+
+    This function is similar to `gluProject` and can be used to find the window
+    coordinate which a point projects to.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    objPos : array_like
+        Object coordinates (x, y, z). If an Nx3 array of coordinates is
+        specified, where each row contains a window coordinate this function
+        will return an array of projected coordinates with the same size.
+    modelView : array_like
+        4x4 combined model and view matrix for returned value to be object
+        coordinates. Specify only the view matrix for a coordinate in the scene.
+    proj : array_like
+        4x4 projection matrix used for rendering.
+    viewport : array_like
+        Viewport rectangle for the window [x, y, w, h]. If not specified, the
+        returned values will be in normalized device coordinates.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Normalized device or viewport coordinates [x, y, z] of the point. The
+        `z` component is similar to the depth buffer value for the object point.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros_like(objPos, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    winCoord, objPos = np.atleast_2d(toReturn, objPos)
+
+    # transformation matrix
+    mvp = np.matmul(proj, modelView)
+
+    # must have `w` for this one
+    if objPos.shape[1] == 3:
+        temp = np.zeros((objPos.shape[1], 4), dtype=dtype)
+        temp[:, :3] = objPos
+        objPos = temp
+
+    # transform the points
+    objNorm = applyMatrix(mvp, objPos, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if viewport is not None:
+        # if we have a viewport, transform it
+        objNorm[:, :] += 1.0
+        winCoord[:, 0] = viewport[0] + viewport[2] * objNorm[:, 0]
+        winCoord[:, 1] = viewport[1] + viewport[3] * objNorm[:, 1]
+        winCoord[:, 2] = objNorm[:, 2]
+        winCoord[:, :] /= 2.0
+    else:
+        # already in NDC
+        winCoord[:, :] = objNorm
+
+    return toReturn  # ref to winCoord
+
+
+def reverseProject(winPos, modelView, proj, viewport=None, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Unproject window coordinates into object or scene coordinates.
+
+    This function works like `gluUnProject` and can be used to find to an object
+    or scene coordinate at the point on-screen (mouse coordinate or pixel). The
+    coordinate can then be used to create a direction vector from the viewer's
+    eye location. Another use of this function is to convert depth buffer
+    samples to object or scene coordinates. This is the inverse operation of
+    :func:`forwardProject`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    winPos : array_like
+        Window coordinates (x, y, z). If `viewport` is not specified, these
+        should be normalized device coordinates. If an Nx3 array of coordinates
+        is specified, where each row contains a window coordinate this function
+        will return an array of unprojected coordinates with the same size.
+        Usually, you only need to specify the `x` and `y` coordinate, leaving
+        `z` as zero. However, you can specify `z` if sampling from a depth map
+        or buffer to convert a depth sample to an actual location.
+    modelView : array_like
+        4x4 combined model and view matrix for returned value to be object
+        coordinates. Specify only the view matrix for a coordinate in the scene.
+    proj : array_like
+        4x4 projection matrix used for rendering.
+    viewport : array_like
+        Viewport rectangle for the window [x, y, w, h]. Do not specify one if
+        `winPos` is in already in normalized device coordinates.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Object or scene coordinates.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros_like(winPos, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    objCoord, winPos = np.atleast_2d(toReturn, winPos)
+
+    # get inverse of model and projection matrix
+    invMVP = np.linalg.inv(np.matmul(proj, modelView))
+
+    if viewport is not None:
+        # if we have a viewport, we need to transform to NDC first
+        objCoord[:, 0] = ((2 * winPos[:, 0] - viewport[0]) / viewport[2])
+        objCoord[:, 1] = ((2 * winPos[:, 1] - viewport[1]) / viewport[3])
+        objCoord[:, 2] = 2 * winPos[:, 2]
+        objCoord -= 1
+        objCoord[:, :] = applyMatrix(invMVP, objCoord, dtype=dtype)
+    else:
+        # already in NDC, just apply
+        objCoord[:, :] = applyMatrix(invMVP, winPos, dtype=dtype)
+
+    return toReturn  # ref to objCoord
+
+
+def lookAt(eyePos, centerPos, upVec=(0.0, 1.0, 0.0), out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Create a transformation matrix to orient a view towards some point. 
+    
+    Based on the same algorithm as 'gluLookAt'. This does not generate a 
+    projection matrix, but rather the matrix to transform the observer's view in 
+    the scene.
+
+    For more information see:
+    https://www.khronos.org/registry/OpenGL-Refpages/gl2.1/xhtml/gluLookAt.xml
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    eyePos : list of float or ndarray
+        Eye position in the scene.
+    centerPos : list of float or ndarray
+        Position of the object center in the scene.
+    upVec : list of float or ndarray, optional
+        Vector defining the up vector. Default is +Y is up.
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for arrays, can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If `None` is
+        specified, the data type is inferred by `out`. If `out` is not provided,
+        the default is 'float64'.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        4x4 view matrix
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * This function was moved from `viewtools` in version 2025.1.0.
+    * The returned matrix is row-major. Values are floats with 32-bits of
+      precision stored as a contiguous (C-order) array.
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(out.dtype).type
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros((4, 4,), dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+    if out is not None:
+        toReturn.fill(0.0)
+
+    eyePos = np.asarray(eyePos, dtype=dtype)
+    centerPos = np.asarray(centerPos, dtype=dtype)
+    upVec = np.asarray(upVec, dtype=dtype)
+
+    f = centerPos - eyePos
+    f /= np.linalg.norm(f)
+    upVec /= np.linalg.norm(upVec)
+
+    s = np.cross(f, upVec)
+    u = np.cross(s / np.linalg.norm(s), f)
+
+    rotMat = np.zeros((4, 4), dtype=dtype)
+    rotMat[0, :3] = s
+    rotMat[1, :3] = u
+    rotMat[2, :3] = -f
+    rotMat[3, 3] = 1.0
+ 
+    transMat = np.identity(4, dtype=dtype)
+    transMat[:3, 3] = -eyePos
+
+    return np.matmul(rotMat, transMat, out=toReturn)
+
+
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Misc. Math Functions
+#
+
+def zeroFix(a, inplace=False, threshold=None):
+    """Fix zeros in an array.
+
+    This function truncates very small numbers in an array to zero and removes
+    any negative zeros.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    a : ndarray
+        Input array, must be a Numpy array.
+    inplace : bool
+        Fix an array inplace. If `True`, the input array will be modified,
+        otherwise a new array will be returned with same `dtype` and shape with
+        the fixed values.
+    threshold : float or None
+        Threshold for truncation. If `None`, the machine epsilon value for the
+        input array `dtype` will be used. You can specify a custom threshold as
+        a float.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Output array with zeros fixed.
+
+    """
+    toReturn = np.copy(a) if not inplace else a
+    toReturn += 0.0  # remove negative zeros
+    threshold = np.finfo(a.dtype).eps if threshold is None else float(threshold)
+    toReturn[np.abs(toReturn) < threshold] = 0.0  # make zero
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def lensCorrection(xys, coefK=(1.0,), distCenter=(0., 0.), out=None,
+                   dtype=None):
+    """Lens correction (or distortion) using the division model with even
+    polynomial terms.
+
+    Calculate new vertex positions or texture coordinates to apply radial
+    warping, such as 'pincushion' and 'barrel' distortion. This is to compensate
+    for optical distortion introduced by lenses placed in the optical path of
+    the viewer and the display (such as in an HMD).
+
+    See references[1]_ for implementation details.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    xys : array_like
+        Nx2 list of vertex positions or texture coordinates to distort. Works
+        correctly only if input values range between -1.0 and 1.0.
+    coefK : array_like or float
+        Distortion coefficients K_n. Specifying multiple values will add more
+        polynomial terms to the distortion formula. Positive values will produce
+        'barrel' distortion, whereas negative will produce 'pincushion'
+        distortion. In most cases, two or three coefficients are adequate,
+        depending on the degree of distortion.
+    distCenter : array_like, optional
+        X and Y coordinate of the distortion center (eg. (0.2, -0.4)).
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Array of distorted vertices.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    * At this time tangential distortion (i.e. due to a slant in the display)
+      cannot be corrected for.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Fitzgibbon, W. (2001). Simultaneous linear estimation of multiple
+       view geometry and lens distortion. Proceedings of the 2001 IEEE Computer
+       Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).
+       IEEE.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Creating a lens correction mesh with barrel distortion (eg. for HMDs)::
+
+        vertices, textureCoords, normals, faces = gltools.createMeshGrid(
+            subdiv=11, tessMode='center')
+
+        # recompute vertex positions
+        vertices[:, :2] = mt.lensCorrection(vertices[:, :2], coefK=(5., 5.))
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    if isinstance(coefK, (float, int,)):
+        coefK = (coefK,)
+
+    xys = np.asarray(xys, dtype=dtype)
+    coefK = np.asarray(coefK, dtype=dtype)
+
+    d_minus_c = xys - np.asarray(distCenter, dtype=dtype)
+    r = np.power(length(d_minus_c, dtype=dtype)[:, np.newaxis],
+                 np.arange(len(coefK), dtype=dtype) * 2. + 2.)
+
+    toReturn = np.zeros_like(xys, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+
+    denom = dtype(1.0) + dot(coefK, r, dtype=dtype)
+    toReturn[:, :] = xys + (d_minus_c / denom[:, np.newaxis])
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+def lensCorrectionSpherical(xys, coefK=1.0, aspect=1.0, out=None, dtype=None):
+    """Simple lens correction.
+
+    Lens correction for a spherical lenses with distortion centered at the
+    middle of the display. See references[1]_ for implementation details.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    xys : array_like
+        Nx2 list of vertex positions or texture coordinates to distort. Assumes
+        the output will be rendered to normalized device coordinates where
+        points range from -1.0 to 1.0.
+    coefK : float
+        Distortion coefficient. Use positive numbers for pincushion distortion
+        and negative for barrel distortion.
+    aspect : float
+        Aspect ratio of the target window or buffer (width / height).
+    out : ndarray, optional
+        Optional output array. Must be same `shape` and `dtype` as the expected
+        output if `out` was not specified.
+    dtype : dtype or str, optional
+        Data type for computations can either be 'float32' or 'float64'. If
+        `out` is specified, the data type of `out` is used and this argument is
+        ignored. If `out` is not provided, 'float64' is used by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ndarray
+        Array of distorted vertices.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Lens Distortion White Paper, Andersson Technologies LLC,
+           www.ssontech.com/content/lensalg.html (obtained 07/28/2020)
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Creating a lens correction mesh with barrel distortion (eg. for HMDs)::
+
+        vertices, textureCoords, normals, faces = gltools.createMeshGrid(
+            subdiv=11, tessMode='center')
+
+        # recompute vertex positions
+        vertices[:, :2] = mt.lensCorrection2(vertices[:, :2], coefK=2.0)
+
+    """
+    if out is None:
+        dtype = DEFAULT_DTYPE if dtype is None else np.dtype(dtype).type
+    else:
+        dtype = np.dtype(dtype).type
+
+    toReturn = np.empty_like(xys, dtype=dtype) if out is None else out
+
+    xys = np.asarray(xys, dtype=dtype)
+    toReturn[:, 0] = u = xys[:, 0]
+    toReturn[:, 1] = v = xys[:, 1]
+    coefKCubed = np.power(coefK, 3, dtype=dtype)
+
+    r2 = aspect * aspect * u * u + v * v
+    r2sqr = np.sqrt(r2, dtype=dtype)
+    f = 1. + r2 * (coefK + coefKCubed * r2sqr)
+
+    toReturn[:, 0] *= f
+    toReturn[:, 1] *= f
+
+    return toReturn
+
+
+class infrange():
+    """
+    Similar to base Python `range`, but allowing the step to be a float or even
+    0, useful for specifying ranges for logical comparisons.
+    """
+    def __init__(self, min, max, step=0):
+        self.min = min
+        self.max = max
+        self.step = step
+
+    @property
+    def range(self):
+        return abs(self.max-self.min)
+
+    def __lt__(self, other):
+        return other > self.max
+
+    def __le__(self, other):
+        return other > self.min
+
+    def __gt__(self, other):
+        return self.min > other
+
+    def __ge__(self, other):
+        return self.max > other
+
+    def __contains__(self, item):
+        if self.step == 0:
+            return self.min < item < self.max
+        else:
+            return item in np.linspace(self.min, self.max, int(self.range/self.step)+1)
+
+    def __eq__(self, item):
+        if isinstance(item, self.__class__):
+            return all((
+                self.min == item.min,
+                self.max == item.max,
+                self.step == item.step
+            ))
+        return item in self
+
+    def __add__(self, other):
+        return self.__class__(self.min+other, self.max+other, self.step)
+
+    def __sub__(self, other):
+        return self.__class__(self.min - other, self.max - other, self.step)
+
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        return self.__class__(self.min * other, self.max * other, self.step * other)
+
+    def __truedic__(self, other):
+        return self.__class__(self.min / other, self.max / other, self.step / other)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    pass