Cython 3.1.0__py3-none-any.whl

Cython/Compiler/Parsing.py

@@ -0,0 +1,4789 @@
+# cython: auto_cpdef=True, infer_types=True, py2_import=True
+#
+#   Parser
+#
+
+
+# This should be done automatically
+import cython
+cython.declare(Nodes=object, ExprNodes=object, EncodedString=object,
+               bytes_literal=object, StringEncoding=object,
+               FileSourceDescriptor=object, lookup_unicodechar=object,
+               Future=object, Options=object, error=object, warning=object,
+               Builtin=object, ModuleNode=object, Utils=object, _unicode=object, _bytes=object,
+               re=object, _parse_escape_sequences=object, _parse_escape_sequences_raw=object,
+               partial=object, reduce=object,
+               _CDEF_MODIFIERS=tuple, COMMON_BINOP_MISTAKES=dict)
+
+from io import StringIO
+import re
+from unicodedata import lookup as lookup_unicodechar
+from functools import partial, reduce
+
+from .Scanning import PyrexScanner, FileSourceDescriptor, tentatively_scan
+from . import Nodes
+from . import ExprNodes
+from . import MatchCaseNodes
+from . import Builtin
+from . import StringEncoding
+from .StringEncoding import EncodedString, bytes_literal
+from .ModuleNode import ModuleNode
+from .Errors import error, warning
+from .. import Utils
+from . import Future
+from . import Options
+
+
+_CDEF_MODIFIERS = ('inline', 'nogil', 'api')
+
+
+class Ctx:
+    #  Parsing context
+    level = 'other'
+    visibility = 'private'
+    cdef_flag = False
+    typedef_flag = False
+    api = False
+    overridable = False
+    nogil = False
+    namespace = None
+    templates = None
+    allow_struct_enum_decorator = False
+
+    def __init__(self, **kwds):
+        self.__dict__.update(kwds)
+
+    def __call__(self, **kwds):
+        ctx = Ctx()
+        d = ctx.__dict__
+        d.update(self.__dict__)
+        d.update(kwds)
+        return ctx
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_ident(s: PyrexScanner, message="Expected an identifier"):
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT':
+        name = s.context.intern_ustring(s.systring)
+        s.next()
+        return name
+    else:
+        s.error(message)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_ident_list(s: PyrexScanner):
+    names = []
+    while s.sy == 'IDENT':
+        names.append(s.context.intern_ustring(s.systring))
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            break
+        s.next()
+    return names
+
+#------------------------------------------
+#
+#   Expressions
+#
+#------------------------------------------
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_binop_operator(s: PyrexScanner) -> tuple:
+    pos = s.position()
+    op = s.sy
+    s.next()
+    return op, pos
+
+
+# signature is currently overridden in pxd file
+def p_binop_expr(s: PyrexScanner, ops, p_sub_expr):
+    n1 = p_sub_expr(s)
+    while s.sy in ops:
+        op, pos = p_binop_operator(s)
+        n2 = p_sub_expr(s)
+        n1 = ExprNodes.binop_node(pos, op, n1, n2)
+        if op == '/':
+            if Future.division in s.context.future_directives:
+                n1.truedivision = True
+            else:
+                n1.truedivision = None  # unknown
+    return n1
+
+
+#lambdef: 'lambda' [varargslist] ':' test
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_lambdef(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'lambda'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    if s.sy == ':':
+        args = []
+        star_arg = starstar_arg = None
+    else:
+        args, star_arg, starstar_arg = p_varargslist(
+            s, terminator=':', annotated=False)
+    s.expect(':')
+    expr = p_test(s)
+    return ExprNodes.LambdaNode(
+        pos, args = args,
+        star_arg = star_arg, starstar_arg = starstar_arg,
+        result_expr = expr)
+
+
+#test: or_test ['if' or_test 'else' test] | lambdef
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_test(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # The check for a following ':=' is only for error reporting purposes.
+    # It simply changes a
+    #   expected ')', found ':='
+    # message into something a bit more descriptive.
+    # It is close to what the PEG parser does in CPython, where an expression has
+    # a lookahead assertion that it isn't followed by ':='
+    expr = p_test_allow_walrus_after(s)
+    if s.sy == ':=':
+        s.error("invalid syntax: assignment expression not allowed in this context")
+    return expr
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_test_allow_walrus_after(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == 'lambda':
+        return p_lambdef(s)
+    pos = s.position()
+    expr = p_or_test(s)
+    if s.sy == 'if':
+        s.next()
+        test = p_or_test(s)
+        s.expect('else')
+        other = p_test(s)
+        return ExprNodes.CondExprNode(pos, test=test, true_val=expr, false_val=other)
+    else:
+        return expr
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_namedexpr_test(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # defined in the LL parser as
+    #  namedexpr_test: test [':=' test]
+    # The requirement that the LHS is a name is not enforced in the grammar.
+    # For comparison the PEG parser does:
+    #  1. look for "name :=", if found it's definitely a named expression
+    #     so look for expression
+    #  2. Otherwise, look for expression
+    lhs = p_test_allow_walrus_after(s)
+    if s.sy == ':=':
+        position = s.position()
+        if not lhs.is_name:
+            s.error("Left-hand side of assignment expression must be an identifier", fatal=False)
+        s.next()
+        rhs = p_test(s)
+        return ExprNodes.AssignmentExpressionNode(position, lhs=lhs, rhs=rhs)
+    return lhs
+
+
+#or_test: and_test ('or' and_test)*
+
+COMMON_BINOP_MISTAKES = {'||': 'or', '&&': 'and'}
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_or_test(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return p_rassoc_binop_expr(s, 'or', p_and_test)
+
+
+# signature is currently overridden in pxd file
+def p_rassoc_binop_expr(s: PyrexScanner, op, p_subexpr):
+    n1 = p_subexpr(s)
+    if s.sy == op:
+        pos = s.position()
+        op = s.sy
+        s.next()
+        n2 = p_rassoc_binop_expr(s, op, p_subexpr)
+        n1 = ExprNodes.binop_node(pos, op, n1, n2)
+    elif s.sy in COMMON_BINOP_MISTAKES and COMMON_BINOP_MISTAKES[s.sy] == op:
+        # Only report this for the current operator since we pass through here twice for 'and' and 'or'.
+        warning(s.position(),
+                "Found the C operator '%s', did you mean the Python operator '%s'?" % (s.sy, op),
+                level=1)
+    return n1
+
+
+#and_test: not_test ('and' not_test)*
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_and_test(s: PyrexScanner):
+    #return p_binop_expr(s, ('and',), p_not_test)
+    return p_rassoc_binop_expr(s, 'and', p_not_test)
+
+
+#not_test: 'not' not_test | comparison
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_not_test(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == 'not':
+        pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        return ExprNodes.NotNode(pos, operand = p_not_test(s))
+    else:
+        return p_comparison(s)
+
+
+#comparison: expr (comp_op expr)*
+#comp_op: '<'|'>'|'=='|'>='|'<='|'<>'|'!='|'in'|'not' 'in'|'is'|'is' 'not'
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_comparison(s: PyrexScanner):
+    n1 = p_starred_expr(s)
+    if s.sy in comparison_ops:
+        pos = s.position()
+        op = p_cmp_op(s)
+        n2 = p_starred_expr(s)
+        n1 = ExprNodes.PrimaryCmpNode(pos,
+            operator = op, operand1 = n1, operand2 = n2)
+        if s.sy in comparison_ops:
+            n1.cascade = p_cascaded_cmp(s)
+    return n1
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_test_or_starred_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == '*':
+        return p_starred_expr(s)
+    else:
+        return p_test(s)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_namedexpr_test_or_starred_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == '*':
+        return p_starred_expr(s)
+    else:
+        return p_namedexpr_test(s)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_starred_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    if s.sy == '*':
+        starred = True
+        s.next()
+    else:
+        starred = False
+    expr = p_bit_expr(s)
+    if starred:
+        expr = ExprNodes.StarredUnpackingNode(pos, expr)
+    return expr
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_cascaded_cmp(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    op = p_cmp_op(s)
+    n2 = p_starred_expr(s)
+    result = ExprNodes.CascadedCmpNode(pos,
+        operator = op, operand2 = n2)
+    if s.sy in comparison_ops:
+        result.cascade = p_cascaded_cmp(s)
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_cmp_op(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == 'not':
+        s.next()
+        s.expect('in')
+        op = 'not_in'
+    elif s.sy == 'is':
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == 'not':
+            s.next()
+            op = 'is_not'
+        else:
+            op = 'is'
+    else:
+        op = s.sy
+        s.next()
+    if op == '<>':
+        op = '!='
+    return op
+
+
+comparison_ops = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    '<', '>', '==', '>=', '<=', '<>', '!=',
+    'in', 'is', 'not'
+)))
+
+
+#expr: xor_expr ('|' xor_expr)*
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_bit_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return p_binop_expr(s, ('|',), p_xor_expr)
+
+
+#xor_expr: and_expr ('^' and_expr)*
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_xor_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return p_binop_expr(s, ('^',), p_and_expr)
+
+
+#and_expr: shift_expr ('&' shift_expr)*
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_and_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return p_binop_expr(s, ('&',), p_shift_expr)
+
+
+#shift_expr: arith_expr (('<<'|'>>') arith_expr)*
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_shift_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return p_binop_expr(s, ('<<', '>>'), p_arith_expr)
+
+
+#arith_expr: term (('+'|'-') term)*
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_arith_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return p_binop_expr(s, ('+', '-'), p_term)
+
+
+#term: factor (('*'|'@'|'/'|'%'|'//') factor)*
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_term(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return p_binop_expr(s, ('*', '@', '/', '%', '//'), p_factor)
+
+
+#factor: ('+'|'-'|'~'|'&'|typecast|sizeof) factor | power
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_factor(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # little indirection for C-ification purposes
+    return _p_factor(s)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def _p_factor(s: PyrexScanner):
+    sy = s.sy
+    if sy in ('+', '-', '~'):
+        op = s.sy
+        pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        return ExprNodes.unop_node(pos, op, p_factor(s))
+    elif not s.in_python_file:
+        if sy == '&':
+            pos = s.position()
+            s.next()
+            arg = p_factor(s)
+            return ExprNodes.AmpersandNode(pos, operand = arg)
+        elif sy == "<":
+            return p_typecast(s)
+        elif sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == "sizeof":
+            return p_sizeof(s)
+    return p_power(s)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_typecast(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == "<"
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    base_type = p_c_base_type(s)
+    is_memslice = isinstance(base_type, Nodes.MemoryViewSliceTypeNode)
+    is_other_unnamed_type = isinstance(base_type, (
+        Nodes.TemplatedTypeNode,
+        Nodes.CConstOrVolatileTypeNode,
+        Nodes.CTupleBaseTypeNode,
+    ))
+    if not (is_memslice or is_other_unnamed_type) and base_type.name is None:
+        s.error("Unknown type")
+    declarator = p_c_declarator(s, empty=True)
+    if s.sy == '?':
+        s.next()
+        typecheck = True
+    else:
+        typecheck = False
+    s.expect(">")
+    operand = p_factor(s)
+    if is_memslice:
+        return ExprNodes.CythonArrayNode(pos, base_type_node=base_type, operand=operand)
+
+    return ExprNodes.TypecastNode(pos,
+        base_type = base_type,
+        declarator = declarator,
+        operand = operand,
+        typecheck = typecheck)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_sizeof(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == ident "sizeof"
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    s.expect('(')
+    # Here we decide if we are looking at an expression or type
+    # If it is actually a type, but parsable as an expression,
+    # we treat it as an expression here.
+    if looking_at_expr(s):
+        operand = p_test(s)
+        node = ExprNodes.SizeofVarNode(pos, operand = operand)
+    else:
+        base_type = p_c_base_type(s)
+        declarator = p_c_declarator(s, empty=True)
+        node = ExprNodes.SizeofTypeNode(pos,
+            base_type = base_type, declarator = declarator)
+    s.expect(')')
+    return node
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_yield_expression(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == "yield"
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    is_yield_from = False
+    if s.sy == 'from':
+        is_yield_from = True
+        s.next()
+    if s.sy != ')' and s.sy not in statement_terminators:
+        # "yield from" does not support implicit tuples, but "yield" does ("yield 1,2")
+        arg = p_test(s) if is_yield_from else p_testlist(s)
+    else:
+        if is_yield_from:
+            s.error("'yield from' requires a source argument",
+                    pos=pos, fatal=False)
+        arg = None
+    if is_yield_from:
+        return ExprNodes.YieldFromExprNode(pos, arg=arg)
+    else:
+        return ExprNodes.YieldExprNode(pos, arg=arg)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_yield_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == "yield"
+    yield_expr = p_yield_expression(s)
+    return Nodes.ExprStatNode(yield_expr.pos, expr=yield_expr)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_async_statement(s: PyrexScanner, ctx, decorators):
+    # s.sy >> 'async' ...
+    if s.sy == 'def':
+        # 'async def' statements aren't allowed in pxd files
+        if 'pxd' in ctx.level:
+            s.error('def statement not allowed here')
+        s.level = ctx.level
+        return p_def_statement(s, decorators, is_async_def=True)
+    elif decorators:
+        s.error("Decorators can only be followed by functions or classes")
+    elif s.sy == 'for':
+        return p_for_statement(s, is_async=True)
+    elif s.sy == 'with':
+        s.next()
+        return p_with_items(s, is_async=True)
+    else:
+        s.error("expected one of 'def', 'for', 'with' after 'async'")
+
+
+#power: atom_expr ('**' factor)*
+#atom_expr: ['await'] atom trailer*
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_power(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.systring == 'new' and s.peek()[0] == 'IDENT':
+        return p_new_expr(s)
+    await_pos = None
+    if s.sy == 'await':
+        await_pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+    n1 = p_atom(s)
+    while s.sy in ('(', '[', '.'):
+        n1 = p_trailer(s, n1)
+    if await_pos:
+        n1 = ExprNodes.AwaitExprNode(await_pos, arg=n1)
+    if s.sy == '**':
+        pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        n2 = p_factor(s)
+        n1 = ExprNodes.binop_node(pos, '**', n1, n2)
+    return n1
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_new_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.systring == 'new'.
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    cppclass = p_c_base_type(s)
+    return p_call(s, ExprNodes.NewExprNode(pos, cppclass = cppclass))
+
+
+#trailer: '(' [arglist] ')' | '[' subscriptlist ']' | '.' NAME
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_trailer(s: PyrexScanner, node1):
+    pos = s.position()
+    if s.sy == '(':
+        return p_call(s, node1)
+    elif s.sy == '[':
+        return p_index(s, node1)
+    else:  # s.sy == '.'
+        s.next()
+        name = p_ident(s)
+        return ExprNodes.AttributeNode(pos,
+            obj=node1, attribute=name)
+
+
+# arglist:  argument (',' argument)* [',']
+# argument: [test '='] test       # Really [keyword '='] test
+
+# since PEP 448:
+# argument: ( test [comp_for] |
+#             test '=' test |
+#             '**' expr |
+#             star_expr )
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_call_parse_args(s: PyrexScanner, allow_genexp: cython.bint = True):
+    # s.sy == '('
+    s.next()
+    positional_args = []
+    keyword_args = []
+    starstar_seen = False
+    last_was_tuple_unpack = False
+    while s.sy != ')':
+        if s.sy == '*':
+            if starstar_seen:
+                s.error("Non-keyword arg following keyword arg", pos=s.position())
+            s.next()
+            positional_args.append(p_test(s))
+            last_was_tuple_unpack = True
+        elif s.sy == '**':
+            s.next()
+            keyword_args.append(p_test(s))
+            starstar_seen = True
+        else:
+            arg = p_namedexpr_test(s)
+            if s.sy == '=':
+                s.next()
+                if not arg.is_name:
+                    s.error("Expected an identifier before '='",
+                            pos=arg.pos)
+                encoded_name = s.context.intern_ustring(arg.name)
+                keyword = ExprNodes.IdentifierStringNode(
+                    arg.pos, value=encoded_name)
+                arg = p_test(s)
+                keyword_args.append((keyword, arg))
+            else:
+                if keyword_args:
+                    s.error("Non-keyword arg following keyword arg", pos=arg.pos)
+                if positional_args and not last_was_tuple_unpack:
+                    positional_args[-1].append(arg)
+                else:
+                    positional_args.append([arg])
+                last_was_tuple_unpack = False
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            break
+        s.next()
+
+    if s.sy in ('for', 'async') and allow_genexp:
+        if not keyword_args and not last_was_tuple_unpack:
+            if len(positional_args) == 1 and len(positional_args[0]) == 1:
+                positional_args = [[p_genexp(s, positional_args[0][0])]]
+    s.expect(')')
+    return positional_args or [[]], keyword_args
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_call_build_packed_args(pos, positional_args, keyword_args) -> tuple:
+    keyword_dict = None
+
+    subtuples = [
+        ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args=arg) if isinstance(arg, list) else ExprNodes.AsTupleNode(pos, arg=arg)
+        for arg in positional_args
+    ]
+    # TODO: implement a faster way to join tuples than creating each one and adding them
+    arg_tuple = reduce(partial(ExprNodes.binop_node, pos, '+'), subtuples)
+
+    if keyword_args:
+        kwargs = []
+        dict_items = []
+        for item in keyword_args:
+            if isinstance(item, tuple):
+                key, value = item
+                dict_items.append(ExprNodes.DictItemNode(pos=key.pos, key=key, value=value))
+            elif item.is_dict_literal:
+                # unpack "**{a:b}" directly
+                dict_items.extend(item.key_value_pairs)
+            else:
+                if dict_items:
+                    kwargs.append(ExprNodes.DictNode(
+                        dict_items[0].pos, key_value_pairs=dict_items, reject_duplicates=True))
+                    dict_items = []
+                kwargs.append(item)
+
+        if dict_items:
+            kwargs.append(ExprNodes.DictNode(
+                dict_items[0].pos, key_value_pairs=dict_items, reject_duplicates=True))
+
+        if kwargs:
+            if len(kwargs) == 1 and kwargs[0].is_dict_literal:
+                # only simple keyword arguments found -> one dict
+                keyword_dict = kwargs[0]
+            else:
+                # at least one **kwargs
+                keyword_dict = ExprNodes.MergedDictNode(pos, keyword_args=kwargs)
+
+    return arg_tuple, keyword_dict
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_call(s: PyrexScanner, function):
+    # s.sy == '('
+    pos = s.position()
+    positional_args, keyword_args = p_call_parse_args(s)
+
+    if not keyword_args and len(positional_args) == 1 and isinstance(positional_args[0], list):
+        return ExprNodes.SimpleCallNode(pos, function=function, args=positional_args[0])
+    else:
+        arg_tuple, keyword_dict = p_call_build_packed_args(pos, positional_args, keyword_args)
+        return ExprNodes.GeneralCallNode(
+            pos, function=function, positional_args=arg_tuple, keyword_args=keyword_dict)
+
+
+#lambdef: 'lambda' [varargslist] ':' test
+
+#subscriptlist: subscript (',' subscript)* [',']
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_index(s: PyrexScanner, base):
+    # s.sy == '['
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    subscripts, is_single_value = p_subscript_list(s)
+    if is_single_value and len(subscripts[0]) == 2:
+        start, stop = subscripts[0]
+        result = ExprNodes.SliceIndexNode(pos,
+            base = base, start = start, stop = stop)
+    else:
+        indexes = make_slice_nodes(pos, subscripts)
+        if is_single_value:
+            index = indexes[0]
+        else:
+            index = ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args = indexes)
+        result = ExprNodes.IndexNode(pos,
+            base = base, index = index)
+    s.expect(']')
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_subscript_list(s: PyrexScanner) -> tuple:
+    is_single_value = True
+    items = [p_subscript(s)]
+    while s.sy == ',':
+        is_single_value = False
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == ']':
+            break
+        items.append(p_subscript(s))
+    return items, is_single_value
+
+
+#subscript: '.' '.' '.' | test | [test] ':' [test] [':' [test]]
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_subscript(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # Parse a subscript and return a list of
+    # 1, 2 or 3 ExprNodes, depending on how
+    # many slice elements were encountered.
+    start = p_slice_element(s, (':',))
+    if s.sy != ':':
+        return [start]
+    s.next()
+    stop = p_slice_element(s, (':', ',', ']'))
+    if s.sy != ':':
+        return [start, stop]
+    s.next()
+    step = p_slice_element(s, (':', ',', ']'))
+    return [start, stop, step]
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_slice_element(s: PyrexScanner, follow_set):
+    # Simple expression which may be missing iff
+    # it is followed by something in follow_set.
+    if s.sy not in follow_set:
+        return p_test(s)
+    else:
+        return None
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def expect_ellipsis(s: PyrexScanner):
+    s.expect('...')
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def make_slice_nodes(pos, subscripts):
+    # Convert a list of subscripts as returned
+    # by p_subscript_list into a list of ExprNodes,
+    # creating SliceNodes for elements with 2 or
+    # more components.
+    result = []
+    for subscript in subscripts:
+        if len(subscript) == 1:
+            result.append(subscript[0])
+        else:
+            result.append(make_slice_node(pos, *subscript))
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.ccall
+def make_slice_node(pos, start, stop = None, step = None):
+    if not start:
+        start = ExprNodes.NoneNode(pos)
+    if not stop:
+        stop = ExprNodes.NoneNode(pos)
+    if not step:
+        step = ExprNodes.NoneNode(pos)
+    return ExprNodes.SliceNode(pos,
+        start = start, stop = stop, step = step)
+
+
+#atom: '(' [yield_expr|testlist_comp] ')' | '[' [listmaker] ']' | '{' [dict_or_set_maker] '}' | '`' testlist '`' | NAME | NUMBER | STRING+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_atom(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    sy = s.sy
+    if sy == '(':
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == ')':
+            result = ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args = [])
+        elif s.sy == 'yield':
+            result = p_yield_expression(s)
+        else:
+            result = p_testlist_comp(s)
+        s.expect(')')
+        return result
+    elif sy == '[':
+        return p_list_maker(s)
+    elif sy == '{':
+        return p_dict_or_set_maker(s)
+    elif sy == '`':
+        return p_backquote_expr(s)
+    elif sy == '...':
+        expect_ellipsis(s)
+        return ExprNodes.EllipsisNode(pos)
+    elif sy == 'INT':
+        return p_int_literal(s)
+    elif sy == 'FLOAT':
+        value = s.systring
+        s.next()
+        return ExprNodes.FloatNode(pos, value = value)
+    elif sy == 'IMAG':
+        value = s.systring[:-1]
+        s.next()
+        return ExprNodes.ImagNode(pos, value = value)
+    elif sy == 'BEGIN_STRING':
+        return p_atom_string(s)
+    elif sy == 'IDENT':
+        result = p_atom_ident_constants(s)
+        if result is None:
+            result = p_name(s, s.systring)
+            s.next()
+        return result
+    else:
+        s.error("Expected an identifier or literal")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_atom_string(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'BEGIN_STRING'
+    pos = s.position()
+    kind, bytes_value, unicode_value = p_cat_string_literal(s)
+    if not kind:
+        return ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(pos, value=unicode_value, bytes_value=bytes_value)
+    kind_char: cython.Py_UCS4 = kind
+    if kind_char == 'c':
+        return ExprNodes.CharNode(pos, value=bytes_value)
+    elif kind_char == 'u':
+        return ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(pos, value=unicode_value, bytes_value=bytes_value)
+    elif kind_char == 'b':
+        return ExprNodes.BytesNode(pos, value=bytes_value)
+    elif kind_char == 'f':
+        return ExprNodes.JoinedStrNode(pos, values=unicode_value)
+    else:
+        # This is actually prevented by the scanner (Lexicon.py).
+        s.error(f"invalid string kind '{kind}'")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_atom_ident_constants(s: PyrexScanner):
+    """
+    Returns None if it isn't a special-cased named constant.
+    Only calls s.next() if it successfully matches a named constant.
+    """
+    # s.sy == 'IDENT'
+    pos = s.position()
+    name = s.systring
+    if name == "None":
+        result = ExprNodes.NoneNode(pos)
+    elif name == "True":
+        result = ExprNodes.BoolNode(pos, value=True)
+    elif name == "False":
+        result = ExprNodes.BoolNode(pos, value=False)
+    elif name == "NULL" and not s.in_python_file:
+        result = ExprNodes.NullNode(pos)
+    else:
+        return None
+    s.next()
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_int_literal(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    value: str = cython.cast(str, s.systring)
+    s.next()
+    unsigned = ""
+    longness = ""
+    while value[-1] in "UuLl":
+        if value[-1] in "Ll":
+            longness += "L"
+        else:
+            unsigned += "U"
+        value = value[:-1]
+    # '3L' is ambiguous in Py2 but not in Py3.  '3U' and '3LL' are
+    # illegal in Py2 Python files.  All suffixes are illegal in Py3
+    # Python files.
+    is_c_literal = None
+    if unsigned:
+        is_c_literal = True
+    elif longness:
+        if longness == 'LL' or s.context.language_level >= 3:
+            is_c_literal = True
+    if s.in_python_file:
+        if is_c_literal:
+            error(pos, "illegal integer literal syntax in Python source file")
+        is_c_literal = False
+    return ExprNodes.IntNode(pos,
+                             is_c_literal = is_c_literal,
+                             value = value,
+                             unsigned = unsigned,
+                             longness = longness)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_name(s: PyrexScanner, name):
+    pos = s.position()
+    if not s.compile_time_expr and name in s.compile_time_env:
+        value = s.compile_time_env.lookup_here(name)
+        node = wrap_compile_time_constant(pos, value)
+        if node is not None:
+            return node
+    return ExprNodes.NameNode(pos, name=name)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def wrap_compile_time_constant(pos, value):
+    if value is None:
+        return ExprNodes.NoneNode(pos)
+    elif value is Ellipsis:
+        return ExprNodes.EllipsisNode(pos)
+    elif isinstance(value, bool):
+        return ExprNodes.BoolNode(pos, value=value)
+    elif isinstance(value, int):
+        return ExprNodes.IntNode(pos, value=repr(value), constant_result=value)
+    elif isinstance(value, float):
+        return ExprNodes.FloatNode(pos, value=repr(value), constant_result=value)
+    elif isinstance(value, complex):
+        node = ExprNodes.ImagNode(pos, value=repr(value.imag), constant_result=complex(0.0, value.imag))
+        if value.real:
+            # FIXME: should we care about -0.0 ?
+            # probably not worth using the '-' operator for negative imag values
+            node = ExprNodes.binop_node(
+                pos, '+', ExprNodes.FloatNode(pos, value=repr(value.real), constant_result=value.real), node,
+                constant_result=value)
+        return node
+    elif isinstance(value, str):
+        return ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(pos, value=EncodedString(value))
+    elif isinstance(value, bytes):
+        bvalue = bytes_literal(value, 'ascii')  # actually: unknown encoding, but BytesLiteral requires one
+        return ExprNodes.BytesNode(pos, value=bvalue, constant_result=value)
+    elif isinstance(value, tuple):
+        args = [wrap_compile_time_constant(pos, arg) for arg in value]
+        if None in args:
+            # error already reported
+            return None
+        return ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args=args)
+
+    error(pos, "Invalid type for compile-time constant: %r (type %s)"
+               % (value, value.__class__.__name__))
+    return None
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_cat_string_literal(s: PyrexScanner) -> tuple:
+    # A sequence of one or more adjacent string literals.
+    # Returns (kind, bytes_value, unicode_value)
+    # where kind in ('b', 'c', 'u', 'f', '')
+    pos = s.position()
+    kind, bytes_value, unicode_value = p_string_literal(s)
+    if kind == 'c' or s.sy != 'BEGIN_STRING':
+        return kind, bytes_value, unicode_value
+    bstrings, ustrings, positions = [bytes_value], [unicode_value], [pos]
+    bytes_value = unicode_value = None
+    while s.sy == 'BEGIN_STRING':
+        pos = s.position()
+        next_kind, next_bytes_value, next_unicode_value = p_string_literal(s)
+        if next_kind == 'c':
+            error(pos, "Cannot concatenate char literal with another string or char literal")
+            continue
+        elif next_kind != kind:
+            # concatenating f strings and normal strings is allowed and leads to an f string
+            if {kind, next_kind} in ({'f', 'u'}, {'f', ''}):
+                kind = 'f'
+            else:
+                error(pos, "Cannot mix string literals of different types, expected %s'', got %s''" % (
+                    kind, next_kind))
+                continue
+        bstrings.append(next_bytes_value)
+        ustrings.append(next_unicode_value)
+        positions.append(pos)
+    # join and rewrap the partial literals
+    if kind in ('b', 'c', '') or kind == 'u' and None not in bstrings:
+        # Py3 enforced unicode literals are parsed as bytes/unicode combination
+        bytes_value = bytes_literal(StringEncoding.join_bytes(bstrings), s.source_encoding)
+    if kind in ('u', ''):
+        unicode_value = EncodedString(''.join([u for u in ustrings if u is not None]))
+    if kind == 'f':
+        unicode_value = []
+        for u, pos in zip(ustrings, positions):
+            if isinstance(u, list):
+                unicode_value += u
+            else:
+                # non-f-string concatenated into the f-string
+                unicode_value.append(ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(pos, value=EncodedString(u)))
+    return kind, bytes_value, unicode_value
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_opt_string_literal(s: PyrexScanner, required_type: str = 'u'):
+    if s.sy != 'BEGIN_STRING':
+        return None
+    pos = s.position()
+    kind, bytes_value, unicode_value = p_string_literal(s, required_type)
+    if required_type == 'u':
+        if kind == 'f':
+            s.error("f-string not allowed here", pos)
+        return unicode_value
+    elif required_type == 'b':
+        return bytes_value
+    else:
+        s.error("internal parser configuration error")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def check_for_non_ascii_characters(string) -> cython.bint:
+    s = cython.cast(str, string)  # EncodedString
+    for c in s:
+        if c >= '\x80':
+            return True
+    return False
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_string_literal(s: PyrexScanner, kind_override=None) -> tuple:
+    # A single string or char literal.  Returns (kind, bvalue, uvalue)
+    # where kind in ('b', 'c', 'u', 'f', '').  The 'bvalue' is the source
+    # code byte sequence of the string literal, 'uvalue' is the
+    # decoded Unicode string.  Either of the two may be None depending
+    # on the 'kind' of string, only unprefixed strings have both
+    # representations. In f-strings, the uvalue is a list of the Unicode
+    # strings and f-string expressions that make up the f-string.
+
+    # s.sy == 'BEGIN_STRING'
+    pos = s.position()
+    is_python3_source: cython.bint = s.context.language_level >= 3
+    has_non_ascii_literal_characters = False
+    string_start_pos = (pos[0], pos[1], pos[2] + len(s.systring))
+    kind_string = s.systring.rstrip('"\'').lower()
+    if len(kind_string) > 1:
+        if len(set(kind_string)) != len(kind_string):
+            error(pos, 'Duplicate string prefix character')
+        if 'b' in kind_string and 'u' in kind_string:
+            error(pos, 'String prefixes b and u cannot be combined')
+        if 'b' in kind_string and 'f' in kind_string:
+            error(pos, 'String prefixes b and f cannot be combined')
+        if 'u' in kind_string and 'f' in kind_string:
+            error(pos, 'String prefixes u and f cannot be combined')
+
+    is_raw: cython.bint = 'r' in kind_string
+
+    if 'c' in kind_string:
+        # this should never happen, since the lexer does not allow combining c
+        # with other prefix characters
+        if len(kind_string) != 1:
+            error(pos, 'Invalid string prefix for character literal')
+        kind = 'c'
+    elif 'f' in kind_string:
+        kind = 'f'     # u is ignored
+        is_raw = True  # postpone the escape resolution
+    elif 'b' in kind_string:
+        kind = 'b'
+    elif 'u' in kind_string:
+        kind = 'u'
+    else:
+        kind = ''
+
+    if kind == '' and kind_override is None and Future.unicode_literals in s.context.future_directives:
+        chars = StringEncoding.StrLiteralBuilder(s.source_encoding)
+        kind = 'u'
+    else:
+        if kind_override is not None and kind_override in 'ub':
+            kind = kind_override
+        if kind in ('u', 'f'):  # f-strings are scanned exactly like Unicode literals, but are parsed further later
+            chars = StringEncoding.UnicodeLiteralBuilder()
+        elif kind == '':
+            chars = StringEncoding.StrLiteralBuilder(s.source_encoding)
+        else:
+            chars = StringEncoding.BytesLiteralBuilder(s.source_encoding)
+
+    systr: str
+    while 1:
+        s.next()
+        sy = s.sy
+        systr = cython.cast(str, s.systring)
+        # print "p_string_literal: sy =", sy, repr(s.systring) ###
+        if sy == 'CHARS':
+            chars.append(systr)
+            if is_python3_source and not has_non_ascii_literal_characters and check_for_non_ascii_characters(systr):
+                has_non_ascii_literal_characters = True
+        elif sy == 'ESCAPE':
+            # in Py2, 'ur' raw unicode strings resolve unicode escapes but nothing else
+            if is_raw and (is_python3_source or kind != 'u' or systr[1] not in 'Uu'):
+                chars.append(systr)
+                if is_python3_source and not has_non_ascii_literal_characters and check_for_non_ascii_characters(systr):
+                    has_non_ascii_literal_characters = True
+            else:
+                _append_escape_sequence(kind, chars, systr, s)
+        elif sy == 'NEWLINE':
+            chars.append('\n')
+        elif sy == 'END_STRING':
+            break
+        elif sy == 'EOF':
+            s.error("Unclosed string literal", pos=pos)
+        else:
+            s.error("Unexpected token %r:%r in string literal" % (
+                sy, s.systring))
+
+    if kind == 'c':
+        unicode_value = None
+        bytes_value = chars.getchar()
+        if len(bytes_value) != 1:
+            error(pos, "invalid character literal: %r" % bytes_value)
+    else:
+        bytes_value, unicode_value = chars.getstrings()
+        if (has_non_ascii_literal_characters
+                and is_python3_source and Future.unicode_literals in s.context.future_directives):
+            # Python 3 forbids literal non-ASCII characters in byte strings
+            if kind == 'b':
+                s.error("bytes can only contain ASCII literal characters.", pos=pos)
+            bytes_value = None
+    if kind == 'f':
+        unicode_value = p_f_string(s, unicode_value, string_start_pos, is_raw='r' in kind_string)
+    s.next()
+    return (kind, bytes_value, unicode_value)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def _append_escape_sequence(kind, builder, escape_sequence: str, s: PyrexScanner):
+    c = escape_sequence[1]
+    if c in "01234567":
+        builder.append_charval(int(escape_sequence[1:], 8))
+    elif c in "'\"\\":
+        builder.append(c)
+    elif c in "abfnrtv":
+        builder.append(StringEncoding.char_from_escape_sequence(escape_sequence))
+    elif c == '\n':
+        pass  # line continuation
+    elif c == 'x':  # \xXX
+        if len(escape_sequence) == 4:
+            builder.append_charval(int(escape_sequence[2:], 16))
+        else:
+            s.error("Invalid hex escape '%s'" % escape_sequence, fatal=False)
+    elif c in 'NUu' and kind in ('u', 'f', ''):  # \uxxxx, \Uxxxxxxxx, \N{...}
+        chrval = -1
+        if c == 'N':
+            uchar = None
+            try:
+                uchar = lookup_unicodechar(escape_sequence[3:-1])
+                chrval = ord(uchar)
+            except KeyError:
+                s.error("Unknown Unicode character name %s" %
+                        repr(escape_sequence[3:-1]).lstrip('u'), fatal=False)
+        elif len(escape_sequence) in (6, 10):
+            chrval = int(escape_sequence[2:], 16)
+            if chrval > 1114111:  # sys.maxunicode:
+                s.error("Invalid unicode escape '%s'" % escape_sequence)
+                chrval = -1
+        else:
+            s.error("Invalid unicode escape '%s'" % escape_sequence, fatal=False)
+        if chrval >= 0:
+            builder.append_uescape(chrval, escape_sequence)
+    else:
+        builder.append(escape_sequence)
+
+
+_parse_escape_sequences_raw, _parse_escape_sequences = [re.compile((
+    # escape sequences:
+    br'(\\(?:' +
+    (br'\\?' if is_raw else (
+        br'[\\abfnrtv"\'{]|'
+        br'[0-7]{2,3}|'
+        br'N\{[^}]*\}|'
+        br'x[0-9a-fA-F]{2}|'
+        br'u[0-9a-fA-F]{4}|'
+        br'U[0-9a-fA-F]{8}|'
+        br'[NxuU]|'  # detect invalid escape sequences that do not match above
+    )) +
+    br')?|'
+    # non-escape sequences:
+    br'\{\{?|'
+    br'\}\}?|'
+    br'[^\\{}]+)'
+    ).decode('us-ascii')).match
+    for is_raw in (True, False)
+]
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def _f_string_error_pos(pos: tuple, string, i: cython.Py_ssize_t) -> tuple:
+    return (pos[0], pos[1], pos[2] + i + 1)  # FIXME: handle newlines in string
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_f_string(s: PyrexScanner, unicode_value, pos, is_raw: cython.bint) -> list:
+    # Parses a PEP 498 f-string literal into a list of nodes. Nodes are either UnicodeNodes
+    # or FormattedValueNodes.
+    values = []
+    next_start: cython.Py_ssize_t = 0
+    size: cython.Py_ssize_t = len(unicode_value)
+    builder = StringEncoding.UnicodeLiteralBuilder()
+    _parse_seq = _parse_escape_sequences_raw if is_raw else _parse_escape_sequences
+
+    while next_start < size:
+        end: cython.Py_ssize_t = next_start
+        match = _parse_seq(unicode_value, next_start)
+        if match is None:
+            error(_f_string_error_pos(pos, unicode_value, next_start), "Invalid escape sequence")
+
+        next_start: cython.Py_ssize_t = match.end()
+        part: str = match.group()
+        c = part[0]
+        if c == '\\':
+            if not is_raw and len(part) > 1:
+                _append_escape_sequence('f', builder, part, s)
+            else:
+                builder.append(part)
+        elif c == '{':
+            if part == '{{':
+                builder.append('{')
+            else:
+                # start of an expression
+                if builder.chars:
+                    values.append(ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(pos, value=builder.getstring()))
+                    builder = StringEncoding.UnicodeLiteralBuilder()
+                next_start, expr_nodes = p_f_string_expr(s, unicode_value, pos, next_start, is_raw)
+                values.extend(expr_nodes)
+        elif c == '}':
+            if part == '}}':
+                builder.append('}')
+            else:
+                error(_f_string_error_pos(pos, unicode_value, end),
+                      "f-string: single '}' is not allowed")
+        else:
+            builder.append(part)
+
+    if builder.chars:
+        values.append(ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(pos, value=builder.getstring()))
+    return values
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_f_string_expr(s: PyrexScanner, unicode_value, pos: tuple,
+                    starting_index: cython.Py_ssize_t, is_raw: cython.bint) -> tuple:
+    # Parses a {}-delimited expression inside an f-string. Returns a list of nodes
+    # [UnicodeNode?, FormattedValueNode] and the index in the string that follows
+    # the expression.
+    #
+    # ? = Optional
+    i: cython.Py_ssize_t = starting_index
+    size: cython.Py_ssize_t = len(unicode_value)
+    conversion_char = terminal_char = format_spec = None
+    format_spec_str = None
+    expr_text = None
+    NO_CHAR: cython.Py_UCS4 = 2**30
+
+    nested_depth: cython.Py_ssize_t = 0
+    quote_char: cython.Py_UCS4 = NO_CHAR
+    c: cython.Py_UCS4
+    in_triple_quotes = False
+    backslash_reported = False
+
+    while True:
+        if i >= size:
+            break  # error will be reported below
+        c = unicode_value[i]
+
+        if quote_char != NO_CHAR:
+            if c == '\\':
+                # avoid redundant error reports along '\' sequences
+                if not backslash_reported:
+                    error(_f_string_error_pos(pos, unicode_value, i),
+                          "backslashes not allowed in f-strings")
+                backslash_reported = True
+            elif c == quote_char:
+                if in_triple_quotes:
+                    if i + 2 < size and unicode_value[i + 1] == c and unicode_value[i + 2] == c:
+                        in_triple_quotes = False
+                        quote_char = NO_CHAR
+                        i += 2
+                else:
+                    quote_char = NO_CHAR
+        elif c in '\'"':
+            quote_char = c
+            if i + 2 < size and unicode_value[i + 1] == c and unicode_value[i + 2] == c:
+                in_triple_quotes = True
+                i += 2
+        elif c in '{[(':
+            nested_depth += 1
+        elif nested_depth != 0 and c in '}])':
+            nested_depth -= 1
+        elif c == '#':
+            error(_f_string_error_pos(pos, unicode_value, i),
+                  "format string cannot include #")
+        elif nested_depth == 0 and c in '><=!:}':
+            # allow special cases with '!' and '='
+            if i + 1 < size and c in '!=><':
+                if unicode_value[i + 1] == '=':
+                    i += 2  # we checked 2, so we can skip 2: '!=', '==', '>=', '<='
+                    continue
+                elif c in '><':  # allow single '<' and '>'
+                    i += 1
+                    continue
+            terminal_char = c
+            break
+        i += 1
+
+    # normalise line endings as the parser expects that
+    expr_str = unicode_value[starting_index:i].replace('\r\n', '\n').replace('\r', '\n')
+    expr_pos = (pos[0], pos[1], pos[2] + starting_index + 2)  # TODO: find exact code position (concat, multi-line, ...)
+
+    if not expr_str.strip():
+        error(_f_string_error_pos(pos, unicode_value, starting_index),
+              "empty expression not allowed in f-string")
+
+    if terminal_char == '=':
+        i += 1
+        while i < size and unicode_value[i].isspace():
+            i += 1
+
+        if i < size:
+            terminal_char = unicode_value[i]
+            expr_text = unicode_value[starting_index:i]
+        # otherwise: error will be reported below
+
+    if terminal_char == '!':
+        i += 1
+        if i + 2 > size:
+            pass  # error will be reported below
+        else:
+            conversion_char = unicode_value[i]
+            i += 1
+            terminal_char = unicode_value[i]
+
+    if terminal_char == ':':
+        in_triple_quotes = False
+        in_string = False
+        nested_depth = 0
+        start_format_spec = i + 1
+        while True:
+            if i >= size:
+                break  # error will be reported below
+            c = unicode_value[i]
+            if not in_triple_quotes and not in_string:
+                if c == '{':
+                    nested_depth += 1
+                elif c == '}':
+                    if nested_depth > 0:
+                        nested_depth -= 1
+                    else:
+                        terminal_char = c
+                        break
+            if c in '\'"':
+                if not in_string and i + 2 < size and unicode_value[i + 1] == c and unicode_value[i + 2] == c:
+                    in_triple_quotes = not in_triple_quotes
+                    i += 2
+                elif not in_triple_quotes:
+                    in_string = not in_string
+            i += 1
+
+        format_spec_str = unicode_value[start_format_spec:i]
+
+    if expr_text and conversion_char is None and format_spec_str is None:
+        conversion_char = 'r'
+
+    if terminal_char != '}':
+        error(_f_string_error_pos(pos, unicode_value, i),
+              "missing '}' in format string expression" + (
+                  ", found '%s'" % terminal_char if terminal_char else ""))
+
+    # parse the expression as if it was surrounded by parentheses
+    buf = StringIO('(%s)' % expr_str)
+    scanner = PyrexScanner(buf, expr_pos[0], parent_scanner=s, source_encoding=s.source_encoding, initial_pos=expr_pos)
+    expr = p_testlist(scanner)  # TODO is testlist right here?
+
+    # validate the conversion char
+    if conversion_char is not None and not ExprNodes.FormattedValueNode.find_conversion_func(conversion_char):
+        error(expr_pos, "invalid conversion character '%s'" % conversion_char)
+
+    # the format spec is itself treated like an f-string
+    if format_spec_str:
+        format_spec = ExprNodes.JoinedStrNode(pos, values=p_f_string(s, format_spec_str, pos, is_raw))
+
+    nodes = []
+    if expr_text:
+        nodes.append(ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(pos, value=EncodedString(expr_text)))
+    nodes.append(ExprNodes.FormattedValueNode(pos, value=expr, conversion_char=conversion_char, format_spec=format_spec))
+
+    return i + 1, nodes
+
+
+# since PEP 448:
+# list_display  ::=     "[" [listmaker] "]"
+# listmaker     ::=     (named_test|star_expr) ( comp_for | (',' (named_test|star_expr))* [','] )
+# comp_iter     ::=     comp_for | comp_if
+# comp_for      ::=     ["async"] "for" expression_list "in" testlist [comp_iter]
+# comp_if       ::=     "if" test [comp_iter]
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_list_maker(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == '['
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    if s.sy == ']':
+        s.expect(']')
+        return ExprNodes.ListNode(pos, args=[])
+
+    expr = p_namedexpr_test_or_starred_expr(s)
+    if s.sy in ('for', 'async'):
+        if expr.is_starred:
+            s.error("iterable unpacking cannot be used in comprehension")
+        append = ExprNodes.ComprehensionAppendNode(pos, expr=expr)
+        loop = p_comp_for(s, append)
+        s.expect(']')
+        return ExprNodes.ComprehensionNode(
+            pos, loop=loop, append=append, type=Builtin.list_type,
+            # list comprehensions leak their loop variable in Py2
+            has_local_scope=s.context.language_level >= 3)
+
+    # (merged) list literal
+    if s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        exprs = p_namedexpr_test_or_starred_expr_list(s, expr)
+    else:
+        exprs = [expr]
+    s.expect(']')
+    return ExprNodes.ListNode(pos, args=exprs)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_comp_iter(s: PyrexScanner, body):
+    if s.sy in ('for', 'async'):
+        return p_comp_for(s, body)
+    elif s.sy == 'if':
+        return p_comp_if(s, body)
+    else:
+        # insert the 'append' operation into the loop
+        return body
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_comp_for(s: PyrexScanner, body):
+    pos = s.position()
+    # [async] for ...
+    is_async = False
+    if s.sy == 'async':
+        is_async = True
+        s.next()
+
+    # s.sy == 'for'
+    s.expect('for')
+    kw = p_for_bounds(s, allow_testlist=False, is_async=is_async)
+    kw.update(else_clause=None, body=p_comp_iter(s, body), is_async=is_async)
+    return Nodes.ForStatNode(pos, **kw)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_comp_if(s: PyrexScanner, body):
+    # s.sy == 'if'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    # Note that Python 3.9+ is actually more restrictive here and Cython now follows
+    # the Python 3.9+ behaviour: https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86014
+    # On Python <3.9 `[i for i in range(10) if lambda: i if True else 1]` was disallowed
+    # but `[i for i in range(10) if lambda: i]` was allowed.
+    # On Python >=3.9 they're both disallowed.
+    test = p_or_test(s)
+    return Nodes.IfStatNode(pos,
+        if_clauses = [Nodes.IfClauseNode(pos, condition = test,
+                                         body = p_comp_iter(s, body))],
+        else_clause = None )
+
+
+# since PEP 448:
+#dictorsetmaker: ( ((test ':' test | '**' expr)
+#                   (comp_for | (',' (test ':' test | '**' expr))* [','])) |
+#                  ((test | star_expr)
+#                   (comp_for | (',' (test | star_expr))* [','])) )
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_dict_or_set_maker(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == '{'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    if s.sy == '}':
+        s.next()
+        return ExprNodes.DictNode(pos, key_value_pairs=[])
+
+    parts = []
+    target_type: cython.int = 0
+    last_was_simple_item = False
+    while True:
+        if s.sy in ('*', '**'):
+            # merged set/dict literal
+            if target_type == 0:
+                target_type = 1 if s.sy == '*' else 2  # 'stars'
+            elif target_type != len(s.sy):
+                s.error("unexpected %sitem found in %s literal" % (
+                    s.sy, 'set' if target_type == 1 else 'dict'))
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy == '*':
+                s.error("expected expression, found '*'")
+            item = p_starred_expr(s)
+            parts.append(item)
+            last_was_simple_item = False
+        else:
+            item = p_test(s)
+            if target_type == 0:
+                target_type = 2 if s.sy == ':' else 1  # dict vs. set
+            if target_type == 2:
+                # dict literal
+                s.expect(':')
+                key = item
+                value = p_test(s)
+                item = ExprNodes.DictItemNode(key.pos, key=key, value=value)
+            if last_was_simple_item:
+                parts[-1].append(item)
+            else:
+                parts.append([item])
+                last_was_simple_item = True
+
+        if s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy == '}':
+                break
+        else:
+            break
+
+    if s.sy in ('for', 'async'):
+        # dict/set comprehension
+        if len(parts) == 1 and isinstance(parts[0], list) and len(parts[0]) == 1:
+            item = parts[0][0]
+            if target_type == 2:
+                assert isinstance(item, ExprNodes.DictItemNode), type(item)
+                comprehension_type = Builtin.dict_type
+                append = ExprNodes.DictComprehensionAppendNode(
+                    item.pos, key_expr=item.key, value_expr=item.value)
+            else:
+                comprehension_type = Builtin.set_type
+                append = ExprNodes.ComprehensionAppendNode(item.pos, expr=item)
+            loop = p_comp_for(s, append)
+            s.expect('}')
+            return ExprNodes.ComprehensionNode(pos, loop=loop, append=append, type=comprehension_type)
+        else:
+            # syntax error, try to find a good error message
+            if len(parts) == 1 and not isinstance(parts[0], list):
+                s.error("iterable unpacking cannot be used in comprehension")
+            else:
+                # e.g. "{1,2,3 for ..."
+                s.expect('}')
+            return ExprNodes.DictNode(pos, key_value_pairs=[])
+
+    s.expect('}')
+    if target_type == 1:
+        # (merged) set literal
+        items = []
+        set_items = []
+        for part in parts:
+            if isinstance(part, list):
+                set_items.extend(part)
+            else:
+                if set_items:
+                    items.append(ExprNodes.SetNode(set_items[0].pos, args=set_items))
+                    set_items = []
+                items.append(part)
+        if set_items:
+            items.append(ExprNodes.SetNode(set_items[0].pos, args=set_items))
+        if len(items) == 1 and items[0].is_set_literal:
+            return items[0]
+        return ExprNodes.MergedSequenceNode(pos, args=items, type=Builtin.set_type)
+    else:
+        # (merged) dict literal
+        items = []
+        dict_items = []
+        for part in parts:
+            if isinstance(part, list):
+                dict_items.extend(part)
+            else:
+                if dict_items:
+                    items.append(ExprNodes.DictNode(dict_items[0].pos, key_value_pairs=dict_items))
+                    dict_items = []
+                items.append(part)
+        if dict_items:
+            items.append(ExprNodes.DictNode(dict_items[0].pos, key_value_pairs=dict_items))
+        if len(items) == 1 and items[0].is_dict_literal:
+            return items[0]
+        return ExprNodes.MergedDictNode(pos, keyword_args=items, reject_duplicates=False)
+
+
+# NOTE: no longer in Py3 :)
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_backquote_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == '`'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    args = [p_test(s)]
+    while s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        args.append(p_test(s))
+    s.expect('`')
+    if len(args) == 1:
+        arg = args[0]
+    else:
+        arg = ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args = args)
+    return ExprNodes.BackquoteNode(pos, arg = arg)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_simple_expr_list(s: PyrexScanner, expr=None) -> list:
+    exprs: list = [expr] if expr is not None else []
+    while s.sy not in expr_terminators:
+        exprs.append( p_test(s) )
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            break
+        s.next()
+    return exprs
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_test_or_starred_expr_list(s: PyrexScanner, expr=None) -> list:
+    exprs: list = [expr] if expr is not None else []
+    while s.sy not in expr_terminators:
+        exprs.append(p_test_or_starred_expr(s))
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            break
+        s.next()
+    return exprs
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_namedexpr_test_or_starred_expr_list(s: PyrexScanner, expr=None) -> list:
+    exprs: list = [expr] if expr is not None else []
+    while s.sy not in expr_terminators:
+        exprs.append(p_namedexpr_test_or_starred_expr(s))
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            break
+        s.next()
+    return exprs
+
+
+#testlist: test (',' test)* [',']
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_testlist(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    expr = p_test(s)
+    if s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        exprs = p_simple_expr_list(s, expr)
+        return ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args = exprs)
+    else:
+        return expr
+
+
+# testlist_star_expr: (test|star_expr) ( comp_for | (',' (test|star_expr))* [','] )
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_testlist_star_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    expr = p_test_or_starred_expr(s)
+    if s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        exprs = p_test_or_starred_expr_list(s, expr)
+        return ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args = exprs)
+    else:
+        return expr
+
+
+# testlist_comp: (test|star_expr) ( comp_for | (',' (test|star_expr))* [','] )
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_testlist_comp(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    expr = p_namedexpr_test_or_starred_expr(s)
+    if s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        exprs = p_namedexpr_test_or_starred_expr_list(s, expr)
+        return ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args = exprs)
+    elif s.sy in ('for', 'async'):
+        return p_genexp(s, expr)
+    else:
+        return expr
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_genexp(s: PyrexScanner, expr):
+    # s.sy == 'async' | 'for'
+    loop = p_comp_for(s, Nodes.ExprStatNode(
+        expr.pos, expr = ExprNodes.YieldExprNode(expr.pos, arg=expr)))
+    return ExprNodes.GeneratorExpressionNode(expr.pos, loop=loop)
+
+
+expr_terminators = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    ')', ']', '}', ':', '=', 'NEWLINE')))
+
+
+#-------------------------------------------------------
+#
+#   Statements
+#
+#-------------------------------------------------------
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_global_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # assume s.sy == 'global'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    names = p_ident_list(s)
+    return Nodes.GlobalNode(pos, names = names)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_nonlocal_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    names = p_ident_list(s)
+    return Nodes.NonlocalNode(pos, names = names)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_expression_or_assignment(s: PyrexScanner):
+    expr = p_testlist_star_expr(s)
+    has_annotation = False
+    if s.sy == ':' and (expr.is_name or expr.is_subscript or expr.is_attribute):
+        has_annotation = True
+        s.next()
+        expr.annotation = p_annotation(s)
+
+    if s.sy == '=' and expr.is_starred:
+        # This is a common enough error to make when learning Cython to let
+        # it fail as early as possible and give a very clear error message.
+        s.error("a starred assignment target must be in a list or tuple"
+                " - maybe you meant to use an index assignment: var[0] = ...",
+                pos=expr.pos)
+
+    expr_list = [expr]
+    while s.sy == '=':
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == 'yield':
+            expr = p_yield_expression(s)
+        else:
+            expr = p_testlist_star_expr(s)
+        expr_list.append(expr)
+    if len(expr_list) == 1:
+        if re.match(r"([-+*/%^&|]|<<|>>|\*\*|//|@)=", s.sy):
+            lhs = expr_list[0]
+            if isinstance(lhs, ExprNodes.SliceIndexNode):
+                # implementation requires IndexNode
+                lhs = ExprNodes.IndexNode(
+                    lhs.pos,
+                    base=lhs.base,
+                    index=make_slice_node(lhs.pos, lhs.start, lhs.stop))
+            elif not isinstance(lhs, (ExprNodes.AttributeNode, ExprNodes.IndexNode, ExprNodes.NameNode)):
+                error(lhs.pos, "Illegal operand for inplace operation.")
+            operator = s.sy[:-1]
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy == 'yield':
+                rhs = p_yield_expression(s)
+            else:
+                rhs = p_testlist(s)
+            return Nodes.InPlaceAssignmentNode(lhs.pos, operator=operator, lhs=lhs, rhs=rhs)
+        expr = expr_list[0]
+        return Nodes.ExprStatNode(expr.pos, expr=expr)
+
+    rhs = expr_list[-1]
+    if len(expr_list) == 2:
+        return Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(rhs.pos, lhs=expr_list[0], rhs=rhs, first=has_annotation)
+    else:
+        return Nodes.CascadedAssignmentNode(rhs.pos, lhs_list=expr_list[:-1], rhs=rhs)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_print_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'print'
+    pos = s.position()
+    ends_with_comma: cython.bint = False
+    s.next()
+    if s.sy == '>>':
+        s.next()
+        stream = p_test(s)
+        if s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            ends_with_comma = s.sy in ('NEWLINE', 'EOF')
+    else:
+        stream = None
+    args = []
+    if s.sy not in ('NEWLINE', 'EOF'):
+        args.append(p_test(s))
+        while s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy in ('NEWLINE', 'EOF'):
+                ends_with_comma = True
+                break
+            args.append(p_test(s))
+    arg_tuple = ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args=args)
+    return Nodes.PrintStatNode(pos,
+        arg_tuple=arg_tuple, stream=stream,
+        append_newline=not ends_with_comma)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_exec_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'exec'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    code = p_bit_expr(s)
+    if isinstance(code, ExprNodes.TupleNode):
+        # Py3 compatibility syntax
+        tuple_variant = True
+        args = code.args
+        if len(args) not in (2, 3):
+            s.error("expected tuple of length 2 or 3, got length %d" % len(args),
+                    pos=pos, fatal=False)
+            args = [code]
+    else:
+        tuple_variant = False
+        args = [code]
+    if s.sy == 'in':
+        if tuple_variant:
+            s.error("tuple variant of exec does not support additional 'in' arguments",
+                    fatal=False)
+        s.next()
+        args.append(p_test(s))
+        if s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            args.append(p_test(s))
+    return Nodes.ExecStatNode(pos, args=args)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_del_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'del'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    # FIXME: 'exprlist' in Python
+    args = p_simple_expr_list(s)
+    return Nodes.DelStatNode(pos, args = args)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_pass_statement(s: PyrexScanner, with_newline: cython.bint = False):
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.expect('pass')
+    if with_newline:
+        s.expect_newline("Expected a newline", ignore_semicolon=True)
+    return Nodes.PassStatNode(pos)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_break_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'break'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    return Nodes.BreakStatNode(pos)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_continue_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'continue'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    return Nodes.ContinueStatNode(pos)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_return_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'return'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    if s.sy not in statement_terminators:
+        value = p_testlist(s)
+    else:
+        value = None
+    return Nodes.ReturnStatNode(pos, value = value)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_raise_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'raise'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    exc_type = None
+    exc_value = None
+    exc_tb = None
+    cause = None
+    if s.sy not in statement_terminators:
+        exc_type = p_test(s)
+        if s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            exc_value = p_test(s)
+            if s.sy == ',':
+                s.next()
+                exc_tb = p_test(s)
+        elif s.sy == 'from':
+            s.next()
+            cause = p_test(s)
+    if exc_type or exc_value or exc_tb:
+        return Nodes.RaiseStatNode(pos,
+            exc_type = exc_type,
+            exc_value = exc_value,
+            exc_tb = exc_tb,
+            cause = cause)
+    else:
+        return Nodes.ReraiseStatNode(pos)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_import_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy in ('import', 'cimport')
+    pos = s.position()
+    kind = s.sy
+    s.next()
+    items = [p_dotted_name(s, as_allowed=True)]
+    while s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        items.append(p_dotted_name(s, as_allowed=True))
+    stats = []
+    is_absolute = Future.absolute_import in s.context.future_directives
+    for pos, target_name, dotted_name, as_name in items:
+        if kind == 'cimport':
+            stat = Nodes.CImportStatNode(
+                pos,
+                module_name=dotted_name,
+                as_name=as_name,
+                is_absolute=is_absolute)
+        else:
+            stat = Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(
+                pos,
+                lhs=ExprNodes.NameNode(pos, name=as_name or target_name),
+                rhs=ExprNodes.ImportNode(
+                    pos,
+                    module_name=ExprNodes.IdentifierStringNode(pos, value=dotted_name),
+                    level=0 if is_absolute else None,
+                    get_top_level_module='.' in dotted_name and as_name is None,
+                    name_list=None))
+        stats.append(stat)
+    return Nodes.StatListNode(pos, stats=stats)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_from_import_statement(s: PyrexScanner, first_statement: cython.bint = 0):
+    # s.sy == 'from'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    if s.sy in ('.', '...'):
+        # count relative import level
+        level = 0
+        while s.sy in ('.', '...'):
+            level += len(s.sy)
+            s.next()
+    else:
+        level = None
+    if level is not None and s.sy in ('import', 'cimport'):
+        # we are dealing with "from .. import foo, bar"
+        dotted_name_pos, dotted_name = s.position(), s.context.intern_ustring('')
+    else:
+        if level is None and Future.absolute_import in s.context.future_directives:
+            level = 0
+        (dotted_name_pos, _, dotted_name, _) = p_dotted_name(s, as_allowed=False)
+    if s.sy not in ('import', 'cimport'):
+        s.error("Expected 'import' or 'cimport'")
+    kind = s.sy
+    s.next()
+
+    is_cimport = kind == 'cimport'
+    is_parenthesized = False
+    if s.sy == '*':
+        imported_names = [(s.position(), s.context.intern_ustring("*"), None)]
+        s.next()
+    else:
+        if s.sy == '(':
+            is_parenthesized = True
+            s.next()
+        imported_names = [p_imported_name(s)]
+    while s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        if is_parenthesized and s.sy == ')':
+            break
+        imported_names.append(p_imported_name(s))
+    if is_parenthesized:
+        s.expect(')')
+    if dotted_name == '__future__':
+        if not first_statement:
+            s.error("from __future__ imports must occur at the beginning of the file")
+        elif level:
+            s.error("invalid syntax")
+        else:
+            for (name_pos, name, as_name) in imported_names:
+                if name == "braces":
+                    s.error("not a chance", name_pos)
+                    break
+                try:
+                    directive = getattr(Future, name)
+                except AttributeError:
+                    s.error("future feature %s is not defined" % name, name_pos)
+                    break
+                s.context.future_directives.add(directive)
+        return Nodes.PassStatNode(pos)
+    elif is_cimport:
+        return Nodes.FromCImportStatNode(
+            pos, module_name=dotted_name,
+            relative_level=level,
+            imported_names=imported_names)
+    else:
+        imported_name_strings = []
+        items = []
+        for (name_pos, name, as_name) in imported_names:
+            imported_name_strings.append(
+                ExprNodes.IdentifierStringNode(name_pos, value=name))
+            items.append(
+                (name, ExprNodes.NameNode(name_pos, name=as_name or name)))
+        import_list = ExprNodes.ListNode(
+            imported_names[0][0], args=imported_name_strings)
+        return Nodes.FromImportStatNode(pos,
+            module = ExprNodes.ImportNode(dotted_name_pos,
+                module_name = ExprNodes.IdentifierStringNode(pos, value = dotted_name),
+                level = level,
+                name_list = import_list),
+            items = items)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_imported_name(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    name = p_ident(s)
+    as_name = p_as_name(s)
+    return (pos, name, as_name)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_dotted_name(s: PyrexScanner, as_allowed: cython.bint) -> tuple:
+    pos = s.position()
+    target_name = p_ident(s)
+    as_name = None
+    names = [target_name]
+    while s.sy == '.':
+        s.next()
+        names.append(p_ident(s))
+    if as_allowed:
+        as_name = p_as_name(s)
+    return (pos, target_name, s.context.intern_ustring('.'.join(names)), as_name)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_as_name(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'as':
+        s.next()
+        return p_ident(s)
+    else:
+        return None
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_assert_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'assert'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    cond = p_test(s)
+    if s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        value = p_test(s)
+    else:
+        value = None
+    return Nodes.AssertStatNode(pos, condition=cond, value=value)
+
+
+statement_terminators = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    ';', 'NEWLINE', 'EOF')))
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_if_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'if'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    if_clauses = [p_if_clause(s)]
+    while s.sy == 'elif':
+        s.next()
+        if_clauses.append(p_if_clause(s))
+    else_clause = p_else_clause(s)
+    return Nodes.IfStatNode(pos,
+        if_clauses = if_clauses, else_clause = else_clause)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_if_clause(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    test = p_namedexpr_test(s)
+    body = p_suite(s)
+    return Nodes.IfClauseNode(pos,
+        condition = test, body = body)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_else_clause(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == 'else':
+        s.next()
+        return p_suite(s)
+    else:
+        return None
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_while_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'while'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    test = p_namedexpr_test(s)
+    body = p_suite(s)
+    else_clause = p_else_clause(s)
+    return Nodes.WhileStatNode(pos,
+        condition = test, body = body,
+        else_clause = else_clause)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_for_statement(s: PyrexScanner, is_async: cython.bint = False):
+    # s.sy == 'for'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    kw = p_for_bounds(s, allow_testlist=True, is_async=is_async)
+    body = p_suite(s)
+    else_clause = p_else_clause(s)
+    kw.update(body=body, else_clause=else_clause, is_async=is_async)
+    return Nodes.ForStatNode(pos, **kw)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_for_bounds(s: PyrexScanner, allow_testlist: cython.bint = True, is_async: cython.bint = False) -> dict:
+    target = p_for_target(s)
+    if s.sy == 'in':
+        s.next()
+        iterator = p_for_iterator(s, allow_testlist, is_async=is_async)
+        return dict(target=target, iterator=iterator)
+    elif not s.in_python_file and not is_async:
+        if s.sy == 'from':
+            s.next()
+            bound1 = p_bit_expr(s)
+        else:
+            # Support shorter "for a <= x < b" syntax
+            bound1, target = target, None
+        rel1 = p_for_from_relation(s)
+        name2_pos = s.position()
+        name2 = p_ident(s)
+        rel2_pos = s.position()
+        rel2 = p_for_from_relation(s)
+        bound2 = p_bit_expr(s)
+        step = p_for_from_step(s)
+        if target is None:
+            target = ExprNodes.NameNode(name2_pos, name = name2)
+        else:
+            if not target.is_name:
+                error(target.pos,
+                    "Target of for-from statement must be a variable name")
+            elif name2 != target.name:
+                error(name2_pos,
+                    "Variable name in for-from range does not match target")
+        if rel1[0] != rel2[0]:
+            error(rel2_pos,
+                "Relation directions in for-from do not match")
+        return dict(target = target,
+                    bound1 = bound1,
+                    relation1 = rel1,
+                    relation2 = rel2,
+                    bound2 = bound2,
+                    step = step,
+                    )
+    else:
+        s.expect('in')
+        return {}
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_for_from_relation(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy in inequality_relations:
+        op = s.sy
+        s.next()
+        return op
+    else:
+        s.error("Expected one of '<', '<=', '>' '>='")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_for_from_step(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'by':
+        s.next()
+        step = p_bit_expr(s)
+        return step
+    else:
+        return None
+
+
+inequality_relations = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    '<', '<=', '>', '>=')))
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_target(s: PyrexScanner, terminator: str):
+    pos = s.position()
+    expr = p_starred_expr(s)
+    if s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+        exprs = [expr]
+        while s.sy != terminator:
+            exprs.append(p_starred_expr(s))
+            if s.sy != ',':
+                break
+            s.next()
+        return ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args = exprs)
+    else:
+        return expr
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_for_target(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return p_target(s, 'in')
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_for_iterator(s: PyrexScanner, allow_testlist: cython.bint = True, is_async: cython.bint = False):
+    pos = s.position()
+    if allow_testlist:
+        expr = p_testlist(s)
+    else:
+        expr = p_or_test(s)
+    return (ExprNodes.AsyncIteratorNode if is_async else ExprNodes.IteratorNode)(pos, sequence=expr)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_try_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'try'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    body = p_suite(s)
+    except_clauses = []
+    else_clause = None
+    if s.sy in ('except', 'else'):
+        while s.sy == 'except':
+            except_clauses.append(p_except_clause(s))
+        if s.sy == 'else':
+            s.next()
+            else_clause = p_suite(s)
+        body = Nodes.TryExceptStatNode(pos,
+            body = body, except_clauses = except_clauses,
+            else_clause = else_clause)
+        if s.sy != 'finally':
+            return body
+        # try-except-finally is equivalent to nested try-except/try-finally
+    if s.sy == 'finally':
+        s.next()
+        finally_clause = p_suite(s)
+        return Nodes.TryFinallyStatNode(pos,
+            body = body, finally_clause = finally_clause)
+    else:
+        s.error("Expected 'except' or 'finally'")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_except_clause(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # s.sy == 'except'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    exc_type = None
+    exc_value = None
+    is_except_as = False
+    if s.sy != ':':
+        exc_type = p_test(s)
+        # normalise into list of single exception tests
+        if isinstance(exc_type, ExprNodes.TupleNode):
+            exc_type = exc_type.args
+        else:
+            exc_type = [exc_type]
+        if s.sy == ',' or (s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'as'
+                           and s.context.language_level == 2):
+            s.next()
+            exc_value = p_test(s)
+        elif s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'as':
+            # Py3 syntax requires a name here
+            s.next()
+            pos2 = s.position()
+            name = p_ident(s)
+            exc_value = ExprNodes.NameNode(pos2, name = name)
+            is_except_as = True
+    body = p_suite(s)
+    return Nodes.ExceptClauseNode(pos,
+        pattern = exc_type, target = exc_value,
+        body = body, is_except_as=is_except_as)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_include_statement(s: PyrexScanner, ctx):
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()  # 'include'
+    unicode_include_file_name = p_string_literal(s, 'u')[2]
+    s.expect_newline("Syntax error in include statement")
+    if s.compile_time_eval:
+        include_file_name = unicode_include_file_name
+        include_file_path = s.context.find_include_file(include_file_name, pos)
+        if include_file_path:
+            s.included_files.append(include_file_name)
+            source_desc = FileSourceDescriptor(include_file_path)
+            with source_desc.get_file_object() as f:
+                s2 = PyrexScanner(f, source_desc, s, source_encoding=f.encoding, parse_comments=s.parse_comments)
+                tree = p_statement_list(s2, ctx)
+            return tree
+        else:
+            return None
+    else:
+        return Nodes.PassStatNode(pos)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_with_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    s.next()  # 'with'
+    if s.systring == 'template' and not s.in_python_file:
+        node = p_with_template(s)
+    else:
+        node = p_with_items(s)
+    return node
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_with_items(s: PyrexScanner, is_async: cython.bint = False):
+    """
+    Copied from CPython:
+    | 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' b=block {
+        _PyAST_With(a, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
+    | 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
+        _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
+    Therefore the first thing to try is the bracket-enclosed
+    version and if that fails try the regular version
+    """
+    brackets_succeeded = False
+    items = ()  # unused, but static analysis fails to track that below
+    if s.sy == '(':
+        with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+            s.next()
+            items = p_with_items_list(s, is_async)
+            s.expect(")")
+            if s.sy != ":":
+                # Fail - the message doesn't matter because we'll try the
+                # non-bracket version so it'll never be shown
+                s.error("")
+        brackets_succeeded = not errors
+    if not brackets_succeeded:
+        # try the non-bracket version
+        items = p_with_items_list(s, is_async)
+    body = p_suite(s)
+    for cls, pos, kwds in reversed(items):
+        # construct the actual nodes now that we know what the body is
+        body = cls(pos, body=body, **kwds)
+    return body
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_with_items_list(s: PyrexScanner, is_async: cython.bint) -> list:
+    items = []
+    while True:
+        items.append(p_with_item(s, is_async))
+        if s.sy != ",":
+            break
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == ")":
+            # trailing commas allowed
+            break
+    return items
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_with_item(s: PyrexScanner, is_async: cython.bint) -> tuple:
+    # In contrast to most parsing functions, this returns a tuple of
+    #  class, pos, kwd_dict
+    # This is because GILStatNode does a reasonable amount of initialization in its
+    # constructor, and requires "body" to be set, which we don't currently have
+    pos = s.position()
+    if not s.in_python_file and s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in ('nogil', 'gil'):
+        if is_async:
+            s.error("with gil/nogil cannot be async")
+        state = s.systring
+        s.next()
+
+        # support conditional gil/nogil
+        condition = None
+        if s.sy == '(':
+            s.next()
+            condition = p_test(s)
+            s.expect(')')
+
+        return Nodes.GILStatNode, pos, {"state": state, "condition": condition}
+    else:
+        manager = p_test(s)
+        target = None
+        if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'as':
+            s.next()
+            target = p_starred_expr(s)
+        return Nodes.WithStatNode, pos, {"manager": manager, "target": target, "is_async": is_async}
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_with_template(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    templates = []
+    s.next()
+    s.expect('[')
+    templates.append(s.systring)
+    s.next()
+    while s.systring == ',':
+        s.next()
+        templates.append(s.systring)
+        s.next()
+    s.expect(']')
+    if s.sy == ':':
+        s.next()
+        s.expect_newline("Syntax error in template function declaration")
+        s.expect_indent()
+        body_ctx = Ctx()
+        body_ctx.templates = templates
+        func_or_var = p_c_func_or_var_declaration(s, pos, body_ctx)
+        s.expect_dedent()
+        return func_or_var
+    else:
+        error(pos, "Syntax error in template function declaration")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_simple_statement(s: PyrexScanner, first_statement: cython.bint = 0):
+    #print "p_simple_statement:", s.sy, s.systring ###
+    if s.sy == 'global':
+        node = p_global_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'nonlocal':
+        node = p_nonlocal_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'print':
+        node = p_print_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'exec':
+        node = p_exec_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'del':
+        node = p_del_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'break':
+        node = p_break_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'continue':
+        node = p_continue_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'return':
+        node = p_return_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'raise':
+        node = p_raise_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy in ('import', 'cimport'):
+        node = p_import_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'from':
+        node = p_from_import_statement(s, first_statement = first_statement)
+    elif s.sy == 'yield':
+        node = p_yield_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'assert':
+        node = p_assert_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'pass':
+        node = p_pass_statement(s)
+    else:
+        node = p_expression_or_assignment(s)
+    return node
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_simple_statement_list(s: PyrexScanner, ctx, first_statement: cython.bint = 0):
+    # Parse a series of simple statements on one line
+    # separated by semicolons.
+    stat = p_simple_statement(s, first_statement = first_statement)
+    pos = stat.pos
+    stats = []
+    if not isinstance(stat, Nodes.PassStatNode):
+        stats.append(stat)
+    while s.sy == ';':
+        #print "p_simple_statement_list: maybe more to follow" ###
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy in ('NEWLINE', 'EOF'):
+            break
+        stat = p_simple_statement(s, first_statement = first_statement)
+        if isinstance(stat, Nodes.PassStatNode):
+            continue
+        stats.append(stat)
+        first_statement = False
+
+    if not stats:
+        stat = Nodes.PassStatNode(pos)
+    elif len(stats) == 1:
+        stat = stats[0]
+    else:
+        stat = Nodes.StatListNode(pos, stats = stats)
+
+    if s.sy not in ('NEWLINE', 'EOF'):
+        # provide a better error message for users who accidentally write Cython code in .py files
+        if isinstance(stat, Nodes.ExprStatNode):
+            if stat.expr.is_name and stat.expr.name == 'cdef':
+                s.error("The 'cdef' keyword is only allowed in Cython files (pyx/pxi/pxd)", pos)
+    s.expect_newline("Syntax error in simple statement list")
+
+    return stat
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_compile_time_expr(s: PyrexScanner):
+    old = s.compile_time_expr
+    s.compile_time_expr = 1
+    expr = p_testlist(s)
+    s.compile_time_expr = old
+    return expr
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_DEF_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    denv = s.compile_time_env
+    s.next()  # 'DEF'
+    name = p_ident(s)
+    s.expect('=')
+    expr = p_compile_time_expr(s)
+    if s.compile_time_eval:
+        value = expr.compile_time_value(denv)
+        #print "p_DEF_statement: %s = %r" % (name, value) ###
+        denv.declare(name, value)
+    s.expect_newline("Expected a newline", ignore_semicolon=True)
+    return Nodes.PassStatNode(pos)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_IF_statement(s: PyrexScanner, ctx):
+    pos = s.position()
+    saved_eval = s.compile_time_eval
+    current_eval = saved_eval
+    denv = s.compile_time_env
+    result = None
+    while 1:
+        s.next()  # 'IF' or 'ELIF'
+        expr = p_compile_time_expr(s)
+        s.compile_time_eval = current_eval and bool(expr.compile_time_value(denv))
+        body = p_suite(s, ctx)
+        if s.compile_time_eval:
+            result = body
+            current_eval = 0
+        if s.sy != 'ELIF':
+            break
+    if s.sy == 'ELSE':
+        s.next()
+        s.compile_time_eval = current_eval
+        body = p_suite(s, ctx)
+        if current_eval:
+            result = body
+    if not result:
+        result = Nodes.PassStatNode(pos)
+    s.compile_time_eval = saved_eval
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_statement(s: PyrexScanner, ctx, first_statement: cython.bint = False):
+    cdef_flag: cython.bint = ctx.cdef_flag
+    pos = s.position()
+    decorators = None
+    if s.sy == 'ctypedef':
+        if ctx.level not in ('module', 'module_pxd'):
+            s.error("ctypedef statement not allowed here")
+        #if ctx.api:
+        #    error(pos, "'api' not allowed with 'ctypedef'")
+        return p_ctypedef_statement(s, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'DEF':
+        # We used to dep-warn about this but removed the warning again since
+        # we don't have a good answer yet for all use cases.
+        if s.context.compiler_directives.get("warn.deprecated.DEF", False):
+            warning(pos,
+                    "The 'DEF' statement  will be removed in a future Cython version. "
+                    "Consider using global variables, constants, and in-place literals instead. "
+                    "See https://github.com/cython/cython/issues/4310", level=1)
+        return p_DEF_statement(s)
+    elif s.sy == 'IF':
+        if s.context.compiler_directives.get("warn.deprecated.IF", True):
+            warning(pos,
+                    "The 'IF' statement is deprecated and will be removed in a future Cython version. "
+                    "Consider using runtime conditions or C macros instead. "
+                    "See https://github.com/cython/cython/issues/4310", level=1)
+        return p_IF_statement(s, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == '@':
+        if ctx.level not in ('module', 'class', 'c_class', 'function', 'property', 'module_pxd', 'c_class_pxd', 'other'):
+            s.error('decorator not allowed here')
+        s.level = ctx.level
+        decorators = p_decorators(s)
+        if not ctx.allow_struct_enum_decorator and s.sy not in ('def', 'cdef', 'cpdef', 'class', 'async'):
+            if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'async':
+                pass  # handled below
+            else:
+                s.error("Decorators can only be followed by functions or classes")
+    elif s.sy == 'pass' and cdef_flag:
+        # empty cdef block
+        return p_pass_statement(s, with_newline=True)
+
+    overridable = False
+    if s.sy == 'cdef':
+        cdef_flag = True
+        s.next()
+    elif s.sy == 'cpdef':
+        cdef_flag = True
+        overridable = True
+        s.next()
+    if cdef_flag:
+        if ctx.level not in ('module', 'module_pxd', 'function', 'c_class', 'c_class_pxd'):
+            s.error('cdef statement not allowed here')
+        s.level = ctx.level
+        node = p_cdef_statement(s, pos, ctx(overridable=overridable))
+        if decorators is not None:
+            tup = (Nodes.CFuncDefNode, Nodes.CVarDefNode, Nodes.CClassDefNode)
+            if ctx.allow_struct_enum_decorator:
+                tup += (Nodes.CStructOrUnionDefNode, Nodes.CEnumDefNode)
+            if not isinstance(node, tup):
+                s.error("Decorators can only be followed by functions or classes")
+            node.decorators = decorators
+        return node
+    else:
+        if ctx.api:
+            s.error("'api' not allowed with this statement", fatal=False)
+        elif s.sy == 'def':
+            # def statements aren't allowed in pxd files, except
+            # as part of a cdef class
+            if ('pxd' in ctx.level) and (ctx.level != 'c_class_pxd'):
+                s.error('def statement not allowed here')
+            s.level = ctx.level
+            return p_def_statement(s, decorators)
+        elif s.sy == 'class':
+            if ctx.level not in ('module', 'function', 'class', 'other'):
+                s.error("class definition not allowed here")
+            return p_class_statement(s, decorators)
+        elif s.sy == 'include':
+            if ctx.level not in ('module', 'module_pxd'):
+                s.error("include statement not allowed here")
+            return p_include_statement(s, ctx)
+        elif ctx.level == 'c_class' and s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'property':
+            return p_property_decl(s)
+        elif s.sy == 'pass' and ctx.level != 'property':
+            return p_pass_statement(s, with_newline=True)
+        else:
+            if ctx.level in ('c_class_pxd', 'property'):
+                node = p_ignorable_statement(s)
+                if node is not None:
+                    return node
+                s.error("Executable statement not allowed here")
+            if s.sy == 'if':
+                return p_if_statement(s)
+            elif s.sy == 'while':
+                return p_while_statement(s)
+            elif s.sy == 'for':
+                return p_for_statement(s)
+            elif s.sy == 'try':
+                return p_try_statement(s)
+            elif s.sy == 'with':
+                return p_with_statement(s)
+            elif s.sy == 'async':
+                s.next()
+                return p_async_statement(s, ctx, decorators)
+            else:
+                if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'async':
+                    ident_name = s.systring
+                    ident_pos = s.position()
+                    # PEP 492 enables the async/await keywords when it spots "async def ..."
+                    s.next()
+                    if s.sy == 'def':
+                        return p_async_statement(s, ctx, decorators)
+                    elif decorators:
+                        s.error("Decorators can only be followed by functions or classes")
+                    s.put_back('IDENT', ident_name, ident_pos)  # re-insert original token
+                if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'match':
+                    # p_match_statement returns None on a "soft" initial failure
+                    match_statement = p_match_statement(s, ctx)
+                    if match_statement is not None:
+                        return match_statement
+                return p_simple_statement_list(s, ctx, first_statement=first_statement)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_statement_list(s: PyrexScanner, ctx, first_statement: cython.bint = 0):
+    # Parse a series of statements separated by newlines.
+    pos = s.position()
+    stats = []
+    while s.sy not in ('DEDENT', 'EOF'):
+        stat = p_statement(s, ctx, first_statement = first_statement)
+        if isinstance(stat, Nodes.PassStatNode):
+            continue
+        stats.append(stat)
+        first_statement = False
+    if not stats:
+        return Nodes.PassStatNode(pos)
+    elif len(stats) == 1:
+        return stats[0]
+    else:
+        return Nodes.StatListNode(pos, stats = stats)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_suite(s: PyrexScanner, ctx=Ctx()):
+    return p_suite_with_docstring(s, ctx, with_doc_only=False)[1]
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_suite_with_docstring(s: PyrexScanner, ctx, with_doc_only: cython.bint = False) -> tuple:
+    s.expect(':')
+    doc = None
+    if s.sy == 'NEWLINE':
+        s.next()
+        s.expect_indent()
+        if with_doc_only:
+            doc = p_doc_string(s)
+        body = p_statement_list(s, ctx)
+        s.expect_dedent()
+    else:
+        if ctx.api:
+            s.error("'api' not allowed with this statement", fatal=False)
+        if ctx.level in ('module', 'class', 'function', 'other'):
+            body = p_simple_statement_list(s, ctx)
+        else:
+            body = p_pass_statement(s)
+            s.expect_newline("Syntax error in declarations", ignore_semicolon=True)
+    if not with_doc_only:
+        doc, body = _extract_docstring(body)
+    return doc, body
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_positional_and_keyword_args(s: PyrexScanner, end_sy_set, templates = None):
+    """
+    Parses positional and keyword arguments. end_sy_set
+    should contain any s.sy that terminate the argument list.
+    Argument expansion (* and **) are not allowed.
+
+    Returns: (positional_args, keyword_args)
+    """
+    positional_args = []
+    keyword_args = []
+    pos_idx = 0
+
+    while s.sy not in end_sy_set:
+        if s.sy == '*' or s.sy == '**':
+            s.error('Argument expansion not allowed here.', fatal=False)
+
+        parsed_type = False
+        if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.peek()[0] == '=':
+            ident = s.systring
+            s.next()  # s.sy is '='
+            s.next()
+            if looking_at_expr(s):
+                arg = p_test(s)
+            else:
+                base_type = p_c_base_type(s, templates = templates)
+                declarator = p_c_declarator(s, empty=True)
+                arg = Nodes.CComplexBaseTypeNode(base_type.pos,
+                    base_type = base_type, declarator = declarator)
+                parsed_type = True
+            keyword_node = ExprNodes.IdentifierStringNode(arg.pos, value=ident)
+            keyword_args.append((keyword_node, arg))
+            was_keyword = True
+
+        else:
+            if looking_at_expr(s):
+                arg = p_test(s)
+            else:
+                base_type = p_c_base_type(s, templates = templates)
+                declarator = p_c_declarator(s, empty=True)
+                arg = Nodes.CComplexBaseTypeNode(base_type.pos,
+                    base_type = base_type, declarator = declarator)
+                parsed_type = True
+            positional_args.append(arg)
+            pos_idx += 1
+            if len(keyword_args) > 0:
+                s.error("Non-keyword arg following keyword arg",
+                        pos=arg.pos)
+
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            if s.sy not in end_sy_set:
+                if parsed_type:
+                    s.error("Unmatched %s" % " or ".join(end_sy_set))
+            break
+        s.next()
+    return positional_args, keyword_args
+
+
+@cython.ccall
+def p_c_base_type(s: PyrexScanner, nonempty: cython.bint = False, templates=None):
+    if s.sy == '(':
+        return p_c_complex_base_type(s, templates = templates)
+    else:
+        return p_c_simple_base_type(s, nonempty=nonempty, templates=templates)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_calling_convention(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in calling_convention_words:
+        result = s.systring
+        s.next()
+        return result
+    else:
+        return EncodedString("")
+
+
+calling_convention_words = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    "__stdcall", "__cdecl", "__fastcall")))
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_complex_base_type(s: PyrexScanner, templates = None):
+    # s.sy == '('
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    base_type = p_c_base_type(s, templates=templates)
+    declarator = p_c_declarator(s, empty=True)
+    type_node = Nodes.CComplexBaseTypeNode(
+        pos, base_type=base_type, declarator=declarator)
+    if s.sy == ',':
+        components = [type_node]
+        while s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy == ')':
+                break
+            base_type = p_c_base_type(s, templates=templates)
+            declarator = p_c_declarator(s, empty=True)
+            components.append(Nodes.CComplexBaseTypeNode(
+                pos, base_type=base_type, declarator=declarator))
+        type_node = Nodes.CTupleBaseTypeNode(pos, components = components)
+
+    s.expect(')')
+    if s.sy == '[':
+        if is_memoryviewslice_access(s):
+            type_node = p_memoryviewslice_access(s, type_node)
+        else:
+            type_node = p_buffer_or_template(s, type_node, templates)
+    return type_node
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_simple_base_type(s: PyrexScanner, nonempty: cython.bint, templates=None):
+    is_basic = False
+    signed = 1
+    longness = 0
+    complex = False
+    module_path = []
+    pos = s.position()
+
+    # Handle const/volatile
+    is_const = is_volatile = False
+    while s.sy == 'IDENT':
+        if s.systring == 'const':
+            if is_const: error(pos, "Duplicate 'const'")
+            is_const = True
+        elif s.systring == 'volatile':
+            if is_volatile: error(pos, "Duplicate 'volatile'")
+            is_volatile = True
+        else:
+            break
+        s.next()
+    if is_const or is_volatile:
+        base_type = p_c_base_type(s, nonempty=nonempty, templates=templates)
+        if isinstance(base_type, Nodes.MemoryViewSliceTypeNode):
+            # reverse order to avoid having to write "(const int)[:]"
+            base_type.base_type_node = Nodes.CConstOrVolatileTypeNode(pos,
+                base_type=base_type.base_type_node, is_const=is_const, is_volatile=is_volatile)
+            return base_type
+        return Nodes.CConstOrVolatileTypeNode(pos,
+            base_type=base_type, is_const=is_const, is_volatile=is_volatile)
+
+    if s.sy != 'IDENT':
+        error(pos, "Expected an identifier, found '%s'" % s.sy)
+    if looking_at_base_type(s):
+        #print "p_c_simple_base_type: looking_at_base_type at", s.position()
+        is_basic = True
+        if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in special_basic_c_types:
+            signed, longness = special_basic_c_types[s.systring]
+            name = s.systring
+            s.next()
+        else:
+            signed, longness = p_sign_and_longness(s)
+            if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in basic_c_type_names:
+                name = s.systring
+                s.next()
+            else:
+                name = 'int'  # long [int], short [int], long [int] complex, etc.
+        if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'complex':
+            complex = True
+            s.next()
+    elif looking_at_dotted_name(s):
+        #print "p_c_simple_base_type: looking_at_type_name at", s.position()
+        name = s.systring
+        s.next()
+        while s.sy == '.':
+            module_path.append(name)
+            s.next()
+            name = p_ident(s)
+    else:
+        name = s.systring
+        name_pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        if nonempty and s.sy != 'IDENT':
+            # Make sure this is not a declaration of a variable or function.
+            if s.sy == '(':
+                old_pos = s.position()
+                s.next()
+                if (s.sy == '*' or s.sy == '**' or s.sy == '&'
+                        or (s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in calling_convention_words)):
+                    s.put_back('(', '(', old_pos)
+                else:
+                    s.put_back('(', '(', old_pos)
+                    s.put_back('IDENT', name, name_pos)
+                    name = None
+            elif s.sy not in ('*', '**', '[', '&'):
+                s.put_back('IDENT', name, name_pos)
+                name = None
+
+    type_node = Nodes.CSimpleBaseTypeNode(pos,
+        name = name, module_path = module_path,
+        is_basic_c_type = is_basic, signed = signed,
+        complex = complex, longness = longness,
+        templates = templates)
+
+    #    declarations here.
+    if s.sy == '[':
+        if is_memoryviewslice_access(s):
+            type_node = p_memoryviewslice_access(s, type_node)
+        else:
+            type_node = p_buffer_or_template(s, type_node, templates)
+
+    if s.sy == '.':
+        s.next()
+        name = p_ident(s)
+        type_node = Nodes.CNestedBaseTypeNode(pos, base_type = type_node, name = name)
+
+    return type_node
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_buffer_or_template(s: PyrexScanner, base_type_node, templates):
+    # s.sy == '['
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    # Note that buffer_positional_options_count=1, so the only positional argument is dtype.
+    # For templated types, all parameters are types.
+    positional_args, keyword_args = (
+        p_positional_and_keyword_args(s, (']',), templates)
+    )
+    s.expect(']')
+
+    if s.sy == '[':
+        base_type_node = p_buffer_or_template(s, base_type_node, templates)
+
+    keyword_dict = ExprNodes.DictNode(pos,
+        key_value_pairs = [
+            ExprNodes.DictItemNode(pos=key.pos, key=key, value=value)
+            for key, value in keyword_args
+        ])
+    result = Nodes.TemplatedTypeNode(pos,
+        positional_args = positional_args,
+        keyword_args = keyword_dict,
+        base_type_node = base_type_node)
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def is_memoryviewslice_access(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    # s.sy == '['
+    # a memoryview slice declaration is distinguishable from a buffer access
+    # declaration by the first entry in the bracketed list.  The buffer will
+    # not have an unnested colon in the first entry; the memoryview slice will.
+    saved = [(s.sy, s.systring, s.position())]
+    s.next()
+    retval = False
+    if s.systring == ':':
+        retval = True
+    elif s.sy == 'INT':
+        saved.append((s.sy, s.systring, s.position()))
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == ':':
+            retval = True
+
+    for sv in saved[::-1]:
+        s.put_back(*sv)
+
+    return retval
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_memoryviewslice_access(s: PyrexScanner, base_type_node):
+    # s.sy == '['
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    subscripts, _ = p_subscript_list(s)
+    # make sure each entry in subscripts is a slice
+    for subscript in subscripts:
+        if len(subscript) < 2:
+            s.error("An axis specification in memoryview declaration does not have a ':'.")
+    s.expect(']')
+    indexes = make_slice_nodes(pos, subscripts)
+    result = Nodes.MemoryViewSliceTypeNode(pos,
+            base_type_node = base_type_node,
+            axes = indexes)
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def looking_at_name(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    return s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring not in calling_convention_words
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def looking_at_expr(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    if s.systring in base_type_start_words:
+        return False
+    elif s.sy == 'IDENT':
+        is_type = False
+        name = s.systring
+        name_pos = s.position()
+        dotted_path = []
+        s.next()
+
+        while s.sy == '.':
+            s.next()
+            dotted_path.append((s.systring, s.position()))
+            s.expect('IDENT')
+
+        saved = s.sy, s.systring, s.position()
+        if s.sy == 'IDENT':
+            is_type = True
+        elif s.sy == '*' or s.sy == '**':
+            s.next()
+            is_type = s.sy in (')', ']')
+            s.put_back(*saved)
+        elif s.sy == '(':
+            s.next()
+            is_type = s.sy == '*'
+            s.put_back(*saved)
+        elif s.sy == '[':
+            s.next()
+            is_type = s.sy == ']' or not looking_at_expr(s)  # could be a nested template type
+            s.put_back(*saved)
+
+        dotted_path.reverse()
+        for p in dotted_path:
+            s.put_back('IDENT', *p)
+            s.put_back('.', '.', p[1])  # gets the position slightly wrong
+
+        s.put_back('IDENT', name, name_pos)
+        return not is_type and saved[0]
+    else:
+        return True
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def looking_at_base_type(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    #print "looking_at_base_type?", s.sy, s.systring, s.position()
+    return s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in base_type_start_words
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def looking_at_dotted_name(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT':
+        name = s.systring
+        name_pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        result: cython.bint = s.sy == '.'
+        s.put_back('IDENT', name, name_pos)
+        return result
+    else:
+        return False
+
+
+basic_c_type_names = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    "void", "char", "int", "float", "double", "bint")))
+
+special_basic_c_types = cython.declare(dict, {
+    # name : (signed, longness)
+    "Py_UNICODE" : (0, 0),
+    "Py_UCS4"    : (0, 0),
+    "Py_hash_t"  : (2, 0),
+    "Py_ssize_t" : (2, 0),
+    "ssize_t"    : (2, 0),
+    "size_t"     : (0, 0),
+    "ptrdiff_t"  : (2, 0),
+    "Py_tss_t"   : (1, 0),
+})
+
+sign_and_longness_words = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    "short", "long", "signed", "unsigned")))
+
+base_type_start_words = cython.declare(
+    frozenset,
+    basic_c_type_names
+    | sign_and_longness_words
+    | frozenset(special_basic_c_types))
+
+struct_enum_union = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    "struct", "union", "enum", "packed")))
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_sign_and_longness(s: PyrexScanner) -> tuple:
+    signed = 1
+    longness = 0
+    while s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in sign_and_longness_words:
+        if s.systring == 'unsigned':
+            signed = 0
+        elif s.systring == 'signed':
+            signed = 2
+        elif s.systring == 'short':
+            longness = -1
+        elif s.systring == 'long':
+            longness += 1
+        s.next()
+    return signed, longness
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_opt_cname(s: PyrexScanner):
+    literal = p_opt_string_literal(s, 'u')
+    if literal is not None:
+        cname = EncodedString(literal)
+        cname.encoding = s.source_encoding
+    else:
+        cname = None
+    return cname
+
+
+@cython.ccall
+def p_c_declarator(s: PyrexScanner, ctx = Ctx(),
+                   empty: cython.bint = False, is_type: cython.bint = False, cmethod_flag: cython.bint = False,
+                   assignable: cython.bint = False, nonempty: cython.bint = False,
+                   calling_convention_allowed: cython.bint = False):
+    # If empty is true, the declarator must be empty. If nonempty is true,
+    # the declarator must be nonempty. Otherwise we don't care.
+    # If cmethod_flag is true, then if this declarator declares
+    # a function, it's a C method of an extension type.
+    pos = s.position()
+    if s.sy == '(':
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == ')' or looking_at_name(s):
+            base = Nodes.CNameDeclaratorNode(pos, name=s.context.intern_ustring(""), cname=None)
+            result = p_c_func_declarator(s, pos, ctx, base, cmethod_flag)
+        else:
+            result = p_c_declarator(s, ctx, empty = empty, is_type = is_type,
+                                    cmethod_flag = cmethod_flag,
+                                    nonempty = nonempty,
+                                    calling_convention_allowed = True)
+            s.expect(')')
+    else:
+        result = p_c_simple_declarator(s, ctx, empty, is_type, cmethod_flag,
+                                       assignable, nonempty)
+    if not calling_convention_allowed and result.calling_convention and s.sy != '(':
+        error(s.position(), "%s on something that is not a function"
+            % result.calling_convention)
+    while s.sy in ('[', '('):
+        pos = s.position()
+        if s.sy == '[':
+            result = p_c_array_declarator(s, result)
+        else:  # sy == '('
+            s.next()
+            result = p_c_func_declarator(s, pos, ctx, result, cmethod_flag)
+        cmethod_flag = 0
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_array_declarator(s: PyrexScanner, base):
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()  # '['
+    if s.sy != ']':
+        dim = p_testlist(s)
+    else:
+        dim = None
+    s.expect(']')
+    return Nodes.CArrayDeclaratorNode(pos, base = base, dimension = dim)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_func_declarator(s: PyrexScanner, pos, ctx, base, cmethod_flag: cython.bint):
+    # Opening paren has already been skipped
+    args = p_c_arg_list(s, ctx, cmethod_flag = cmethod_flag,
+                        nonempty_declarators = 0)
+    ellipsis = p_optional_ellipsis(s)
+    s.expect(')')
+    nogil = p_nogil(s)
+    exc_val, exc_check, exc_clause = p_exception_value_clause(s, ctx.visibility == 'extern')
+    if nogil and exc_clause:
+        warning(
+            s.position(),
+            "The keyword 'nogil' should appear at the end of the "
+            "function signature line. Placing it before 'except' "
+            "or 'noexcept' will be disallowed in a future version "
+            "of Cython.",
+            level=2
+        )
+    nogil = nogil or p_nogil(s)
+    with_gil = p_with_gil(s)
+    return Nodes.CFuncDeclaratorNode(pos,
+        base = base, args = args, has_varargs = ellipsis,
+        exception_value = exc_val, exception_check = exc_check,
+        nogil = nogil or ctx.nogil or with_gil, with_gil = with_gil, has_explicit_exc_clause=exc_clause)
+
+
+supported_overloaded_operators = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    '+', '-', '*', '/', '%',
+    '++', '--', '~', '|', '&', '^', '<<', '>>', ',',
+    '==', '!=', '>=', '>', '<=', '<',
+    '[]', '()', '!', '=',
+    'bool',
+)))
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_simple_declarator(s: PyrexScanner, ctx,
+                          empty: cython.bint, is_type: cython.bint, cmethod_flag: cython.bint,
+                          assignable: cython.bint, nonempty: cython.bint):
+    pos = s.position()
+    calling_convention = p_calling_convention(s)
+    if s.sy in ('*', '**'):
+        # scanner returns '**' as a single token
+        is_ptrptr = s.sy == '**'
+        s.next()
+
+        const_pos = s.position()
+        is_const = s.systring == 'const' and s.sy == 'IDENT'
+        if is_const:
+            s.next()
+
+        base = p_c_declarator(s, ctx, empty=empty, is_type=is_type,
+                              cmethod_flag=cmethod_flag,
+                              assignable=assignable, nonempty=nonempty)
+        if is_const:
+            base = Nodes.CConstDeclaratorNode(const_pos, base=base)
+        if is_ptrptr:
+            base = Nodes.CPtrDeclaratorNode(pos, base=base)
+        result = Nodes.CPtrDeclaratorNode(pos, base=base)
+    elif s.sy == '&' or (s.sy == '&&' and s.context.cpp):
+        node_class = Nodes.CppRvalueReferenceDeclaratorNode if s.sy == '&&' else Nodes.CReferenceDeclaratorNode
+        s.next()
+        base = p_c_declarator(s, ctx, empty=empty, is_type=is_type,
+                              cmethod_flag=cmethod_flag,
+                              assignable=assignable, nonempty=nonempty)
+        result = node_class(pos, base=base)
+    else:
+        rhs = None
+        if s.sy == 'IDENT':
+            name = s.systring
+            if empty:
+                error(s.position(), "Declarator should be empty")
+            s.next()
+            cname = p_opt_cname(s)
+            if name != 'operator' and s.sy == '=' and assignable:
+                s.next()
+                rhs = p_test(s)
+        else:
+            if nonempty:
+                error(s.position(), "Empty declarator")
+            name = ""
+            cname = None
+        if cname is None and ctx.namespace is not None and nonempty:
+            cname = ctx.namespace + "::" + name
+        if name == 'operator' and ctx.visibility == 'extern' and nonempty:
+            op = s.sy
+            if [1 for c in op if c in '+-*/<=>!%&|([^~,']:
+                s.next()
+                # Handle diphthong operators.
+                if op == '(':
+                    s.expect(')')
+                    op = '()'
+                elif op == '[':
+                    s.expect(']')
+                    op = '[]'
+                elif op in ('-', '+', '|', '&') and s.sy == op:
+                    op *= 2       # ++, --, ...
+                    s.next()
+                elif s.sy == '=':
+                    op += s.sy    # +=, -=, ...
+                    s.next()
+                if op not in supported_overloaded_operators:
+                    s.error("Overloading operator '%s' not yet supported." % op,
+                            fatal=False)
+                name += op
+            elif op == 'IDENT':
+                op = s.systring
+                if op not in supported_overloaded_operators:
+                    s.error("Overloading operator '%s' not yet supported." % op,
+                            fatal=False)
+                name = name + ' ' + op
+                s.next()
+        result = Nodes.CNameDeclaratorNode(pos,
+            name = name, cname = cname, default = rhs)
+    result.calling_convention = calling_convention
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_nogil(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'nogil':
+        s.next()
+        return True
+    else:
+        return False
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_with_gil(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    if s.sy == 'with':
+        s.next()
+        s.expect_keyword('gil')
+        return True
+    else:
+        return False
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_exception_value_clause(s: PyrexScanner, is_extern: cython.bint) -> tuple:
+    """
+    Parse exception value clause.
+
+    Maps clauses to exc_check / exc_value / exc_clause as follows:
+     ______________________________________________________________________
+    |                             |             |             |            |
+    | Clause                      | exc_check   | exc_value   | exc_clause |
+    | ___________________________ | ___________ | ___________ | __________ |
+    |                             |             |             |            |
+    | <nothing> (default func.)   | True        | None        | False      |
+    | <nothing> (cdef extern)     | False       | None        | False      |
+    | noexcept                    | False       | None        | True       |
+    | except <val>                | False       | <val>       | True       |
+    | except? <val>               | True        | <val>       | True       |
+    | except *                    | True        | None        | True       |
+    | except +                    | '+'         | None        | True       |
+    | except +*                   | '+'         | '*'         | True       |
+    | except +<PyErr>             | '+'         | <PyErr>     | True       |
+    | ___________________________ | ___________ | ___________ | __________ |
+
+    Note that the only reason we need `exc_clause` is to raise a
+    warning when `'except'` or `'noexcept'` is placed after the
+    `'nogil'` keyword.
+    """
+    exc_clause: cython.bint = False
+    exc_val = None
+    exc_check = False if is_extern else True
+
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'noexcept':
+        exc_clause = True
+        s.next()
+        exc_check = False
+    elif s.sy == 'except':
+        exc_clause = True
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == '*':
+            exc_check = True
+            s.next()
+        elif s.sy == '+':
+            exc_check = '+'
+            plus_char_pos = s.position()[2]
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy == 'IDENT':
+                name = s.systring
+                if name == 'nogil':
+                    if s.position()[2] == plus_char_pos + 1:
+                        error(s.position(),
+                              "'except +nogil' defines an exception handling function. Use 'except + nogil' for the 'nogil' modifier.")
+                    # 'except + nogil' is parsed outside
+                else:
+                    exc_val = p_name(s, name)
+                    s.next()
+            elif s.sy == '*':
+                exc_val = ExprNodes.CharNode(s.position(), value='*')
+                s.next()
+        else:
+            if s.sy == '?':
+                exc_check = True
+                s.next()
+            else:
+                exc_check = False
+            # exc_val can be non-None even if exc_check is False, c.f. "except -1"
+            exc_val = p_test(s)
+
+    return exc_val, exc_check, exc_clause
+
+
+c_arg_list_terminators = cython.declare(frozenset, frozenset((
+    '*', '**', '...', ')', ':', '/')))
+
+
+@cython.ccall
+def p_c_arg_list(s: PyrexScanner, ctx = Ctx(),
+                 in_pyfunc: cython.bint = False, cmethod_flag: cython.bint = False,
+                 nonempty_declarators: cython.bint = False, kw_only: cython.bint = False,
+                 annotated: cython.bint = True) -> list:
+    #  Comma-separated list of C argument declarations, possibly empty.
+    #  May have a trailing comma.
+    args = []
+    is_self_arg = cmethod_flag
+    while s.sy not in c_arg_list_terminators:
+        args.append(p_c_arg_decl(s, ctx, in_pyfunc, is_self_arg,
+            nonempty = nonempty_declarators, kw_only = kw_only,
+            annotated = annotated))
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            break
+        s.next()
+        is_self_arg = 0
+    return args
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_optional_ellipsis(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    if s.sy == '...':
+        expect_ellipsis(s)
+        return True
+    else:
+        return False
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_arg_decl(s: PyrexScanner, ctx, in_pyfunc: cython.bint, cmethod_flag: cython.bint = False,
+                 nonempty: cython.bint = False,
+                 kw_only: cython.bint = False, annotated: cython.bint = True):
+    pos = s.position()
+    not_none = or_none = False
+    default = None
+    annotation = None
+    if s.in_python_file:
+        # empty type declaration
+        base_type = Nodes.CSimpleBaseTypeNode(pos,
+            name = None, module_path = [],
+            is_basic_c_type = False, signed = 0,
+            complex = False, longness = 0,
+            is_self_arg = cmethod_flag, templates = None)
+    else:
+        base_type = p_c_base_type(s, nonempty=nonempty)
+    declarator = p_c_declarator(s, ctx, nonempty = nonempty)
+    if s.sy in ('not', 'or') and not s.in_python_file:
+        kind = s.sy
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'None':
+            s.next()
+        else:
+            s.error("Expected 'None'")
+        if not in_pyfunc:
+            error(pos, "'%s None' only allowed in Python functions" % kind)
+        or_none = kind == 'or'
+        not_none = kind == 'not'
+    if annotated and s.sy == ':':
+        s.next()
+        annotation = p_annotation(s)
+    if s.sy == '=':
+        s.next()
+        if 'pxd' in ctx.level:
+            if s.sy in ['*', '?']:
+                # TODO(github/1736): Make this an error for inline declarations.
+                default = ExprNodes.NoneNode(pos)
+                s.next()
+            elif 'inline' in ctx.modifiers:
+                default = p_test(s)
+            else:
+                error(pos, "default values cannot be specified in pxd files, use ? or *")
+        else:
+            default = p_test(s)
+    return Nodes.CArgDeclNode(pos,
+        base_type = base_type,
+        declarator = declarator,
+        not_none = not_none,
+        or_none = or_none,
+        default = default,
+        annotation = annotation,
+        kw_only = kw_only)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_annotation(s: PyrexScanner):
+    """An annotation just has the "test" syntax, but also stores the string it came from
+
+    Note that the string is *allowed* to be changed/processed (although isn't here)
+    so may not exactly match the string generated by Python, and if it doesn't
+    then it is not a bug.
+    """
+    pos = s.position()
+    expr = p_test(s)
+    return ExprNodes.AnnotationNode(pos, expr=expr)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_api(s: PyrexScanner) -> cython.bint:
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'api':
+        s.next()
+        return True
+    else:
+        return False
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_cdef_statement(s: PyrexScanner, pos, ctx):
+    ctx.visibility = p_visibility(s, ctx.visibility)
+    ctx.api = ctx.api or p_api(s)
+    if ctx.api:
+        if ctx.visibility not in ('private', 'public'):
+            error(pos, "Cannot combine 'api' with '%s'" % ctx.visibility)
+    if (ctx.visibility == 'extern') and s.sy == 'from':
+        return p_cdef_extern_block(s, pos, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'import':
+        s.next()
+        return p_cdef_extern_block(s, pos, ctx)
+    elif p_nogil(s):
+        ctx.nogil = True
+        if ctx.overridable:
+            error(pos, "cdef blocks cannot be declared cpdef")
+        return p_cdef_block(s, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == ':':
+        if ctx.overridable:
+            error(pos, "cdef blocks cannot be declared cpdef")
+        return p_cdef_block(s, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'class':
+        if ctx.level not in ('module', 'module_pxd'):
+            error(pos, "Extension type definition not allowed here")
+        if ctx.overridable:
+            error(pos, "Extension types cannot be declared cpdef")
+        return p_c_class_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'cppclass':
+        return p_cpp_class_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in struct_enum_union:
+        if ctx.level not in ('module', 'module_pxd'):
+            error(pos, "C struct/union/enum definition not allowed here")
+        if ctx.overridable:
+            if s.systring != 'enum':
+                error(pos, "C struct/union cannot be declared cpdef")
+        return p_struct_enum(s, pos, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'fused':
+        return p_fused_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+    else:
+        return p_c_func_or_var_declaration(s, pos, ctx)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_cdef_block(s: PyrexScanner, ctx):
+    return p_suite(s, ctx(cdef_flag = True))
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_cdef_extern_block(s: PyrexScanner, pos, ctx):
+    if ctx.overridable:
+        error(pos, "cdef extern blocks cannot be declared cpdef")
+    include_file = None
+    s.expect('from')
+    if s.sy == '*':
+        s.next()
+    else:
+        include_file = p_string_literal(s, 'u')[2]
+    ctx = ctx(cdef_flag = True, visibility = 'extern')
+    if s.systring == "namespace":
+        s.next()
+        ctx.namespace = p_string_literal(s, 'u')[2]
+    if p_nogil(s):
+        ctx.nogil = True
+
+    # Use "docstring" as verbatim string to include
+    verbatim_include, body = p_suite_with_docstring(s, ctx, True)
+
+    return Nodes.CDefExternNode(pos,
+        include_file = include_file,
+        verbatim_include = verbatim_include,
+        body = body,
+        namespace = ctx.namespace)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_enum_definition(s: PyrexScanner, pos, ctx):
+    # s.sy == ident 'enum'
+    s.next()
+
+    scoped = False
+    if s.context.cpp and (s.sy == 'class' or (s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'struct')):
+        scoped = True
+        s.next()
+
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT':
+        name = s.systring
+        s.next()
+        cname = p_opt_cname(s)
+        if cname is None and ctx.namespace is not None:
+            cname = ctx.namespace + "::" + name
+    else:
+        name = cname = None
+        if scoped:
+            s.error("Unnamed scoped enum not allowed")
+
+    if scoped and s.sy == '(':
+        s.next()
+        underlying_type = p_c_base_type(s)
+        s.expect(')')
+    else:
+        underlying_type = Nodes.CSimpleBaseTypeNode(
+            pos,
+            name="int",
+            module_path = [],
+            is_basic_c_type = True,
+            signed = 1,
+            complex = False,
+            longness = 0
+        )
+
+    s.expect(':')
+    items = []
+
+    doc = None
+    if s.sy != 'NEWLINE':
+        p_c_enum_line(s, ctx, items)
+    else:
+        s.next()  # 'NEWLINE'
+        s.expect_indent()
+        doc = p_doc_string(s)
+
+        while s.sy not in ('DEDENT', 'EOF'):
+            p_c_enum_line(s, ctx, items)
+
+        s.expect_dedent()
+
+    if not items and ctx.visibility != "extern":
+        error(pos, "Empty enum definition not allowed outside a 'cdef extern from' block")
+
+    return Nodes.CEnumDefNode(
+        pos, name=name, cname=cname,
+        scoped=scoped, items=items,
+        underlying_type=underlying_type,
+        typedef_flag=ctx.typedef_flag, visibility=ctx.visibility,
+        create_wrapper=ctx.overridable,
+        api=ctx.api, in_pxd=ctx.level == 'module_pxd', doc=doc)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_enum_line(s: PyrexScanner, ctx, items: list):
+    if s.sy != 'pass':
+        p_c_enum_item(s, ctx, items)
+        while s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy in ('NEWLINE', 'EOF'):
+                break
+            p_c_enum_item(s, ctx, items)
+    else:
+        s.next()
+    s.expect_newline("Syntax error in enum item list")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_enum_item(s: PyrexScanner, ctx, items: list):
+    pos = s.position()
+    name = p_ident(s)
+    cname = p_opt_cname(s)
+    if cname is None and ctx.namespace is not None:
+        cname = ctx.namespace + "::" + name
+    value = None
+    if s.sy == '=':
+        s.next()
+        value = p_test(s)
+    items.append(Nodes.CEnumDefItemNode(pos,
+        name = name, cname = cname, value = value))
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_struct_or_union_definition(s: PyrexScanner, pos, ctx):
+    packed = False
+    if s.systring == 'packed':
+        packed = True
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy != 'IDENT' or s.systring != 'struct':
+            s.expected('struct')
+    # s.sy == ident 'struct' or 'union'
+    kind = s.systring
+    s.next()
+    name = p_ident(s)
+    cname = p_opt_cname(s)
+    if cname is None and ctx.namespace is not None:
+        cname = ctx.namespace + "::" + name
+    attributes = None
+    if s.sy == ':':
+        s.next()
+        attributes = []
+        if s.sy == 'pass':
+            s.next()
+            s.expect_newline("Expected a newline", ignore_semicolon=True)
+        else:
+            s.expect('NEWLINE')
+            s.expect_indent()
+            body_ctx = Ctx(visibility=ctx.visibility)
+            while s.sy != 'DEDENT':
+                if s.sy != 'pass':
+                    attributes.append(
+                        p_c_func_or_var_declaration(s, s.position(), body_ctx))
+                else:
+                    s.next()
+                    s.expect_newline("Expected a newline")
+            s.expect_dedent()
+
+        if not attributes and ctx.visibility != "extern":
+            error(pos, "Empty struct or union definition not allowed outside a 'cdef extern from' block")
+    else:
+        s.expect_newline("Syntax error in struct or union definition")
+
+    return Nodes.CStructOrUnionDefNode(pos,
+        name = name, cname = cname, kind = kind, attributes = attributes,
+        typedef_flag = ctx.typedef_flag, visibility = ctx.visibility,
+        api = ctx.api, in_pxd = ctx.level == 'module_pxd', packed = packed)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_fused_definition(s: PyrexScanner, pos, ctx):
+    """
+    c(type)def fused my_fused_type:
+        ...
+    """
+    # s.systring == 'fused'
+
+    if ctx.level not in ('module', 'module_pxd'):
+        error(pos, "Fused type definition not allowed here")
+
+    s.next()
+    name = p_ident(s)
+
+    s.expect(":")
+    s.expect_newline()
+    s.expect_indent()
+
+    types = []
+    while s.sy != 'DEDENT':
+        if s.sy != 'pass':
+            #types.append(p_c_declarator(s))
+            types.append(p_c_base_type(s))  #, nonempty=1))
+        else:
+            s.next()
+
+        s.expect_newline()
+
+    s.expect_dedent()
+
+    if not types:
+        error(pos, "Need at least one type")
+
+    return Nodes.FusedTypeNode(pos, name=name, types=types)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_struct_enum(s: PyrexScanner, pos, ctx):
+    if s.systring == 'enum':
+        return p_c_enum_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+    else:
+        return p_c_struct_or_union_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_visibility(s: PyrexScanner, prev_visibility):
+    visibility = prev_visibility
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in ('extern', 'public', 'readonly'):
+        visibility = s.systring
+        if prev_visibility != 'private' and visibility != prev_visibility:
+            s.error("Conflicting visibility options '%s' and '%s'"
+                % (prev_visibility, visibility), fatal=False)
+        s.next()
+    return visibility
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_modifiers(s: PyrexScanner) -> list:
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in ('inline',):
+        modifier = s.systring
+        s.next()
+        return [modifier] + p_c_modifiers(s)
+    return []
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_func_or_var_declaration(s: PyrexScanner, pos, ctx):
+    cmethod_flag: cython.bint = ctx.level in ('c_class', 'c_class_pxd')
+    modifiers = p_c_modifiers(s)
+    base_type = p_c_base_type(s, nonempty=True, templates = ctx.templates)
+    declarator = p_c_declarator(s, ctx(modifiers=modifiers), cmethod_flag = cmethod_flag,
+                                assignable=True, nonempty =True)
+    declarator.overridable = ctx.overridable
+
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'const' and ctx.level == 'cpp_class':
+        s.next()
+        is_const_method = True
+    else:
+        is_const_method = False
+
+    if s.sy == '->':
+        # Special enough to give a better error message and keep going.
+        s.error(
+            "Return type annotation is not allowed in cdef/cpdef signatures. "
+            "Please define it before the function name, as in C signatures.",
+            fatal=False)
+        s.next()
+        p_test(s)  # Keep going, but ignore result.
+
+    if s.sy == ':':
+        if ctx.level not in ('module', 'c_class', 'module_pxd', 'c_class_pxd', 'cpp_class') and not ctx.templates:
+            s.error("C function definition not allowed here")
+        doc, suite = p_suite_with_docstring(s, Ctx(level='function'))
+        result = Nodes.CFuncDefNode(pos,
+            visibility = ctx.visibility,
+            base_type = base_type,
+            declarator = declarator,
+            body = suite,
+            doc = doc,
+            modifiers = modifiers,
+            api = ctx.api,
+            overridable = ctx.overridable,
+            is_const_method = is_const_method)
+    else:
+        #if api:
+        #    s.error("'api' not allowed with variable declaration")
+        if is_const_method:
+            declarator.is_const_method = is_const_method
+        declarators = [declarator]
+        while s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy == 'NEWLINE':
+                break
+            declarator = p_c_declarator(s, ctx, cmethod_flag = cmethod_flag,
+                                        assignable=True, nonempty=True)
+            declarators.append(declarator)
+        doc_line = s.start_line + 1
+        s.expect_newline("Syntax error in C variable declaration", ignore_semicolon=True)
+        if ctx.level in ('c_class', 'c_class_pxd') and s.start_line == doc_line:
+            doc = p_doc_string(s)
+        else:
+            doc = None
+        result = Nodes.CVarDefNode(pos,
+            visibility = ctx.visibility,
+            base_type = base_type,
+            declarators = declarators,
+            in_pxd = ctx.level in ('module_pxd', 'c_class_pxd'),
+            doc = doc,
+            api = ctx.api,
+            modifiers = modifiers,
+            overridable = ctx.overridable)
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_ctypedef_statement(s: PyrexScanner, ctx):
+    # s.sy == 'ctypedef'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    visibility = p_visibility(s, ctx.visibility)
+    api = p_api(s)
+    ctx = ctx(typedef_flag=True, visibility = visibility)
+    if api:
+        ctx.api = True
+    if s.sy == 'class':
+        return p_c_class_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in struct_enum_union:
+        return p_struct_enum(s, pos, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'fused':
+        return p_fused_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+    else:
+        base_type = p_c_base_type(s, nonempty=True)
+        declarator = p_c_declarator(s, ctx, is_type=True, nonempty=True)
+        s.expect_newline("Syntax error in ctypedef statement", ignore_semicolon=True)
+        return Nodes.CTypeDefNode(
+            pos, base_type = base_type,
+            declarator = declarator,
+            visibility = visibility, api = api,
+            in_pxd = ctx.level == 'module_pxd')
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_decorators(s: PyrexScanner) -> list:
+    decorators = []
+    while s.sy == '@':
+        pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        decorator = p_namedexpr_test(s)
+        decorators.append(Nodes.DecoratorNode(pos, decorator=decorator))
+        s.expect_newline("Expected a newline after decorator")
+    return decorators
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def _reject_cdef_modifier_in_py(s: PyrexScanner, name):
+    """Step over incorrectly placed cdef modifiers (@see _CDEF_MODIFIERS) to provide a good error message for them.
+    """
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and name in _CDEF_MODIFIERS:
+        # Special enough to provide a good error message.
+        s.error("Cannot use cdef modifier '%s' in Python function signature. Use a decorator instead." % name, fatal=False)
+        return p_ident(s)  # Keep going, in case there are other errors.
+    return name
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_def_statement(s: PyrexScanner, decorators: list = None, is_async_def: cython.bint = False):
+    # s.sy == 'def'
+    pos = decorators[0].pos if decorators else s.position()
+    # PEP 492 switches the async/await keywords on in "async def" functions
+    if is_async_def:
+        s.enter_async()
+    s.next()
+    name = _reject_cdef_modifier_in_py(s, p_ident(s))
+    s.expect(
+        '(',
+        "Expected '(', found '%s'. Did you use cdef syntax in a Python declaration? "
+        "Use decorators and Python type annotations instead." % (
+            s.systring if s.sy == 'IDENT' else s.sy))
+    args, star_arg, starstar_arg = p_varargslist(s, terminator=')')
+    s.expect(')')
+    _reject_cdef_modifier_in_py(s, s.systring)
+    return_type_annotation = None
+    if s.sy == '->':
+        s.next()
+        return_type_annotation = p_annotation(s)
+        _reject_cdef_modifier_in_py(s, s.systring)
+
+    doc, body = p_suite_with_docstring(s, Ctx(level='function'))
+    if is_async_def:
+        s.exit_async()
+
+    return Nodes.DefNode(
+        pos, name=name, args=args, star_arg=star_arg, starstar_arg=starstar_arg,
+        doc=doc, body=body, decorators=decorators, is_async_def=is_async_def,
+        return_type_annotation=return_type_annotation)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_varargslist(s: PyrexScanner, terminator: cython.Py_UCS4 = ')', annotated: cython.bint = True) -> tuple:
+    args = p_c_arg_list(s, in_pyfunc=True, nonempty_declarators=True,
+                        annotated = annotated)
+    star_arg = None
+    starstar_arg = None
+    if s.sy == '/':
+        if len(args) == 0:
+            s.error("Got zero positional-only arguments despite presence of "
+                    "positional-only specifier '/'")
+        s.next()
+        # Mark all args to the left as pos only
+        for arg in args:
+            arg.pos_only = 1
+        if s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            args.extend(p_c_arg_list(
+                s, in_pyfunc=True, nonempty_declarators=True, annotated = annotated))
+        elif s.sy != terminator:
+            s.error("Syntax error in Python function argument list")
+    if s.sy == '*':
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy == 'IDENT':
+            star_arg = p_py_arg_decl(s, annotated=annotated)
+        if s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            args.extend(p_c_arg_list(
+                s, in_pyfunc =True, nonempty_declarators=True, kw_only=True, annotated = annotated))
+        elif s.sy != terminator:
+            s.error("Syntax error in Python function argument list")
+    if s.sy == '**':
+        s.next()
+        starstar_arg = p_py_arg_decl(s, annotated=annotated)
+    if s.sy == ',':
+        s.next()
+    return (args, star_arg, starstar_arg)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_py_arg_decl(s: PyrexScanner, annotated: cython.bint = True):
+    pos = s.position()
+    name = p_ident(s)
+    annotation = None
+    if annotated and s.sy == ':':
+        s.next()
+        annotation = p_annotation(s)
+    return Nodes.PyArgDeclNode(pos, name = name, annotation = annotation)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_class_statement(s: PyrexScanner, decorators):
+    # s.sy == 'class'
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()
+    class_name = EncodedString(p_ident(s))
+    class_name.encoding = s.source_encoding  # FIXME: why is this needed?
+    arg_tuple = None
+    keyword_dict = None
+    if s.sy == '(':
+        positional_args, keyword_args = p_call_parse_args(s, allow_genexp=False)
+        arg_tuple, keyword_dict = p_call_build_packed_args(pos, positional_args, keyword_args)
+    if arg_tuple is None:
+        # XXX: empty arg_tuple
+        arg_tuple = ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args=[])
+    doc, body = p_suite_with_docstring(s, Ctx(level='class'))
+    return Nodes.PyClassDefNode(
+        pos, name=class_name,
+        bases=arg_tuple,
+        keyword_args=keyword_dict,
+        doc=doc, body=body, decorators=decorators,
+        force_py3_semantics=s.context.language_level >= 3)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_class_definition(s: PyrexScanner, pos,  ctx):
+    # s.sy == 'class'
+    s.next()
+    module_path = []
+    class_name = p_ident(s)
+    while s.sy == '.':
+        s.next()
+        module_path.append(class_name)
+        class_name = p_ident(s)
+    if module_path and ctx.visibility != 'extern':
+        error(pos, "Qualified class name only allowed for 'extern' C class")
+    if module_path and s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'as':
+        s.next()
+        as_name = p_ident(s)
+    else:
+        as_name = class_name
+    objstruct_name = None
+    typeobj_name = None
+    bases = None
+    check_size = None
+    if s.sy == '(':
+        positional_args, keyword_args = p_call_parse_args(s, allow_genexp=False)
+        if keyword_args:
+            s.error("C classes cannot take keyword bases.")
+        bases, _ = p_call_build_packed_args(pos, positional_args, keyword_args)
+    if bases is None:
+        bases = ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args=[])
+
+    if s.sy == '[':
+        if ctx.visibility not in ('public', 'extern') and not ctx.api:
+            error(s.position(), "Name options only allowed for 'public', 'api', or 'extern' C class")
+        objstruct_name, typeobj_name, check_size = p_c_class_options(s)
+    if s.sy == ':':
+        if ctx.level == 'module_pxd':
+            body_level = 'c_class_pxd'
+        else:
+            body_level = 'c_class'
+        doc, body = p_suite_with_docstring(s, Ctx(level=body_level))
+    else:
+        s.expect_newline("Syntax error in C class definition")
+        doc = None
+        body = None
+    if ctx.visibility == 'extern':
+        if not module_path:
+            error(pos, "Module name required for 'extern' C class")
+        if typeobj_name:
+            error(pos, "Type object name specification not allowed for 'extern' C class")
+    elif ctx.visibility == 'public':
+        if not objstruct_name:
+            error(pos, "Object struct name specification required for 'public' C class")
+        if not typeobj_name:
+            error(pos, "Type object name specification required for 'public' C class")
+    elif ctx.visibility == 'private':
+        if ctx.api:
+            if not objstruct_name:
+                error(pos, "Object struct name specification required for 'api' C class")
+            if not typeobj_name:
+                error(pos, "Type object name specification required for 'api' C class")
+    else:
+        error(pos, "Invalid class visibility '%s'" % ctx.visibility)
+    return Nodes.CClassDefNode(pos,
+        visibility = ctx.visibility,
+        typedef_flag = ctx.typedef_flag,
+        api = ctx.api,
+        module_name = ".".join(module_path),
+        class_name = class_name,
+        as_name = as_name,
+        bases = bases,
+        objstruct_name = objstruct_name,
+        typeobj_name = typeobj_name,
+        check_size = check_size,
+        in_pxd = ctx.level == 'module_pxd',
+        doc = doc,
+        body = body)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_c_class_options(s: PyrexScanner) -> tuple:
+    objstruct_name = None
+    typeobj_name = None
+    check_size = None
+    s.expect('[')
+    while 1:
+        if s.sy != 'IDENT':
+            break
+        if s.systring == 'object':
+            s.next()
+            objstruct_name = p_ident(s)
+        elif s.systring == 'type':
+            s.next()
+            typeobj_name = p_ident(s)
+        elif s.systring == 'check_size':
+            s.next()
+            check_size = p_ident(s)
+            if check_size not in ('ignore', 'warn', 'error'):
+                s.error("Expected one of ignore, warn or error, found %r" % check_size)
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            break
+        s.next()
+    s.expect(']', "Expected 'object', 'type' or 'check_size'")
+    return objstruct_name, typeobj_name, check_size
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_property_decl(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.next()  # 'property'
+    name = p_ident(s)
+    doc, body = p_suite_with_docstring(
+        s, Ctx(level='property'), with_doc_only=True)
+    return Nodes.PropertyNode(pos, name=name, doc=doc, body=body)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_ignorable_statement(s: PyrexScanner):
+    """
+    Parses any kind of ignorable statement that is allowed in .pxd files.
+    """
+    if s.sy == 'BEGIN_STRING':
+        pos = s.position()
+        string_node = p_atom(s)
+        s.expect_newline("Syntax error in string", ignore_semicolon=True)
+        return Nodes.ExprStatNode(pos, expr=string_node)
+    return None
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_doc_string(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy == 'BEGIN_STRING':
+        pos = s.position()
+        kind, bytes_result, unicode_result = p_cat_string_literal(s)
+        s.expect_newline("Syntax error in doc string", ignore_semicolon=True)
+        if kind in ('u', ''):
+            return unicode_result
+        warning(pos, "Python 3 requires docstrings to be unicode strings")
+        return bytes_result
+    else:
+        return None
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def _extract_docstring(node) -> tuple:
+    """
+    Extract a docstring from a statement or from the first statement
+    in a list.  Remove the statement if found.  Return a tuple
+    (plain-docstring or None, node).
+    """
+    doc_node = None
+    if node is None:
+        pass
+    elif isinstance(node, Nodes.ExprStatNode):
+        if node.expr.is_string_literal:
+            doc_node = node.expr
+            node = Nodes.StatListNode(node.pos, stats=[])
+    elif isinstance(node, Nodes.StatListNode) and node.stats:
+        stats = node.stats
+        if isinstance(stats[0], Nodes.ExprStatNode):
+            if stats[0].expr.is_string_literal:
+                doc_node = stats[0].expr
+                del stats[0]
+
+    if doc_node is None:
+        doc = None
+    elif isinstance(doc_node, ExprNodes.BytesNode):
+        warning(node.pos,
+                "Python 3 requires docstrings to be unicode strings")
+        doc = doc_node.value
+    else:
+        doc = doc_node.value
+    return doc, node
+
+
+@cython.ccall
+def p_code(s: PyrexScanner, level=None, ctx=Ctx):
+    body = p_statement_list(s, ctx(level = level), first_statement=True)
+    if s.sy != 'EOF':
+        s.error("Syntax error in statement [%s,%s]" % (
+            repr(s.sy), repr(s.systring)))
+    return body
+
+
+_match_compiler_directive_comment = cython.declare(object, re.compile(
+    r"^#\s*cython\s*:\s*((\w|[.])+\s*=.*)$").match)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_compiler_directive_comments(s: PyrexScanner) -> dict:
+    result = {}
+    while s.sy == 'commentline':
+        pos = s.position()
+        m = _match_compiler_directive_comment(s.systring)
+        if m:
+            directives_string = m.group(1).strip()
+            try:
+                new_directives = Options.parse_directive_list(directives_string, ignore_unknown=True)
+            except ValueError as e:
+                s.error(e.args[0], fatal=False)
+                s.next()
+                continue
+
+            for name in new_directives:
+                if name not in result:
+                    pass
+                elif Options.directive_types.get(name) is list:
+                    result[name] += new_directives[name]
+                    new_directives[name] = result[name]
+                elif new_directives[name] == result[name]:
+                    warning(pos, "Duplicate directive found: %s" % (name,))
+                else:
+                    s.error("Conflicting settings found for top-level directive %s: %r and %r" % (
+                        name, result[name], new_directives[name]), pos=pos)
+
+            if 'language_level' in new_directives:
+                # Make sure we apply the language level already to the first token that follows the comments.
+                s.context.set_language_level(new_directives['language_level'])
+            if 'legacy_implicit_noexcept' in new_directives:
+                s.context.legacy_implicit_noexcept = new_directives['legacy_implicit_noexcept']
+
+
+            result.update(new_directives)
+
+        s.next()
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.ccall
+def p_module(s: PyrexScanner, pxd, full_module_name, ctx=Ctx):
+    pos = s.position()
+
+    directive_comments = p_compiler_directive_comments(s)
+    s.parse_comments = False
+
+    if s.context.language_level is None:
+        s.context.set_language_level('3')
+
+    level = 'module_pxd' if pxd else 'module'
+    doc = p_doc_string(s)
+    body = p_statement_list(s, ctx(level=level), first_statement=True)
+    if s.sy != 'EOF':
+        s.error("Syntax error in statement [%s,%s]" % (
+            repr(s.sy), repr(s.systring)))
+    return ModuleNode(pos, doc = doc, body = body,
+                      full_module_name = full_module_name,
+                      directive_comments = directive_comments)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_template_definition(s: PyrexScanner) -> tuple:
+    name = p_ident(s)
+    if s.sy == '=':
+        s.expect('=')
+        s.expect('*')
+        required = False
+    else:
+        required = True
+    return name, required
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_cpp_class_definition(s: PyrexScanner, pos,  ctx):
+    # s.sy == 'cppclass'
+    s.next()
+    class_name = p_ident(s)
+    cname = p_opt_cname(s)
+    if cname is None and ctx.namespace is not None:
+        cname = ctx.namespace + "::" + class_name
+    if s.sy == '.':
+        error(pos, "Qualified class name not allowed C++ class")
+    if s.sy == '[':
+        s.next()
+        templates = [p_template_definition(s)]
+        while s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            templates.append(p_template_definition(s))
+        s.expect(']')
+        template_names = [name for name, required in templates]
+    else:
+        templates = None
+        template_names = None
+    if s.sy == '(':
+        s.next()
+        base_classes = [p_c_base_type(s, templates = template_names)]
+        while s.sy == ',':
+            s.next()
+            base_classes.append(p_c_base_type(s, templates = template_names))
+        s.expect(')')
+    else:
+        base_classes = []
+    if s.sy == '[':
+        error(s.position(), "Name options not allowed for C++ class")
+    nogil = p_nogil(s)
+    if s.sy == ':':
+        s.next()
+        s.expect('NEWLINE')
+        s.expect_indent()
+        # Allow a cppclass to have docstrings. It will be discarded as comment.
+        # The goal of this is consistency: we can make docstrings inside cppclass methods,
+        # so why not on the cppclass itself ?
+        p_doc_string(s)
+        attributes = []
+        body_ctx = Ctx(visibility = ctx.visibility, level='cpp_class', nogil=nogil or ctx.nogil)
+        body_ctx.templates = template_names
+        while s.sy != 'DEDENT':
+            if s.sy != 'pass':
+                attributes.append(p_cpp_class_attribute(s, body_ctx))
+            else:
+                s.next()
+                s.expect_newline("Expected a newline")
+        s.expect_dedent()
+    else:
+        attributes = None
+        s.expect_newline("Syntax error in C++ class definition")
+    return Nodes.CppClassNode(pos,
+        name = class_name,
+        cname = cname,
+        base_classes = base_classes,
+        visibility = ctx.visibility,
+        in_pxd = ctx.level == 'module_pxd',
+        attributes = attributes,
+        templates = templates)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_cpp_class_attribute(s: PyrexScanner, ctx):
+    pos = s.position()
+    decorators = None
+    if s.sy == '@':
+        decorators = p_decorators(s)
+    if s.systring == 'cppclass':
+        return p_cpp_class_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+    elif s.systring == 'ctypedef':
+        return p_ctypedef_statement(s, ctx)
+    elif s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring in struct_enum_union:
+        if s.systring != 'enum':
+            return p_cpp_class_definition(s, pos, ctx)
+        else:
+            return p_struct_enum(s, pos, ctx)
+    else:
+        node = p_c_func_or_var_declaration(s, pos, ctx)
+        if decorators is not None:
+            tup = Nodes.CFuncDefNode, Nodes.CVarDefNode, Nodes.CClassDefNode
+            if ctx.allow_struct_enum_decorator:
+                tup += Nodes.CStructOrUnionDefNode, Nodes.CEnumDefNode
+            if not isinstance(node, tup):
+                s.error("Decorators can only be followed by functions or classes")
+            node.decorators = decorators
+        return node
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_match_statement(s: PyrexScanner, ctx):
+    assert s.sy == "IDENT" and s.systring == "match"
+    pos = s.position()
+    with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+        s.next()
+        subject = p_namedexpr_test(s)
+        subjects = None
+        if s.sy == ",":
+            subjects = [subject]
+        while s.sy == ",":
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy == ":":
+                break
+            subjects.append(p_test(s))
+        if subjects is not None:
+            subject = ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, args=subjects)
+        s.expect(":")
+    if errors:
+        return None
+
+    # at this stage we are committed to it being a match block so continue
+    # outside "with tentatively_scan"
+    # (I think this deviates from the PEG parser slightly, and it'd
+    # backtrack on the whole thing)
+    s.expect_newline()
+    s.expect_indent()
+    cases = []
+    while s.sy != "DEDENT":
+        cases.append(p_case_block(s, ctx))
+    s.expect_dedent()
+    return MatchCaseNodes.MatchNode(pos, subject=subject, cases=cases)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_case_block(s: PyrexScanner, ctx):
+    if not (s.sy == "IDENT" and s.systring == "case"):
+        s.expected("case")
+    s.next()
+    pos = s.position()
+    pattern = p_patterns(s)
+    guard = None
+    if s.sy == 'if':
+        s.next()
+        guard = p_test(s)
+    body = p_suite(s, ctx)
+
+    return MatchCaseNodes.MatchCaseNode(pos, pattern=pattern, body=body, guard=guard)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_patterns(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # note - in slight contrast to the name (which comes from the Python grammar),
+    # returns a single pattern
+    patterns = []
+    seq = False
+    pos = s.position()
+    while True:
+        with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+            pattern = p_maybe_star_pattern(s)
+        if errors:
+            if patterns:
+                break  # all is good provided we have at least 1 pattern
+            else:
+                e = errors[0]
+                s.error(e.args[1], pos=e.args[0])
+        patterns.append(pattern)
+
+        if s.sy == ",":
+            seq = True
+            s.next()
+            if s.sy in [":", "if"]:
+                break  # common reasons to break
+        else:
+            break
+
+    if seq:
+        return MatchCaseNodes.MatchSequencePatternNode(pos, patterns=patterns)
+    else:
+        return patterns[0]
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_maybe_star_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # For match case. Either star_pattern or pattern
+    if s.sy == "*":
+        # star pattern
+        s.next()
+        target = None
+        if s.systring != "_":  # for match-case '_' is treated as a special wildcard
+            target = p_pattern_capture_target(s)
+        else:
+            s.next()
+        pattern = MatchCaseNodes.MatchAndAssignPatternNode(
+            s.position(), target=target, is_star=True
+        )
+        return pattern
+    else:
+        pattern = p_pattern(s)
+        return pattern
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # try "as_pattern" then "or_pattern"
+    # (but practically "as_pattern" starts with "or_pattern" too)
+    patterns = []
+    pos = s.position()
+    while True:
+        patterns.append(p_closed_pattern(s))
+        if s.sy != "|":
+            break
+        s.next()
+
+    if len(patterns) > 1:
+        pattern = MatchCaseNodes.OrPatternNode(
+            pos,
+            alternatives=patterns
+        )
+    else:
+        pattern = patterns[0]
+
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == 'as':
+        s.next()
+        with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+            pattern.as_targets.append(p_pattern_capture_target(s))
+        if errors and s.sy == "_":
+            s.next()
+            # make this a specific error
+            return Nodes.ErrorNode(errors[0].args[0], what=errors[0].args[1])
+        elif errors:
+            with tentatively_scan(s):
+                expr = p_test(s)
+                return Nodes.ErrorNode(expr.pos, what="Invalid pattern target")
+            s.error(errors[0])
+    return pattern
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_closed_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    """
+    The PEG parser specifies it as
+    | literal_pattern
+    | capture_pattern
+    | wildcard_pattern
+    | value_pattern
+    | group_pattern
+    | sequence_pattern
+    | mapping_pattern
+    | class_pattern
+
+    For the sake avoiding too much backtracking, we know:
+    * starts with "{" is a sequence_pattern
+    * starts with "[" is a mapping_pattern
+    * starts with "(" is a group_pattern or sequence_pattern
+    * wildcard pattern is just identifier=='_'
+    The rest are then tried in order with backtracking
+    """
+    if s.sy == 'IDENT' and s.systring == '_':
+        pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        return MatchCaseNodes.MatchAndAssignPatternNode(pos)
+    elif s.sy == '{':
+        return p_mapping_pattern(s)
+    elif s.sy == '[':
+        return p_sequence_pattern(s)
+    elif s.sy == '(':
+        with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+            result = p_group_pattern(s)
+            if not errors:
+                return result
+        return p_sequence_pattern(s)
+
+    with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+        result = p_literal_pattern(s)
+        if not errors:
+            return result
+    with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+        result = p_capture_pattern(s)
+        if not errors:
+            return result
+    with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+        result = p_value_pattern(s)
+        if not errors:
+            return result
+    return p_class_pattern(s)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_literal_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # a lot of duplication in this function with "p_atom"
+    next_must_be_a_number = False
+    sign = ''
+    if s.sy == '-':
+        sign = s.sy
+        sign_pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        next_must_be_a_number = True
+
+    sy = s.sy
+    pos = s.position()
+
+    res = None
+    if sy == 'INT':
+        res = p_int_literal(s)
+    elif sy == 'FLOAT':
+        value = s.systring
+        s.next()
+        res = ExprNodes.FloatNode(pos, value=value)
+
+    if res is not None and sign == "-":
+        res = ExprNodes.UnaryMinusNode(sign_pos, operand=res)
+
+    if res is not None and s.sy in ['+', '-']:
+        sign = s.sy
+        s.next()
+        if s.sy != 'IMAG':
+            s.error("Expected imaginary number")
+        else:
+            add_pos = s.position()
+            value = s.systring[:-1]
+            s.next()
+            res = ExprNodes.binop_node(
+                add_pos,
+                sign,
+                operand1=res,
+                operand2=ExprNodes.ImagNode(s.position(), value=value)
+            )
+
+    if res is None and sy == 'IMAG':
+        value = s.systring[:-1]
+        s.next()
+        res = ExprNodes.ImagNode(pos, value=sign+value)
+        if sign == "-":
+            res = ExprNodes.UnaryMinusNode(sign_pos, operand=res)
+
+    if res is not None:
+        return MatchCaseNodes.MatchValuePatternNode(pos, value=res)
+
+    if next_must_be_a_number:
+        s.error("Expected a number")
+    if sy == 'BEGIN_STRING':
+        res = p_atom_string(s)
+        # Whether f-strings are suitable is validated in PostParse.
+        return MatchCaseNodes.MatchValuePatternNode(pos, value=res)
+    elif sy == 'IDENT':
+        # Note that p_atom_ident_constants includes NULL.
+        # This is a deliberate Cython addition to the pattern matching specification
+        result = p_atom_ident_constants(s)
+        if result:
+            return MatchCaseNodes.MatchValuePatternNode(pos, value=result, is_is_check=True)
+
+    s.error("Failed to match literal")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_capture_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    return MatchCaseNodes.MatchAndAssignPatternNode(
+        s.position(),
+        target=p_pattern_capture_target(s)
+    )
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_value_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy != "IDENT":
+        s.error("Expected identifier")
+    pos = s.position()
+    res = p_name(s, s.systring)
+    s.next()
+    if s.sy != '.':
+        s.error(".")
+    while s.sy == '.':
+        attr_pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        attr = p_ident(s)
+        res = ExprNodes.AttributeNode(attr_pos, obj=res, attribute=attr)
+    if s.sy in ['(', '=']:
+        s.error("Unexpected symbol '%s'" % s.sy)
+    return MatchCaseNodes.MatchValuePatternNode(pos, value=res)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_group_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    s.expect("(")
+    pattern = p_pattern(s)
+    s.expect(")")
+    return pattern
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_sequence_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    opener = s.sy
+    pos = s.position()
+    if opener in ['[', '(']:
+        closer = ']' if opener == '[' else ')'
+        s.next()
+        # maybe_sequence_pattern and open_sequence_pattern
+        patterns = []
+        while s.sy != closer:
+            patterns.append(p_maybe_star_pattern(s))
+            if s.sy == ",":
+                s.next()
+            else:
+                if opener == '(' and len(patterns) == 1:
+                    s.error("tuple-like pattern of length 1 must finish with ','")
+                break
+        s.expect(closer)
+        return MatchCaseNodes.MatchSequencePatternNode(pos, patterns=patterns)
+    else:
+        s.error("Expected '[' or '('")
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_mapping_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    pos = s.position()
+    s.expect('{')
+    if s.sy == '}':
+        # trivial empty mapping
+        s.next()
+        return MatchCaseNodes.MatchMappingPatternNode(pos)
+
+    double_star_capture_target = None
+    items_patterns = []
+    star_star_arg_pos = None
+    while s.sy != '}':
+        if double_star_capture_target and not star_star_arg_pos:
+            star_star_arg_pos = s.position()
+        if s.sy == '**':
+            s.next()
+            double_star_capture_target = p_pattern_capture_target(s)
+        else:
+            # key=(literal_expr | attr)
+            with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+                pattern = p_literal_pattern(s)
+                key = pattern.value
+            if errors:
+                pattern = p_value_pattern(s)
+                key = pattern.value
+            s.expect(':')
+            value = p_pattern(s)
+            items_patterns.append((key, value))
+        if s.sy != ',':
+            break
+        s.next()
+    s.expect('}')
+
+    if star_star_arg_pos is not None:
+        return Nodes.ErrorNode(
+            star_star_arg_pos,
+            what = "** pattern must be the final part of a mapping pattern."
+        )
+    return MatchCaseNodes.MatchMappingPatternNode(
+        pos,
+        keys = [kv[0] for kv in items_patterns],
+        value_patterns = [kv[1] for kv in items_patterns],
+        double_star_capture_target = double_star_capture_target
+    )
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_class_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # start by parsing the class as name_or_attr
+    pos = s.position()
+    res = p_name(s, s.systring)
+    s.next()
+    while s.sy == '.':
+        attr_pos = s.position()
+        s.next()
+        attr = p_ident(s)
+        res = ExprNodes.AttributeNode(attr_pos, obj=res, attribute=attr)
+    class_ = res
+
+    s.expect("(")
+    if s.sy == ")":
+        # trivial case with no arguments matched
+        s.next()
+        return MatchCaseNodes.ClassPatternNode(pos, class_=class_)
+
+    # parse the arguments
+    positional_patterns = []
+    keyword_patterns = []
+    keyword_patterns_error = None
+    while s.sy != ')':
+        with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+            positional_patterns.append(p_pattern(s))
+        if not errors:
+            if keyword_patterns:
+                keyword_patterns_error = s.position()
+        else:
+            with tentatively_scan(s) as errors:
+                keyword_patterns.append(p_keyword_pattern(s))
+        if s.sy != ",":
+            break
+        s.next()
+    s.expect(")")
+
+    if keyword_patterns_error is not None:
+        return Nodes.ErrorNode(
+            keyword_patterns_error,
+            what="Positional patterns follow keyword patterns"
+        )
+    return MatchCaseNodes.ClassPatternNode(
+        pos, class_ = class_,
+        positional_patterns = positional_patterns,
+        keyword_pattern_names = [kv[0] for kv in keyword_patterns],
+        keyword_pattern_patterns = [kv[1] for kv in keyword_patterns],
+    )
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_keyword_pattern(s: PyrexScanner):
+    if s.sy != "IDENT":
+        s.error("Expected identifier")
+    arg = p_name(s, s.systring)
+    s.next()
+    s.expect("=")
+    value = p_pattern(s)
+    return arg, value
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def p_pattern_capture_target(s: PyrexScanner):
+    # any name but '_', and with some constraints on what follows
+    if s.sy != 'IDENT':
+        s.error("Expected identifier")
+    if s.systring == '_':
+        s.error("Pattern capture target cannot be '_'")
+    target = p_name(s, s.systring)
+    s.next()
+    if s.sy in ['.', '(', '=']:
+        s.error("Illegal next symbol '%s'" % s.sy)
+    return target
+
+
+
+#----------------------------------------------
+#
+#   Debugging
+#
+#----------------------------------------------
+
+@cython.ccall
+def print_parse_tree(f, node, level: cython.long, key = None):
+    ind: str = "  " * level
+    f.write(ind)
+    if key:
+        f.write(f"{key}: ")
+    if not node:
+        f.write("None\n")
+    elif type(node) is tuple:
+        f.write(f"({node[0]} @ {node[1]}\n")
+        for item in node[2:]:
+            print_parse_tree(f, item, level+1)
+        f.write(f"{ind})\n")
+    elif isinstance(node, Nodes.Node):
+        try:
+            tag = node.tag
+        except AttributeError:
+            tag = node.__class__.__name__
+        f.write(f"{tag} @ {node.pos}\n")
+        for name, value in sorted(node.__dict__.items()):
+            if name != 'tag' and name != 'pos':
+                print_parse_tree(f, value, level+1, name)
+    elif type(node) is list:
+        f.write("[\n")
+        for item in node:
+            print_parse_tree(f, item, level+1)
+        f.write(f"{ind}]\n")
+    else:
+        f.write(f"{ind}{node}\n")