wasmtime 36.0.0 → 36.0.1

data/ext/cargo-vendor/winch-codegen-36.0.19/src/codegen/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,1645 @@
+use crate::{
+    abi::{ABIOperand, ABISig, RetArea, vmctx},
+    codegen::BlockSig,
+    isa::reg::{Reg, RegClass, writable},
+    masm::{
+        AtomicWaitKind, Extend, Imm, IntCmpKind, IntScratch, LaneSelector, LoadKind,
+        MacroAssembler, OperandSize, RegImm, RmwOp, SPOffset, ShiftKind, StoreKind, TrapCode,
+        UNTRUSTED_FLAGS, Zero,
+    },
+    stack::{TypedReg, Val},
+};
+use anyhow::{Result, anyhow, bail, ensure};
+use cranelift_codegen::{
+    binemit::CodeOffset,
+    ir::{RelSourceLoc, SourceLoc},
+};
+use smallvec::SmallVec;
+use std::marker::PhantomData;
+use wasmparser::{
+    BinaryReader, FuncValidator, MemArg, Operator, OperatorsReader, ValidatorResources,
+    VisitOperator, VisitSimdOperator,
+};
+use wasmtime_cranelift::{TRAP_BAD_SIGNATURE, TRAP_HEAP_MISALIGNED, TRAP_TABLE_OUT_OF_BOUNDS};
+use wasmtime_environ::{
+    FUNCREF_MASK, GlobalIndex, MemoryIndex, PtrSize, TableIndex, Tunables, TypeIndex, WasmHeapType,
+    WasmValType,
+};
+
+mod context;
+pub(crate) use context::*;
+mod env;
+pub use env::*;
+mod call;
+pub(crate) use call::*;
+mod control;
+pub(crate) use control::*;
+mod builtin;
+pub use builtin::*;
+pub(crate) mod bounds;
+
+use bounds::{Bounds, ImmOffset, Index};
+
+mod phase;
+pub(crate) use phase::*;
+
+mod error;
+pub(crate) use error::*;
+
+/// Branch states in the compiler, enabling the derivation of the
+/// reachability state.
+pub(crate) trait BranchState {
+    /// Whether the compiler will enter in an unreachable state after
+    /// the branch is emitted.
+    fn unreachable_state_after_emission() -> bool;
+}
+
+/// A conditional branch state, with a fallthrough.
+pub(crate) struct ConditionalBranch;
+
+impl BranchState for ConditionalBranch {
+    fn unreachable_state_after_emission() -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+/// Unconditional branch state.
+pub(crate) struct UnconditionalBranch;
+
+impl BranchState for UnconditionalBranch {
+    fn unreachable_state_after_emission() -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+/// Holds metadata about the source code location and the machine code emission.
+/// The fields of this struct are opaque and are not interpreted in any way.
+/// They serve as a mapping between source code and machine code.
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub(crate) struct SourceLocation {
+    /// The base source location.
+    pub base: Option<SourceLoc>,
+    /// The current relative source code location along with its associated
+    /// machine code offset.
+    pub current: (CodeOffset, RelSourceLoc),
+}
+
+/// The code generation abstraction.
+pub(crate) struct CodeGen<'a, 'translation: 'a, 'data: 'translation, M, P>
+where
+    M: MacroAssembler,
+    P: CodeGenPhase,
+{
+    /// The ABI-specific representation of the function signature, excluding results.
+    pub sig: ABISig,
+
+    /// The code generation context.
+    pub context: CodeGenContext<'a, P>,
+
+    /// A reference to the function compilation environment.
+    pub env: FuncEnv<'a, 'translation, 'data, M::Ptr>,
+
+    /// The MacroAssembler.
+    pub masm: &'a mut M,
+
+    /// Stack frames for control flow.
+    // NB The 64 is set arbitrarily, we can adjust it as
+    // we see fit.
+    pub control_frames: SmallVec<[ControlStackFrame; 64]>,
+
+    /// Information about the source code location.
+    pub source_location: SourceLocation,
+
+    /// Compilation settings for code generation.
+    pub tunables: &'a Tunables,
+
+    /// Local counter to track fuel consumption.
+    pub fuel_consumed: i64,
+    phase: PhantomData<P>,
+}
+
+impl<'a, 'translation, 'data, M> CodeGen<'a, 'translation, 'data, M, Prologue>
+where
+    M: MacroAssembler,
+{
+    pub fn new(
+        tunables: &'a Tunables,
+        masm: &'a mut M,
+        context: CodeGenContext<'a, Prologue>,
+        env: FuncEnv<'a, 'translation, 'data, M::Ptr>,
+        sig: ABISig,
+    ) -> CodeGen<'a, 'translation, 'data, M, Prologue> {
+        Self {
+            sig,
+            context,
+            masm,
+            env,
+            tunables,
+            source_location: Default::default(),
+            control_frames: Default::default(),
+            // Empty functions should consume at least 1 fuel unit.
+            fuel_consumed: 1,
+            phase: PhantomData,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Code generation prologue.
+    pub fn emit_prologue(mut self) -> Result<CodeGen<'a, 'translation, 'data, M, Emission>> {
+        let vmctx = self
+            .sig
+            .params()
+            .first()
+            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!(CodeGenError::vmcontext_arg_expected()))?
+            .unwrap_reg();
+
+        self.masm.start_source_loc(Default::default())?;
+        // We need to use the vmctx parameter before pinning it for stack checking.
+        self.masm.prologue(vmctx)?;
+
+        // Pin the `VMContext` pointer.
+        self.masm.mov(
+            writable!(vmctx!(M)),
+            vmctx.into(),
+            self.env.ptr_type().try_into()?,
+        )?;
+
+        self.masm.reserve_stack(self.context.frame.locals_size)?;
+        self.spill_register_arguments()?;
+
+        let defined_locals_range = &self.context.frame.defined_locals_range;
+        self.masm.zero_mem_range(defined_locals_range.as_range())?;
+
+        // Save the results base parameter register into its slot.
+
+        if self.sig.params.has_retptr() {
+            match self.sig.params.unwrap_results_area_operand() {
+                ABIOperand::Reg { ty, reg, .. } => {
+                    let results_base_slot = self.context.frame.results_base_slot.as_ref().unwrap();
+                    ensure!(
+                        results_base_slot.addressed_from_sp(),
+                        CodeGenError::sp_addressing_expected(),
+                    );
+                    let addr = self.masm.local_address(results_base_slot)?;
+                    self.masm.store((*reg).into(), addr, (*ty).try_into()?)?;
+                }
+                // The result base parameter is a stack parameter, addressed
+                // from FP.
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+
+        self.masm.end_source_loc()?;
+
+        Ok(CodeGen {
+            sig: self.sig,
+            context: self.context.for_emission(),
+            masm: self.masm,
+            env: self.env,
+            tunables: self.tunables,
+            source_location: self.source_location,
+            control_frames: self.control_frames,
+            fuel_consumed: self.fuel_consumed,
+            phase: PhantomData,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn spill_register_arguments(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        use WasmValType::*;
+        for (operand, slot) in self
+            .sig
+            .params_without_retptr()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(self.context.frame.locals())
+        {
+            match (operand, slot) {
+                (ABIOperand::Reg { ty, reg, .. }, slot) => {
+                    let addr = self.masm.local_address(slot)?;
+                    match &ty {
+                        I32 | I64 | F32 | F64 | V128 => {
+                            self.masm.store((*reg).into(), addr, (*ty).try_into()?)?;
+                        }
+                        Ref(rt) => match rt.heap_type {
+                            WasmHeapType::Func | WasmHeapType::Extern => {
+                                self.masm.store_ptr(*reg, addr)?;
+                            }
+                            _ => bail!(CodeGenError::unsupported_wasm_type()),
+                        },
+                    }
+                }
+                // Skip non-register arguments
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a, 'translation, 'data, M> CodeGen<'a, 'translation, 'data, M, Emission>
+where
+    M: MacroAssembler,
+{
+    /// Emit the function body to machine code.
+    pub fn emit(
+        &mut self,
+        body: BinaryReader<'a>,
+        validator: &mut FuncValidator<ValidatorResources>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.emit_body(body, validator)
+            .and_then(|_| self.emit_end())?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Pops a control frame from the control frame stack.
+    pub fn pop_control_frame(&mut self) -> Result<ControlStackFrame> {
+        self.control_frames
+            .pop()
+            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!(CodeGenError::control_frame_expected()))
+    }
+
+    /// Derives a [RelSourceLoc] from a [SourceLoc].
+    pub fn source_loc_from(&mut self, loc: SourceLoc) -> RelSourceLoc {
+        if self.source_location.base.is_none() && !loc.is_default() {
+            self.source_location.base = Some(loc);
+        }
+
+        RelSourceLoc::from_base_offset(self.source_location.base.unwrap_or_default(), loc)
+    }
+
+    /// The following two helpers, handle else or end instructions when the
+    /// compiler has entered into an unreachable code state. These instructions
+    /// must be observed to determine if the reachability state should be
+    /// restored.
+    ///
+    /// When the compiler is in an unreachable state, all the other instructions
+    /// are not visited.
+    pub fn handle_unreachable_else(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        let frame = self
+            .control_frames
+            .last_mut()
+            .ok_or_else(|| CodeGenError::control_frame_expected())?;
+        ensure!(frame.is_if(), CodeGenError::if_control_frame_expected());
+        if frame.is_next_sequence_reachable() {
+            // We entered an unreachable state when compiling the
+            // if-then branch, but if the `if` was reachable at
+            // entry, the if-else branch will be reachable.
+            self.context.reachable = true;
+            frame.ensure_stack_state(self.masm, &mut self.context)?;
+            frame.bind_else(self.masm, &mut self.context)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn handle_unreachable_end(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut frame = self.pop_control_frame()?;
+        // We just popped the outermost block.
+        let is_outermost = self.control_frames.len() == 0;
+
+        if frame.is_next_sequence_reachable() {
+            self.context.reachable = true;
+            frame.ensure_stack_state(self.masm, &mut self.context)?;
+            frame.bind_end(self.masm, &mut self.context)
+        } else if is_outermost {
+            // If we reach the end of the function in an unreachable
+            // state, perform the necessary cleanup to leave the stack
+            // and SP in the expected state.  The compiler can enter
+            // in this state through an infinite loop.
+            frame.ensure_stack_state(self.masm, &mut self.context)
+        } else {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn emit_body(
+        &mut self,
+        body: BinaryReader<'a>,
+        validator: &mut FuncValidator<ValidatorResources>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.maybe_emit_fuel_check()?;
+
+        self.maybe_emit_epoch_check()?;
+
+        // Once we have emitted the epilogue and reserved stack space for the locals, we push the
+        // base control flow block.
+        self.control_frames.push(ControlStackFrame::block(
+            BlockSig::from_sig(self.sig.clone()),
+            self.masm,
+            &mut self.context,
+        )?);
+
+        // Set the return area of the results *after* initializing the block. In
+        // the function body block case, we'll treat the results as any other
+        // case, addressed from the stack pointer, and when ending the function
+        // the return area will be set to the return pointer.
+        if self.sig.params.has_retptr() {
+            self.sig
+                .results
+                .set_ret_area(RetArea::slot(self.context.frame.results_base_slot.unwrap()));
+        }
+
+        let mut ops = OperatorsReader::new(body);
+        while !ops.eof() {
+            let offset = ops.original_position();
+            ops.visit_operator(&mut ValidateThenVisit(
+                validator.simd_visitor(offset),
+                self,
+                offset,
+            ))??;
+        }
+        ops.finish()?;
+        return Ok(());
+
+        struct ValidateThenVisit<'a, T, U>(T, &'a mut U, usize);
+
+        macro_rules! validate_then_visit {
+            ($( @$proposal:ident $op:ident $({ $($arg:ident: $argty:ty),* })? => $visit:ident $ann:tt)*) => {
+                $(
+                    fn $visit(&mut self $($(,$arg: $argty)*)?) -> Self::Output {
+                        self.0.$visit($($($arg.clone()),*)?)?;
+                        let op = Operator::$op $({ $($arg: $arg.clone()),* })?;
+                        check_impl_limits(&op)?;
+                        if self.1.visit(&op) {
+                            self.1.before_visit_op(&op, self.2)?;
+                            let res = self.1.$visit($($($arg),*)?)?;
+                            self.1.after_visit_op()?;
+                            Ok(res)
+                        } else {
+                            Ok(())
+                        }
+                    }
+                )*
+            };
+        }
+
+        /// Check implementation limits that are not (yet) enforced by
+        /// validation. This is done regardless of reachability.
+        fn check_impl_limits(op: &Operator) -> Result<()> {
+            if let Operator::BrTable { targets } = op {
+                if targets.len() > wasmtime_cranelift::MAX_BR_TABLE_TARGETS {
+                    bail!(CodeGenError::br_table_too_large(targets.len()));
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn visit_op_when_unreachable(op: &Operator) -> bool {
+            use Operator::*;
+            match op {
+                If { .. } | Block { .. } | Loop { .. } | Else | End => true,
+                _ => false,
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Trait to handle hooks that must happen before and after visiting an
+        /// operator.
+        trait VisitorHooks {
+            /// Hook prior to visiting an operator.
+            fn before_visit_op(&mut self, operator: &Operator, offset: usize) -> Result<()>;
+            /// Hook after visiting an operator.
+            fn after_visit_op(&mut self) -> Result<()>;
+
+            /// Returns `true` if the operator will be visited.
+            ///
+            /// Operators will be visited if the following invariants are met:
+            /// * The compiler is in a reachable state.
+            /// * The compiler is in an unreachable state, but the current
+            ///   operator is a control flow operator. These operators need to be
+            ///   visited in order to keep the control stack frames balanced and
+            ///   to determine if the reachability state must be restored.
+            fn visit(&self, op: &Operator) -> bool;
+        }
+
+        impl<'a, 'translation, 'data, M: MacroAssembler> VisitorHooks
+            for CodeGen<'a, 'translation, 'data, M, Emission>
+        {
+            fn visit(&self, op: &Operator) -> bool {
+                self.context.reachable || visit_op_when_unreachable(op)
+            }
+
+            fn before_visit_op(&mut self, operator: &Operator, offset: usize) -> Result<()> {
+                // Handle source location mapping.
+                self.source_location_before_visit_op(offset)?;
+
+                // Handle fuel.
+                if self.tunables.consume_fuel {
+                    self.fuel_before_visit_op(operator)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            fn after_visit_op(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+                // Handle source code location mapping.
+                self.source_location_after_visit_op()
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl<'a, T, U> VisitOperator<'a> for ValidateThenVisit<'_, T, U>
+        where
+            T: VisitSimdOperator<'a, Output = wasmparser::Result<()>>,
+            U: VisitSimdOperator<'a, Output = Result<()>> + VisitorHooks,
+        {
+            type Output = U::Output;
+
+            fn simd_visitor(
+                &mut self,
+            ) -> Option<&mut dyn VisitSimdOperator<'a, Output = Self::Output>>
+            where
+                T:,
+            {
+                Some(self)
+            }
+
+            wasmparser::for_each_visit_operator!(validate_then_visit);
+        }
+
+        impl<'a, T, U> VisitSimdOperator<'a> for ValidateThenVisit<'_, T, U>
+        where
+            T: VisitSimdOperator<'a, Output = wasmparser::Result<()>>,
+            U: VisitSimdOperator<'a, Output = Result<()>> + VisitorHooks,
+        {
+            wasmparser::for_each_visit_simd_operator!(validate_then_visit);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Emits a a series of instructions that will type check a function reference call.
+    pub fn emit_typecheck_funcref(
+        &mut self,
+        funcref_ptr: Reg,
+        type_index: TypeIndex,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let ptr_size: OperandSize = self.env.ptr_type().try_into()?;
+        let sig_index_bytes = self.env.vmoffsets.size_of_vmshared_type_index();
+        let sig_size = OperandSize::from_bytes(sig_index_bytes);
+        let sig_index = self.env.translation.module.types[type_index].unwrap_module_type_index();
+        let sig_offset = sig_index
+            .as_u32()
+            .checked_mul(sig_index_bytes.into())
+            .unwrap();
+        let signatures_base_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vmctx_type_ids_array();
+        let funcref_sig_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vm_func_ref_type_index();
+        // Get the caller id.
+        let caller_id = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+
+        self.masm.with_scratch::<IntScratch, _>(|masm, scratch| {
+            // Load the signatures address into the scratch register.
+            masm.load(
+                masm.address_at_vmctx(signatures_base_offset.into())?,
+                scratch.writable(),
+                ptr_size,
+            )?;
+
+            masm.load(
+                masm.address_at_reg(scratch.inner(), sig_offset)?,
+                writable!(caller_id),
+                sig_size,
+            )
+        })?;
+
+        let callee_id = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+        self.masm.load(
+            self.masm
+                .address_at_reg(funcref_ptr, funcref_sig_offset.into())?,
+            writable!(callee_id),
+            sig_size,
+        )?;
+
+        // Typecheck.
+        self.masm
+            .cmp(caller_id, callee_id.into(), OperandSize::S32)?;
+        self.masm.trapif(IntCmpKind::Ne, TRAP_BAD_SIGNATURE)?;
+        self.context.free_reg(callee_id);
+        self.context.free_reg(caller_id);
+        anyhow::Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Emit the usual function end instruction sequence.
+    fn emit_end(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        // The implicit body block is treated a normal block (it pushes results
+        // to the stack); so when reaching the end, we pop them taking as
+        // reference the current function's signature.
+        let base = SPOffset::from_u32(self.context.frame.locals_size);
+        self.masm.start_source_loc(Default::default())?;
+        if self.context.reachable {
+            ControlStackFrame::pop_abi_results_impl(
+                &mut self.sig.results,
+                &mut self.context,
+                self.masm,
+                |results, _, _| Ok(results.ret_area().copied()),
+            )?;
+        } else {
+            // If we reach the end of the function in an unreachable code state,
+            // simply truncate to the expected values.
+            // The compiler could enter this state through an infinite loop.
+            self.context.truncate_stack_to(0)?;
+            self.masm.reset_stack_pointer(base)?;
+        }
+        ensure!(
+            self.context.stack.len() == 0,
+            CodeGenError::unexpected_value_in_value_stack()
+        );
+        self.masm.free_stack(self.context.frame.locals_size)?;
+        self.masm.epilogue()?;
+        self.masm.end_source_loc()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Pops the value at the stack top and assigns it to the local at
+    /// the given index, returning the typed register holding the
+    /// source value.
+    pub fn emit_set_local(&mut self, index: u32) -> Result<TypedReg> {
+        // Materialize any references to the same local index that are in the
+        // value stack by spilling.
+        if self.context.stack.contains_latent_local(index) {
+            self.context.spill(self.masm)?;
+        }
+        let src = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+        // Need to get address of local after `pop_to_reg` since `pop_to_reg`
+        // will pop the machine stack causing an incorrect address to be
+        // calculated.
+        let (ty, addr) = self.context.frame.get_local_address(index, self.masm)?;
+        self.masm
+            .store(RegImm::reg(src.reg), addr, ty.try_into()?)?;
+
+        Ok(src)
+    }
+
+    /// Loads the address of the given global.
+    pub fn emit_get_global_addr(&mut self, index: GlobalIndex) -> Result<(WasmValType, Reg, u32)> {
+        let data = self.env.resolve_global(index);
+
+        if data.imported {
+            let global_base = self.masm.address_at_reg(vmctx!(M), data.offset)?;
+            let dst = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+            self.masm.load_ptr(global_base, writable!(dst))?;
+            Ok((data.ty, dst, 0))
+        } else {
+            Ok((data.ty, vmctx!(M), data.offset))
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn emit_lazy_init_funcref(&mut self, table_index: TableIndex) -> Result<()> {
+        assert!(self.tunables.table_lazy_init, "unsupported eager init");
+        let table_data = self.env.resolve_table_data(table_index);
+        let ptr_type = self.env.ptr_type();
+        let builtin = self
+            .env
+            .builtins
+            .table_get_lazy_init_func_ref::<M::ABI, M::Ptr>()?;
+
+        // Request the builtin's  result register and use it to hold the table
+        // element value. We preemptively spill and request this register to
+        // avoid conflict at the control flow merge below. Requesting the result
+        // register is safe since we know ahead-of-time the builtin's signature.
+        self.context.spill(self.masm)?;
+        let elem_value: Reg = self.context.reg(
+            builtin.sig().results.unwrap_singleton().unwrap_reg(),
+            self.masm,
+        )?;
+
+        let index = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+        let base = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+
+        let elem_addr = self.emit_compute_table_elem_addr(index.into(), base, &table_data)?;
+        self.masm.load_ptr(elem_addr, writable!(elem_value))?;
+        // Free the register used as base, once we have loaded the element
+        // address into the element value register.
+        self.context.free_reg(base);
+
+        let (defined, cont) = (self.masm.get_label()?, self.masm.get_label()?);
+
+        // Push the built-in arguments to the stack.
+        self.context
+            .stack
+            .extend([table_index.as_u32().try_into().unwrap(), index.into()]);
+
+        self.masm.branch(
+            IntCmpKind::Ne,
+            elem_value,
+            elem_value.into(),
+            defined,
+            ptr_type.try_into()?,
+        )?;
+        // Free the element value register.
+        // This is safe since the FnCall::emit call below, will ensure
+        // that the result register is placed on the value stack.
+        self.context.free_reg(elem_value);
+        FnCall::emit::<M>(
+            &mut self.env,
+            self.masm,
+            &mut self.context,
+            Callee::Builtin(builtin.clone()),
+        )?;
+
+        // We know the signature of the libcall in this case, so we assert that there's
+        // one element in the stack and that it's  the ABI signature's result register.
+        let top = self
+            .context
+            .stack
+            .peek()
+            .ok_or_else(|| CodeGenError::missing_values_in_stack())?;
+        let top = top.unwrap_reg();
+        ensure!(
+            top.reg == elem_value,
+            CodeGenError::table_element_value_expected()
+        );
+        self.masm.jmp(cont)?;
+
+        // In the defined case, mask the funcref address in place, by peeking into the
+        // last element of the value stack, which was pushed by the `indirect` function
+        // call above.
+        //
+        // Note that `FUNCREF_MASK` as type `usize` but here we want a 64-bit
+        // value so assert its actual value and then use a `-2` literal.
+        self.masm.bind(defined)?;
+        assert_eq!(FUNCREF_MASK as isize, -2);
+        let imm = RegImm::i64(-2);
+        let dst = top.into();
+        self.masm
+            .and(writable!(dst), dst, imm, top.ty.try_into()?)?;
+
+        self.masm.bind(cont)
+    }
+
+    /// Emits a series of instructions to bounds check and calculate the address
+    /// of the given WebAssembly memory.
+    /// This function returns a register containing the requested address.
+    ///
+    /// In essence, when computing the heap address for a WebAssembly load or
+    /// store instruction the objective is to ensure that such access is safe,
+    /// but also to perform the least amount of checks, and rely on the system to
+    /// detect illegal memory accesses where applicable.
+    ///
+    /// Winch follows almost the same principles as Cranelift when it comes to
+    /// bounds checks, for a more detailed explanation refer to
+    /// prepare_addr in wasmtime-cranelift.
+    ///
+    /// Winch implementation differs in that, it defaults to the general case
+    /// for dynamic heaps rather than optimizing for doing the least amount of
+    /// work possible at runtime, this is done to align with Winch's principle
+    /// of doing the least amount of work possible at compile time. For static
+    /// heaps, Winch does a bit more of work, given that some of the cases that
+    /// are checked against, can benefit compilation times, like for example,
+    /// detecting an out of bounds access at compile time.
+    pub fn emit_compute_heap_address(
+        &mut self,
+        memarg: &MemArg,
+        access_size: OperandSize,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Reg>> {
+        let ptr_size: OperandSize = self.env.ptr_type().try_into()?;
+        let enable_spectre_mitigation = self.env.heap_access_spectre_mitigation();
+        let add_offset_and_access_size = |offset: ImmOffset, access_size: OperandSize| {
+            (access_size.bytes() as u64) + (offset.as_u32() as u64)
+        };
+
+        let memory_index = MemoryIndex::from_u32(memarg.memory);
+        let heap = self.env.resolve_heap(memory_index);
+        let index = Index::from_typed_reg(self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?);
+
+        let offset = bounds::ensure_index_and_offset(
+            self.masm,
+            index,
+            memarg.offset,
+            heap.index_type().try_into()?,
+        )?;
+        let offset_with_access_size = add_offset_and_access_size(offset, access_size);
+
+        let can_elide_bounds_check = heap
+            .memory
+            .can_elide_bounds_check(self.tunables, self.env.page_size_log2);
+
+        let addr = if offset_with_access_size > heap.memory.maximum_byte_size().unwrap_or(u64::MAX)
+        {
+            // Detect at compile time if the access is out of bounds.
+            // Doing so will put the compiler in an unreachable code state,
+            // optimizing the work that the compiler has to do until the
+            // reachability is restored or when reaching the end of the
+            // function.
+
+            self.emit_fuel_increment()?;
+            self.masm.trap(TrapCode::HEAP_OUT_OF_BOUNDS)?;
+            self.context.reachable = false;
+            None
+        } else if !can_elide_bounds_check {
+            // Account for the general case for bounds-checked memories. The
+            // access is out of bounds if:
+            // * index + offset + access_size overflows
+            //   OR
+            // * index + offset + access_size > bound
+            let bounds = bounds::load_dynamic_heap_bounds::<_>(
+                &mut self.context,
+                self.masm,
+                &heap,
+                ptr_size,
+            )?;
+
+            let index_reg = index.as_typed_reg().reg;
+            // Allocate a temporary register to hold
+            //      index + offset + access_size
+            //  which will serve as the check condition.
+            let index_offset_and_access_size = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+
+            // Move the value of the index to the
+            // index_offset_and_access_size register to perform the overflow
+            // check to avoid clobbering the initial index value.
+            //
+            // We derive size of the operation from the heap type since:
+            //
+            // * This is the first assignment to the
+            // `index_offset_and_access_size` register
+            //
+            // * The memory64 proposal specifies that the index is bound to
+            // the heap type instead of hardcoding it to 32-bits (i32).
+            self.masm.mov(
+                writable!(index_offset_and_access_size),
+                index_reg.into(),
+                heap.index_type().try_into()?,
+            )?;
+            // Perform
+            // index = index + offset + access_size, trapping if the
+            // addition overflows.
+            //
+            // We use the target's pointer size rather than depending on the heap
+            // type since we want to check for overflow; even though the
+            // offset and access size are guaranteed to be bounded by the heap
+            // type, when added, if used with the wrong operand size, their
+            // result could be clamped, resulting in an erroneous overflow
+            // check.
+            self.masm.checked_uadd(
+                writable!(index_offset_and_access_size),
+                index_offset_and_access_size,
+                Imm::i64(offset_with_access_size as i64),
+                ptr_size,
+                TrapCode::HEAP_OUT_OF_BOUNDS,
+            )?;
+
+            let addr = bounds::load_heap_addr_checked(
+                self.masm,
+                &mut self.context,
+                ptr_size,
+                &heap,
+                enable_spectre_mitigation,
+                bounds,
+                index,
+                offset,
+                |masm, bounds, _| {
+                    let bounds_reg = bounds.as_typed_reg().reg;
+                    masm.cmp(
+                        index_offset_and_access_size,
+                        bounds_reg.into(),
+                        // We use the pointer size to keep the bounds
+                        // comparison consistent with the result of the
+                        // overflow check above.
+                        ptr_size,
+                    )?;
+                    Ok(IntCmpKind::GtU)
+                },
+            )?;
+            self.context.free_reg(bounds.as_typed_reg().reg);
+            self.context.free_reg(index_offset_and_access_size);
+            Some(addr)
+
+        // Account for the case in which we can completely elide the bounds
+        // checks.
+        //
+        // This case, makes use of the fact that if a memory access uses
+        // a 32-bit index, then we be certain that
+        //
+        //      index <= u32::MAX
+        //
+        // Therefore if any 32-bit index access occurs in the region
+        // represented by
+        //
+        //      bound + guard_size - (offset + access_size)
+        //
+        // We are certain that it's in bounds or that the underlying virtual
+        // memory subsystem will report an illegal access at runtime.
+        //
+        // Note:
+        //
+        // * bound - (offset + access_size) cannot wrap, because it's checked
+        // in the condition above.
+        // * bound + heap.offset_guard_size is guaranteed to not overflow if
+        // the heap configuration is correct, given that it's address must
+        // fit in 64-bits.
+        // * If the heap type is 32-bits, the offset is at most u32::MAX, so
+        // no  adjustment is needed as part of
+        // [bounds::ensure_index_and_offset].
+        } else if u64::from(u32::MAX)
+            <= self.tunables.memory_reservation + self.tunables.memory_guard_size
+                - offset_with_access_size
+        {
+            assert!(can_elide_bounds_check);
+            assert!(heap.index_type() == WasmValType::I32);
+            let addr = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+            bounds::load_heap_addr_unchecked(self.masm, &heap, index, offset, addr, ptr_size)?;
+            Some(addr)
+
+        // Account for the all remaining cases, aka. The access is out
+        // of bounds if:
+        //
+        // index > bound - (offset + access_size)
+        //
+        // bound - (offset + access_size) cannot wrap, because we already
+        // checked that (offset + access_size) > bound, above.
+        } else {
+            assert!(can_elide_bounds_check);
+            assert!(heap.index_type() == WasmValType::I32);
+            let bounds = Bounds::from_u64(self.tunables.memory_reservation);
+            let addr = bounds::load_heap_addr_checked(
+                self.masm,
+                &mut self.context,
+                ptr_size,
+                &heap,
+                enable_spectre_mitigation,
+                bounds,
+                index,
+                offset,
+                |masm, bounds, index| {
+                    let adjusted_bounds = bounds.as_u64() - offset_with_access_size;
+                    let index_reg = index.as_typed_reg().reg;
+                    masm.cmp(
+                        index_reg,
+                        RegImm::i64(adjusted_bounds as i64),
+                        // Similar to the dynamic heap case, even though the
+                        // offset and access size are bound through the heap
+                        // type, when added they can overflow, resulting in
+                        // an erroneous comparison, therfore we rely on the
+                        // target pointer size.
+                        ptr_size,
+                    )?;
+                    Ok(IntCmpKind::GtU)
+                },
+            )?;
+            Some(addr)
+        };
+
+        self.context.free_reg(index.as_typed_reg().reg);
+        Ok(addr)
+    }
+
+    /// Emit checks to ensure that the address at `memarg` is correctly aligned for `size`.
+    fn emit_check_align(&mut self, memarg: &MemArg, size: OperandSize) -> Result<()> {
+        if size.bytes() > 1 {
+            // Peek addr from top of the stack by popping and pushing.
+            let addr = *self
+                .context
+                .stack
+                .peek()
+                .ok_or_else(|| CodeGenError::missing_values_in_stack())?;
+            let tmp = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+            self.context.move_val_to_reg(&addr, tmp, self.masm)?;
+
+            if memarg.offset != 0 {
+                self.masm.add(
+                    writable!(tmp),
+                    tmp,
+                    RegImm::Imm(Imm::I64(memarg.offset)),
+                    size,
+                )?;
+            }
+
+            self.masm.and(
+                writable!(tmp),
+                tmp,
+                RegImm::Imm(Imm::I32(size.bytes() - 1)),
+                size,
+            )?;
+
+            self.masm.cmp(tmp, RegImm::Imm(Imm::i64(0)), size)?;
+            self.masm.trapif(IntCmpKind::Ne, TRAP_HEAP_MISALIGNED)?;
+            self.context.free_reg(tmp);
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn emit_compute_heap_address_align_checked(
+        &mut self,
+        memarg: &MemArg,
+        access_size: OperandSize,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Reg>> {
+        self.emit_check_align(memarg, access_size)?;
+        self.emit_compute_heap_address(memarg, access_size)
+    }
+
+    /// Emit a WebAssembly load.
+    pub fn emit_wasm_load(
+        &mut self,
+        arg: &MemArg,
+        target_type: WasmValType,
+        kind: LoadKind,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let emit_load = |this: &mut Self, dst, addr, kind| -> Result<()> {
+            let src = this.masm.address_at_reg(addr, 0)?;
+            this.masm.wasm_load(src, writable!(dst), kind)?;
+            this.context
+                .stack
+                .push(TypedReg::new(target_type, dst).into());
+            this.context.free_reg(addr);
+            Ok(())
+        };
+
+        // Ensure that the destination register is not allocated if
+        // `emit_compute_heap_address` does not return an address.
+        match kind {
+            LoadKind::VectorLane(_) => {
+                // Destination vector register is at the top of the stack and
+                // `emit_compute_heap_address` expects an integer register
+                // containing the address to load to be at the top of the stack.
+                let dst = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+                let addr = self.emit_compute_heap_address(&arg, kind.derive_operand_size())?;
+                if let Some(addr) = addr {
+                    emit_load(self, dst.reg, addr, kind)?;
+                } else {
+                    self.context.free_reg(dst);
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let maybe_addr = match kind {
+                    LoadKind::Atomic(_, _) => self.emit_compute_heap_address_align_checked(
+                        &arg,
+                        kind.derive_operand_size(),
+                    )?,
+                    _ => self.emit_compute_heap_address(&arg, kind.derive_operand_size())?,
+                };
+
+                if let Some(addr) = maybe_addr {
+                    let dst = match target_type {
+                        WasmValType::I32 | WasmValType::I64 => self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?,
+                        WasmValType::F32 | WasmValType::F64 => self.context.any_fpr(self.masm)?,
+                        WasmValType::V128 => self.context.reg_for_type(target_type, self.masm)?,
+                        _ => bail!(CodeGenError::unsupported_wasm_type()),
+                    };
+
+                    emit_load(self, dst, addr, kind)?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Emit a WebAssembly store.
+    pub fn emit_wasm_store(&mut self, arg: &MemArg, kind: StoreKind) -> Result<()> {
+        let src = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+
+        let maybe_addr = match kind {
+            StoreKind::Atomic(size) => self.emit_compute_heap_address_align_checked(&arg, size)?,
+            StoreKind::Operand(size) | StoreKind::VectorLane(LaneSelector { size, .. }) => {
+                self.emit_compute_heap_address(&arg, size)?
+            }
+        };
+
+        if let Some(addr) = maybe_addr {
+            self.masm
+                .wasm_store(src.reg, self.masm.address_at_reg(addr, 0)?, kind)?;
+
+            self.context.free_reg(addr);
+        }
+        self.context.free_reg(src);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Loads the address of the table element at a given index. Returns the
+    /// address of the table element using the provided register as base.
+    pub fn emit_compute_table_elem_addr(
+        &mut self,
+        index: Reg,
+        base: Reg,
+        table_data: &TableData,
+    ) -> Result<M::Address> {
+        let bound = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+        let tmp = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+        let ptr_size: OperandSize = self.env.ptr_type().try_into()?;
+
+        if let Some(offset) = table_data.import_from {
+            // If the table data declares a particular offset base,
+            // load the address into a register to further use it as
+            // the table address.
+            self.masm
+                .load_ptr(self.masm.address_at_vmctx(offset)?, writable!(base))?;
+        } else {
+            // Else, simply move the vmctx register into the addr register as
+            // the base to calculate the table address.
+            self.masm.mov(writable!(base), vmctx!(M).into(), ptr_size)?;
+        };
+
+        // OOB check.
+        let bound_addr = self
+            .masm
+            .address_at_reg(base, table_data.current_elems_offset)?;
+        let bound_size = table_data.current_elements_size;
+        self.masm.load(bound_addr, writable!(bound), bound_size)?;
+        self.masm.cmp(index, bound.into(), bound_size)?;
+        self.masm
+            .trapif(IntCmpKind::GeU, TRAP_TABLE_OUT_OF_BOUNDS)?;
+
+        // Move the index into the scratch register to calculate the table
+        // element address.
+        // Moving the value of the index register to the scratch register
+        // also avoids overwriting the context of the index register.
+        self.masm.with_scratch::<IntScratch, _>(|masm, scratch| {
+            masm.mov(scratch.writable(), index.into(), bound_size)?;
+            masm.mul(
+                scratch.writable(),
+                scratch.inner(),
+                RegImm::i32(table_data.element_size.bytes() as i32),
+                table_data.element_size,
+            )?;
+            masm.load_ptr(
+                masm.address_at_reg(base, table_data.offset)?,
+                writable!(base),
+            )?;
+            // Copy the value of the table base into a temporary register
+            // so that we can use it later in case of a misspeculation.
+            masm.mov(writable!(tmp), base.into(), ptr_size)?;
+            // Calculate the address of the table element.
+            masm.add(writable!(base), base, scratch.inner().into(), ptr_size)
+        })?;
+        if self.env.table_access_spectre_mitigation() {
+            // Perform a bounds check and override the value of the
+            // table element address in case the index is out of bounds.
+            self.masm.cmp(index, bound.into(), OperandSize::S32)?;
+            self.masm
+                .cmov(writable!(base), tmp, IntCmpKind::GeU, ptr_size)?;
+        }
+        self.context.free_reg(bound);
+        self.context.free_reg(tmp);
+        self.masm.address_at_reg(base, 0)
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves the size of the table, pushing the result to the value stack.
+    pub fn emit_compute_table_size(&mut self, table_data: &TableData) -> Result<()> {
+        let size = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+        let ptr_size: OperandSize = self.env.ptr_type().try_into()?;
+
+        self.masm.with_scratch::<IntScratch, _>(|masm, scratch| {
+            if let Some(offset) = table_data.import_from {
+                masm.load_ptr(masm.address_at_vmctx(offset)?, scratch.writable())?;
+            } else {
+                masm.mov(scratch.writable(), vmctx!(M).into(), ptr_size)?;
+            };
+
+            let size_addr =
+                masm.address_at_reg(scratch.inner(), table_data.current_elems_offset)?;
+            masm.load(size_addr, writable!(size), table_data.current_elements_size)
+        })?;
+
+        let dst = TypedReg::new(table_data.index_type(), size);
+        self.context.stack.push(dst.into());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves the size of the memory, pushing the result to the value stack.
+    pub fn emit_compute_memory_size(&mut self, heap_data: &HeapData) -> Result<()> {
+        let size_reg = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+
+        self.masm.with_scratch::<IntScratch, _>(|masm, scratch| {
+            let base = if let Some(offset) = heap_data.import_from {
+                masm.load_ptr(masm.address_at_vmctx(offset)?, scratch.writable())?;
+                scratch.inner()
+            } else {
+                vmctx!(M)
+            };
+
+            let size_addr = masm.address_at_reg(base, heap_data.current_length_offset)?;
+            masm.load_ptr(size_addr, writable!(size_reg))
+        })?;
+        // Emit a shift to get the size in pages rather than in bytes.
+        let dst = TypedReg::new(heap_data.index_type(), size_reg);
+        let pow = heap_data.memory.page_size_log2;
+        self.masm.shift_ir(
+            writable!(dst.reg),
+            Imm::i32(pow as i32),
+            dst.into(),
+            ShiftKind::ShrU,
+            heap_data.index_type().try_into()?,
+        )?;
+        self.context.stack.push(dst.into());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Checks if fuel consumption is enabled and emits a series of instructions
+    /// that check the current fuel usage by performing a zero-comparison with
+    /// the number of units stored in `VMStoreContext`.
+    pub fn maybe_emit_fuel_check(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.tunables.consume_fuel {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        self.emit_fuel_increment()?;
+        let out_of_fuel = self.env.builtins.out_of_gas::<M::ABI, M::Ptr>()?;
+        let fuel_reg = self.context.without::<Result<Reg>, M, _>(
+            &out_of_fuel.sig().regs,
+            self.masm,
+            |cx, masm| cx.any_gpr(masm),
+        )??;
+
+        self.emit_load_fuel_consumed(fuel_reg)?;
+
+        // The  continuation label if the current fuel is under the limit.
+        let continuation = self.masm.get_label()?;
+
+        // Spill locals and registers to avoid conflicts at the out-of-fuel
+        // control flow merge.
+        self.context.spill(self.masm)?;
+        // Fuel is stored as a negative i64, so if the number is less than zero,
+        // we're still under the fuel limits.
+        self.masm.branch(
+            IntCmpKind::LtS,
+            fuel_reg,
+            RegImm::i64(0),
+            continuation,
+            OperandSize::S64,
+        )?;
+        // Out-of-fuel branch.
+        FnCall::emit::<M>(
+            &mut self.env,
+            self.masm,
+            &mut self.context,
+            Callee::Builtin(out_of_fuel.clone()),
+        )?;
+        self.context.pop_and_free(self.masm)?;
+
+        // Under fuel limits branch.
+        self.masm.bind(continuation)?;
+        self.context.free_reg(fuel_reg);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Emits a series of instructions that load the `fuel_consumed` field from
+    /// `VMStoreContext`.
+    fn emit_load_fuel_consumed(&mut self, fuel_reg: Reg) -> Result<()> {
+        let store_context_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vmctx_store_context();
+        let fuel_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vmstore_context_fuel_consumed();
+        self.masm.load_ptr(
+            self.masm
+                .address_at_vmctx(u32::from(store_context_offset))?,
+            writable!(fuel_reg),
+        )?;
+
+        self.masm.load(
+            self.masm.address_at_reg(fuel_reg, u32::from(fuel_offset))?,
+            writable!(fuel_reg),
+            // Fuel is an i64.
+            OperandSize::S64,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Checks if epoch interruption is configured and emits a series of
+    /// instructions that check the current epoch against its deadline.
+    pub fn maybe_emit_epoch_check(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.tunables.epoch_interruption {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        // The continuation branch if the current epoch hasn't reached the
+        // configured deadline.
+        let cont = self.masm.get_label()?;
+        let new_epoch = self.env.builtins.new_epoch::<M::ABI, M::Ptr>()?;
+
+        // Checks for runtime limits (e.g., fuel, epoch) are special since they
+        // require inserting arbitrary function calls and control flow.
+        // Special care must be taken to ensure that all invariants are met. In
+        // this case, since `new_epoch` takes an argument and returns a value,
+        // we must ensure that any registers used to hold the current epoch
+        // value and deadline are not going to be needed later on by the
+        // function call.
+        let (epoch_deadline_reg, epoch_counter_reg) =
+            self.context.without::<Result<(Reg, Reg)>, M, _>(
+                &new_epoch.sig().regs,
+                self.masm,
+                |cx, masm| Ok((cx.any_gpr(masm)?, cx.any_gpr(masm)?)),
+            )??;
+
+        self.emit_load_epoch_deadline_and_counter(epoch_deadline_reg, epoch_counter_reg)?;
+
+        // Spill locals and registers to avoid conflicts at the control flow
+        // merge below.
+        self.context.spill(self.masm)?;
+        self.masm.branch(
+            IntCmpKind::LtU,
+            epoch_counter_reg,
+            RegImm::reg(epoch_deadline_reg),
+            cont,
+            OperandSize::S64,
+        )?;
+        // Epoch deadline reached branch.
+        FnCall::emit::<M>(
+            &mut self.env,
+            self.masm,
+            &mut self.context,
+            Callee::Builtin(new_epoch.clone()),
+        )?;
+        // `new_epoch` returns the new deadline. However we don't
+        // perform any caching, so we simply drop this value.
+        self.visit_drop()?;
+
+        // Under epoch deadline branch.
+        self.masm.bind(cont)?;
+
+        self.context.free_reg(epoch_deadline_reg);
+        self.context.free_reg(epoch_counter_reg);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn emit_load_epoch_deadline_and_counter(
+        &mut self,
+        epoch_deadline_reg: Reg,
+        epoch_counter_reg: Reg,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let epoch_ptr_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vmctx_epoch_ptr();
+        let store_context_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vmctx_store_context();
+        let epoch_deadline_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vmstore_context_epoch_deadline();
+
+        // Load the current epoch value into `epoch_counter_var`.
+        self.masm.load_ptr(
+            self.masm.address_at_vmctx(u32::from(epoch_ptr_offset))?,
+            writable!(epoch_counter_reg),
+        )?;
+
+        // `epoch_deadline_var` contains the address of the value, so we need
+        // to extract it.
+        self.masm.load(
+            self.masm.address_at_reg(epoch_counter_reg, 0)?,
+            writable!(epoch_counter_reg),
+            OperandSize::S64,
+        )?;
+
+        // Load the `VMStoreContext`.
+        self.masm.load_ptr(
+            self.masm
+                .address_at_vmctx(u32::from(store_context_offset))?,
+            writable!(epoch_deadline_reg),
+        )?;
+
+        self.masm.load(
+            self.masm
+                .address_at_reg(epoch_deadline_reg, u32::from(epoch_deadline_offset))?,
+            writable!(epoch_deadline_reg),
+            // The deadline value is a u64.
+            OperandSize::S64,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Increments the fuel consumed in `VMStoreContext` by flushing
+    /// `self.fuel_consumed` to memory.
+    fn emit_fuel_increment(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        let fuel_at_point = std::mem::replace(&mut self.fuel_consumed, 0);
+        if fuel_at_point == 0 {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let store_context_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vmctx_store_context();
+        let fuel_offset = self.env.vmoffsets.ptr.vmstore_context_fuel_consumed();
+        let limits_reg = self.context.any_gpr(self.masm)?;
+
+        // Load `VMStoreContext` into the `limits_reg` reg.
+        self.masm.load_ptr(
+            self.masm
+                .address_at_vmctx(u32::from(store_context_offset))?,
+            writable!(limits_reg),
+        )?;
+
+        self.masm.with_scratch::<IntScratch, _>(|masm, scratch| {
+            // Load the fuel consumed at point into the scratch register.
+            masm.load(
+                masm.address_at_reg(limits_reg, u32::from(fuel_offset))?,
+                scratch.writable(),
+                OperandSize::S64,
+            )?;
+
+            // Add the fuel consumed at point with the value in the scratch
+            // register.
+            masm.add(
+                scratch.writable(),
+                scratch.inner(),
+                RegImm::i64(fuel_at_point),
+                OperandSize::S64,
+            )?;
+
+            // Store the updated fuel consumed to `VMStoreContext`.
+            masm.store(
+                scratch.inner().into(),
+                masm.address_at_reg(limits_reg, u32::from(fuel_offset))?,
+                OperandSize::S64,
+            )
+        })?;
+
+        self.context.free_reg(limits_reg);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Hook to handle fuel before visiting an operator.
+    fn fuel_before_visit_op(&mut self, op: &Operator) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.context.reachable {
+            // `self.fuel_consumed` must be correctly flushed to memory when
+            // entering an unreachable state.
+            ensure!(self.fuel_consumed == 0, CodeGenError::illegal_fuel_state())
+        }
+
+        // Generally, most instructions require 1 fuel unit.
+        //
+        // However, there are exceptions, which are detailed in the code below.
+        // Note that the fuel accounting semantics align with those of
+        // Cranelift; for further information, refer to
+        // `crates/cranelift/src/func_environ.rs`.
+        //
+        // The primary distinction between the two implementations is that Winch
+        // does not utilize a local-based cache to track fuel consumption.
+        // Instead, each increase in fuel necessitates loading from and storing
+        // to memory.
+        //
+        // Memory traffic will undoubtedly impact runtime performance. One
+        // potential optimization is to designate a register as non-allocatable,
+        // when fuel consumption is enabled, effectively using it as a local
+        // fuel cache.
+        self.fuel_consumed += match op {
+            Operator::Nop | Operator::Drop => 0,
+            Operator::Block { .. }
+            | Operator::Loop { .. }
+            | Operator::Unreachable
+            | Operator::Return
+            | Operator::Else
+            | Operator::End => 0,
+            _ => 1,
+        };
+
+        match op {
+            Operator::Unreachable
+            | Operator::Loop { .. }
+            | Operator::If { .. }
+            | Operator::Else { .. }
+            | Operator::Br { .. }
+            | Operator::BrIf { .. }
+            | Operator::BrTable { .. }
+            | Operator::End
+            | Operator::Return
+            | Operator::CallIndirect { .. }
+            | Operator::Call { .. }
+            | Operator::ReturnCall { .. }
+            | Operator::ReturnCallIndirect { .. } => self.emit_fuel_increment(),
+            _ => Ok(()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Hook to handle source location mapping before visiting an operator.
+    fn source_location_before_visit_op(&mut self, offset: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        let loc = SourceLoc::new(offset as u32);
+        let rel = self.source_loc_from(loc);
+        self.source_location.current = self.masm.start_source_loc(rel)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    // Hook to handle source location mapping after visiting an operator.
+    fn source_location_after_visit_op(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        // Because in Winch binary emission is done in a single pass
+        // and because the MachBuffer performs optimizations during
+        // emission, we have to be careful when calling
+        // [`MacroAssembler::end_source_location`] to avoid breaking the
+        // invariant that checks that the end [CodeOffset] must be equal
+        // or greater than the start [CodeOffset].
+        if self.masm.current_code_offset()? >= self.source_location.current.0 {
+            self.masm.end_source_loc()?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn emit_atomic_rmw(
+        &mut self,
+        arg: &MemArg,
+        op: RmwOp,
+        size: OperandSize,
+        extend: Option<Extend<Zero>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // We need to pop-push the operand to compute the address before passing control over to
+        // masm, because some architectures may have specific requirements for the registers used
+        // in some atomic operations.
+        let operand = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+        if let Some(addr) = self.emit_compute_heap_address_align_checked(arg, size)? {
+            let src = self.masm.address_at_reg(addr, 0)?;
+            self.context.stack.push(operand.into());
+            self.masm
+                .atomic_rmw(&mut self.context, src, size, op, UNTRUSTED_FLAGS, extend)?;
+            self.context.free_reg(addr);
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn emit_atomic_cmpxchg(
+        &mut self,
+        arg: &MemArg,
+        size: OperandSize,
+        extend: Option<Extend<Zero>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // Emission for this instruction is a bit trickier. The address for the CAS is the 3rd from
+        // the top of the stack, and we must emit instruction to compute the actual address with
+        // `emit_compute_heap_address_align_checked`, while we still have access to self. However,
+        // some ISAs have requirements with regard to the registers used for some arguments, so we
+        // need to pass the context to the masm. To solve this issue, we pop the two first
+        // arguments from the stack, compute the address, push back the arguments, and hand over
+        // the control to masm. The implementer of `atomic_cas` can expect to find `expected` and
+        // `replacement` at the top the context's stack.
+
+        // pop the args
+        let replacement = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+        let expected = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+
+        if let Some(addr) = self.emit_compute_heap_address_align_checked(arg, size)? {
+            // push back the args
+            self.context.stack.push(expected.into());
+            self.context.stack.push(replacement.into());
+
+            let src = self.masm.address_at_reg(addr, 0)?;
+            self.masm
+                .atomic_cas(&mut self.context, src, size, UNTRUSTED_FLAGS, extend)?;
+
+            self.context.free_reg(addr);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "threads"))]
+    pub fn emit_atomic_wait(&mut self, _arg: &MemArg, _kind: AtomicWaitKind) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(CodeGenError::unimplemented_wasm_instruction().into())
+    }
+
+    /// Emit the sequence of instruction for a `memory.atomic.wait*`.
+    #[cfg(feature = "threads")]
+    pub fn emit_atomic_wait(&mut self, arg: &MemArg, kind: AtomicWaitKind) -> Result<()> {
+        // The `memory_atomic_wait*` builtins expect the following arguments:
+        // - `memory`, as u32
+        // - `address`, as u64
+        // - `expected`, as either u64 or u32
+        // - `timeout`, as u64
+        // At this point our stack only contains the `timeout`, the `expected` and the address, so
+        // we need to:
+        // - insert the memory as the first argument
+        // - compute the actual memory offset from the `MemArg`, if necessary.
+        // Note that the builtin function performs the alignment and bounds checks for us, so we
+        // don't need to emit that.
+
+        let timeout = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+        let expected = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+        let addr = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+
+        // Put the target memory index as the first argument.
+        let stack_len = self.context.stack.len();
+        let builtin = match kind {
+            AtomicWaitKind::Wait32 => self.env.builtins.memory_atomic_wait32::<M::ABI, M::Ptr>()?,
+            AtomicWaitKind::Wait64 => self.env.builtins.memory_atomic_wait64::<M::ABI, M::Ptr>()?,
+        };
+        let builtin = self.prepare_builtin_defined_memory_arg(
+            MemoryIndex::from_u32(arg.memory),
+            stack_len,
+            builtin,
+        )?;
+
+        if arg.offset != 0 {
+            self.masm.add(
+                writable!(addr.reg),
+                addr.reg,
+                RegImm::i64(arg.offset as i64),
+                OperandSize::S64,
+            )?;
+        }
+
+        self.context
+            .stack
+            .push(TypedReg::new(WasmValType::I64, addr.reg).into());
+        self.context.stack.push(expected.into());
+        self.context.stack.push(timeout.into());
+
+        FnCall::emit::<M>(&mut self.env, self.masm, &mut self.context, builtin)?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "threads"))]
+    pub fn emit_atomic_notify(&mut self, _arg: &MemArg) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(CodeGenError::unimplemented_wasm_instruction().into())
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "threads")]
+    pub fn emit_atomic_notify(&mut self, arg: &MemArg) -> Result<()> {
+        // The memory `memory_atomic_notify` builtin expects the following arguments:
+        // - `memory`, as u32
+        // - `address`, as u64
+        // - `count`: as u32
+        // At this point our stack only contains the `count` and the `address`, so we need to:
+        // - insert the memory as the first argument
+        // - compute the actual memory offset from the `MemArg`, if necessary.
+        // Note that the builtin function performs the alignment and bounds checks for us, so we
+        // don't need to emit that.
+
+        // pop the arguments from the stack.
+        let count = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+        let addr = self.context.pop_to_reg(self.masm, None)?;
+
+        // Put the target memory index as the first argument.
+        let builtin = self.env.builtins.memory_atomic_notify::<M::ABI, M::Ptr>()?;
+        let stack_len = self.context.stack.len();
+        let builtin = self.prepare_builtin_defined_memory_arg(
+            MemoryIndex::from_u32(arg.memory),
+            stack_len,
+            builtin,
+        )?;
+
+        if arg.offset != 0 {
+            self.masm.add(
+                writable!(addr.reg),
+                addr.reg,
+                RegImm::i64(arg.offset as i64),
+                OperandSize::S64,
+            )?;
+        }
+
+        // push remaining arguments.
+        self.context
+            .stack
+            .push(TypedReg::new(WasmValType::I64, addr.reg).into());
+        self.context.stack.push(count.into());
+
+        FnCall::emit::<M>(&mut self.env, self.masm, &mut self.context, builtin)?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn prepare_builtin_defined_memory_arg(
+        &mut self,
+        mem: MemoryIndex,
+        defined_index_at: usize,
+        builtin: BuiltinFunction,
+    ) -> Result<Callee> {
+        match self.env.translation.module.defined_memory_index(mem) {
+            // This memory is defined in this module, so the vmctx is this
+            // module's vmctx and the memory index is `defined` as returned here.
+            Some(defined) => {
+                self.context
+                    .stack
+                    .insert_many(defined_index_at, &[defined.as_u32().try_into()?]);
+                Ok(Callee::Builtin(builtin))
+            }
+
+            // This memory is not defined in this module, so the defined index
+            // is loaded from the `VMMemoryImport` and the vmctx is loaded from
+            // the vmctx itself.
+            None => {
+                let vmimport = self.env.vmoffsets.vmctx_vmmemory_import(mem);
+                let vmctx_offset = vmimport + u32::from(self.env.vmoffsets.vmmemory_import_vmctx());
+                let index_offset = vmimport + u32::from(self.env.vmoffsets.vmmemory_import_index());
+                let index_addr = self.masm.address_at_vmctx(index_offset)?;
+                let index_dst = self.context.reg_for_class(RegClass::Int, self.masm)?;
+                self.masm
+                    .load(index_addr, writable!(index_dst), OperandSize::S32)?;
+                self.context
+                    .stack
+                    .insert_many(defined_index_at, &[Val::reg(index_dst, WasmValType::I32)]);
+                Ok(Callee::BuiltinWithDifferentVmctx(builtin, vmctx_offset))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Same as `prepare_builtin_defined_memory_arg`, but for tables.
+    pub fn prepare_builtin_defined_table_arg(
+        &mut self,
+        table: TableIndex,
+        defined_index_at: usize,
+        builtin: BuiltinFunction,
+    ) -> Result<Callee> {
+        match self.env.translation.module.defined_table_index(table) {
+            Some(defined) => {
+                self.context
+                    .stack
+                    .insert_many(defined_index_at, &[defined.as_u32().try_into()?]);
+                Ok(Callee::Builtin(builtin))
+            }
+            None => {
+                let vmimport = self.env.vmoffsets.vmctx_vmtable_import(table);
+                let vmctx_offset = vmimport + u32::from(self.env.vmoffsets.vmtable_import_vmctx());
+                let index_offset = vmimport + u32::from(self.env.vmoffsets.vmtable_import_index());
+                let index_addr = self.masm.address_at_vmctx(index_offset)?;
+                let index_dst = self.context.reg_for_class(RegClass::Int, self.masm)?;
+                self.masm
+                    .load(index_addr, writable!(index_dst), OperandSize::S32)?;
+                self.context
+                    .stack
+                    .insert_many(defined_index_at, &[Val::reg(index_dst, WasmValType::I32)]);
+                Ok(Callee::BuiltinWithDifferentVmctx(builtin, vmctx_offset))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Returns the index of the [`ControlStackFrame`] for the given
+/// depth.
+pub fn control_index(depth: u32, control_length: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+    (control_length - 1)
+        .checked_sub(depth as usize)
+        .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!(CodeGenError::control_frame_expected()))
+}