brainstate 0.0.1__py2.py3-none-any.whl

brainstate/surrogate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1740 @@
+# Copyright 2024 BDP Ecosystem Limited. All Rights Reserved.
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+# ==============================================================================
+
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+
+import jax
+import jax.numpy as jnp
+import jax.scipy as sci
+from jax.core import Primitive
+from jax.interpreters import batching, ad, mlir
+
+__all__ = [
+  'Surrogate',
+  'Sigmoid',
+  'sigmoid',
+  'PiecewiseQuadratic',
+  'piecewise_quadratic',
+  'PiecewiseExp',
+  'piecewise_exp',
+  'SoftSign',
+  'soft_sign',
+  'Arctan',
+  'arctan',
+  'NonzeroSignLog',
+  'nonzero_sign_log',
+  'ERF',
+  'erf',
+  'PiecewiseLeakyRelu',
+  'piecewise_leaky_relu',
+  'SquarewaveFourierSeries',
+  'squarewave_fourier_series',
+  'S2NN',
+  's2nn',
+  'QPseudoSpike',
+  'q_pseudo_spike',
+  'LeakyRelu',
+  'leaky_relu',
+  'LogTailedRelu',
+  'log_tailed_relu',
+  'ReluGrad',
+  'relu_grad',
+  'GaussianGrad',
+  'gaussian_grad',
+  'InvSquareGrad',
+  'inv_square_grad',
+  'MultiGaussianGrad',
+  'multi_gaussian_grad',
+  'SlayerGrad',
+  'slayer_grad',
+]
+
+
+def _heaviside_abstract(x, dx):
+  return [x]
+
+
+def _heaviside_imp(x, dx):
+  z = jnp.asarray(x >= 0, dtype=x.dtype)
+  return [z]
+
+
+def _heaviside_batching(args, axes):
+  return heaviside_p.bind(*args), [axes[0]]
+
+
+def _heaviside_jvp(primals, tangents):
+  x, dx = primals
+  tx, tdx = tangents
+  primal_outs = heaviside_p.bind(x, dx)
+  tangent_outs = [dx * tx, ]
+  return primal_outs, tangent_outs
+
+
+heaviside_p = Primitive('heaviside_p')
+heaviside_p.multiple_results = True
+heaviside_p.def_abstract_eval(_heaviside_abstract)
+heaviside_p.def_impl(_heaviside_imp)
+batching.primitive_batchers[heaviside_p] = _heaviside_batching
+ad.primitive_jvps[heaviside_p] = _heaviside_jvp
+mlir.register_lowering(heaviside_p, mlir.lower_fun(_heaviside_imp, multiple_results=True))
+
+
+class Surrogate(object):
+  """The base surrograte gradient function.
+
+  To customize a surrogate gradient function, you can inherit this class and
+  implement the `surrogate_fun` and `surrogate_grad` methods.
+
+  Examples
+  --------
+
+  >>> import brainstate as bst
+  >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+  >>> import jax.numpy as jnp
+
+  >>> class MySurrogate(nn.surrogate.Surrogate):
+  ...   def __init__(self, alpha=1.):
+  ...     super().__init__()
+  ...     self.alpha = alpha
+  ...
+  ...   def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+  ...     return jnp.sin(x) * self.alpha
+  ...
+  ...   def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+  ...     return jnp.cos(x) * self.alpha
+
+  """
+
+  def __call__(self, x):
+    dx = self.surrogate_grad(x)
+    return heaviside_p.bind(x, dx)[0]
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}()'
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x) -> jax.Array:
+    """The surrogate function."""
+    raise NotImplementedError
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x) -> jax.Array:
+    """The gradient function of the surrogate function."""
+    raise NotImplementedError
+
+
+class Sigmoid(Surrogate):
+  """Spike function with the sigmoid-shaped surrogate gradient.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  sigmoid
+
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha: float = 4.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    return sci.special.expit(self.alpha * x)
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    sgax = sci.special.expit(x * self.alpha)
+    dx = (1. - sgax) * sgax * self.alpha
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def sigmoid(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 4.,
+):
+  r"""Spike function with the sigmoid-shaped surrogate gradient.
+
+  If `origin=False`, return the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \mathrm{sigmoid}(\alpha x) = \frac{1}{1+e^{-\alpha x}}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \alpha * (1 - \mathrm{sigmoid} (\alpha x)) \mathrm{sigmoid} (\alpha x)
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-2, 2, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.sigmoid)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+  """
+  return Sigmoid(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class PiecewiseQuadratic(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with a piecewise quadratic function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  piecewise_quadratic
+
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha: float = 1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    z = jnp.where(x < -1 / self.alpha,
+                  0.,
+                  jnp.where(x > 1 / self.alpha,
+                            1.,
+                            (-self.alpha * jnp.abs(x) / 2 + 1) * self.alpha * x + 0.5))
+    return z
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = jnp.where(jnp.abs(x) > 1 / self.alpha, 0., (-(self.alpha * x) ** 2 + self.alpha))
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def piecewise_quadratic(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 1.,
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with a piecewise quadratic function [1]_ [2]_ [3]_ [4]_ [5]_.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) =
+        \begin{cases}
+        0, & x < -\frac{1}{\alpha} \\
+        -\frac{1}{2}\alpha^2|x|x + \alpha x + \frac{1}{2}, & |x| \leq \frac{1}{\alpha}  \\
+        1, & x > \frac{1}{\alpha} \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) =
+        \begin{cases}
+        0, & |x| > \frac{1}{\alpha} \\
+        -\alpha^2|x|+\alpha, & |x| \leq \frac{1}{\alpha}
+        \end{cases}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [0.5, 1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.piecewise_quadratic)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Esser S K, Merolla P A, Arthur J V, et al. Convolutional networks for fast, energy-efficient neuromorphic computing[J]. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 2016, 113(41): 11441-11446.
+  .. [2] Wu Y, Deng L, Li G, et al. Spatio-temporal backpropagation for training high-performance spiking neural networks[J]. Frontiers in neuroscience, 2018, 12: 331.
+  .. [3] Bellec G, Salaj D, Subramoney A, et al. Long short-term memory and learning-to-learn in networks of spiking neurons[C]//Proceedings of the 32nd International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems. 2018: 795-805.
+  .. [4] Neftci E O, Mostafa H, Zenke F. Surrogate gradient learning in spiking neural networks: Bringing the power of gradient-based optimization to spiking neural networks[J]. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 2019, 36(6): 51-63.
+  .. [5] Panda P, Aketi S A, Roy K. Toward scalable, efficient, and accurate deep spiking neural networks with backward residual connections, stochastic softmax, and hybridization[J]. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2020, 14.
+  """
+  return PiecewiseQuadratic(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class PiecewiseExp(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with a piecewise exponential function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  piecewise_exp
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha: float = 1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = (self.alpha / 2) * jnp.exp(-self.alpha * jnp.abs(x))
+    return dx
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    return jnp.where(x < 0, jnp.exp(self.alpha * x) / 2, 1 - jnp.exp(-self.alpha * x) / 2)
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def piecewise_exp(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 1.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with a piecewise exponential function [1]_.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+            \frac{1}{2}e^{\alpha x}, & x < 0 \\
+            1 - \frac{1}{2}e^{-\alpha x}, & x \geq 0
+            \end{cases}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \frac{\alpha}{2}e^{-\alpha |x|}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [0.5, 1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.piecewise_exp)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Neftci E O, Mostafa H, Zenke F. Surrogate gradient learning in spiking neural networks: Bringing the power of gradient-based optimization to spiking neural networks[J]. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 2019, 36(6): 51-63.
+  """
+  return PiecewiseExp(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class SoftSign(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with a soft sign function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  soft_sign
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = self.alpha * 0.5 / (1 + jnp.abs(self.alpha * x)) ** 2
+    return dx
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    return x / (2 / self.alpha + 2 * jnp.abs(x)) + 0.5
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def soft_sign(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 1.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with a soft sign function.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \frac{1}{2} (\frac{\alpha x}{1 + |\alpha x|} + 1)
+            = \frac{1}{2} (\frac{x}{\frac{1}{\alpha} + |x|} + 1)
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \frac{\alpha}{2(1 + |\alpha x|)^{2}} = \frac{1}{2\alpha(\frac{1}{\alpha} + |x|)^{2}}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [0.5, 1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.soft_sign)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  """
+  return SoftSign(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class Arctan(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with an arctan function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  arctan
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = self.alpha * 0.5 / (1 + (jnp.pi / 2 * self.alpha * x) ** 2)
+    return dx
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    return jnp.arctan2(jnp.pi / 2 * self.alpha * x) / jnp.pi + 0.5
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def arctan(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 1.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with an arctan function.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \frac{1}{\pi} \arctan(\frac{\pi}{2}\alpha x) + \frac{1}{2}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \frac{\alpha}{2(1 + (\frac{\pi}{2}\alpha x)^2)}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [0.5, 1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.arctan)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  """
+  return Arctan(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class NonzeroSignLog(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with a nonzero sign log function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  nonzero_sign_log
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = 1. / (1 / self.alpha + jnp.abs(x))
+    return dx
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    return jnp.where(x < 0, -1., 1.) * jnp.log(jnp.abs(self.alpha * x) + 1)
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def nonzero_sign_log(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 1.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with a nonzero sign log function.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \mathrm{NonzeroSign}(x) \log (|\alpha x| + 1)
+
+  where
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}\mathrm{NonzeroSign}(x) =
+      \begin{cases}
+      1, & x \geq 0 \\
+      -1, & x < 0 \\
+      \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \frac{\alpha}{1 + |\alpha x|} = \frac{1}{\frac{1}{\alpha} + |x|}
+
+  This surrogate function has the advantage of low computation cost during the backward.
+
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [0.5, 1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.nonzero_sign_log)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  """
+  return NonzeroSignLog(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class ERF(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with an erf function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  erf
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = (self.alpha / jnp.sqrt(jnp.pi)) * jnp.exp(-jnp.power(self.alpha, 2) * x * x)
+    return dx
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    return sci.special.erf(-self.alpha * x) * 0.5
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def erf(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 1.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with an erf function [1]_ [2]_ [3]_.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}
+      g(x) &= \frac{1}{2}(1-\text{erf}(-\alpha x)) \\
+      &= \frac{1}{2} \text{erfc}(-\alpha x) \\
+      &= \frac{1}{\sqrt{\pi}}\int_{-\infty}^{\alpha x}e^{-t^2}dt
+      \end{split}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \frac{\alpha}{\sqrt{\pi}}e^{-\alpha^2x^2}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [0.5, 1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.nonzero_sign_log)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Esser S K, Appuswamy R, Merolla P, et al. Backpropagation for energy-efficient neuromorphic computing[J]. Advances in neural information processing systems, 2015, 28: 1117-1125.
+  .. [2] Wu Y, Deng L, Li G, et al. Spatio-temporal backpropagation for training high-performance spiking neural networks[J]. Frontiers in neuroscience, 2018, 12: 331.
+  .. [3] Yin B, Corradi F, Bohté S M. Effective and efficient computation with multiple-timescale spiking recurrent neural networks[C]//International Conference on Neuromorphic Systems 2020. 2020: 1-8.
+
+  """
+  return ERF(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class PiecewiseLeakyRelu(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with a piecewise leaky relu function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  piecewise_leaky_relu
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, c=0.01, w=1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.c = c
+    self.w = w
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    z = jnp.where(x < -self.w,
+                  self.c * x + self.c * self.w,
+                  jnp.where(x > self.w,
+                            self.c * x - self.c * self.w + 1,
+                            0.5 * x / self.w + 0.5))
+    return z
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = jnp.where(jnp.abs(x) > self.w, self.c, 1 / self.w)
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(c={self.c}, w={self.w})'
+
+
+def piecewise_leaky_relu(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    c: float = 0.01,
+    w: float = 1.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with a piecewise leaky relu function [1]_ [2]_ [3]_ [4]_ [5]_ [6]_ [7]_ [8]_.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g(x) =
+      \begin{cases}
+      cx + cw, & x < -w \\
+      \frac{1}{2w}x + \frac{1}{2}, & -w \leq x \leq w \\
+      cx - cw + 1, & x > w \\
+      \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g'(x) =
+      \begin{cases}
+      \frac{1}{w}, & |x| \leq w \\
+      c, & |x| > w
+      \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for c in [0.01, 0.05, 0.1]:
+     >>>   for w in [1., 2.]:
+     >>>     grads1 = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.piecewise_leaky_relu)(xs, c=c, w=w)
+     >>>     plt.plot(xs, grads1, label=f'x={c}, w={w}')
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  c: float
+    When :math:`|x| > w` the gradient is `c`.
+  w: float
+    When :math:`|x| <= w` the gradient is `1 / w`.
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Yin S, Venkataramanaiah S K, Chen G K, et al. Algorithm and hardware design of discrete-time spiking neural networks based on back propagation with binary activations[C]//2017 IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS). IEEE, 2017: 1-5.
+  .. [2] Wu Y, Deng L, Li G, et al. Spatio-temporal backpropagation for training high-performance spiking neural networks[J]. Frontiers in neuroscience, 2018, 12: 331.
+  .. [3] Huh D, Sejnowski T J. Gradient descent for spiking neural networks[C]//Proceedings of the 32nd International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems. 2018: 1440-1450.
+  .. [4] Wu Y, Deng L, Li G, et al. Direct training for spiking neural networks: Faster, larger, better[C]//Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence. 2019, 33(01): 1311-1318.
+  .. [5] Gu P, Xiao R, Pan G, et al. STCA: Spatio-Temporal Credit Assignment with Delayed Feedback in Deep Spiking Neural Networks[C]//IJCAI. 2019: 1366-1372.
+  .. [6] Roy D, Chakraborty I, Roy K. Scaling deep spiking neural networks with binary stochastic activations[C]//2019 IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Computing (ICCC). IEEE, 2019: 50-58.
+  .. [7] Cheng X, Hao Y, Xu J, et al. LISNN: Improving Spiking Neural Networks with Lateral Interactions for Robust Object Recognition[C]//IJCAI. 1519-1525.
+  .. [8] Kaiser J, Mostafa H, Neftci E. Synaptic plasticity dynamics for deep continuous local learning (DECOLLE)[J]. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2020, 14: 424.
+
+  """
+  return PiecewiseLeakyRelu(c=c, w=w)(x)
+
+
+class SquarewaveFourierSeries(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with a squarewave fourier series.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  squarewave_fourier_series
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, n=2, t_period=8.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.n = n
+    self.t_period = t_period
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+
+    w = jnp.pi * 2. / self.t_period
+    dx = jnp.cos(w * x)
+    for i in range(2, self.n):
+      dx += jnp.cos((2 * i - 1.) * w * x)
+    dx *= 4. / self.t_period
+    return dx
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+
+    w = jnp.pi * 2. / self.t_period
+    ret = jnp.sin(w * x)
+    for i in range(2, self.n):
+      c = (2 * i - 1.)
+      ret += jnp.sin(c * w * x) / c
+    z = 0.5 + 2. / jnp.pi * ret
+    return z
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(n={self.n}, t_period={self.t_period})'
+
+
+def squarewave_fourier_series(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    n: int = 2,
+    t_period: float = 8.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with a squarewave fourier series.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = 0.5 + \frac{1}{\pi}*\sum_{i=1}^n {\sin\left({(2i-1)*2\pi}*x/T\right) \over 2i-1 }
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \sum_{i=1}^n\frac{4\cos\left((2 * i - 1.) * 2\pi * x / T\right)}{T}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for n in [2, 4, 8]:
+     >>>   f = nn.surrogate.SquarewaveFourierSeries(n=n)
+     >>>   grads1 = bst.transform.vector_grad(f)(xs)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads1, label=f'n={n}')
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  n: int
+  t_period: float
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  """
+
+  return SquarewaveFourierSeries(n=n, t_period=t_period)(x)
+
+
+class S2NN(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the S2NN surrogate spiking function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  s2nn
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=4., beta=1., epsilon=1e-8):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+    self.beta = beta
+    self.epsilon = epsilon
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    z = jnp.where(x < 0.,
+                  sci.special.expit(x * self.alpha),
+                  self.beta * jnp.log(jnp.abs((x + 1.)) + self.epsilon) + 0.5)
+    return z
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    sg = sci.special.expit(self.alpha * x)
+    dx = jnp.where(x < 0., self.alpha * sg * (1. - sg), self.beta / (x + 1.))
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha}, beta={self.beta}, epsilon={self.epsilon})'
+
+
+def s2nn(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 4.,
+    beta: float = 1.,
+    epsilon: float = 1e-8,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with the S2NN surrogate spiking function [1]_.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        \mathrm{sigmoid} (\alpha x), x < 0 \\
+        \beta \ln(|x + 1|) + 0.5, x \ge 0
+    \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g'(x) = \begin{cases}
+        \alpha * (1 - \mathrm{sigmoid} (\alpha x)) \mathrm{sigmoid} (\alpha x), x < 0 \\
+        \frac{\beta}{(x + 1)}, x \ge 0
+    \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.s2nn)(xs, 4., 1.)
+     >>> plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha=4, \beta=1$')
+     >>> grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.s2nn)(xs, 8., 2.)
+     >>> plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha=8, \beta=2$')
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    The param that controls the gradient when ``x < 0``.
+  beta: float
+    The param that controls the gradient when ``x >= 0``
+  epsilon: float
+    Avoid nan
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Suetake, Kazuma et al. “S2NN: Time Step Reduction of Spiking Surrogate Gradients for Training Energy Efficient Single-Step Neural Networks.” ArXiv abs/2201.10879 (2022): n. pag.
+
+  """
+  return S2NN(alpha=alpha, beta=beta, epsilon=epsilon)(x)
+
+
+class QPseudoSpike(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the q-PseudoSpike surrogate function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  q_pseudo_spike
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=2.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = jnp.power(1 + 2 / (self.alpha + 1) * jnp.abs(x), -self.alpha)
+    return dx
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    z = jnp.where(x < 0.,
+                  0.5 * jnp.power(1 - 2 / (self.alpha - 1) * jnp.abs(x), 1 - self.alpha),
+                  1. - 0.5 * jnp.power(1 + 2 / (self.alpha - 1) * jnp.abs(x), 1 - self.alpha))
+    return z
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def q_pseudo_spike(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 2.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with the q-PseudoSpike surrogate function [1]_.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g(x) =
+      \begin{cases}
+      \frac{1}{2}(1-\frac{2x}{\alpha-1})^{1-\alpha}, & x < 0 \\
+      1 - \frac{1}{2}(1+\frac{2x}{\alpha-1})^{1-\alpha}, & x \geq 0.
+      \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = (1+\frac{2|x|}{\alpha-1})^{-\alpha}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [0.5, 1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.q_pseudo_spike)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha=$' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    The parameter to control tail fatness of gradient.
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Herranz-Celotti, Luca and Jean Rouat. “Surrogate Gradients Design.” ArXiv abs/2202.00282 (2022): n. pag.
+  """
+  return QPseudoSpike(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class LeakyRelu(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the Leaky ReLU function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  leaky_relu
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=0.1, beta=1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+    self.beta = beta
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    return jnp.where(x < 0., self.alpha * x, self.beta * x)
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = jnp.where(x < 0., self.alpha, self.beta)
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha}, beta={self.beta})'
+
+
+def leaky_relu(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 0.1,
+    beta: float = 1.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with the Leaky ReLU function.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g(x) =
+      \begin{cases}
+      \beta \cdot x, & x \geq 0 \\
+      \alpha \cdot x, & x < 0 \\
+      \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g'(x) =
+      \begin{cases}
+      \beta, & x \geq 0 \\
+      \alpha, & x < 0 \\
+      \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.leaky_relu)(xs, 0., 1.)
+     >>> plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha=0., \beta=1.$')
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    The parameter to control the gradient when :math:`x < 0`.
+  beta: float
+    The parameter to control the  gradient when :math:`x >= 0`.
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+  """
+  return LeakyRelu(alpha=alpha, beta=beta)(x)
+
+
+class LogTailedRelu(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the Log-tailed ReLU function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  log_tailed_relu
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=0.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_fun(self, x):
+    z = jnp.where(x > 1,
+                  jnp.log(x),
+                  jnp.where(x > 0,
+                            x,
+                            self.alpha * x))
+    return z
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = jnp.where(x > 1,
+                   1 / x,
+                   jnp.where(x > 0,
+                             1.,
+                             self.alpha))
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def log_tailed_relu(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 0.,
+
+):
+  r"""Judge spiking state with the Log-tailed ReLU function [1]_.
+
+  If `origin=False`, computes the forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  If `origin=True`, computes the original function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g(x) =
+      \begin{cases}
+      \alpha x, & x \leq 0 \\
+      x, & 0 < x \leq 0 \\
+      log(x), x > 1 \\
+      \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{split}g'(x) =
+      \begin{cases}
+      \alpha, & x \leq 0 \\
+      1, & 0 < x \leq 0 \\
+      \frac{1}{x}, x > 1 \\
+      \end{cases}\end{split}
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.leaky_relu)(xs, 0., 1.)
+     >>> plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha=0., \beta=1.$')
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    The parameter to control the gradient.
+
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Cai, Zhaowei et al. “Deep Learning with Low Precision by Half-Wave Gaussian Quantization.” 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) (2017): 5406-5414.
+  """
+  return LogTailedRelu(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class ReluGrad(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the ReLU gradient function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  relu_grad
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=0.3, width=1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+    self.width = width
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = jnp.maximum(self.alpha * self.width - jnp.abs(x) * self.alpha, 0)
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha}, width={self.width})'
+
+
+def relu_grad(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 0.3,
+    width: float = 1.,
+):
+  r"""Spike function with the ReLU gradient function [1]_.
+
+  The forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \text{ReLU}(\alpha * (\mathrm{width}-|x|))
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for s in [0.5, 1.]:
+     >>>   for w in [1, 2.]:
+     >>>     grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.relu_grad)(xs, s, w)
+     >>>     plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha=$' + f'{s}, width={w}')
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    The parameter to control the gradient.
+  width: float
+    The parameter to control the width of the gradient.
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Neftci, E. O., Mostafa, H. & Zenke, F. Surrogate gradient learning in spiking neural networks. IEEE Signal Process. Mag. 36, 61–63 (2019).
+  """
+  return ReluGrad(alpha=alpha, width=width)(x)
+
+
+class GaussianGrad(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the Gaussian gradient function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  gaussian_grad
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, sigma=0.5, alpha=0.5):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.sigma = sigma
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = jnp.exp(-(x ** 2) / 2 * jnp.power(self.sigma, 2)) / (jnp.sqrt(2 * jnp.pi) * self.sigma)
+    return self.alpha * dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha}, sigma={self.sigma})'
+
+
+def gaussian_grad(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    sigma: float = 0.5,
+    alpha: float = 0.5,
+):
+  r"""Spike function with the Gaussian gradient function [1]_.
+
+  The forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \alpha * \text{gaussian}(x, 0., \sigma)
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for s in [0.5, 1., 2.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.gaussian_grad)(xs, s, 0.5)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha=0.5, \sigma=$' + str(s))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  sigma: float
+    The parameter to control the variance of gaussian distribution.
+  alpha: float
+    The parameter to control the scale of the gradient.
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Yin, B., Corradi, F. & Bohté, S.M. Accurate and efficient time-domain classification with adaptive spiking recurrent neural networks. Nat Mach Intell 3, 905–913 (2021).
+  """
+  return GaussianGrad(sigma=sigma, alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class MultiGaussianGrad(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the multi-Gaussian gradient function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  multi_gaussian_grad
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, h=0.15, s=6.0, sigma=0.5, scale=0.5):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.h = h
+    self.s = s
+    self.sigma = sigma
+    self.scale = scale
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    g1 = jnp.exp(-x ** 2 / (2 * jnp.power(self.sigma, 2))) / (jnp.sqrt(2 * jnp.pi) * self.sigma)
+    g2 = jnp.exp(-(x - self.sigma) ** 2 / (2 * jnp.power(self.s * self.sigma, 2))
+                 ) / (jnp.sqrt(2 * jnp.pi) * self.s * self.sigma)
+    g3 = jnp.exp(-(x + self.sigma) ** 2 / (2 * jnp.power(self.s * self.sigma, 2))
+                 ) / (jnp.sqrt(2 * jnp.pi) * self.s * self.sigma)
+    dx = g1 * (1. + self.h) - g2 * self.h - g3 * self.h
+    return self.scale * dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(h={self.h}, s={self.s}, sigma={self.sigma}, scale={self.scale})'
+
+
+def multi_gaussian_grad(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    h: float = 0.15,
+    s: float = 6.0,
+    sigma: float = 0.5,
+    scale: float = 0.5,
+):
+  r"""Spike function with the multi-Gaussian gradient function [1]_.
+
+  The forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     \begin{array}{l}
+     g'(x)=(1+h){{{\mathcal{N}}}}(x, 0, {\sigma }^{2})
+     -h{{{\mathcal{N}}}}(x, \sigma,{(s\sigma )}^{2})-
+     h{{{\mathcal{N}}}}(x, -\sigma ,{(s\sigma )}^{2})
+     \end{array}
+
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.multi_gaussian_grad)(xs)
+     >>> plt.plot(xs, grads)
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  h: float
+    The hyper-parameters of approximate function
+  s: float
+    The hyper-parameters of approximate function
+  sigma: float
+    The gaussian sigma.
+  scale: float
+    The gradient scale.
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Yin, B., Corradi, F. & Bohté, S.M. Accurate and efficient time-domain classification with adaptive spiking recurrent neural networks. Nat Mach Intell 3, 905–913 (2021).
+  """
+  return MultiGaussianGrad(h=h, s=s, sigma=sigma, scale=scale)(x)
+
+
+class InvSquareGrad(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the inverse-square surrogate gradient function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  inv_square_grad
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=100.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = 1. / (self.alpha * jnp.abs(x) + 1.0) ** 2
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def inv_square_grad(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 100.
+):
+  r"""Spike function with the inverse-square surrogate gradient.
+
+  Forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \frac{1}{(\alpha * |x| + 1.) ^ 2}
+
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-1, 1, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [1., 10., 100.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.inv_square_grad)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+  """
+  return InvSquareGrad(alpha=alpha)(x)
+
+
+class SlayerGrad(Surrogate):
+  """Judge spiking state with the slayer surrogate gradient function.
+
+  See Also
+  --------
+  slayer_grad
+  """
+
+  def __init__(self, alpha=1.):
+    super().__init__()
+    self.alpha = alpha
+
+  def surrogate_grad(self, x):
+    dx = jnp.exp(-self.alpha * jnp.abs(x))
+    return dx
+
+  def __repr__(self):
+    return f'{self.__class__.__name__}(alpha={self.alpha})'
+
+
+def slayer_grad(
+    x: jax.Array,
+    alpha: float = 1.
+):
+  r"""Spike function with the slayer surrogate gradient function.
+
+  Forward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g(x) = \begin{cases}
+        1, & x \geq 0 \\
+        0, & x < 0 \\
+        \end{cases}
+
+  Backward function:
+
+  .. math::
+
+     g'(x) = \exp(-\alpha |x|)
+
+
+  .. plot::
+     :include-source: True
+
+     >>> import brainstate.nn as nn
+     >>> import brainstate as bst
+     >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+     >>> xs = jax.numpy.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)
+     >>> for alpha in [0.5, 1., 2., 4.]:
+     >>>   grads = bst.transform.vector_grad(nn.surrogate.slayer_grad)(xs, alpha)
+     >>>   plt.plot(xs, grads, label=r'$\alpha$=' + str(alpha))
+     >>> plt.legend()
+     >>> plt.show()
+
+  Parameters
+  ----------
+  x: jax.Array, Array
+    The input data.
+  alpha: float
+    Parameter to control smoothness of gradient
+
+  Returns
+  -------
+  out: jax.Array
+    The spiking state.
+
+  References
+  ----------
+  .. [1] Shrestha, S. B. & Orchard, G. Slayer: spike layer error reassignment in time. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems Vol. 31, 1412–1421 (NeurIPS, 2018).
+  """
+  return SlayerGrad(alpha=alpha)(x)