pedicab 0.1.5 → 0.1.7

data/books/cia-kubark.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,4637 @@
+
+This manual cannot teach anyone how to be, or become, 
+a good interrogator. At best it can help readers to avoid the 
+characteristic mistakes of poor interrogators. 
+
+
+Its purpose is to provide guidelines for KUBARK 
+interrogation, and particularly the counterintelligence 
+interrogation of resistant sources. Designed as an aid for 
+interrogators and others immediately concerned, it is based 
+largely upon the published results of extensive research, 
+including scientific inquiries conducted by specialists in 
+closely related subjects. 
+
+
+There is nothing mysterious about interrogation. It 
+consists of no more than obtaining needed information through 
+responses to questions. As is true of all craftsmen, some 
+interrogators are more able than others; and some of their 
+superiority may be innate. But sound interrogation nevertheless 
+rests upon a knowledge of the subject matter and on certain 
+broad principles, chiefly psychological, which are not hard 
+to understand. The success of good interrogators depends in 
+-large measure upon their use, conscious or not, of these 
+principles and of processes and techniques deriving from them. 
+Knowledge of subject matter and of the basic principles will 
+not of itself create a successful interrogation, but it will make 
+possible the avoidance of mistakes that are characteristic of 
+poor interrogation. The purpose, then, is not to teach the 
+reader how to be a good interrogator but rather to tell him 
+
+The interrogation of a resistant source who is a staff or 
+agent member of an Orbit intelligence or security service or of 
+a clandestine Communist organization is one of the most exacting 
+of professional tasks. Usually the odds still favor the interrogator, 
+but they are sharply cut by the training, experience, patience 
+and toughness of the interrogatee. In such circumstances the 
+interrogator needs all the help that he can get. And a principal 
+source of aid today is scientific findings. The intelligence 
+service which is able to bring pertinent, modern knowledge to 
+bear upon its problems enjoys huge advantages over a service 
+which conducts its clandestine business in eighteenth century 
+fashion. It is true that American psychologists have devoted 
+somewhat mote attention to Communist interrogation techniques, 
+particularly "brainwashing", than to U.S. practices. Yet they 
+have conducted scientific inquiries into many subjects that are 
+closely related to interrogation: the effects of debility and 
+isolation, the polygraph, reactions to pain and fear, hypnosis 
+and heightened suggestibility, narcosis, etc. This work is of 
+sufficient importance and relevance that it is no longer possible 
+to discuss interrogation significantly without reference to the 
+psychological research conducted in the past decade. For this 
+reason a major purpose of this study is to focus relevant 
+scientific findings upon Cl interrogation. Every effort has been 
+made to report and interpret these findings in our own language, 
+in place of the terminology employed by the psychologists. 
+
+This study is by no means confined to a resume and 
+interpretation of psychological findings. The approach of the 
+psychologists is customarily manipulative; that is, they 
+suggest methods of imposing controls or alterations upon 
+the interrogatee from the outside. Except within the 
+Communist frame of reference, they have paid less attention. 
+to the creation of internal controls--i.e., conversion of the 
+source, so that voluntary cooperation results. Moral 
+considerations aside, the imposition of external techniques 
+of manipulating people carries with it the grave risk of later 
+lawsuits, adverse publicity, or other attempts to strike back. 
+
+This study moves from the general topic of interrogation 
+per se (Parts I, I, II, IV, V, and VI) to planning the counter- 
+intelligence interrogation (Part VII) to the Cl interrogation of 
+resistant sources (Parts VII, IX, and X). The definitions, 
+legal considerations, and discussions of interrogators and 
+sources, as well as Section VI on screening and other 
+preliminaries, are relevant to all kinds of interrogations. 
+Once it is established that the source is probably a counter- 
+intelligence target (in other words, is probably a member of 
+a foreign intelligence or security service, a Communist, or 
+a part of any other group engaged in clandestine activity 
+directed against the national security), the interrogation is 
+planned and conducted accordingly. The CI interrogation 
+techniques are discussed in an order of increasing intensity 
+as the focus on source resistance grows sharper. The last 
+section, on do's and dont's, is a return to the broader view 
+of the opening parts; as a check-list, it is placed last solely 
+for convenience. 
+
+Most of the intelligence terminology employed here which 
+may once have been ambiguous has been clarified through usage 
+or through KUBARK instructions. For this reason definitions 
+have been omitted for such terms as burn notice, defector, 
+escapee, and refugee. Other definitions have been included 
+despite a cgmmon agreement about meaning if the significance 
+is shaded by the context. 
+
+l. Assessment: the analysis and synthesis of information, 
+usually about a person or persons, for the purpose of appraisal. 
+The assessment of individuals is based upon the compilation and 
+use of psychological as well as biographic detail. 
+
+Z Bona fides: evidence or reliable information about 
+identity, personal (including intelligence) history, and 
+intentions or good faith. 
+
+3. Control: the capacity to generate, alter, or halt 
+human behavior by implying, citing, or using physical or 
+psychological means to ensure compliance with direction. 
+The compliance may be voluntary or involuntary. Control of 
+an interrogatee can rarely be established without control of 
+his environment, 
+
+4. Counterintelligence interrogation: an interrogation 
+(see #7) designed to obtain information about hostile 
+clandestine activities and persons or groups engaged therein. 
+KUBARK Cl interrogations are designed, almost invariably, 
+to yield information about foreign intelligence and security 
+services or Communist organizations. Because security is an 
+element of counterintelligence, interrogations conducted to 
+obtain admissions of clandestine plans or activities directed 
+against KUBARK or PBPRIME security are also CI 
+interrogations. But unlike a police interrogation, the CI 
+interrogation is not aimed at causing the interrogatee to 
+incriminate himself as a means of bringing him to trial. 
+Admissions of complicity are not, to a CI service, ends 
+themselves but merely preludes to the acquisition of 
+more information. 
+
+
+5. Debriefing: obtaining information by questioning 
+a controlled and witting source who is normally a willing 
+one. 
+
+
+6. Eliciting: obtaining information, without revealing 
+intent or exceptional interest, through a verbal or written 
+exchange with a person who may be willing or unwilling to 
+provide what is sought and who may or may not be controlled. 
+
+
+7. Interrogation: obtaining information by direct 
+questioning of a person or persons under conditions which 
+are either partly or fully controlled by the questioner or are 
+believed by those questioned to be subject to his control. 
+Because interviewing, debriefing, and eliciting are simpler 
+methods of obtaining information from cooperative subjects, 
+interrogation is usually reserved for sources who are suspect, 
+resistant, or both. 
+
+
+8. Intelligence interview: obtaining information, not 
+customarily under controlled conditions, by questioning a 
+person who is aware of the nature and perhaps of the significance 
+of his answers but who is ordinarily unaware of the purposes 
+and specific intelligence affiliations of the interviewer. 
+
+The legislation which founded KUBARK specifically denied 
+it any law-enforcement or police powers.| Yet detention in a 
+controlled environment and perhaps for a lengthy period is 
+frequently essential to a successful counterintelligence interrogation of a recalcitrant source. [Because the necessary powers 
+are vested in the competent liaison service or services, not 
+in KUBARK, it is frequently necessary to conduct such interro- 
+gations with or through liaison“] This necessity, obviously, should 
+be determined as early as possible. 
+
+
+The legality of detaining and questioning a person, and of 
+the methods employed, is determined by the laws of the country 
+in which the act occurs. [If;is therefore important that all KUBARK a 
+interrogators and their supervisors be fully and accurately informed 
+about the applicable local laws. This principle holds whether the 
+interrogation is to be conducted unilaterally or jointly. It is unsafe 
+to assume that all members of the liaison service know the pertinent 
+statutes. Moreover, a joint illegal interrogation may later embarrass 
+both services and lead to recriminations and strained relations 
+between them. It is recommended that copies or legal extracts of 
+all applicable laws be kept by the Station or Base ina sp ae file and 
+that all concerned reread the file per lodically. / 
+
+
+Detention poses the most common of the legal problems. KUBARK 
+has no independent legal authority to detain anyone against his will, (and 
+liaison services may not, asa rule, legally confer such authority upon 
+KUBARK. Even tf the local authorities have exercised powers of 
+detention in our behalf, the legal time-limit may be narrow. | The haste 
+in which some KUBARK interrogations have been conducted has not 
+always been the product of impatience. Some security services, especially 
+those of the Sino-Soviet Bloc, may work at leisure, depending upon time 
+as well as their own methods to melt recalcitrance. KUBARK usually 
+cannot. Accordingly, unless it is considered that the prospective 
+interrogatee is cooperative and will remain so indefinitely, the first 
+step in planning an interrogation is to determine how long the source 
+can be held. The choice of methods i dena in part upon the answer 
+to this question. 
+
+The ha questioning of defectors are subject to the 
+provisions o irective No. 4; to its related Chief/KUBARK ie) 
+Directives, principall [Book Dispatch (b)(3) 
+and to pertinen( | | Those concerned with the (b)(3) 
+
+The interrogation of PBPRIME citizens poses special problems. 
+First, such interrogations should not be conducted for reasons lying 
+outside the sphere of KUBARK's responsibilities. For example, the 
+security of other ODYOKE departments and agencies overseas is their : 
+own responsibility. KUBARK may provide behind-the-scenes assistance-- 
+for example, become directly involved. Clandestine activity conducted abroad on 
+behalf of a foreign power by a private PBPRIME citizen does fall within 
+KUBARK's investigative and interrogative responsibilities. However, 
+any investigation, interrogation, or interview of a PBPRIME citizen 
+which is conducted abroad because it is known or suspected that he is 
+engaged in clandestine activities directed against PBPRIME security 
+interests requires the prior and personal approval of Chief/KUDESK or 
+of his deputy. 
+
+Since 4 October 1961, extraterritorial application has been given to 
+the Espionage Act, making it henceforth possible to prosecute in the 
+Federal Courts any PBPRIME citizen who violates the statutes of this 
+Act in foreign countries. ODENVY has requested that it be informed, in 
+advance if time permits, if any investigative steps are undertaken in 
+these cases. Since KUBARK employees cannot be witnesses in court, 
+each investigation must be conducted in such a manner that evidence
+obtained may be properly introduced if the case comes to trial.
+
+Interrogations conducted under compulsion or duress are especially 
+likely to involve illegality and to entail damaging consequences for KUBARK. 
+Therefore prior Headquarters approval at the KUDOVE level must be 
+obtained for the interrogation of any source against his will and under any 
+of the following circurnstances: 
+1. If bodily harm is to be inflicted. 
+2. If medical, chemical, or electrical methods or 
+materials are to be used to induce acquiescence. 
+3. If the detention is locally illegal and traceable 
+to KUBARK, except that in cases of extreme operational 
+urgency requiring immediate detention, retroactive 
+Headquarters approval may be promptly requested by 
+priority cable. 
+
+The CI interrogator dealing with an uncooperative interrogatee 
+who has been well-briefed by a hostile service on the legal restrictions 
+under which ODYOKE services operate must expect some effective 
+delaying tactics. The interrogatee has been told that KUBARK will 
+not hold him long, that he need only resist for a while. Nikolay 
+KHOKHLOV, for example, reported that before he left for Frankfurt 
+am Main on his assassination mission, the following thoughts coursed 
+through his head: "If I should get into the hands of Western authorities, 
+I can become reticent, silent, and deny my voluntary visit to 
+Okolovich. I know I will not be tortured and that under the procedures 
+of western law I can conduct myself boldly." The footnote numerals 
+in this text are keyed to the numbered bibliography at the end. / The 
+interrogator who encounters expert resistance should not grow flurried 
+and press; if he does, he is likelier to commit illegal acts which the 
+source can later use against him. Remembering that time is on his 
+side, the interrogator should arrange to get as much of it as he needs, 
+
+A number of studies of interrogation discuss qualities said to 
+be desirable in an interrogator. The list seems almost endless - 
+a professional manner, forcefulness, understanding and sympathy, 
+breadth of general knowledge, area knowledge, "a practical 
+knowledge of psychology", skill in the tricks of the trade, alert- 
+ness, perseverance, integrity, discretion, patience, a high LQ, 
+extensive experience, flexibility, etc., etc. Sorne texts even 
+discuss the interrogator's manners and grooming, and one pre- 
+scribed the traits considered desirabie in his secretary. 
+
+
+A repetition of this catalogue would serve no purpose here, 
+especially because almost all of the characteristics mentioned 
+are also desirable in case officers, agents, policemen, salesmen, 
+lumberjacks, and everybody else. The search of the pertinent 
+scientific literature disclosed no reports of studies based on common- 
+denominator traits of successful interrogators or any other controlled 
+inquiries that would invest these lists with any objective validity. 
+
+
+Perhaps the four qualifications of chief importance to the 
+interrogator are (1) enough operational training and experience 
+to permit quick recognition of leads; (2) real familiarity with the 
+language to be used; (3) extensive background knowledge about the 
+interrogatee's native country (and intelligence service, if employed 
+by one); and (4) a genuine understanding of the source as a person. 
+
+
+K defector center, some Stations, and even a few bases can 
+call upon one or several interrogators to supply these prerequisites, 
+individually or as a team. Whenever a number of interrogators is 
+available, the percentage of successes is increased by careful 
+matching of questioners and sources and by ensuring that rigid pre- 
+scheduling does not prevent such matching. Of the four traits listed, 
+a genuine insight into the source's character and motives is perhaps. 
+
+most important but least common. Later portions of this manual 
+explore this topic in more detail. One general observation is intro- 
+duced now, however, because it is considered basic to the establish- 
+ment of rapport, upon which the success of non-coercive interrogation 
+depends. 
+
+
+The interrogator should remember that he and the interrogatee 
+are often working at cross-purposes not because the interrogatee is 
+malevolently withholding or misleading but simply because what he 
+wants from the situation is not what the interrogator wants. The 
+interrogator's goal is to obtain useful information-~--facts about which 
+the interrogatee presumably has acquired information. But at the 
+outset of the interrogation, and perhaps for a long time afterwards, 
+the person being questioned is not greatly concerned with communi- 
+cating his body of specialized information to his questioner; he is 
+concerned with putting his best foot forward. The question upper- 
+most in his mind, at the beginning, is not likely to be "How can I 
+help PBPRIME?" but rather ''What sort of impression am I making?" 
+and, almost immediately thereafter, "What is going to happen to me 
+now?" (An exception is the penetration agent or provocateur sent 
+to a KUBARK field installation after training in withstanding interroga- 
+tion. Such an agent may feel confident enough not to be gravely 
+concerned about himself. His primary interest, from the beginning, 
+may be the acquisition of information about the interrogator and his 
+service. ) 
+
+
+The skilled interrogator can save a great deal of time by under- 
+standing the emotional needs of the interrogatee. Most people con- 
+fronted by an official--and dimly powerful--representative of a foreign 
+power will get down to cases much faster if made to feel, from the 
+start, that they are being treated as individuals. So simple a matter 
+as greeting an interrogatee by his name at the opening of the session 
+establishes in his mind the comforting awareness that he is considered 
+as a person, not a squeezable sponge. This is not to say that egotistic 
+
+- types should be allowed to bask at length in the warmth of individual 
+recognition. But it is important to assuage the fear of denigration 
+which afflicts many people when first interrogated by making it clear 
+that the individuality of the interrogatee is recognized. With this 
+common understanding established, the interrogation can move on to 
+impersonal matters and will not later be thwarted or interrupted
+or at least not as often by irrelevant answers designed not to 
+provide facts but to prove that the interrogatee is a respectable 
+member of the human race. 
+
+
+Although it is often necessary to trick people into telling 
+what we need to know, especially in Cl interrogations, the 
+initial question which the interrogator asks of himself should 
+be, "How can I make him want to tell me what he knows?" rather 
+than "How can I trap him into disclosing what he knows?" If the 
+person being questioned is genuinely hostile for ideological 
+reasons, techniques of manipulation are in order. But the 
+assumption of hostility--or at least the use of pressure tactics 
+at the first encounter--may make difficult subjects even out of 
+those who would respond to recognition of individuality and an 
+initial assumption of good will. 
+
+
+Another preliminary comment about the interrogator is that z 
+normally he should not personalize. That is, he should not be as 
+pleased, flattered, frustrated, goaded, or otherwise emotionally ne 
+and personally affected by the interrogation. A calculated display = 
+of feeling employed for a specific purpose is an exception; but - 
+even under these circumstances the interrogator is in full control. 
+
+The interrogation situation is intensely inter-personal; it is 
+therefore all the more necessary to strike a counter-balance by 
+
+an attitude which the subject clearly recognizes as essentially fair 
+and objective. The kind of person who cannot help personalizing, 
+who becomes emotionally involved in the interrogation situation, 
+
+may have chance (and even spectacular) successes as an interrogator 
+but is almost certain to have a poor batting average. 
+
+
+It is frequently said that the interrogator should be "a good 
+judge of human nature." In fact, "all interrogation guides stress 
+that is is important to 'size up the source's personality’; yet 
+research can show little reliability or validity in the evaluations which 
+are made in such circumstances.'"' (3) This study states later (page 
+"Great attention has been given to the degree to which persons are ; 
+able to make judgements from casual observations regarding the ' 
+personality characteristics of another. The consensus of research 
+is that with respect to many kinds of judgments, at least some judges 
+‘perform reliably better than chance....' Nevertheless, ''...the level 
+of reliability in judgments is so low that research encounters 
+difficulties when it seeks to determine who makes better judgments... ." 
+(3) In brief, the interrogator is likelier to overestimate his ability 
+to judge others than te underestimate it, especially if he has had 
+little or no training in modern psychology. It follows that errors 
+in assessment and in handling are likelier to result from snap 
+judgments based upon the assumption of innate skill in judging 
+others than from holding such judgments in abeyance until enough 
+facts are known. 
+
+
+There has been a good deal of discussion of interrogation 
+experts vs. subject-matter experts. Such facts as are available 
+suggest that the latter have a slight advantage. But for counter- 
+intelligence purposes the debate is academic. [The Cl interrogator 
+must be both highly knowledgeable about the hostile service, CP, 
+or other group with which the interrogatee may be linked* and 
+highly skillful in the art of interrogation. If a man who has both 
+kinds of knowledge is not available when the Cl interrogation must 
+be conducted, it is better to use a two-man team, each interrogator 
+supplementing the other.
+
+It is sound practice to assign inexperienced interrogators to 
+guard duty or to other supplementary tasks directly related to 
+interrogation, so that they can view the process closely before 
+taking charge. The use of beginning interrogators as screeners 
+(see part VI) is also recommended. 
+
+Although there is some limited validity in the view, frequently 
+expressed in interrogation primers, that the interrogation is 
+essentially a battle of wits, the CI interrogator who encounters a 
+skilled and resistant interrogatee should remember that a wide 
+
+*The interrogator should be supported whenever possible by 
+‘ qualified analysts' review of his daily "take"; experience has shown 
+that such a review will raise questions to be put and points to be 
+clarified and lead to a thorough coverage of the subject in hand. 
+variety of aids can be made available in the field or from 
+Headquarters. (These are discussed in Part VIII.) The intensely 
+personal nature of the interrogation situation makes it all the 
+more necessary that the KUBARK questioner should aim not for 
+a personal triumph but for his true goal--the acquisition of all 
+needed information by any authorized means. 
+
+From the viewpoint of the intelligence service the categories 
+of persons who most frequently provide useful information in re- 
+sponse to questioning are travellers; repatriates; defectors, escapees, 
+and refugees; transferred sources; agents, including provocateurs, 
+double agents, and penetration agents; and swindlers and fabricators. 
+
+
+1. Travellers are usually interviewed, debriefed, or queried 
+through eliciting techniques. If they are interrogated, the reason is 
+that they are known or believed to fall into one of the following cate- 
+gories. 
+
+
+2. Repatriates are sometimes interrogated, although other 
+techniques are used more often. The proprietary interests of the 
+host government will frequently dictate interrogation by a liaison 
+service rather than by KUBARK. If KUBARK interrogates, the 
+following preliminary steps are taken: 
+a. A records check, including local and Headquarters 
+traces. 
+b. Testing of bona fides. 
+c. Determination of repatriate's kind and level of 
+access while outside his own country. 
+d. Preliminary assessment of motivation (including 
+political orientation), reliability, and capability as observer and reporter. 
+e. Determination of all intelligence or Communist 
+relationships, whether with a service or party of the repatriate's 
+own country, country of detention, or another. Full particulars 
+are needed. 
+
+3. Defectors, escapees, and refugees are normally interrogated 
+at sufficient length to permit at least a preliminary testing of bona 
+fides. The experience of the post-war years has demonstrated that 
+Soviet defectors (1) almost never defect solely or primarily because 
+of inducement by a Western service, (2) usually leave the USSR for 
+personal rather than ideological reasons, and (3) are often RIS agents. 
+
+As a rule, Soviets seeking Western asylum are accorded the status 
+of defectors because of their value as sources. 
+
+
+they are customarily sent to a defector centér for detailed ex- 
+ploitation. Satellite escapees and refugees are handled as defectors 
+only if they are highly knowledgeable and can satisfy established 
+intelligence needs.
+
+All analyses of the defector-refugee flow have shown that 
+the Orbit services are well-aware of the advantages offered by this 
+channel as a means of planting their agents in target countries. Even 
+the exodus of Hungarians on the heels of the 1956 uprising was ex- 
+ploited by the AVH. It is therefore important to remember that the 
+bona fides of defectors cannot, as a rule, be established conclusively 
+by interrogation alone. 
+
+The cost in time and money precludes the intensive counterintelligence interrogation of all suspect 
+defectors and refugees, but there is no sound alternative for selected 
+cases.
+
+4. Transferred sources referred to KUBAR K by another service 
+for interrogation are usually sufficiently well-known to the trans- 
+ferring service so that a file has been opened. Whenever possible, 
+KUBARK should secure a copy of the file or its full informational 
+equivalent before accepting custody. 
+
+
+5. Agents are more frequently debriefed than interrogated. 
+If operational developments give rise to doubts about the security 
+of a KUBARK agent or operation. it is recommended the 
+officer use of an analytic tool. If it is then established or 
+strongly suspected that the agent belongs to one of the following 
+categories, further investigation and, eventually, interrogation 
+usually follow. 
+a. Provocateur. Many provocation agents are walk-ins 
+posing as escapees, refugees, or defectors in order to pene- 
+trate emigre groups, ODYOKE intelligence, or other targets 
+assigned by hostile services. Although denunciations by 
+genuine refugees and other evidence of information obtained 
+from documents, local officials, and like sources may result 
+in exposure, the detection of provocation frequently depends 
+upon skilled interrogation. A later section of this manual 
+deals with the preliminary testing of bona fides. But the re- 
+sults of preliminary testing are often inconclusive, and 
+detailed interrogation is frequently essential to confession ~ 
+and full revelation. Thereafter the provocateur may be 
+questioned for operational and positive intelligence as well 
+as counterintelligence provided that proper cognizance is 
+taken of his status during the questioning and later, when 
+reports are prepared. 
+b. Double agent. The interrogation of DA's frequently 
+follows a determination or strong suspicion that the double 
+is "giving the edge" to the adversary service. As is also 
+true for the interrogation of provocateurs, thorough preliminary investigation will pay handsome dividends when questioning gets under way. In fact, it is a basic principle 
+of interrogation that the questioner should have at his dis- 
+posal, before querying starts, as much pertinent information 
+as can be gathered without the knowledge of the prospective 
+interrogatee. KUBARK personnel who are planning in- 
+terrogation of a suspect double agent may find it useful. Although the primary 
+purpose of interrogation is the acquisition of information, 
+a resistant source who has been "broken" should not be 
+disregarded as a person when squeezed dry. All good in- 
+terrogators avoid coercive techniques whenever the necessary 
+information can be gained without them. In other words, 
+physical or psychological duress is counter-productive when 
+employed against a source whose voluntary cooperation can 
+be enlisted without pressure. If coercion must be used and 
+is successful, the temporary effect upon a hostile penetration 
+agent, DA, or provocateur is the creation of a vacuum in his 
+loyalties. He is likely to feel drained and apathetic. If the 
+interrogator (or his service) restores the source's self-esteem 
+at this point by supplying an acceptable rationalization for con- 
+version to anti-Communist beliefs, the source will continue 
+to volunteer cooperation. But if he has been compelled to 
+divulge through the use of pressures exceeding his resistance 
+(for example, narcosis or hypnosis), and if his motives are 
+ignored once his information has been mined, he is likely to 
+revert to the role of antagonist and try to cause us trouble by 
+any means available to him. This topic is explored further 
+in Part IX of this manual.
+d. Swindlers and fabricators are usually interrogated 
+for prophylactic reasons, not for counterintelligence infor- ' 
+mation. The purpose is the prevention or nullification of 
+damage to KUBARK, to other ODYOKE services, or to liaison. ! ; 
+Swindlers and fabricators have little of CI significance to 
+communicate but are notoriously skillful timewasters. In- 
+terrogation of thern is usually inconclusive and, if prolonged, 
+unrewarding. The professional peddler with several IS 
+contacts may prove an exception; but he will usually give the 
+edge to a host security service because otherwise he cannot 
+function with impunity. 
+
+The number of systems devised for categorizing human beings 
+is large, and most of them are of dubious validity. Various cate- 
+gorical schemes are outlined in treatises on interrogation. The two 
+typologies most frequently advocated are psychologic-emotional and 
+geographic-cultural. Those who urge the former argue that the basic 
+emotional-psychological patterns do not vary significantly with time, 
+place, or culture. The latter school maintains the existence of a 
+national character and sub-national categories, and interrogation 
+guides based on this principle recommend approaches tailored to 
+geographical cultures. 
+
+
+It is plainly true that the interrogation source cannot be under- 
+stood in a vacuum, isolated from social context. It is equally true 
+that some of the most glaring blunders in interrogation (and other 
+operational processes) have resulted from ignoring the source's 
+background. Moreover, emotional-psychological schematizations 
+sometimes present atypical extremes rather than the kinds of 
+people commonly encountered by interrogators. Such typologies 
+also cause disagreement even among professional psychiatrists 
+and psychologists. Interrogators who adopt them and who note in 
+an interrogatee one or two of the characteristics of "Type A" may 
+mistakenly assign the source to Category A and assume the re- 
+maining traits. 
+
+
+On the other hand, there are valid objections to the adoption 
+of cultural-geographic categories for interrogation purposes (how- 
+ever valid they may be as KUCAGE concepts). The pitfalls of 
+ignorance of the distinctive culture of the source have "received 
+so much attention in recent years as to obscure somewhat the 
+other. ..tendency to think of persons from other cultures as more 
+
+
+different from oneself than they actually are. The interrogator is 
+safest when he can proceed on the basis of an assumption that all 
+individuals will react in essentially the same way to the same 
+influence he employs....The populations of most nations are coming 
+to share more of the outlook of their contemporaries in other 
+nations than of their own national progenitors. Further, each 
+large industrialized state produces occupational and social classes 
+common to all such states.
+
+The ideal solution would be to avoid all categorizing. Basic- 
+ally, all schemes for labelling people are wrong per se; applied 
+arbitrarily, they always produce distortions. Every interrogator 
+knows that a real understanding of the individual is worth far more 
+than a thorough knowledge of this or that pigeon-hole to which he 
+has been consigned. And for interrogation purposes the ways in 
+which he differs from the abstract ty pe may be more significant 
+than the ways in which he conforms. 
+
+
+But KUBARK does not dispose of the time or personnel to 
+probe the depths of each source's individuality. In the opening 
+phases of interrogation, or in a quick interrogation, we are 
+compelled to make some use of the shorthand of categorizing, 
+despite distortions. Like other interrogation aides, a scheme 
+of categories is useful only if recognized for what it is--a set 
+of labels that facilitate communication but are not the same as 
+the persons thus labelled. If an interrogatee lies persistently, an 
+interrogator may report and dismiss him as a "pathological liar." 
+Yet such persons may possess counterintelligence (or other) in- 
+formation quite equal in value to that held by other sources, and 
+the interrogator likeliest to get at it is the man who is not content 
+with labelling but is as interested in why the subject lies as in 
+what he lies about. . 
+
+
+With all of these reservations, then, and with the further 
+observation that those who find these psychological-emotional 
+categories pragmatically valuable should use them and those who 
+do not should let them alone, the following nine types are described. 
+The categories are based upon the fact that a person's past is always 
+reflected, however dimily, in his present ethics and behavior. Old 
+dogs can learn new tricks but not new ways of learning them. People 
+do change, but what appears to be new behavior or a new psychological 
+pattern is usually just a variant on the old theme. 
+
+It is not claimed that the classification system presented 
+here is complete; some interrogatees will not fit into any one of 
+the groupings. And like all other typologies, the system is plagued 
+by overlap, so that some interrogatees will show characteristics 
+of more than one group. Above all, the interrogator must remember 
+that finding some of the characteristics of the group in a single source 
+does not warrant an immediate conclusion that the source "belongs to"' 
+the group, and that even correct labelling is not the equivalent of under- 
+standing people but merely an aid to understanding. 
+
+
+The nine major groups within the psychological-emotional cate- 
+gory adopted for this handbook are the following. 
+
+
+1. The orderly-obstinate character. People in this category 
+are characteristically frugal, orderly, and cold; frequently they are 
+quite intellectual. They are not impulsive in behavior. They tend to 
+think things through logically and to act deliberately. They often 
+reach decisions very slowly. They are far less likely to make real ane 
+personal sacrifices for a cause than to use them as a temporary means 
+of obtaining a permanent personal gain. They are secretive and dis- 
+inclined to confide in anyone else their plans and plots, which frequently 
+concern the overthrow of some form of authority. They are also stubborn, 
+although they may pretend cooperation or even believe that they are 
+cooperating. They nurse grudges. 
+
+The orderly -obstinate character considers himself superior 
+to other people. Sometimes his sense of superiority is interwoven 
+with a kind of magical thinking that includes all sorts of superstitions 
+and fantasies about controlling his environment. He may even have a 
+system of morality that is all his own. He sometimes gratifies his 
+feeling of secret superiority by provoking unjust treatment. He also 
+tries, characteristically, to keep open a line of escape by avoiding 
+
+a any real commitment to anything. He is--and always has been--in- 
+tensely concerned about his personal possessions. He is usually a 
+tightwad who saves everything, has a strong sense of propriety, and 
+is punctual and tidy. His money and other possessions have for him 
+
+3 a personalized quality; they are parts of himself He often carries 
+around shiny coins, keepsakes, a bunch of keys, and other objects 
+having for himself an actual or symbolic value. 
+
+Usually the orderly-obstinate character has a history of 
+active rebellion in childhood, of persistently doing the exact 
+opposite of what he is told todo. As an adult he may have learned 
+to cloak his resistance and become passive-aggressive, but his 
+determination to get his own way is unaltered. He has merely 
+learned how to proceed indirectly if necessary. The profound fear 
+and hatred of authority, persisting since childhood, is often well- 
+concealed in adulthood, For example, such a person may confess 
+easily and quickly under interrogation, even to acts that he did not 
+commit, in order to throw the interrogator off the trail of a sig- 
+nificant discovery (or, more rarely, because of feelings of guilt). 
+
+
+The interrogator who is dealing with an orderly-obstinate 
+character should avoid the role of hostile authority. Threats and 
+threatening gestures, table-pounding, pouncing on evasions or lies, 
+and any similarly authoritative tactics will only awaken in such a 
+subject his old anxieties and habitual defense mechanisms. To 
+attain rapport, the interrogator should be friendly. It will probably 
+prove rewarding if the room and the interrogator look exceptionally 
+neat. Orderly-obstinate interrogatees often collect coins or other 
+objects as a hobby; time spent in sharing their interests may thaw 
+some of the ice. Establishing rapport is extremely important when 
+dealing with this type. "Those personalities characterized by low 
+originality, authoritarian tendencies, low achievement motivation, 
+conventionality, and social dependence are among the apes estimated 
+as being susceptible to manipulation in interrogation." 
+
+
+2. The optimistic character. This kind of source is almost 
+constantly happy-go-lucky, impulsive, inconsistent, and undependable. 
+He seems to enjoy a continuing state of well-being. He may be generous 
+to a fault, giving to others as he wants to be given to. He may become 
+an alcoholic or drug addict. He is not able to withstand very much 
+pressure; he reacts to a challenge not by increasing his efforts but 
+rather by running away to avoid conflict. His convictions that "some- 
+thing will turn up", that "everything will work out all right", is based 
+on his need to avoid his own responsibility for events and depend upon 
+a kindly fate. , 
+
+Such a person has usually had a great deal of over-indulgence 
+in early life. He is sometimes the youngest member of a large family, 
+
+the child of a middle-aged woman (a so-called "change -of-life baby"). 
+If he has met severe frustrations in later childhood, he may be petu- 
+lant, vengeful, and constantly demanding. 
+
+As interrogation sources, optimistic characters respond best 
+toa kindly, parental approach. If withholding, they can often be handled 
+effectively by the Mutt-and-Jeff technique discussed later in this paper. 
+Pressure tactics or hostility will make them retreat inside themselves, 
+whereas reassurance will bring them out. They tend to seek promises, 
+to cast the interrogator in the role of protector and problem-solver; and 
+it is important that the interrogator avoid making any specific promises 
+that cannot be fulfilled, because the optimist turned vengeful is likely to 
+prove troublesome. 
+
+
+3. The greedy, demanding character. This kind of person affixes 
+himself to others like a leech and clings obsessively. Although extremely 
+dependent and passive, he constantly demands that others take care of 
+him and gratify his wishes. If he considers himself wronged, he does 
+not seek redress through his own efforts but tries to persuade another 
+to take up the cudgels in his behalf--'"let's you and him fight.'"' His 
+loyalties are likely to shift whenever he feels that the sponsor whom 
+he has chosen has let him down. Defectors of this type feel aggrieved 
+because their desires were not satisfied in their countries of origin, 
+but they soon feel equally deprived in a second land and turn against its 
+government or representatives in the same way. The greedy and demand- 
+ing character is subject to rather frequent depressions. He may direct 
+a desire for revenge inward, upon himself; in extreme cases suicide may 
+result. 
+
+
+The greedy, demanding character often suffered from very 
+early deprivation of affection or security. As an adult he continues to 
+seek substitute parents who will care for him as his own, he feels, did 
+a not. 
+
+
+The interrogator dealing with a greedy, demanding character 
+must be careful not to rebuff him; otherwise rapport will be destroyed. 
+4 On the other hand, the interrogator must not accede to demands which 
+cannot or should not be met. Adopting the tone of an understanding 
+father or big brother is likely to make the subject responsive. If he 
+makes exorbitant requests, an unimportant favor may provide a satis- 
+
+factory substitute because the demand arises not from a specific 
+need but as an expression of the subject's need for security. He is 
+likely to find reassuring any manifestation of concern for his well- 
+being. 
+
+
+In dealing with this type--and to a considerable extent in 
+dealing with any of the types herein listed--the interrogator must be 
+aware of the limits and pitfalls of rational persuasion. If he seeks 
+to induce cooperation by an appeal to logic, he should first determine 
+whether the source's resistance is based on logic. The appeal will 
+glance off ineffectually if the resistance is totally or chiefly emotional 
+rather than rational. Emotional resistance can be dissipated only by 
+emotional manipulation. 
+
+
+4. The anxious, self-centered character. Although this person 
+is fearful, he is engaged in a constaht struggle to conceal his fears. 
+He is frequently a daredevil who compensates for his anxiety by pre- 
+tending that there is no such thing as danger. He may be a stunt flier 
+or circus performer who "proves" himself before crowds. He may also 
+be a Don Juan. He tends to brag and often lies through hunger for approval 
+or praise. Asa soldier or officer he may have been decorated for bravery; 
+but if so, his comrades may suspect that his exploits resulted from a 
+pleasure in exposing himself to danger and the anticipated delights of re- 
+wards, approval, and applause. The anxious, self-centered character 
+is usually intensely vain and equally sensitive. 
+
+
+People who show these characteristics are actually unusually 
+fearful. The causes of intense concealed anxiety are too complex and 
+subtle to permit discussion of the subject in this paper. 
+
+
+Of greater importance to the interrogator than the causes is 
+the opportunity provided by concealed anxiety for successful manipulation 
+of the source. His desire to impress will usually be quickly evident. 
+He is likely to be voluble. Ignoring or ridiculing his bragging, or 
+cutting him short with a demand that he get down to cases, is likely to 
+make him resentful and to stop the flow. Playing upon his vanity, 
+especially by praising his courage, will usually be a successful tactic 
+if employed skillfully. Anxious, self-centered interrogatees who are 
+withholding significant facts, such as contact with a hostile service, 
+
+are likelier to divulge if made to feel that the truth will not be used 
+to harm them and [if the interrogator also stresses the callousness 
+and stupidity of the adversary in sending so valiant a person upon 
+so ill-prepared a mission. There is little to be gained and much to 
+be lost by exposing the nonrelevant lies of this kind of source. Gross 
+lies about deeds of daring, sexual prowess, or other "proofs" of 
+courage and manliness are best met with silence or with friendly but 
+noncommittal replies unless they consume an inordinate amount of 
+time. If operational use is contemplated, recruitment may some- 
+times be effected through such queries as, "I wonder if you would 
+be willing to undertake a dangerous mission, "' 
+
+
+5. The guilt-ridden character. This kind of person has a strong 
+cruel, unrealistic conscience. His whole life seems devoted to re- 
+
+
+living his feelings of guilt. Sometimes he seems determined to atone; 
+at other times he insists that whatever went wrong is the fault of some- 
+body else. In either event he seeks constantly some proof or external 
+indication that the guilt of others is greater than his own. He is often 
+caught up completely in efforts to prove that he has been treated un- 
+justly. In fact, he may provoke unjust treatment in order to assuage 
+his conscience through punishment. Compulsive gamblers who find no 
+real pleasure in winning but do find relief in losing belong to this class. 
+So do persons who falsely confess to crimes. Sometimes such people 
+actually commit crimes in order to confess and be punished. Masochists 
+also belong in this category. 
+
+
+The causes of most guilt complexes are real or fancied wrongs 
+done to parents or others whom the subject felt he ought to love and 
+honor. As children such people may have been frequently scolded or 
+punished, Or they may have been "model'' children who repressed all 
+natural hostilities. 
+
+
+The guilt-ridden character is hard to interrogate. He may 
+"confess" to hostile clandestine activity, or other acts of interest to 
+KUBARK, in which he was not involved. Accusations levelled at him 
+by the interrogator are likely to trigger such false confessions. Or 
+he may remain silent when accused, enjoying the "punishment." He 
+is a poor subject for LCFLUTTER. The complexities of dealing with 
+conscience-ridden interrogatees vary so widely from case to case 
+that it is almost impossible to list sound general principles. Perhaps 
+
+
+the best advice is that the interrogator, once alerted by information 
+from the screening process (see Part VI) or by the subject's ex- 
+cessive preoccupation with moral judgements, should treat as 
+suspect and subjective any information provided by the interrogatee 
+about any matter that is of moral concern to him. Persons with 
+intense guilt feelings may cease resistance and cooperate tif 
+punished in some way, because of the gratification induced by 
+punishment. 
+
+
+6. The character wrecked by success is closely related t 
+to the guilt-ridden character. This sort of person cannot tolerate : 
+
+
+success and goes through life failing at critical points. He is 
+
+often accident-prone. Typically he has a long history of being 
+
+promising and of almost completing a significant assignment or 
+
+achievement but not bringing it off. The character who cannot 
+
+stand success enjoys his ambitions as long as they remain fan- 
+
+tasies but somehow ensures that they will not be fulfilled in 
+
+reality. Acquaintances often feel that his success is just around : 
+the corner, but something always intervenes. In actuality this Pees 
+something is a sense of guilt, of the kind described above. The 
+person who avoids success has a conscience which forbids the 
+
+pleasures of accomplishment and recognition. He frequently 
+
+projects his guilt feelings and feels that all of his failures were 
+
+someone else's fault. He may have a strong need to suffer and 
+
+may seek danger or injury. 
+
+
+As interrogatees these people who ''cannot stand pros- 
+perity" pose no special problem unless the interrogation impinges 
+upon their feelings of guilt or the reasons for their past failures. 
+Then subjective distortions, not facts, will result. The success- 
+ful interrogator will isolate this area of unreliability. 
+
+
+7. The schizoid or strange character lives in a world of 
+fantasy much of the time. Sometimes he seems unable to dis- 
+tinguish reality from the realm of his own creating. The real 
+world seems to him empty and meaningless, in contrast with 
+the mysteriously significant world that he has made. He is 
+extremely intolerant of any frustration that occurs in the outer 
+world and deals with it by withdrawal into the interior realm. 
+
+He has no real attachments to others, although he may attach 
+symbolic and private meanings or values to other people. 
+
+
+Children reared in homes lacking in ordinary affection 
+and attention or in orphanages or state-run communes may be- 
+come adults who belong to this category. Rebuffed in early 
+efforts to attach themselves to another, they become distrustful 
+of attachments and turn inward. Any link to a group or country 
+will be undependable and, as a rule, transitory. At the same 
+time the schizoid character needs external approval. Though 
+he retreats from reality, he does not want to feel abandoned. 
+
+
+As an interrogatee the schizoid character is likely to 
+lie readily to win approval. He will tell the interrogator what 
+he thinks the interrogator wants to hear in order to win the award 
+of seeing a smile on the interrogator's face. Because he is not 
+always capable of distinguishing between fact and fantasy, he may 
+be unaware of lying. The desire for approval provides the in- 
+terrogator with a handle. Whereas accusations of lying or other 
+indications of disesteem will provoke withdrawal from the situation 
+teasing the truth out of the schizoid subject may not prove difficult 
+if he is convinced that he will not incur favor through misstatements 
+or disfavor through telling the truth. 
+
+
+Like the guilt-ridden character, the schizoid character 
+may be an unreliable subject for testing by LCFLUTTER be- 
+cause his internal needs lead him to confuse fact with fancy. 
+
+He is also likely to make an unreliable agent because of his 
+incapacity to deal with facts and to form real relationships. 
+
+
+8. The exception believes that the world owes him a great 
+deal. He feels that he suffered a gross injustice, usually early 
+in life, and should be repaid. Sometimes the injustice was meted 
+out impersonally, by fate, as a physical deformity, an extremely 
+painful illness or operation in childhood, or the early loss of one 
+parent or both. Feeling that these misfortunes were undeserved, 
+‘ the exceptions regard them as injustices that someone or some- 
+thing must rectify. Therefore they claim as their right privileges 
+not permitted others. When the claim is ignored or denied, the 
+exceptions become rebellious, as adolescents often do. They are 
+convinced that the justice of the claim is plain for all to see and 
+that any refusal to grant it is willfully malignant. 
+
+
+When interrogated, the exceptions are likely to make 
+demands for money, resettlement aid, and other favors--demands 
+that are completely out of proportion to the value of their con- 
+tributions. Any ambiguous replies to such demands will be in- 
+terpreted as acquiescence. Of all the types considered here, the 
+exception is likeliest to carry an alleged injustice dealt him by 
+KUBARK to the newspapers or the courts. 
+
+
+The best general line to follow in handling those who 
+believe that they are exceptions is to listen attentively (within 
+reasonable timelimits) to their grievances and to make no 
+commitments that cannot be discharged fully. Defectors from 
+hostile intelligence services, doubles, provocateurs, and others 
+who have had more than passing contact with a Sino-Soviet 
+service may, if they belong to this category, prove unusually 
+responsive to suggestions from the interrogator that they have 
+been treated unfairly by the other service. Any planned operational ae 
+use of such persons should take into account the fact that they have ne 
+no sense of loyalty to a common cause and are likely to turn 
+aggrievedly against superiors. 
+
+
+9. The average or normal character is not a person wholly 
+lacking in the characteristics of the other types. He may, in fact, 
+exhibit most or all of them from time totime. But no one of them 
+is persistently dominant; the average man's qualities of obstinacy, 
+unrealistic optimism, anxiety, and the rest are not overriding or 
+imperious except for relatively short intervals. Moreover, his 
+reactions to the world around him are more dependent upon events 
+in that world and less the product of rigid, subjective patterns than 
+is true of the other types discussed. 
+
+
+Other Clues discuss in some detail the psychological characteristics of willing and unwilling DA's. This information will be useful to anyone who 
+is about to interrogate a double agent. 
+
+The true defector (as distinguished from the hostile agent 
+in defector's guise) is likely to have a history of opposition to 
+authority. The sad fact is that defectors who left their homelands 
+because they could not get along with their immediate or ultimate 
+superiors are also likely to rebel against authorities in the new 
+environment (a fact which usually plays an important part in re~- 
+defection). Therefore defectors are likely to be found ir the ranks 
+of the orderly-obstinate, the greedy and demanding, the schizoids, 
+and the exceptions. 
+
+
+Experiments and statistical analyses performed at the University 
+of Minnesota concerned the relationships among anxiety and affiliative 
+tendencies (desire to be with other people), on the one hand, and the 
+ordinal position (rank in birth sequence) on the other. Some of the 
+findings, though necessarily tentative and speculative, have some 
+relevance to interrogation. (30). As is noted in the bibliography, the 
+investigators concluded that isolation typically creates anxiety, that 
+anxiety intensifies the desire to be with others who share the same 
+fear, and that only and first-born children are more anxious and 
+less willing or able to withstand pain than later-born children, Other 
+applicable hypotheses are that fear increases the affiliative needs 
+of first-born and only children much more than those of the later-born. 
+These differences are more pronounced in persons from small farnilies 
+than in those who grew up in large families. Finally, only children 
+are much likelier to hold themselves together and persist in anxiety- 
+producing situations than are the first-born, who more frequently try 
+to retreat. In the other major respects - intensity of anxiety and 
+emotional need to affiliate - no significant differences between "firsts" 
+and "onlies'"' were discovered. 
+
+
+It follows that determining the subject's "ordinal position" 
+before questioning begins maybe useful to the interrogator. But 
+two cautions are in order, The first is that the findings are, at this 
+stage, only tentative hypotheses, The second is that even if they prove accu- 
+rate for large groups, the data are like those in actuarial tables; they 
+have no specific predictive value for individuals. 
+
+Defector reception centers and some large stations are 
+able to conduct preliminary psychological screening before in- 
+terrogation starts. The purpose of screening is to provide the 
+interrogator, in advance, with a reading on the type and char- 
+acteristics of the interrogatee. It is recommended that screening 
+be conducted whenever personnel and facilities permit, unless it ¢ 
+is reasonably certain that the interrogation will be of minor im- . 
+portance or that the interrogatee is fully cooperative. 
+
+
+Screening should be conducted by interviewers, not inter- 
+rogators; or at least the subjects should not be screened by the 
+same KUBARK personnel who will interrogate them later. 
+
+Other psychological testing aids are best administered by a 
+trained psychologist. Tests conducted on American POW's re- 
+turned to U.S, jurisdiction in Korea during the Big and Little 
+Switch suggest that prospective interrogatees who show normal 
+emotional responsiveness on the Rorschach and related tests are 
+likelier to prove cooperative under interrogation than are those 
+whose responses indicate that they are apathetic and emotionally 
+withdrawn or barren. Extreme resisters, however, share the 
+response characteristics of collaborators; they differ in the 
+nature and intensity of motivation rather than emotions. "An 
+analysis of objective test records and biographical information 
+is a sample of 759 Big Switch repatriates revealed that men who 
+had collaborated differed from men who had not in the following 
+ways: the collaborators were older, had completed more years of 
+school, scored higher on intelligence tests administered after re- 
+patriation, had served longer in the Army prior to capture, and 
+scored higher on the Psychopathic Deviate Scale - pd.... However, the 
+5 percent of the noncollaborator sample who resisted actively - who 
+were either decorated by the Army or considered to be 'reactionaries' 
+by the Chinese - differed from the remaining group in precisely the 
+same direction as the collaborator group and could not be distinguished - 
+from this group on any variable except age; the resisters were older 
+than the collaborators."
+
+Even a rough preliminary estimate, if valid, can be a boon to 
+the interrogator because it will permit him to start with generally 
+sound tactics from the beginning - tactics adapted to the personality 
+of the source. Dr. Moloney has expressed the opinion, which we 
+may use as an example of this, that the AVH was able to get what it 
+wanted from Cardinal Mindszenty because the Hungarian service 
+adapted its interrogation methods to his personality. "There can be 
+no doubt that Mindszenty's preoccupation with the concept of becoming 
+secure and powerful through the surrender of self to the greatest 
+power of them all - his God idea - predisposed him to the response 
+elicited in his experience with the communist intelligence. For him 
+the surrender of self-system to authoritarian-system was natural, 
+as was the very principle of martyrdom." (28) 
+
+
+The task of screening is made easier by the fact that the 
+screener is interested in the subject, not in the information which 
+he may possess. Most people--even many provocation agents who 
+have been trained to recite a legend--will speak with some freedom 
+about childhood events and familial relationships. And even the 
+provocateur who substitutes a fictitious person for his real father 
+will disclose some of his feelings about his father in the course 
+of detailing his story about the imaginary substitute. If the screener 
+has learned to put the potential source at ease, to feel his way 
+along in each case, the source is unlikely to consider that a 
+casual conversation about himself if dangerous. 
+
+
+The screener is interested in getting the subject to talk about 
+himself. Once the flow starts, the screener should try not to stop 
+it by questions, gestures, or other interruptions until sufficient 
+inforrnation has been revealed to permit a rough determination of 
+type. The subject is likeliest to talk freely if the screener's manner 
+is friendly and patient. His facial expression should not reveal.special 
+interest in any one statement; he should just seem sympathetic and 
+understanding. .Within a short time most people who have begun talking 
+about themselves go back to early experiences, so that merely by 
+listening and occasionally making a quiet, encouraging remark the 
+screener can learn a great deal. Routine questions about school 
+teachers, employers, and group leaders, for example, will lead the 
+subject to reveal a good deal of how he feels about his parents, 
+superiors, and others of emotional consequence to him because of 
+associative links in his mind. 
+
+
+It is very helpful if the screener can imaginatively place him- 
+self in the subject's position. The rnore the screener knows about 
+the subject's native area and cultural background, the less likely 
+is he to disturb the subject by an incongruous remark. Such comments 
+as, "That must have been a bad time for you and your family, " or 
+"Yes, I can see why you were angry," or "It sounds exciting" are 
+sufficiently innocuous not to distract the subject, yet provide adequate 
+evidence of sympathetic interest. Taking the subject's side against 
+his enemies serves the same purpose, and such comments as "That 
+was unfair; they had no right to treat you that way" will aid rapport 
+and stimulate further revelations. 
+
+
+It is important that gross abnormalities be spotted during the 
+screening process, Persons suffering from severe mental illness 
+will show major distortions, delusions, or hallucinations and will 
+usually give bizarre explanations for their behavior. Dismissal or 
+prompt referral of the mentally ill to professional specialists will 
+save time and money. 
+
+
+The second and related purpose of screening is to permit an 
+educated guess about the source's probable attitude toward the 
+interrogation. An estimate of whether the interrogatee will be 
+cooperative or recalcitrant is essential to planning because very 
+different methods are used in dealing with these two types. 
+
+
+At stations or bases which cannot conduct screening in the 
+formal sense, it is still worth-while to preface any important in- 
+terrogation with an interview of the source, conducted by someone 
+other than the interrogator and designed to provide a maximum of 
+evaluative information before interrogation commences. 
+
+
+Unless a shock effect is desired, the transition from the 
+screening interview to the interrogation situation should not be 
+abrupt. At the first meeting with the interrogatee it is usually 
+a good idea for the interrogator to spend some time in the same 
+kind of quiet, friendly exchange that characterized the screening 
+interview. Even though the interrogator now has the screening 
+product, the rough classification by type, he needs to understand 
+the subject in his ownterms. If he is immediately aggressive, he 
+imposes upon the first interrogation session (and to a diminishing 
+extent upon succeeding sessions) too arbitrary a pattern. As one 
+expert has said, ‘Anyone who proceeds without consideration for 
+the disjunctive power of anxiety in human relationships will never 
+learn interviewing." (34) 
+
+
+B. Other Preliminary Procedures 
+preliminary handling of other types of interrogation sources is us- 
+ually less difficult. It suffices for the present purpose to list the 
+following principles: 
+
+1. All available pertinent information agt to be assembled 
+and studied before the interrogation itself is planned, much less con- 
+ducted. An ounce of investigation may be worth a pound of questions. 
+
+2. A distinction should be drawn as soon as possible between sources who will be sent to a defector reception center of
+another site organized and equipped for interrogation and those whose 
+interrogation will-be completed by the base or station with which 
+contact is first established. 
+
+
+3. The suggested procedure for arriving at a preliminary 
+assessment of walk-ins remains the same whether the walk-in 
+is to be sent to a defector reception center or not. If the source 
+is to be transferred to a center, it is helpful if the preliminary 
+assessment of bona fides reaches the center before he does. The 
+preliminary testing of bona fides by the station or base which ° ; 
+first takes up contact with a walk-in is discussed i - (b)(3) 
+The key points are repeated here for ease of reference. These 
+preliminary tests are designed to supplement the technical 
+examination of a walk-in's documents, substantive questions 
+about claimed homeland or occupation, and other standard 
+inquiries. The following questions, if asked, should be posed 
+as soon as possible after the initial contact, while the walk-in 
+is still under stress and before he has adjusted to a routine. 
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+a. The walk-in may be asked to identify all : 
+relatives and friends in the area, or even the country, 
+in which PBPRIME asylum is first requested. Traces 
+should be run speedily. Provocation agents are : 
+sometimes directed to "defect" in their target areas, ” 
+and friends or relatives already in place may be hostile 
+assets. 
+
+
+b. At the first interview the questioner should 
+be on the alert for phrases or concepts characteristic 
+of intelligence or CP activity and should record such 
+leads whether it is planned to follow them by interrogation 
+on the spot or to refer them to an interrogation center 
+for later exploitation. 
+
+
+c. LCFLUTTER should be used if feasible. If 
+not, the walk-in may be asked to undergo such testing 
+at a later date. Refusals should be recorded, as well 
+as indications that the walk-in has been briefed on the 
+technique by another service. The manner as well as 
+the nature of the walk-in's reaction to the proposal 
+should be noted. 
+
+d. If LCFLUTTER, screening, investigation, or 
+any other methods do establish a prior intelligence history, 
+the following minimal information shouid be obtained: 
+
+5. All documents that have a bearing on the planned 
+interrogation merit study. Documents from Bloc countries, or 
+those which are in any respect unusual or unfamiliar, are 
+customarily sent to the proper field or headquarters component 
+for technical analysis. 
+
+
+6. If during screening or any other pre-interrogation 
+phase it is ascertained that the source has been interrogated 
+before, this fact should be made known to the interrogator. 
+Agents, for example, are accustomed to being questioned 
+repeatedly and professionally. So are persons who have been 
+arrested several times. People who have had practical training 
+in being interrogated become sophisticated subjects, able to 
+spot uncertainty, obvious tricks, and other weaknesses. 
+
+Screening and the other preliminary procedures will help 
+the interrogator - and his base, station, or center - to decide 
+whether the prospective source (1) is likely to possess useful 
+counterintelligence because of association with a foreign 
+service or Communist Party and (2) is likely to cooperate 
+voluntarily or not. Armed with these estimates and with 
+whatever insights screening has provided into the personality 
+of the source, the interrogator is ready to plan. 
+
+The long-range purpose of CI interrogation is to get from 
+the source all the useful counterintelligence information that 
+he has. The short-range purpose is to enlist his cooperation 
+toward this end or, if he is resistant, to destroy his capacity 
+for resistance and replace it with a cooperative attitude. The 
+techniques used in nullifying resistance, inducing compliance, 
+and eventually eliciting voluntary cooperation are discussed in 
+Part VIII of this handbook. 
+
+
+No two interrogations are the same. Every interrogation 
+is shaped definitively by the personality of the source - and of 
+the interrogator, because interrogation is an intensely 
+interpersonal process. The whole purpose of screening and 
+a major purpose of the first stage of the interrogation is to 
+probe the strengths and weaknesses of the subject. Only when 
+these have been established and understood does it become 
+possible to plan realistically. 
+
+
+Planning the CI interrogation of a resistant source requires 
+an understanding (whether formalized or not) of the dynamics 
+of confession. Here Horowitz's study of the nature of confession 
+is pertinent. He starts by asking why confessions occur at all. 
+"Why not always brazen it out when confronted by accusation? 
+Why does a person convict himself through a confession, when, 
+at the very worst, no confession would leave him at least as 
+well off (and possibly better off)... ?'' He answers that 
+confessions obtained without duress are usually the product 
+of the following conditions: 
+
+1. The person is accused explicitly or implicitly and feels 
+accused. 
+
+
+2. Asa result his psychological freedom - the extent to 
+which he feels able to do what he wants to - is curtailed. This 
+feeling need not correspond to confinement or any other external 
+reality. 
+
+
+3. The accused feels defensive because he is on unsure 
+ground. He does not know how much the accuser knows. Asa 
+result the accused "has no formula for proper behavior, no role 
+if you will, that he can utilize in this situation." 
+
+
+4. He perceives the accuser as representing authority. 
+Unless he believes that the accuser's powers far exceed his 
+own, he is unlikely to feel hemmed in and defensive. And if 
+he "perceives that the accusation is backed by 'real' evidence, 
+the ratio of external forces to his own forces is increased and the 
+person's psychological position is now more precarious. It is 
+interesting to note that in such situations the accused tends 
+toward over response, or exaggerated response; to hostility 
+and emotional display; to self-righteousness, to counter 
+accusation, to defense...."' 
+
+
+5. He must believe that he is cut off from friendly or 
+supporting forces. If he does, he himself becomes the only 
+source of his "salvation." 
+
+
+6. "Another condition, which is most probably necessary, 
+though not sufficient for confession, is that the accused person 
+feels guilt. A possible reason is that a sense of guilt promotes 
+self-hostility.'' It should be equally clear that if the person 
+does not feel guilt he is not in his own mind guilty and will not 
+confess to an act which others may regard as evil or wrong and 
+he, in fact, considers correct. Confession in such a case can come 
+only with duress even where all other conditions previously: 
+mentioned may prevail."' 
+
+7. The accused, finally, is pushed far enough along the 
+path toward confession that it is easier for him to keep going 
+than to turn back. He perceives confession as the only way out 
+of his predicament and into freedom. (15) 
+
+
+Horowitz has been quoted and summarized at some length 
+because it is considered that the foregoing is a basically sound 
+account of the processes that evoke confessions from sources 
+whose resistance is not strong at the outset, who have not 
+previously-been confronted with detention and interrogation, 
+and who have not been trained by an adversary intelligence or 
+security service in resistance techniques. A fledgling or 
+disaffected Communist or agent, for example, might be brought 
+to confession and cooperation without the use of any external 
+coercive forces other than the interrogation situation itself, 
+through the above-described progression of subjective events. 
+
+
+It is important to understand that interrogation, as both 
+situation and process, does of itself exert significant external 
+pressure upon the interrogatee as long as he is not permitted 
+to accustom himself to it. Some psychologists trace this effect 
+back to infantile relationships. Meerlo, for example, says that 
+every verbal relationship repeats to some degree the pattern 
+of early verbal relationships between child and parent. (27) 
+An interrogatee, in particular, is likely to see the interrogator 
+as a parent or parent-symbol, an object of suspicion and 
+resistance or of submissive acceptance. If the interrogator 
+is unaware of this unconcsious process, the result can be a 
+confused battle of submerged attitudes, in which the spoken 
+words are often merely a-cover for the unrelated struggle 
+being waged at lower levels of both personalities. On the 
+other hand, the interrogator who does understand these facts 
+and who knows how to turn them to his advantage may not need 
+to resort to any pressures greater than those that flow directly 
+from the interrogation setting and function. , 
+
+
+Obviously, many resistant subjects of counterintelligence 
+interrogation cannot be brought to cooperation, or even to 
+compliance, merely through pressures which they generate 
+within themselves or through the unreinforced effect of the 
+interrogation situation. Manipulative techniques - still keyed 
+to the individual but brought to bear upon him from outside 
+
+i himself - then become necessary. It is a fundamental 
+hypothesis of this handbook that these techniques, which can 
+succeed even with highly resistant sources, are in essence 
+methods of inducing regression of the personality to what- 
+ever earlier and weaker level is required for the dissolution 
+of resistance and the inculcation of dependence. All of the 
+techniques employed to break through an interrogation 
+roadblock, the entire spectrum from simple isolation to 
+hypnosis and narcosis, are essentially ways of speeding up 
+the process of regression. As the interrogatee slips back 
+from maturity toward a more infantile state, his learned or 
+structured personality traits fall away in a reversed 
+chronological order, so that the characteristics most recently 
+acquired - which are also the characteristics drawn upon by 
+the interrogatee in his own defense - are.the first to go. As 
+Gill and Brenman have pointed out, regression is basically a 
+loss of autonomy. (13) 
+
+
+Another key to the successful interrogation of the resisting 
+source is the provision of an acceptable rationalization for 
+yielding. As regression proceeds, almost all resisters feel 
+the growing internal stress that results from wanting 
+simultaneously to conceal and to divulge. To escape the 
+mounting tension, the source may grasp at any face-saving 
+reason for compliance - any explanation which will placate 
+both his own conscience and the possible wrath of former 
+superiors and associates if he is returned to Communist 
+control. It is the business of the interrogator to provide 
+the right rationalization at the right time. Here too the 
+importance of understanding the interrogatee is evident; the 
+right rationalization must be an excuse or reason that is 
+tailored to the source's personality. 
+
+
+The interrogation process is a continuum, and everything 
+that takes place in the continuum influences all subsequent 
+events, The continuing process, being interpersonal, is not 
+reversible. Therefore it is wrong to open a counterintelligence 
+interrogation experimentally, intending to abandon unfruitful 
+approaches one by one until a sound method is discovered by 
+chance. The failures of the interrogator, his painful retreats 
+from blind alleys, bolster the confidence of the source and 
+increase his ability to resist. While the interrogator is 
+struggling to learn from the subject the facts that should have 
+been established before interrogation started, the subject is 
+learning more and more about the interrogator. 
+
+Planning for interrogation is more important than the 
+specifics of the plan. Because no two interrogations are 
+alike, the interrogation cannot realistically be planned from 
+Ato Z, in all its particulars, at the outset. But it can and 
+must be planned from Ato F or Ato M. The chances of 
+failure in an unplanned CI interrogation are unacceptably 
+high. Even worse, a "dash-on-~regardless" approach can 
+ruin the prospects of success even if sound methods are 
+used later. 
+
+
+The intelligence category to which the subject belongs, 
+though not determinant for planning purposes, is still of 
+some significance. The plan for the interrogation of a 
+traveller differs from that for other types because the 
+time available for questioning is often brief. The examination 
+of his bona fides, accordingly, is often less searching. He 
+is usually regarded as reasonably reliable if his identity and 
+freedom from other intelligence associations have been 
+established, if records checks do not produce derogatory 
+information, if his account of his background is free of 
+omissions or discrepancies suggesting significant withholding, 
+if he does not attempt to elicit information about the questioner 
+or his sponsor, and if he willingly provides detailed information 
+which appears reliable or is established as such. 
+
+Defectors can usually be interrogated unilaterally, at 
+least for atime. Pressure for participation will usually 
+come not from a foreign service but from an ODYOKE intelligence 
+component. The time available for unilateral! testing and 
+exploitation should be calculated at the outset, with a fair 
+regard for the rights and interests of other members of the 
+intelligence community. The most significant single fact to be 
+kept in mind when planning the interrogation of Soviet defectors 
+is that a certain percentage of them have proven to be controlled 
+_agents; estimates of this percentage have ranged-as high as (b)(1) 
+uring a period of several years after 1955. (22) (b)(3) 
+
+
+KUBARK's lack of executive powers is especially significant 
+if the interrogation of a suspect agent or of any other subject 
+who is expected to resist is under consideration. As a general 
+rule, it is difficult to succeed in the CI interrogation of a 
+resistant source unless the interrogating service can control 
+the subject and his environment for as long as proves necessary, 
+
+As was mentioned earlier, agents and staff members of 
+hostile services are often briefed about KUBARK's lack of 
+police powers. Such sources may demand immediate release 
+if detained for unilateral questioning. If the demand is refused, a 
+they may later bring suit for illegal detention. Transfer to an 
+interrogation center should not be used as an automatic solution. 
+The interrogation plan of a station or base should take into 
+account the legal considerations, problems of housing and 
+guarding subjects undergoing unilateral questioning, and the 
+frustration that may be engendered by expending much time 
+and skilled manpower upon a recalcitrant source. Otherwise 
+the station or base may press too hard in trying to quick 
+results, wilt under pressure, and release an interrogatee 
+from whom clarification has not been obtained. 
+
+Before questioning starts, the interrogator has clearly 
+in mind what he wants to learn, why he thinks the source has the 
+information, how important it is, and how it can best be obtained. 
+Any confusion here, or any questioning based on the premise 
+that the purpose will take shape after the interrogation is under 
+way, is almost certain to lead to aimlessness and final failure. 
+
+If the specific goals cannot be discerned clearly, further 
+investigation is needed before querying starts. 
+
+The kind and intensity of anticipated resistance is 
+estimated. It is useful to recognize in advance whether the 
+information desired would be threatening or damaging in any 
+way to the interests of the interrogatee. If so, the interrogator 
+should consider whether the same information, or confirmation 
+of it, can be gained from another source. Questioning suspects 
+immediately, on a flimsy factual basis, will usually cause 
+waste of time, not save it. On the other hand, if the needed 
+information is not sensitive from the subject's viewpoint, 
+merely asking for it is usually preferable to trying to trick 
+him into admissions and thus creating an unnecessary battle 
+of wits. 
+
+
+The preliminary psychological analysis of the subject 
+makes it easier to decide whether he is likely to resist and, 
+if so, whether his resistance will be the product of fear that 
+his personal interests will be damaged or the result of the 
+non-cooperative nature of orderly-obstinate and related 
+types. The choice of methods to be used in overcoming 
+resistance is also determined by the characteristics of the 
+interrogatee. 
+
+The room in which the interrogation is to be conducted 
+should be free of distractions. The colors of walls, ceiling, 
+rugs, and furniture should not be startling. Pictures should be 
+missing or dull. Whether the furniture should include a desk 
+depends not upon the interrogator's convenience but rather upon 
+the subject's anticipated reaction to connotations of superiority 
+and officialdom. A plain table may be preferable. An over- 
+stuffed chair for the use of the interrogatee is sometimes 
+preferable to a straight-backed, wooden chair because if he 
+is made to stand for a lengthy period or is otherwise deprived 
+of physical comfort, the contrast is intensified and increased 
+disorientation results. Some treatises on interrogation are 
+emphatic about the value of arranging the lighting so that its 
+source is behind the interrogator and glares directly at the 
+subject. Here, too, a flat rule is unrealistic. The effect 
+upon a cooperative source is inhibitory, and the effect upon 
+a withholding source may be to make him more stubborn. 
+
+Like all other details, this one depends upon the personality 
+of the interrogatee. 
+
+
+Good planning will prevent interruptions. If the 
+room is also used for purposes other than interrogation, a 
+"Do Not Disturb" sign or its equivalent should hang on the 
+door when questioning is under way. The effect of someone 
+wandering in because he forgot his pen or wants to invite the 
+interrogator to lunch can be devastating. For the same reason 
+there should not be a telephone in the room; it is certain to 
+ring at precisely the wrong moment. Moreover, it is a visible 
+link to the outside; its presence makes a subject feel less cut- 
+off, better able to resist. 
+
+
+The interrogation room affords ideal conditions for 
+photographing the interrogatee without his knowledge by 
+concealing a camera behind a picture or elsewhere. 
+
+
+If a new safehouse is to be used as the interrogation 
+site, it should be studied carefully to be sure that the total 
+environment can be manipulated as desired. For example, 
+the electric current should be known in advance, so that 
+transformers or other modifying devices will be on hand if 
+needed. 
+
+
+Arrangements are usually made to record the 
+interrogation, transmit it to another room, or do both. Most 
+experienced interrogators do not like to take notes. Not being 
+saddled with this chore leaves them free to concentrate on 
+what sources say, how they sayit, and what else they do 
+while talking or listening. Another reason for avoiding note- 
+taking is that it distracts and sometimes worries the interrogatee. 
+In the course of several sessions conducted without note-taking, 
+the subject is likely to fall into the comfortable illusion that 
+he is not talking for the record. Another advantage of the tape 
+is that it can be played back later. Upon sorne subjects the 
+shock of hearing their own voices unexpectedly is unnerving. 
+The record also prevents later twistings or denials of 
+admissions. Tapes can also be edited and spliced, with 
+effective results, if the tampering can be kept hidden. For 
+example, if two suspects are involved and if B is merely 
+told that A has confessed their joint duplicity, he may 
+believe that the statement is a lie and that the interrogators 
+are just up to their old tricks again. But if he hears A's 
+taped confession, or A's tape edited to make it sound like 
+a confession, the result may be quite different. A recording 
+is also a valuable training aid for interrogators, who by this 
+
+means can study their mistakes and their most effective 
+techniques. Exceptionally instructuve interrogations, or 
+selected portions thereof, can also be used in the training 
+of others. 
+
+
+If possible, audio equipment should also be used 
+to transmit the proceedings to another room, used as a 
+listening.post. The main advantage of transmission is that 
+it enables the person in charge of the interrogation to note 
+crucial points and map further strategy, replacing one 
+interrogator with another, timing a dramatic interruption 
+correctly, etc. It is also helpful to install a small blinker 
+bulb behind the subject or to arrange some other method 
+of signalling the interrogator, without the source's knowledge, 
+that the questioner should leave the room for consultation 
+or that someone else is about to enter. 
+
+Interrogatees are normally questioned separately. 
+Separation permits the use of a number of techniques that 
+would not be possible otherwise. It also intensifies in the 
+source the feeling of being cut off from friendly aid. Confrontation 
+of two or more suspects with each other in order to produce 
+recriminations or admissions is especially dangerous if not 
+preceded by separate interrogation sessions which have evoked 
+compliance from one of the interrogatees, or at least significant 
+admissions involving both. Techniques for the separate 
+interrogations of linked sources are discussed in Part IX. 
+
+
+The number of interrogators used for a single 
+interrogation case varies from one man to a large team. 
+The size of the team depends on several considerations, 
+
+Z chiefly the importance of the case and the intensity of source 
+resistance. Although most sessions consist of one interrogator 
+and one interrogatee, some of the techniques described later 
+call for the presence of two, three, or four interrogators. The 
+4 two-man team, in particular, is subject to unintended antipathies 
+and conflicts not called for by assigned roles. Planning and 
+subsequent conduct should eliminate such cross-currents 
+before they develop, especially because the source will 
+seek to turn them to his advantage. 
+
+
+Team members who are not otherwise engaged can 
+be employed to best advantage at the listening post. Inexperienced 
+interrogators find that listening to the interrogation while it is in 
+progress can be highly educational. 
+
+
+Once questioning starts, the interrogator is called 
+upon to function at two levels. He is trying to do two seemingly 
+contradictory things at once: achieve rapport with the subject 
+but remain an essentially detached observer. Or he may 
+project himself to the resistant interrogatee as powerful and 
+ominous (in order to eradiczte resistance and create the 
+necessary conditions for rapport) while remaining wholly 
+uncommitted at the deeper level, noting the significance of 
+the subject's reactions and the effectiveness of his own 
+performance. Poor interrogators often confuse this bi-level 
+functioning with role-playing, but there is a vital difference. 
+The interrogator who merely pretends, in his surface performance, 
+to feel a given emotion or to hold a given attitude toward the 
+source is likely to be unconvincing; the source quickly senses 
+the deception. Even children are very quick to feel this kind 
+of pretense. To be persuasive, the sympathy or anger must 
+be genuine; but to be useful, it must not interfere with the 
+deeper level of precise, unaffected observation. Bi-level 
+functioning is not difficult or even unusual; most people act 
+at times as both performer and observer unless their 
+emotions are so deeply involved in the situation that the 
+critical faculty disintegrates. Through experience the 
+interrogator becomes adept in this dualism. The interrogator 
+who finds that he has become emotionally involved and is 
+no longer capable of unimpaired objectivity should report 
+the facts so that a substitution can be made. Despite all . 
+planning efforts to select an interrogator whose age, 
+background, skills, personality, and experience make 
+him the best choice for the job, it sometimes happens 
+that both questioner and subject feel, when they first meet, 
+
+an immediate attraction or antipathy which is so strong that 
+a change of interrogators quickly becomes essential. No 
+interrogator should be reluctant to notify his superior when 
+emotional involvement becomes evident. Not the reaction 
+but a failure to report it would be evidence of a lack of 
+professionalism. 
+
+
+Other reasons for changing interrogators should be 
+anticipated and avoided at the outset. During the first part 
+of the interrogation the developing relationship between the 
+questioner and the initially uncooperative source is more 
+important than the information obtained; when this relationship 
+is destroyed by a change of interrogators, the replacement 
+must start nearly from scratch. In fact, he starts with a 
+handicap, because exposure to interrogation will have made 
+the source a more effective resister. Therefore the base, 
+station, or center should not assign as chief interrogator 
+a person whose availability will end before the estimated 
+completion of the case. 
+
+Before interrogation starts, the amount of time 
+probably required and probably available to both interrogator 
+and interrogatee should be calculated. If the subject is not 
+to be under detention, his normal schedule is ascertained 
+in advance, so that he will not have to be released at a critical 
+point because he has an appointment or has to go to work. 
+
+
+Because pulling information from a recalcitrant 
+subject is the hard way of doing business, interrogation should 
+not begin until all pertinent facts available from overt and from 
+, cooperative sources have been assembled. 
+
+
+Interrogation sessions with a resistant source who is 
+under detention should not be held on an unvarying schedule. 
+The capacity for resistance is diminished by disorientation. 
+
+The subject may be left alone for days; and he may be returned 
+to his cell, allowed to sleep for five minutes, and brought back 
+to an interrogation which is conducted as though eight hours had 
+intervened. The principle is that sessions should be so planned 
+as to disrupt the source's sense of chronological order. 
+
+The end of an interrogation should be planned before 
+questioning starts. The kinds of questions asked, the methods 
+employed, and even the goals sought may be shaped by what | 
+will happen when the end is reached. If, for example, the 
+subject is to be turned over to a host service, it becomes more 
+than usually important to hold to a minimum the amount of 
+information about KUBARK and its methods that he can 
+communicate. If he is to be released upon the local economy, 
+perhaps blacklisted as a suspected hostile agent but not subjected 
+to subsequent counterintelligence surveillance, it is important 
+to avoid an inconclusive ending that has warned the interrogatee 
+of our doubts but has established nothing. The poorest interrogations 
+are those that trail off into an inconclusive nothingness. 
+
+
+A number of practical terminal details should also 
+be considered in advance. Are the source's documents to be 
+returned to him, and will they be available in time? Is he 
+to be paid? If he is a fabricator or hostile agent, has he been 
+photographed and fingerprinted? Are subsequent contacts 
+necessary or desirable, and have recontact provisions been 
+arranged? Has a quit-claim been obtained? 
+
+
+As was noted at the beginning of this section, the 
+successful interrogation of a strongly resistant source ordinarily 
+involves two key processes: the calculated regression of the 
+interrogatee and the provision of an acceptable rationalization. 
+
+If these two steps have been taken, it becomes very important 
+to clinch the new tractability by means of conversion. In 
+other words, a subject who has finally divulged the information 
+sought and who has been given a reason for divulging which salves 
+his self-esteem, his conscience, or both, will often be in a mood 
+to take the final step of accepting the interrogator's values and 
+making common cause with him. If operational use is now 
+contemplated, conversion is imperative. But even if the source 
+has no further value after his fund of information has been mined, 
+spending some extra time with him in order to replace his new 
+sense of emptiness with new values can be good insurance, All 
+non-Communist services are bothered at times by disgruntled 
+exinterrogatees who press demands and threaten or take hostile 
+action if the demands are not satisfied. Defectors in particular, 
+because they are often hostile toward any kind of authority, 
+cause trouble by threatening or bringing suits in local courts, 
+arranging publication of vengeful stories, or going to the local 
+police, The former interrogatee is especially likely to be a 
+future trouble-maker if during interrogation he was subjected 
+to a form of compulsion imposed from outside himself. Time 
+spent, after the interrogation ends, in fortifying the source's 
+sense of acceptance in the interrogator's world may be only a 
+fraction of the time required to bottle up his attempts to gain 
+revenge. Moreover, conversion may create a useful and 
+enduring asset. (See also remarks in VIII B 4.) 
+
+The term non-coercive is used above to denote methods of 
+interrogation that are not based upon the coercion of an unwilling 
+subject through the employment of superior force originating out- 
+side himself. However, the non-coercive interrogation is not 
+conducted without pressure. On the contrary, the goal is to gen- 
+erate maximum pressure, or at least as much as is needed to induce 
+compliance. The difference is that the pressure is generated inside 
+the interrogatee. His resistance is sapped, his urge to yield is 
+fortified, until in the end he defeats himself. 
+
+
+Manipulating the subject psychologically until he becomes 
+compliant, without applying external methods of forcing him to 
+submit, sounds harder than it is. The initial advantage lies with 
+the interrogator. From the outset, he knows a great deal more 
+about the source than the source knows about him. And he can 
+create and amplify an effect of omniscience in a number of ways. 
+For example, he can show the interrogatee a thick file bearing his 
+own name, Even if the file contains little or nothing but blank 
+paper, the air of familiarity with which the interrogator refers to 
+the subject's background can convince some sources that all is 
+known and that resistance is futile. 
+
+
+If the interrogatee is under detention, the interrogator can 
+also manipulate his environment. Merely by cutting off all other 
+human contacts, "the interrogator monopolizes the social environ- 
+ment of the source.'"(3) He exercises'the powers of an all-powerful 
+parent, determining when the source will be sent to bed, when and 
+what he will eat, whether he will be rewarded for good behavior or 
+punished for being bad. The interrogator can and does make the 
+subject's world not only unlike the world to which he had been 
+accustomed but also strange in itself - a world in which familiar 
+patterns of time, space, and sensory perception are overthrown. 
+He can shift the environment abruptly. For example, a source who 
+refuses to talk at all can be placed in unpleasant solitary confine- 
+ment for atime. Then a friendly soul treats him to an unexpected 
+walk in the woods. Experiencing relief and exhilaration, the subject 
+' will usually find it impossible not to respond to innocuous comments 
+on the weather and the flowers, These are expanded to include 
+reminiscences, and soon a precedent of verbal exchange has been 
+established, Both the Germans and the Chinese have used this trick 
+effectively.. 
+
+
+The interrogator also chooses the emotional key or keys in 
+which the interrogation or any part of it will be played. 
+
+
+Because of these and other advantages, "... skilled and 
+determined interrogators are almost invariably successful in 
+eliciting some information from their sources.... For prisoner- 
+of-war interrogation, the figures generally given as the proportion 
+of sources who abandon the 'name, rank, number only' rule, or 
+other injunctions of silence, are between 95 and 100 percent... . ''(3) 
+
+
+B. The Structure of the Interrogation 
+
+
+A counterintelligence interrogation consists of four parts: 
+the opening, the reconnaissance, the detailed questioning and the 
+conclusion. 
+
+Most resistant interrogatees block off access to signifi- 
+cant counterintelligence in their possession for one or more of 
+: four reasons. The first is a specific negative reaction to 
+the interrogator, Poor initial handling or a fundamental anti- 
+pathy can make a source uncooperative even if he has nothing 
+significant or damaging to conceal. The second cause is that 
+some sources are resistant "by nature" - i.e. by early 
+conditioning - to any compliance with authority. The third is 
+that the subject believes that the information sought will be 
+damaging or incriminating for him personally, that cooperation 
+with the interrogator will have consequences more painful 
+
+for him than the results of non-cooperation. The fourth is 
+ideological resistance. The source has identified himself 
+
+with a cause, a political movement or organization, or an 
+opposition intelligence service. Regardless of his attitude 
+toward the interrogator, his own personality, and his fears 
+
+for the future, the person who is deeply devoted to a hostile 
+cause will ordinarily prove strongly resistant under interroga- 
+tion. 
+
+
+A principal goal during the opening phase is to confirm 
+the personality assessment obtained through screening and to 
+allow the interrogator to gain a deeper understanding of the 
+source as an individual, Unless time is crucial, the interroga- 
+tor should not become impatient if the interrogatee wanders 
+from the purposes of the interrogation and reverts to personal 
+concerns, Significant facts not produced during screening may 
+be revealed. The screening report itself is brought to life, 
+the type becomes an individual, as the subject talks. And 
+sometimes seemingly rambling monologues about personal 
+matters are preludes to significant admissions, Some people 
+cannot bring themselves to provide information that puts them 
+in an unfavorable light until, through a lengthy prefatory 
+rationalization, they feel that they have set the stage, that the 
+interrogator will now understand why they acted as they did. 
+
+If face-saving is necessary to the interrogatee, it will be a 
+waste of time to try to force him to cut the preliminaries short 
+and get down to cases, In his view, he is dealing with the 
+important topic, the why. He will be offended and may becorne 
+wholly uncooperative if faced with insistent demands for the 
+naked what. 
+
+
+There is another advantage in letting the subject talk 
+freely and even ramblingly in the first stage of interroga- 
+tion. The interrogator is free to observe. Human beings 
+communicate a great deal by non-verbal means. Skilled 
+interrogators, for example, listen closely to voices and learn 
+a great dealfrom them. An interrogation is not merely a 
+verbal performance; it is a vocal performance, and the 
+voice projects tension, fear, a dislike of certain topics, and 
+other useful pieces of information. It is also helpful to watch 
+the subject's mouth, which is as a rule much more revealing 
+than his eyes. Gestures and postures also tell a story. If 
+a subject normally gesticulates broadly at times and is at 
+other times physically relaxed but at some point sits stiffly 
+motionless, his posture is likely to be the physical image of 
+his mental tension, The interrogator should make a mental 
+note of the topic that caused such a reaction. 
+
+
+One textbook on interrogation lists the following physical 
+indicators of emotions and recommends that interrogators 
+note them, not as conclusive proofs but as assessment aids: 
+
+(1) A ruddy or flushed face is an indication of anger 
+or embarrassment but not necessarily of guilt. 
+
+(2) A "cold sweat" is a strong sign of fear and shock. 
+
+(3) A pale face indicates fear and usually shows that 
+the interrogator is hitting close to the mark. 
+
+(4) A dry mouth denotes nervousness. 
+
+(5) Nervous tension is also shown by wringing a 
+handkerchief or clenching the hands tightly. 
+
+(6) Emotional strain or tension may cause a pumping 
+of the heart which becomes visible in the pulse 
+and throat, 
+
+(7) A slight gasp, holding the breath, or an unsteady 
+voice may betray the subject. 
+
+(8) Fidgeting may take many forms, all of which are 
+good indications of nervousness, 
+
+(9) A man under emotional strain or nervous tension 
+will involuntarily draw his elbows to his sides. It 
+is a protective defense mechanism. 
+
+(10) The movement of the foot when one leg is crossed 
+over the knee of the other can serve as an indicator, 
+The circulation of the blood to the lower leg is 
+partially cut off, thereby causing a slight lift or 
+movement of the free foot with each heart beat. 
+This becomes more pronounced and observable 
+as the pulse rate increases. 
+
+
+Pauses are also significant. Whenever a person is 
+talking about a subject of consequence to himself, he goes through 
+a process of advance self-monitoring, performed at lightning 
+speed. This self-monitoring is more intense if the person is 
+talking to a stranger and especially intense if he is answering 
+the stranger's questions. Its purpose is to keep from the 
+questioner any guilty information or information that would be 
+damaging to the speaker's self-esteem. When questions or 
+answers get close to sensitive areas, the pre-scanning is 
+likely to create mental blocks. These in turn produce unnatural 
+pauses, meaningless sounds designed to give the speaker more 
+time, or other interruptions, It is not easy to distinguish 
+between innocent blocks -- things held back for reasons of 
+personal prestige -- and guilty blocks -- things the interro- 
+gator needs to know. But the successful establishment of 
+rapport will tend to eliminate innocent blocks, or at least to 
+keep them to a minimum. 
+
+
+The establishment of rapport is the second principal 
+purpose of the opening phase of the interrogation, Sometimes 
+the interrogator knows in advance, as a result of screening, 
+that the subject will be uncooperative. At other times the 
+probability of resistance is established without screening; 
+detected hostile agents, for example, usually have not only 
+the will to resist but also the means, through a cover story or 
+other explanation. But the anticipation of withholding increases 
+rather than diminishes, the value of rapport. In other words, 
+a lack of rapport may cause an interrogatee to withhold 
+information that he would otherwise provide freely, whereas 
+the existence of rapport may induce an interrogatee who is 
+initially determined to withhold to change his attitude. There- 
+fore the interrogator must not become hostile if confronted 
+with initial hostility, or in any other way confirm such 
+negative attitudes as he may encounter at the outset. During 
+this first phase his attitude should remain business-like but 
+also quietly (not ostentatiously) friendly and welcoming. 
+
+Such opening remarks by subjects as, "I know what you 
+so-and-so's are after, and I can tell you right now that 
+
+you're not going to get it from me" are best handled by an 
+unperturbed ''Why don't you tell me what has made you angry?" 
+At this stage the interrogator should avoid being drawn into 
+conflict, no matter how provocatory may be the attitude or 
+language of the interrogatee, If he meets truculence with 
+neither insincere protestations that he is the subject's ''pal" 
+nor an equal anger but rather a calm interest in what has 
+aroused the subject, the interrogator has gained two advantages 
+right at the start. He has established the superiority that he 
+will need later, as the questioning develops, and he has increased 
+the chances of establishing rapport. 
+
+
+How long the opening phase continues depends upon how 
+long it takes to establish rapport or to determine that volun- 
+tary cooperation is unobtainable. It may be literally a matter 
+of seconds, or it may be a drawn-out, up-hill battle. Even 
+though the cost in time and patience is sometimes high, the 
+effort to make the subject feel that his questioner is a 
+sympathetic figure should not be abandoned until all reasonable 
+resources have been exhausted (unless, of course, the interro- 
+gation does not merit much time), Otherwise, the chances are 
+that the interrogation will not produce optimum results. In 
+fact, it is likely to be a failure, and the interrogator should 
+not be dissuaded from the effort to establish rapport by an 
+inward conviction that no man in his right mind would incrimi- 
+" . mate himself by providing the kind of information that is sought. 
+
+The history of interrogation is full of confessions and other 
+self-incriminations that were in essence the result of a substi- 
+tution of the interrogation world for the world outside, In 
+other words, as the sights and sounds of an outside world fade 
+away, its significance for the interrogatee tends to do like- 
+wise. That world is replaced by the interrogation room, its 
+
+two occupants, and the dynamic relationship between them. 
+
+As interrogation goes on, the subject tends increasingly to 
+divulge or withhold in accordance with the values of the 
+interrogation world rather than those of the outside world 
+(unless the periods of questioning are only brief interruptions 
+
+in his normal life). In this small world of two inhabitants a 
+clash of personalities -- as distinct from a conflict of purposes -- 
+assumes exaggerated force, like a tornado in a wind-tunnel. The 
+self-esteem of the interrogatee and of the interrogator becomes 
+involved, and the interrogatee fights to keep his secrets from 
+his opponent for subjective reasons, because he is grimly 
+determined not to be the loser, the inferior. If on the other 
+hand the interrogator establishes rapport, the subject may 
+withhold because of other reasons, but his resistance often 
+lacks the bitter, last-ditch intensity that results if the contest 
+becomes personalized. 
+
+
+The interrogator who senses or determines in the opening 
+phase that what he is hearing is a legend should resist the first, 
+natural impulse to demonstrate its falsity. In some interro- 
+gatees the ego-demands, the need to save face, are so inter- 
+twined with preservation of the cover story that calling the man 
+a liar will merely intensify resistance, It is better to leave 
+an avenue of escape, a loophole which permits the source to 
+correct his story without looking foolish, 
+
+
+If it is decided, much later in the interrogation, to 
+confront the interrogatee with proof of lying, the following 
+related advice about legal cross-examination may prove 
+helpful. 
+
+
+“Much depends upon the sequence in which one conducts 
+the cross-examination of a dishonest witness. You should 
+never hazard the important question until you have laid the 
+foundation for it in such a way that, when confronted with the 
+fact, the witness can neither deny nor explain it. One often 
+sees the most damaging documentary evidence, in the forms 
+of letters or affidavits, fall absolutely flat as betrayers of 
+falsehood, merely because of the unskillful way in which they 
+are handled. If you have in your possession a letter written 
+by the witness, in which he takes an opposite position on some 
+part of the case to the one he has just sworn to, avoid the 
+common error of showing the witness the letter for identifica- 
+tion, and then reading it to him with the inquiry, ‘What have 
+you to say to that?' During the reading of his letter the 
+witness will be collecting his thoughts and getting ready his 
+explanations in anticipation of the question that is to follow, 
+and the effect of the damaging letter will be lost.... The 
+correct method of using such a letter is to lead the witness 
+quietly into repeating the statements he has made in his 
+direct testimony, and which his letter contradicts. Then read 
+it off to him. The witness has [no explanation]. He has stated 
+the fact, there is nothing to qualify. 
+
+If the interrogatee is cooperative at the outset or if 
+rapport is established during the opening phase and the source 
+becomes cooperative, the reconnaissance stage is needless; 
+the interrogator proceeds directly to detailed questioning. 
+But if the interrogatee is withholding, a period of explora- 
+tion is necessary. Assumptions have normally been made 
+already as to what he is withholding: that he is a fabricator, 
+or an RIS agent, or something else he deems it important to 
+conceal, Or the assumption may be that he had knowledge of 
+such activities carried out by someone else. At any rate, the 
+purpose of the reconnaissance is to provide a quick testing of 
+the assumption and, more importantly, to probe the causes, 
+extent, and intensity of resistance. 
+
+
+During the opening phase the interrogator will have 
+charted the probable areas of resistance by noting those topics 
+4 which caused emotional or physical reactions, speech blocks, 
+or other indicators. He now begins to probe these areas. 
+Every experienced interrogator has noted that if an interrogatee 
+is withholding, his anxiety increases as the questioning 
+nears the mark. The safer the topic, the more voluble the 
+source. But as the questions make him increasingly un- 
+comfortable, the interrogatee becomes less communicative 
+or perhaps even hostile. During the opening phase the 
+interrogator has gone along with this protective mechanism. 
+Now, however, he keeps coming back to each area of sensi- 
+tivity until he has determined the location of each and the 
+intensity of the defenses. If resistance is slight, mere 
+persistence may overcome it; and detailed questioning may 
+follow immediately. But if resistance is strong, a new topic 
+should be introduced, and detailed questioning reserved for the 
+third stage. 
+
+
+Two dangers are especially likely to appear during the 
+reconnaissance. Up to this point the interrogator has not 
+continued a line of questioning when resistance was encountered. 
+Now, however, he does so, and rapport may be strained. 
+
+Some interrogatees will take this change personally and tend to 
+personalize the conflict. The interrogator should resist this 
+tendency. If he succumbs to it, and becomes engaged in a 
+battle of wits, he may not be able to accomplish the task at 
+hand. The second temptation to avoid is the natural inclination 
+to resort prematurely to ruses or coercive techniques in order 
+to settle the matter then and there. The basic purpose of the 
+reconnaissance is to determine the kind and degree of pressure 
+that will be needed in the third stage. The interrogator should 
+reserve his fire-power until he knows what he is up against. 
+
+
+a. The Detailed Questioning 
+
+
+a. If rapport is established and if the interrogatee 
+has nothing significant to hide, detailed questioning 
+presents only routine problems. The major routine 
+considerations are the following: 
+
+
+The interrogator must know exactly what he wants 
+to know. He should have on paper or firmly in mind all 
+the questions to which he seeks answers. It usually 
+happens that the source has a relatively large body of 
+information that has little or no intelligence value and 
+only a small collection of nuggets. He will naturally 
+tend to talk about what he knows best. The interrogator 
+should not show quick impatience, but neither should he 
+allow the results to get out of focus. The determinant 
+remains what we need, not what the interrogatee can 
+most readily provide. 
+
+
+At the -same time it is necessary to make every 
+effort to keep the subject from learning through the 
+interrogation process precisely where our informational 
+gaps lie. This principle is especially important if the 
+interrogatee is following his normal life, going home 
+each evening and appearing only once or twice a week for 
+questioning, or if his bona fides remains in doubt. Under 
+almost all circumstances, however, a clear revelation 
+of our interests and knowledge should be avoided. It 
+is usually a poor practice to hand to even the most 
+cooperative interrogatee an orderly list of questions and 
+ask him to write the answers. (This stricture does not 
+apply to the writing of autobiographies or on informa- 
+tional matters not a subject of controversy with the source. ) 
+Some time is normally spent on matters of little or no 
+intelligence interest for purposes of concealment. The 
+interrogator can abet the process by making occasional 
+notes -- or pretending to do so -- on items that seem 
+important to the interrogatee but are not of intelligence 
+value. From this point of view an interrogation can be 
+deemed successful if a source who is actually a hostile 
+agent can report to the opposition only the general fields 
+of our interest but cannot pinpoint specifics without 
+including misleading information. 
+
+It is sound practice to write up each interrogation 
+report on the day of questioning or, at least, before the 
+next session, so that defects can be promptly remedied 
+and gaps or contradictions noted in time. 
+
+It is also a good expedient to have the interrogatee 
+make notes of topics that should be covered, which occur 
+to him while discussing the immediate matters at issue. 
+The act of recording the stray item or thought on paper 
+fixes it in the interrogatee's mind. Usually topics 
+popping up in the course of an interrogation are forgotten 
+if not noted; they tend to disrupt the interrogation plan 
+if covered by way of digression on the spot. 
+
+
+Debriefing questions should usually be couched to 
+provoke a positive answer and should be specific. The 
+questioner should not accept a blanket negative without 
+probing. For example, the question "Do you know any- 
+thing about Plant X?" is likelier to draw a negative 
+answer then 'Do you have any friends who work at Plant 
+X?" or "Can you describe its exterior?" 
+
+
+It is important to determine whether the subject's 
+knowledge of any topic was acquired at first hand, learned 
+indirectly, or represents merely an assumption. If the 
+information was obtained indirectly, the identities of 
+sub-sources and related information about the channel are 
+needed. If statements rest on assumptions, the facts 
+upon which the conclusions are based are necessary to 
+evaluation. 
+
+
+As detailed questioning proceeds, additional 
+biographic data will be revealed. Such items should be 
+entered into the record, but it is normally preferable 
+not to diverge from an impersonal topic in order to 
+follow a biographic lead. Such leads can be taken up 
+later unless they raise new doubts about bona fides. 
+
+
+As detailed interrogation continues, and especially 
+at the half-way mark, the interrogator's desire to complete 
+the task may cause him to be increasingly business-like 
+or even brusque. He may tend to curtail or drop the 
+usual inquiries about the subject's well-being with which 
+he opened earlier sessions. He may feel like dealing more 
+and more abruptly with reminiscences or digressions. 
+His interest has shifted from the interrogatee himself, 
+who just a while ago was an interesting person, to the 
+atsk of getting at what he knows, But if rapport has been 
+established, the interrogatee will be quick to sense and 
+resent this change of attitude. This point is particularly 
+important if the interrogatee is a defector faced with 
+bewildering changes and in a highly emotional state. 
+
+Any interrogatee has his ups and downs, times when he is 
+tired or half-ill, times when his personal problems have 
+left his nerves frayed. The peculiar intimacy of the 
+interrogation situation and the very fact that the interro- 
+gator has deliberately fostered rapport will often lead 
+
+the subject to talk about his doubts, fears, and other 
+personal reactions. The interrogator should neither cut 
+off this flow abruptly nor show impatience unless it takes 
+up an inordinate amount of time or unless it seems likely 
+that all the talking about personal matters is being used 
+deliberately as a smoke screen to keep the interrogator 
+from doing his job. If the interrogatee is believed 
+cooperative, then from the beginning to the end of the 
+process he should feel that the interrogator's interest in 
+him has remained constant. Unless the interrogation is 
+soon over, the interrogatee's attitude toward his ques- 
+tioner is not likely to remain constant. He will feel more 
+and more drawn to the questioner or increasingly antago- 
+nistic. Asa rule, the best way for the interrogator to 
+keep the relationship on an even keel is to maintain the 
+same quiet, relaxed, and open-minded attitude from start 
+to finish. 
+
+
+Detailed interrogation ends only when (1) all useful 
+counterintelligence information has been obtained; (2) 
+diminishing returns and more pressing commitments 
+compel a cessation; or (3) the base, station, or center 
+admits full or partial defeat. Termination for any reason 
+other than the first is only temporary. It is a profound 
+mistake to write off a successfully resistant interrogatee 
+or one whose questioning was ended before his potential 
+was exhausted. KUBARK must keep track of such persons, 
+because people and circumstances change. Until the 
+source dies or tells us everything that he knows that is 
+pertinent to our purposes, his interrogation may be 
+interrupted, perhaps for years -- but it has not been 
+completed, 
+
+The end of an interrogation is not the end of the interro- 
+gator's responsibilities. From the beginning of planning to 
+the end of questioning it has been necessary to understand and 
+guard against the various troubles that a vengeful ex-source 
+can cause. As was pointed out earlier, KUBARK's lack of 
+executive authority abroad and its operational need for face- 
+lessness make it peculiarly vulnerable to attack in the courts 
+or the press. The best defense against such attacks is pre- 
+vention, through enlistment or enforcement of compliance. 
+However real cooperation is achieved, its existence seems to 
+act as a deterrent to later hostility. The initially resistant 
+subject may become cooperative because of a partial identi- 
+fication with the interrogator and his interests, or the source 
+may make such an identification because of his cooperation. 
+In either event, he is unlikely to cause serious trouble in the 
+future. Real difficulties are more frequently created by 
+interrogatees who have succeeded in withholding, 
+
+
+The following steps are normally a routine part of the 
+conclusion: 
+
+
+a. A quitclaim or secrecy agreement is obtained. 
+
+b. If any promises have been made to the interrogatee, 
+the interrogator reviews them to insure that they have 
+been fulfilled. If necessary, he discusses them with the 
+source to eliminate misunderstandings. 
+
+
+c. Recontact arrangements are explained if further 
+meetings may be desirable. 
+
+d. Personal property is returned to the interrogatee 
+against receipt. If something cannot be returned at the 
+time -- 2 document, for example -- an explanation or 
+settlement satisfactory to the source is made if possible. 
+If the source is to be rewarded by cash or a gift, a 
+receipt is normally obtained, 
+
+
+e. If during the final session the interrogatee manifests 
+serious hostility, threatens court action, or otherwise 
+indicates an intention to seek revenge, Headquarters is 
+promptly notified. 
+
+
+f. The interrogator participates in formulating the 
+disposal plan, because of the relevance of his intimate 
+knowledge of the source. 
+
+If source resistance is encountered during screening or during 
+the opening or reconnaissance phases of the interrogation, non- 
+coercive methods of sapping opposition and strengthening the tendency 
+to yield and to cooperate may be applied. Although these methods 
+appear here in an approximate order of increasing pressure, it 
+should not be inferred that each is to be tried until the key fits the 
+lock. On the contrary, a large part of the skill and the success of 
+the experienced interrogator lies in his ability to match method to 
+source. The use of unsuccessful techniques will of itself increase 
+the interrogatee's will and ability to resist. 
+
+
+This principle also affects the decision to employ coercive 
+techniques and governs the choice of these methods. If in the 
+opinion of the interrogator a totally resistant source has the skill 
+and determination to withstand any non-coercive method or combina- 
+tion of methods, it is better to avoid them completely. 
+
+
+The effectiveness of most of the non-coercive techniques depends 
+. upon their unsettling effect. The interrogation situation is in itself 
+disturbing to most people encountering it for the first time. The aim 
+is to enhance this effect, to disrupt radically the familiar emotional 
+and psychological associations of the subject. When this aim is 
+achieved, resistance is seriously impaired. There is an interval -- 
+which may be extremely brief -- of suspended animation, a kind of 
+psychological shock or paralysis, It is caused by a traumatic or 
+sub-traumatic experience which explodes, as it were, the world that 
+is familiar to the subject as well as his image of himself within that 
+world. Experienced interrogators recognize this effect when it 
+appears and know that at this moment the source is far more open 
+to suggestion, far likelier to comply, than he was just before he 
+experienced the shock, 
+
+
+Another effect frequently produced by non-coercive (as well as 
+coercive) methods is the evocation within the interrogatee of feelings 
+of guilt. Most persons have areas of guilt in their emotional 
+topographies, and an interrogator can often chart these areas just 
+by noting refusals to follow certain lines of questioning. Whether the 
+sense of guilt has real or imaginary causes does not affect the result 
+of intensification of guilt feelings. Making a person feel more and 
+more guilty norrnally increases both his anxiety and his urge to 
+cooperate as a means of escape. 
+
+
+In brief, the techniques that follow should match the personality 
+of the individual interrogatee, and their effectiveness is intensified 
+by good timing and rapid exploitation of the moment of shock. (A 
+few of the following items are drawn from Sheehan. ) (32) 
+
+Occasionally the information needed from a recalci- 
+trant interrogatee is obtainable from a willing source. The 
+interrogator should decide whether a confession is essential 
+to his purpose or whether information which may be held by 
+others as well as the unwilling source is really his goal. The 
+labor of extracting the truth from unwilling interrogatees should 
+be undertaken only if the same information is not more easily 
+obtainable elsewhere or if operational considerations require 
+self-incrimination. 
+
+An interrogatee who is withholding items of no grave 
+consequence to himself may sometimes be persuaded to talk by 
+the simple tactic of pointing out that to date all of the informa- 
+tion about his case has come from persons other than himeelf. 
+The interrogator wants to be fair. He recognizes that some 
+of the denouncers may have been biased or malicious. In any 
+case, there is bound to be some slanting of the facts unless the 
+interrogatee redresses the balance. The source owes it to 
+himself to be sure that the interrogator hears both sides of the 
+story. 
+
+The interrogator who already knows part of the story 
+explains to the source that the purpose of the questioning is not 
+to gain information; the interrogator knows everything already. 
+His real purpose is to test the sincerity (reliability, honor, 
+etc.) of the source, The interrogator then asks a few questions 
+to which he knows the answers. If the subject lies, he is 
+informed firmly and dispassionately that he has lied. By 
+skilled manipulation of the known, the questioner can convince 
+a naive subject that all his secrets are out and that further : 
+resistance would be not only pointless but dangerous. If this | 
+technique does not work very quickly, it must be dropped 
+before the interrogatee learns the true limits of the questioner's 
+knowledge. 
+
+Detention makes a number of tricks possible. One of 
+these, planting an informant as the source's cellmate, is so 
+well-known, especially in Communist countries, that its 
+usefulness is impaired if not destroyed. Less well known is 
+the trick of planting two informants in the cell. One of them, 
+A, tries now and then topry a little information from the 
+source; B remains quiet. At the proper time, and during A's 
+absence, B warns the source not to tell A anything because B 
+suspects him of being an informant planted by the authorities. 
+
+Suspicion against a single cellmate may sometimes be 
+broken down if he shows the source a hidden microphone 
+that he has "found" and suggests that they talk only in 
+whispers at the other end of the room. 
+
+Allowing an interrogatee to receive carefully selected 
+letters from home can contribute to effects desired by the 
+interrogator. Allowing the source to write letters, especially 
+if he can be led to believe that they will be smuggled out with- 
+out the knowledge of the authorities, may produce information 
+which is difficult to extract by direct questioning. 
+
+If others have accused the interrogatee of spying for a 
+hostile service or of other activity which he denies, there is 
+a temptation to confront the recalcitrant source with his 
+accuser or accusers, But a quick confrontation has two 
+weaknesses: it is likely to intensify the stubbornness of 
+denials, and it spoils the chance to use more subtle methods. 
+
+
+One of these is to place the interrogatee in an outer 
+office and escort past him, and into the inner office, an 
+accuser whom he knows personally or, in fact, any person -- 
+even one who is friendly to the source and uncooperative with 
+the interrogators -- who is believed to know something about 
+whatever the interrogatee is concealing. It is also essential 
+that the interrogatee know or suspect that the witness may be 
+in possession of the incriminating information. The witness 
+is whisked past the interrogatee; the two are not allowed to 
+speak to each other. A guard anda stenographer remain in 
+the outer office with the interrogatee. After about an hour 
+the interrogator who has been questioning the interrogatee in 
+past sessions opens the door and asks the stenographer to come 
+in, with steno pad and pencils. After a time she re-emerges 
+and types material from her pad, making several carbons. 
+
+She pauses, points at the interrogatee, and asks the guard how 
+his name is spelled. She may also ask the interrogatee 
+directly for the proper spelling of a street, a prison, the 
+name of a Communist intelligence officer, or any other 
+factor closely linked to the activity of which he is accused. 
+She takes her completed work into the inner office, comes 
+back out, and telephones a request that someone come up 
+
+to act as legal witness. Another man appears and enters the 
+inner office, The person cast in the informer's role may 
+have been let out a back door at the beginning of these pro- 
+ceedings; or if cooperative, he may continue his role. In 
+either event, a couple of interrogators, with or without the 
+"informer", now emerge from the inner office. In contrast 
+to their earlier demeanor, they are now relaxed and smiling. 
+The interrogator in charge says to the guard, "O.K,, Tom, 
+take hirn back, We don't need him any more." Even if the 
+interrogatee now insists on telling his side of the story, he 
+is told to relax, because the interrogator will get around to 
+him tomorrow or the next day. 
+
+
+A session with the witness may be recorded. If the 
+witness denounces the interrogatee, there is no problem. 
+If he does not, the interrogator makes an effort to draw him 
+out about a hostile agent recently convicted in court or other- 
+wise known to the witness, During the next interrogation 
+session with the source, a part of the taped denunciation can 
+be played back to him if necessary. Or the witnesses’ 
+remarks about the known spy, edited as necessary, can be 
+so played back that the interrogatee is persuaded that he is 
+the subject of the remarks. , 
+
+
+Cooperative witnesses may be coached to exaggerate 
+so that if a recording is played for the interrogatee or a 
+confrontation is arranged, the source -- for example, a 
+suspected courier -- finds the witness overstating his 
+importance. The witness claims that the interrogatee is 
+only incidentally a courier, that actually he is the head of 
+an RIS kidnapping gang. The interrogator pretends amaze- 
+ment and says into the recorder, "I thought he was only a 
+courier; and if he had told us the truth, I planned to let him 
+go. But this is much more serious. On the basis of charges 
+like these I'll have to hand him over to the local police for 
+trial," On hearing these remarks, the interrogatee may 
+confess the truth about the lesser guilt in order to avoid 
+heavier punishment. If he continues to withhold, the 
+interrogator may take his side by stating, "You know, 
+
+I'm not at all convinced that so-and-so told a straight 
+story. I feel, personally, that he was exaggerating a 
+great deal. Wasn't he? What's the true story?" 
+
+If two or more interrogation sources are suspected 
+of joint complicity in acts directed against U.S, security, 
+they should be separated immediately. If time permits, it 
+may be a good idea (depending upon the psychological assess- 
+ment of both) to postpone interrogation for about a week. Any 
+anxious inquiries from either can be met by a knowing grin 
+and some such reply as, "We'll get to you in due time. There's 
+no hurry now, " If documents, witnesses, or other sources 
+yield information about interrogatee A, such remarks as "B 
+says it was in Smolensk that you denounced so-and-so to the 
+secret police. Is that right? Was it in 1937?" help to estab- 
+lish in A's mind the impression that B is talking. 
+
+
+If the interrogator is quite certain of the facts in the case 
+but cannot secure an admission from either A or B, a written 
+confession may be prepared and A's signature may be repro- 
+duced on it. (It is helpful if B can recognize A's signature, but 
+not essential.) The confession contains the salient facts, but 
+they are distorted; the confession shows that A is attempting 
+to throw the entire responsibility upon B. Edited tape record- 
+ings which sound as though -4 had denounced B may also be 
+used for the purpose, separately or in conjunction with the 
+written "confession." If A is feeling a little ill or dispirited, 
+he can also be led past a window or otherwise shown to B 
+without creating a chance for conversation; B is likely to inter- 
+pret A's hang-dog look as evidence of confession and denuncia- 
+tion. (It is important that in all such gambits, A be the weaker 
+of the two, emotionally and psychologically.) B then reads (or 
+hears) A's "confession," If B persists in withholding, the 
+interrogator should dismiss him promptly, saying that A's 
+signed confession is sufficient for the purpose and that it does 
+not matter whether B corroborates it or not. At the following 
+session with B, the interrogator selects some minor matter, 
+not substantively damaging to B but nevertheless exaggerated, 
+and says, "I'm not sure A was really fair to you here. Would 
+you care to tell me your side of the story?" If B rises to this 
+bait, the interrogator moves on to areas of greater significance. 
+
+
+The outer-and-inner office routine may also be employed. 
+A, the weaker, is brought into the inner office, and the door 
+is left slightly ajar or the transom open. B is later brought 
+into the outer office by a guard and placed where he can hear, 
+though not too clearly. The interrogator begins routine ques- 
+tioning of A, speaking rather softly and inducing A to follow 
+suit. Another person in the inner office, acting by prearrange- 
+ment, then quietly leads A out through another door, Any 
+noises of departure are covered by the interrogator, who 
+rattles the ash tray or moves a table or large chair. As soon 
+as the second door is closed again and A is out of earshot, the 
+interrogator resumes his questioning. His voice grows louder 
+and angrier, He tells A to speak up, that he can hardly hear 
+him. He grows abusive, reaches a climax, and then says, 
+‘Well, that's better. Why didn't you say so in the first place?" 
+The rest of the monologue is designed to give B the impression 
+that A has now started to tell the truth. Suddenly the interroga- 
+tor pops his head through the doorway and is angry on seeing 
+B and the guard. "You jerk!" he says to the guard, ‘What are 
+you doing here?" He rides down the guard's mumbled attempt 
+to explain the mistake, shouting, "Get him out of here! I'll take 
+care of you later!" 
+
+
+When, in the judgment of the interrogator, B is fairly 
+well-convinced that A has broken down and told his story, the 
+interrogator may elect to say to B, "Now that A has come clean 
+with us, I'd like to let him go. But I hate to release one of you 
+before the other; you ought to get out at the same time. A seems 
+to be pretty angry with you -- feels that you got him into this 
+jam. He might even go back to your Soviet case officer and say 
+that you haven't returned because you agreed to stay here and 
+work for us. Wouldn't it be better for you if I set you both 
+free together? Wouldn't it be better to tell me your side of 
+the story?" 
+
+It may be useful to point out to a hostile agent that the 
+cover story was ill-contrived, that the other service botched 
+the job, that it is typical of the other service to ignore the 
+welfare of its agents. The interrogator may personalize this 
+pitch by explaining that he has been impressed by the agent's 
+courage and intelligence. He sells the agent the idea that the 
+interrogator, not his old service, represents a true friend, 
+who understands him and will look after his welfare. 
+
+The commonest of the joint interrogator techniques is 
+the Mutt-and-Jeff routine: the brutal, angry, domineering 
+type contrasted with the friendly, quiet type. This routine 
+works best with women, teenagers, and timid men. [If the 
+interrogator who has done the bulk of the questioning up to 
+this point has established a measure of rapport, he should play 
+the friendly role. If rapport is absent, and especially if . 
+antagonism has developed, the principal interrogator may take 
+the other part. The angry interrogator speaks loudly from the 
+beginning; and unless the interrogatee clearly indicates that 
+he is now ready to tell his story, the angry interrogator shouts 
+down his answers and cuts him off. He thumps the table. The 
+quiet interrogator should not watch the show unmoved but give 
+subtle indications that he too is somewhat afraid of his colleague. 
+The angry interrogator accuses the subject of other offenses, 
+any offenses, especially those that are heinous or demeaning. 
+He makes it plain that he personally considers the interrogatee 
+the vilest person on earth, During the harangue the friendly, 
+quiet interrogator breaks in to say, "Wait a minute, Jim. Take 
+it easy."' The angry interrogator shouts back, "Shut up! I'm 
+handling this, I've broken crumb-bums before, and I'll break 
+this one, wide open.'' He expresses his disgust by spitting on 
+the floor or holding his nose or any gross gesture, Finally, 
+red-faced and furious, he says, "I'm going to take a break, 
+have a couple of stiff drinks. But I'll be back at two -- and 
+you, you bum, you better be ready to talk. '' When the door 
+slams behind him, the second interrogator tells the subject how 
+sorry he is, how he hates to work with a man like that but has 
+no choice, how if maybe brutes like that would keep quiet and 
+give a man a fair chance to tell his side of the story, etc., etc. 
+
+
+An interrogator working alone can also use the Mutt-and- 
+Jeff technique. After a number of tense and hostile sessions 
+the interrogatee is ushered into a different or refurnished room 
+with comfortable furniture, cigarettes, etc. The interrogator 
+invites him to sit down and explains his regret that the source's 
+former stubbornness forced the interrogator to use such tactics. 
+Now everything will be different. The interrogator talks man-to- 
+man. An American POW, debriefed on his interrogation by a 
+hostile service that used this approach, has described the 
+result: "Well, I went in and there was a man, an officer he 
+was... -- he asked me to sit down and was very friendly.... 
+It was very terrific. I, well, I almost felt like I had a friend 
+sitting there. I had to stop every now and then and realize that 
+this man wasn't a friend of mine....I also felt as though I 
+couldn't be rude to him....It was much more difficult for me to -- 
+well, I almost felt I had as much responsibility to talk to him 
+and reason and justification as I have to talk to you right now. '(18) 
+
+
+Another joint technique casts both interrogators in friendly 
+roles, But whereas the interrogator in charge is sincere, the 
+second interrogator's manner and voice convey the impression 
+that he is merely pretending sympathy in order to trap the 
+interrogatee. He slips in a few trick questions of the 'When- 
+did-you-stop-beating-your-wife?' category. The interrogator 
+in charge warns his colleague to desist. When he repeats the 
+tactics, the interrogator in charge says, witha slight show of 
+anger, "We're not here to trap people but to get at the truth. 
+I suggest that you leave now. I'll handle this." 
+
+It is usually unproductive to cast both interrogators in 
+hostile roles. 
+
+If the recalcitrant subject speaks more than one language, 
+it is better to question him in the tongue with which he is least 
+familiar as long as the purpose of interrogation is to obtain 
+a confession. After the interrogatee admits hostile intent or 
+activity, a switch to the better-known language will facilitate 
+follow-up. 
+
+
+An abrupt switch of languages may trick a resistant 
+source, If an interrogatee has withstood a barrage of questions 
+in German or Korean, for example, a sudden shift to ''Who is 
+your case officer?" in Russian may trigger the answer before 
+the source can stop himself, 
+
+
+An interrogator quite at home in the language being used 
+may nevertheless elect to use an interpreter if the interrogatee 
+does not know the language to be used between the interrogator 
+and interpreter and also does not know that the interrogator 
+knows his own tongue. The principal advantage here is that 
+hearing everything twice helps the interrogator to note voice, 
+expression, gestures, and other indicators more attentively. 
+This gambit is obviously unsuitable for any form of rapid-fire 
+questioning, and in any case it has the disadvantage of allowing 
+the subject to pull himself together after each query. It should 
+be used only with an interpreter who has been trained in the 
+technique. 
+
+
+It is of basic importance that the interrogator not using 
+an interpreter be adept in the language selected for use. If 
+he is not, if slips of grammar or a strong accent mar his speech, 
+the resistant source will usually feel fortified. Almost ali 
+people have been conditioned to relate verbal skill to intelli- 
+gence, education, social status, etc. Errors or mispronuncia- 
+tions also permit the interrogatee to misunderstand or feign 
+misunderstanding and thus gain time. He may also resort to 
+polysyllabic obfuscations upon realizing the limitations of the 
+interrogator's vocabulary. 
+
+If there is reason to suspect that a withholding source 
+possesses useful counterintelligence information but has not had 
+access to the upper reaches of the target organization, the 
+policy and command level, continued questioning about lofty 
+topics that the source knows nothing about may pave the way for 
+the extraction of information at lower levels, The interrogatee 
+is asked about KGB policy, for example: the relation of the 
+service to its government, its liaison arrangements, etc., etc. 
+His complaints that he knows nothing of such matters are met 
+by flat insistence that he does know, he would have to know, that 
+even the most stupid men in his position know. Communist 
+interrogators who used this tactic against American POW's 
+coupled it with punishment for "don't know" responses -- 
+typically by forcing the prisoner to stand at attention until he 
+gave some positive response. After the process had been con- 
+tinued long enough, the source was asked a question to which 
+he did know the answer. Numbers of Americans have mentioned 
+",..the tremendous feeling of relief you get when he finally 
+asks you something you can answer," One said, ''I know it 
+seems strange now, but I was positively grateful to them when 
+they switched to a topic I knew something about. '(3) 
+
+It has been suggested that a successfully withholding 
+source might be tricked into compliance if led to believe that 
+he is dealing with the opposition. The success of the ruse depends 
+upon a successful imitation of the opposition. A case officer 
+previously unknown to the source and skilled in the appropriate 
+language talks with the source under such circumstances that 
+the latter is convinced that he is dealing with the opposition. 
+The source is debriefed on what he has told the Americans and 
+what he has not told them, The trick is likelier to succeed if 
+the interrogatee has not been in confinement but a staged 
+‘ "escape, '' engineered by a stool-pigeon, might achieve the same 
+end. Usually the trick is so complicated and risky that its employ- 
+ment is not recommended. 
+
+The aim of the Alice in Wonderland or confusion | 
+technique is to confound the expectations and conditioned 
+reactions of the interrogatee. He is accustomed to a world 
+that makes some sense, at least to him: a world of continuity 
+and logic, a predictable world. He clings to this world to 
+reinforce his identity and powers of resistance. 
+
+
+The confusion technique is designed not only to 
+obliterate the familiar but to replace it with the weird. 
+Although this method can be employed by a single interro- 
+gator, it is better adapted to use by two or three, When the 
+subject enters the room, the first interrogator asks a double- 
+talk question -- one which seems straightforward but is 
+essentially nonsensical, Whether the interrogatee tries to 
+answer or not, the second interrogator follows up (interrup- 
+ting any attempted response) with a wholly unrelated and equally 
+illogical query. Sometimes two or more questions are asked 
+simultaneously. Pitch, tone, and volume of the interrogators' 
+voices are unrelated to the import of the questions. No pattern 
+of questions and answers is permitted to develop, nor do the 
+questions themselves relate logically to each other. In this 
+strange atmosphere the subject finds that the pattern of speech 
+and thought which he has learned to consider normal have been 
+replaced by an eerie meaninglessness. The interrogatee may 
+start laughing or refuse to take the situation seriously. But as 
+the process continues, day after day if necessary, the subject 
+begins to try to make sense of the situation, which becomes 
+mentally intolerable. Now he is likely to make significant 
+admissions, or even to pour out his story, just to stop the 
+flow of babble which assails him. This technique may be 
+especially effective with the orderly, obstinate type. 
+
+
+Regression 
+There are a number of non-coercive techniques for 
+inducing regression. All depend upon the interrogator's control of the environment and, as always, a proper matching of 
+method to source, Some interrogatees can be repressed by 
+persistent manipulation of time, by retarding and advancing 
+clocks and serving meals at odd times -- ten minutes or ten 
+hours after the last food was given. Day and night are jumbled. 
+Interrogation sessions are similarly unpatterned the subject 
+may be brought back for more questioning just a few minutes 
+after being dismissed for the night. Half-hearted efforts to 
+cooperate can be ignored, and conversely he can be rewarded 
+for non-cooperation. (For example, a successfully resisting 
+source. may become distraught if given some reward for the 
+"valuable contribution" that he has made.) The Alice in 
+Wonderland technique can reinforce the effect. Two or more 
+interrogators, questioning as a team and in relays (and thoroughly 
+jumbling the timing of both methods) can ask questions which 
+make it impossible for the interrogatee to give sensible, sig- 
+nificant answers. A subject who is cut off from the world he 
+knows seeks to recreate it, in some measure, in the new and 
+strange environment, He may try to keep track of time, to 
+live in the familiar past, to cling to old concepts of loyalty, 
+
+to establish -- with one or more interrogators -- interpersonal 
+relations resembling those that he has had earlier with other 
+people, and to build other bridges back to the known. Thwart- 
+ing his attempts to do so is likely to drive him deeper and 
+deeper into himself, until he is no longer able to control his 
+responses in adult fashion. 
+
+
+The placebo technique is also used to induce regression. 
+The interrogatee is given a placebo (a harmless sugar pill). 
+Later he is told that he has imbibed a drug, a truth serum, 
+which will make him want to talk and which will also prevent 
+his lying. The subject's desire to find an excuse for the com- 
+pliance that represents his sole avenue of escape from his 
+distressing predicament may make him want to believe that he 
+has been drugged and that no one could blame him for telling 
+their his story now. Gottschelk observes, "Individuals under 
+increased stress are more likely to respond to placebos. '(7) 
+
+
+One has discussed an extension of the placebo concept 
+in explaining what he terms the "magic room'' technique. 'An 
+example. . . would be. . . the prisoner who is given a 
+hypnotic suggestion that his hand is growing warm. However. 
+
+in this instance, the prisoner's hand actually does become 
+warm, a problem easily resolved by the use of a concealed 
+diathermy machine, Or it might be suggested...that...a 
+cigarette will taste bitter, Here again, he could be givena 
+cigarette prepared to have a slight but noticeably bitter taste, "' 
+In discussing states of heightened suggestibility (which are not, 
+however, states of trance) Orne says, "Both hypnosis and some 
+of the drugs inducing hypnoidal states are Popularly viewed as 
+situations where the individual is no longer master of his own 
+fate and therefore not responsible for his actions, It seems 
+possible then that the hypnotic situation, as distinguished from 
+hypnosis itself, might be used to relieve the individual of a 
+feeling of responsibility for his own actions and thus lead him 
+to reveal information. '"{7) 
+
+
+In other words, a psychologically immature source, or 
+one who has been regressed, could adopt an implication or 
+suggestion that he has been drugged, hypnotized, or otherwise 
+rendered incapable of resistance, even if he recognizes at some 
+level that the suggestion is untrue, because of his strong desire 
+to escape the stress of the situation by capitulating. These 
+techniques provide the source with the rationalization that he 
+needs. 
+
+
+Whether regression occurs spontaneously under detention 
+or interrogation, and whether it is induced by a coercive or 
+non-coercive technique, it should not be allowed to continue 
+past the point necessary to obtain compliance. Severe techniques 
+of regression are best employed in the presence of a psychia- 
+trist, to insure full reversal later. As soonas he can, the 
+interrogator presents the subject with the way out, the face- 
+saving reason for escaping from his painful dilemma by yielding. 
+Now the interrogator becomes fatherly. Whether the excuse is 
+that others have already confessed ("all the other boys are doing 
+it''), that the interrogatee has a chance to redeem himself 
+(‘you're really a good boy at heart"), or that he can't help him- 
+self ("they made you do it"), the effective rationalization, the one 
+the source will jump at, is likely to be elementary. It is an 
+adult's version of the excuses of childhood, 
+
+The polygraph can be used for purposes other than the 
+evaluation of veracity. For example, it may be used as an 
+adjunct in testing the range of languages spoken by an interro- 
+gatee or his sophistication in intelligence matters, for rapid 
+screening to determine broad areas of knowledgeability, and as 
+an aid in the psychological assessment of sources. Its primary 
+function in a counterintelligence interrogation, however, is to 
+provide a further means of testing for deception or withholding. 
+
+
+A.resistant source suspected of association with a hostile 
+clandestine organization should be tested polygraphically at 
+least once. Several examinations may be needed. As a general 
+rule, the polygraph should not be employed as a measure of 
+last resort. More reliable readings will be obtained if the 
+instrument is used before the subject has been placed under 
+intense pressure, whether such pressure is coercive or not. 
+Sufficient information for the purpose is normally available 
+after screening and one or two interrogation sessions. 
+
+
+Although the polygraph has been a valuable aid, no 
+interrogator should feel that it can carry his responsibility for 
+him, "The polygraph lays no claim to one-hundred-percent 
+reliability. Test results can be as varied as the individuals 
+tested, and the interpretation of the charts is not a simple 
+matter of deciding whether the subject reacted or did not react. 
+Many charts are quite definitive; but some indicate only a 
+probability and from two to five percent of the cases tested 
+end up being classified as inconclusive, with crucial areas left 
+unresolved, '(9) 
+
+
+The best results are obtained when the CI interrogator 
+‘ and the polygraph operator work closely together in laying the 
+groundwork for technical examination. The operator needs all 
+available information about the personality of the source, as 
+well as the operational background and reasons for suspicion. 
+The Cl interrogator in turn can cooperate more effectively and 
+can fit the results of technical examination more accurately into 
+the totality of his findings if he has a basic comprehension of 
+the instrument and its workings, 
+
+
+The following discussion is based upon R,C, Davis' 
+"Physiological Responses as a Means of Evaluating Infor mation. " 
+(7) Although improvements appear to be in the offing, the 
+instrument in widespread use today measures breathing, 
+systolic blood pressure, and galvanic skin response (GSR). 
+
+"One drawback in the use of respiration as an indicator, " 
+according to Davis, "is its susceptibility to voluntary control." 
+Moreover, if the source "knows that changes in breathing will 
+disturb all physiologic variables under control of the autonomic 
+division of the nervous system, and possibly even some others, 
+a certain amount of cooperation or a certain degree of ignorance 
+is required for lie detection by physiologic methods to work." 
+In general, ". . . breathing during deception is shallower and 
+slower than in truth telling. . . the inhibition of breathing 
+seems rather characteristic of anticipation of a stimulus." 
+
+
+The measurement of systolic blood pressure provides a 
+reading on a phenomenon not usually subject to voluntary control. 
+The pressure ". . . will typically rise by a few millimeters 
+of mercury in response to a question, whether it is answered 
+truthfully or not, The evidence is that the rise will generally 
+be greater when (the subject) is lying. '' However, discrimina- 
+tion between truth-telling and lying on the basis of both 
+breathing and blood pressure ", , . is poor (almost nil) in the 
+early part of the sitting and improves to a high point later. " 
+
+
+The galvanic skin response is one of the most easily 
+triggered reactions, but recovery after the reaction is slow, 
+and", . , in a routine examination the next question is likely 
+to be introduced before recovery is complete. Partly because 
+of this fact there is an adapting trend in the GSR; with stimuli 
+repeated every few minutes the response gets smaller, other 
+things being equal." 
+
+
+Davis examines three theories regarding the polygraph. 
+The conditional response theory holds that the subject reacts 
+to questions that strike sensitive areas, regardless of whether 
+he is telling the truth or not. Experimentation has not sub- 
+stantiated this theory. The theory of conflict presumes that 
+a large physiologic disturbance occurs when the subject is 
+
+caught between his habitual inclination to tell the truth and his 
+strong desire not to divulge a certain set of facts. Davis suggests 
+that if this concept is valid, it holds only if the conflict is intense. 
+The threat-of-punishment theory maintains that a large physio- 
+logic response accompanies lying because the subject fears the 
+consequence of failing to deceive, 'In common language it 
+might be said that he fails to deceive the machine operator for 
+the very reason that he fears he will fail, The ‘fear' would be 
+the very reaction detected,"' This third theory is more widely 
+held than the other two, Interrogators should note the inference 
+that a resistant source who does not fear that detection of lying 
+will result in a punishment of which he is afraid would not, 
+according to this theory, produce significant responses. 
+
+The validity of graphological techniques for the analysis 
+of the personalities of resistant interrogatees has not been 
+established. There is some evidence that graphology is a 
+useful aid in the early detection of cancer and of certain mental 
+illnesses. If the interrogator or his unit decides to have a 
+source's handwriting analyzed, the samples should be submitted 
+to Headquarters as soon as possible, because the analysis is 
+more useful in the preliminary assessment of the source than in 
+the later interrogation, Graphology does have the advantage of 
+being one of the very few techniques not requiring the assistance 
+or even the awareness of the interrogatee. As with any other aid. 
+the interrogator is free to determine for himself whether the 
+analysis provides him with new and valid insights, confirms 
+other observations, is not helpful, or is misleading. 
+
+The purpose of this part of the handbook is to present 
+basic information about coercive techniques available for use 
+in the interrogation situation. It is vital that this discussion 
+not be misconstrued as constituting authorization for the use 
+of coercion at field discretion. As was noted earlier, there 
+is no such blanket authorization. Prior Headquarters approval 
+
+t the KUDOVE level must be obtained for the interrogation of 
+frome national against his will under any of the following 
+ircumstances: (1) if.bodily harm is to be inflicted; (2) if 
+medical, chemical, or electrical methods or materials are to 
+be used to induce an acquiescence;}-:¢ f the detention is 
+locally illegal and traceable:to-K' sextept that in cases 
+of extreme operational urgency requiring immediate detention, 
+retroactive Hea gters approval may be promptly requested 
+by priority cable, 
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+For both ethical and pragmatic reasons no interrogator 
+may take upon himself the unilateral responsibility for using 
+coercive methods. Concealing from the interrogator's super- 
+iors an intent to resort to coercion, or its unapproved 
+employment, does not protect them. It places them, and 
+KUBARK, in unconsidered jeopardy. 
+
+Coercive procedures are designed not only to exploit the 
+resistant source's internal conflicts and induce him to wrestle 
+with himself but also to bring a superior outside force to bear 
+upon the subject's resistance. Non-coercive methods are not 
+likely to succeed if their selection and use is not predicated 
+upon an accurate psychological assessment of the source. In 
+contrast, the same coercive method may succeed against persons 
+who are very unlike each other. The changes of success rise 
+steeply, nevertheless, if the coercive technique is matched to 
+the source's personality. Individuals react differently even to 
+such seemingly non-discriminatory stimuli as drugs. Moreover, 
+it is a waste of time and energy to apply strong pressures on a 
+hit-or-miss basis if a tap on the psychological jugular will 
+produce compliance. 
+
+
+All coercive techniques are designed to induce regression. 
+As Hinkle notes in ''The Physiological State of the Interrogation 
+Subject as it Affects Brain Function'(7), the result of external 
+pressures of sufficient intensity is the loss of those defenses 
+most recently acquired by civilized man: ". . . the capacity to 
+carry out the highest creative activities, to meet new, chal- 
+lenging, and complex situations, to deal with trying interpersonal 
+relations, and to cope with repeated frustrations. Relatively 
+small degrees of homeostatic derangement, fatigue, pain, sleep 
+loss, or anxiety may impair these functions." As a result, 
+"most people who are exposed to coercive procedures will talk 
+and usually reveal some information that they might not have 
+revealed otherwise. '' 
+
+
+One subjective reaction often evoked by coercion is a 
+feeling of guilt. Meltzer observes, "In some lengthy interro- 
+gations, the interrogator may, by virtue of his role as the sole 
+supplier of satisfaction and punishment, assume the stature and 
+importance of a parental figure in the prisoner's feeling and 
+thinking. Although there may be intense hatred for the interro- 
+gator, it is not unusual for warm feelings also to develop. This 
+ambivalence is the basis for guilt reactions, and if the interro- 
+gator nourishes these feelings, the guilt may be strong enough 
+to influence the prisoner's behavior... . Guilt makes com- 
+pliance more likely. . . ." (7). 
+
+
+Farber says that the response to coercion typically 
+contains ". . . at least three important elements: debility, 
+dependency, and dread.'' Prisoners". . . have reduced via- 
+bility, are helplessly dependent mtheir captors for the 
+satisfaction of their many basic needs, and experience the 
+emotional and motivational reactions of intense fear and anx- 
+iety. . . . Among the /American/ POW's pressured by the 
+Chinese Communists, the DDD syndrome in its full-blown form 
+constituted a state of discomfort that was well-nigh intolerable." 
+(ll). If the debility-dependency~dread state is unduly prolonged, 
+however, the arrestee may sink into a defensive apathy from 
+which it is hard to arouse him. 
+
+
+Psychologists and others who write about physical or 
+psychological duress frequently object that under sufficient 
+pressure subjects usually yield but that their ability to recall 
+and communicate information accurately is as impaired as the 
+will to resist. This pragmatic objection has somewhat the same 
+validity for a counterintelligence interrogation as for any other. 
+But there is one significant difference. Confession is a neces- 
+sary prelude to the CI interrogation of a hitherto unresponsive 
+or concealing source. And the use of coercive techniques will 
+rarely or never confuse an interrogatee so completely that he 
+does not know whether his own confession is true or false. He 
+does not need full mastery of all his powers of resistance and 
+discrimination to know whether he is a spy or not. Only sub- 
+jects who have reached a point where they are under delusions 
+are likely to make false confessions that they believe. Once a 
+true confession is obtained, the classic cautions apply. The 
+pressures are lifted, at least enough so that the subject can 
+provide counterintelligence information as accurately as possi- 
+ble. In fact, the relief granted the subject at this time fits 
+neatly into the interrogation plan. He is told that the changed 
+treatment is a reward for truthfulness and an evidence that 
+friendly handling will continue as long as he cooperates. 
+
+
+The profound moral objection to applying duress past the 
+point of irreversible psychological damage has been stated. 
+Judging the validity of other ethical arguments about coercion 
+exceeds the scope of this paper. What is fully clear, however, 
+is that cont rolled coercive manipulation of an interrogatee may 
+impair his ability to make fine distinctions but will not alter his 
+ability to answer correctly such gross questions as ''Are you a 
+Soviet agent? What is your assignment now? Who is your present 
+case officer?" 
+
+When an interrogator senses that the subject's resistance 
+is wavering, that his desire to yield is growing stronger than 
+his wish to contimue his resistance, the time has come to provide 
+him with the acceptable rationalization: a face-saving reason or 
+excuse for compliance, Novice interrogators may be tempted to 
+seize upon the initial yielding triumphantly and to personalize the 
+victory. Such a temptation must be rejected immediately. An 
+interrogation is not a game played by two people, one to become 
+the winner and the other the loser. It is simply a method of ob- 
+taining correct and useful information. Therefore the interro- 
+gator should intensify the subject's desire to cease struggling by 
+showing him how he can do so without seeming to abandon prin- 
+ciple, self-protection, or other initial causes of resistance. If, 
+instead of providing the right rationalization at the right time, the 
+interrogator seizes gloatingly upon the subject's wavering, oppo- 
+sition will stiffen again, 
+
+
+The following are the principal coercive techniques of in- 
+terrogation: arrest, detention, deprivation of sensory stimuli 
+through solitary confinement or similar methods, threats and 
+fear, debility, pain, heightened suggestibility and hypnosis, nar- 
+cosis, and induced regression, This section also discusses the 
+detection of malingering by interrogatees and the provision of 
+appropriate rationalizations for capitulating and cooperating. 
+
+The manner and timing of arrest can contribute substantially 
+to the interrogator's purposes. ‘What we aim to do is to ensure 
+that the manner of arrest achieves, if possible, surprise, and 
+the maximum amount of mental discomfort in order to catch the 
+suspect off balance and to deprive him of the initiative. One 
+should therefore arrest him at a moment when he least expects 
+it and when his mental and physical resistance is at its lowest, 
+The ideal time at which to arrest a person is in the early hours 
+of the morning because surprise is achieved then, and because : 
+a person's resistance physiologically as well as psychologically ; 
+is at its lowest.... If a person cannot be arrested in the 
+early hours..., then the next best time is in the evening.... 
+
+"Then, .as to the nature of arrest, it is of great impor- 
+tance that the arresting parties . . . behave in such a manner 
+as to impress the suspect with their efficiency. ... If the 
+suspect... sees three or four ill-dressed, ill-equipped, 
+slovenly policemen, he is more likely to recover from the ini- 
+tial shock, and to think that he has fallen into the hands of 
+persons whom he might easily be able to outwit. If, however, 
+he is rudely awakened by an arresting party of particularly 
+large, particularly smart, particularly well-equipped, parti- 
+cularly efficient policemen, he will probably become exceed- 
+ingly depressed and anxious about his future." (1) 
+
+If, through the cooperation of a liaison service Gr by uni- 
+lateral means,/arrangements have been made for the confinement 
+of a resistant source, the circumstances of detention are ar- 
+ranged to enhance within the subject his feelings of being cut 
+off from the known and the reassuring, and of being plunged into 
+the strange. Usually his own clothes are immediately taken 
+away, because familiar clothing reinforces identity and thus the 
+capacity for resistance. (Prisons give close hair cuts and issue 
+prison garb for the same reason.) If the interrogatee is especial- 
+ly proud or neat, it may be useful to give him an outfit that is 
+one or two sizes too large and to fail to provide a belt, so that he 
+must hold his pants up. 
+
+
+The point is that man's sense of identity depends upon a 
+continuity in his surroundings, habits, appearance, actions, 
+relations with others, etc. Detention permits the interrogator 
+to cut through these links and throw the interrogatee back upon 
+his own unaided internal resources. 
+
+
+Little is gained if confinement merely replaces one routine 
+with another. Prisoners who lead monotonously unvaried lives 
+". . . cease to care about their utterances, dress, and cleanli- 
+ness. They become dulled, apathetic, and depressed.'"' (7) And 
+apathy can be a very effective defense against interrogation. 
+Control of the source's environment permits the interrogator to 
+determine his diet, sleep pattern, and other fundamentals. 
+Manipulating these into irregularities, so that the subject becomes 
+disorientated, is very likely to create feelings of fear and help- 
+lessness. Hinkle points out, "People who enter prison with 
+attitudes of foreboding, apprehension, and helplessness generally 
+do less well than those who enter with assurance and a conviction 
+that they can deal with anything that they may encounter... . 
+Some people who are afraid of losing sleep, or who do not wish to 
+lose sleep, soon succumb to sleeploss ... .' (7) 
+
+
+In short, the prisoner should not be provided a routine to 
+which he can adapt and from which he can draw some comfort-- 
+or at least a sense of his own identity. Everyone has read of 
+prisoners who were reluctant to leave their cells after prolonged 
+incarceration. Little is known about the duration of confinement 
+calculated to make a subject shift from anxiety, coupled with a 
+desire for sensory stimuli and human companionship, to a passive, 
+apathetic acceptance of isolation and an ultimate pleasure in this 
+negative state. Undoubtedly the rate of change is determined 
+almost entirely by the psychological characteristics of the indi- 
+vidual. In any event, it is advisable to keep the subject upset by 
+constant disruptions of patterns. 
+
+
+For this reason, it is useful to determine whether the in- 
+terrogattee has been jailed before, how often, under what circum- 
+stances, for how long, and whether he was subjected to earlier 
+interrogation. Familiarity with confinement and even with 
+isolation reduces the effect. 
+
+The chief effect of arrest and detention, and particularly of 
+5 solitary confinement, is to deprive the subject of many or most of 
+the sights, sounds, tastes, smells, and tactile sensations to which 
+he has grown accustomed. John C. Lilly examined eighteen auto- 
+biographical accounts written by polar explorers and solitary sea- 
+farers. He found". .. that isolation per se acts on most persons 
+as a powerful stress... . In all cases of survivors of isolation 
+at sea or in the polar night, it was the first exposure which caused 
+the greatest fears and hence the greatest danger of giving way 
+
+to symptoms; previous experience is a powerful aid in going © 
+ahead, despite the symptoms. "The symptoms most commonly 
+produced by isolation are superstition, intense love of any other 
+living thing, perceiving inanimate objects as alive, hallucinations, 
+and delusions." (26) 
+
+
+The apparent reason for these effects is that a person cut 
+off from external stimuli turns his awareness inward, upon him- 
+self, and then projects the contents of his own unconscious 
+outwards, so that he endows his faceless environment with his 
+own attributes, fears, and forgotten memories, Lilly notes, "It 
+is obvious that inner factors in the mind tend to be projected 
+outward, that some of the mind's activity which is usually reality- 
+bound now becomes free to turn to phantasy and ultimately to 
+hallucination and delusion, " 
+
+
+A number of experiments conducted at McGill University, 
+the National Institute of Mental Health, and other sites have at- 
+tempted to come as close as possible to the elimination of sensory 
+stimuli, or to masking remaining stimuli, chiefly sounds, by a 
+stronger but wholly monotonous overlay. The results of these 
+experiments have little applicability to interrogation because the 
+circumstances are dissimilar. Some of the findings point toward 
+hypotheses that seem relevant to interrogation, but conditions 
+like those of detention for purposes of counterintelligence interro- 
+gation have not been duplicated for experimentation. 
+
+
+At the National Institute of Mental Health two subjects were 
+", , . suspended with the body and all but the top of the head 
+immersed in a tank containing slowly flowing water at 34.5°C 
+(94.5° F). . . .'' Both subjects wore black-out masks, which en- 
+closed the whole head but allowed breathing and nothing else. The 
+sound level was extremely low; the subject heard only his own 
+breathing and some faint sounds of water from the piping. Neither 
+subject stayed in the tank longer than three hours, Both passed 
+quickly from normally directed thinking through a tension resulting 
+from unsatisfied hunger for sensory stimuli and concentration upon 
+the few available sensations to private reveries and fantasies and 
+eventually to visual imagery somewhat resembling hallucinations. 
+
+"In our experiments, we notice that after immersion the day 
+apparently is started over, i.e., the subject feels as if he 
+has risen from bed afresh; this effect persists, and the 
+subject finds he is out of step with the clock for the rest of 
+the day." 
+
+
+Drs. Wexler, Mendelson, Leiderman, and Solomon 
+conducted a somewhat similar experiment on seventeen paid 
+volunteers. These subjects were '"'... placed in a tank-type 
+respirator with a specially built mattress.... The vents 
+of the respirator were left open, so that the subject breathed 
+for himself. His arms and legs were enclosed in comfortable 
+but rigid cylinders to inhibit movement and tactile contact. 
+The subject lay on his back and was unable to see any part 
+of his body. The motor of the respirator was run constantly, © 
+producing a dull, repetitive auditory stimulus. The room 
+admitted no natural light, and artificial light was minimal 
+and constant." (42) Although the established time limit 
+was 36 hours and though all physical needs were taken care 
+of, only 6 of the 17 completed the stint. The other eleven 
+soon asked for release. Four of these terminated the 
+experiment because of anxiety and panic; seven did so because 
+of physical discomfort. The-results confirmed earlier findings 
+that (1) the deprivation of sensory stimuli induces stress; 
+
+(2) the stress becomes unbearable for most subjects; (3) 
+
+the subject has a growing need for physical and social stimuli; 
+and (4) some subjects progressively lose touch with reality, 
+focus inwardly, and produce delusions, hallucinations, and 
+other pathological effects. 
+
+
+In surnmarizing some scientific reporting on sensory 
+and perceptual deprivation, Kubzansky offers the following 
+observations: 
+
+
+"Three studies suggest that the more well-adjusted 
+or 'normal' the subject is, the more he is affected by 
+deprivation of sensory stimuli. Neurotic and psychotic 
+subjects are either comparatively unaffected or show decreases 
+in anxiety, hallucinations, etc." (7) 
+
+These findings suggest - but by no means prove - the 
+following theories about solitary confinement and isolation: 
+
+
+1. The more completely the place of confinement 
+eliminates sensory stimuli, the more rapidly and deeply will 
+the interrogatee be affected. Results produced only after weeks 
+or months of imprisonment in an ordinary cell can be duplicated 
+in hours or days in a cell which has no light (or weak artificial 
+light which never varies), which is sound-procded, in which 
+odors are eliminated, etc. An environment still more subject 
+to control, such as water-tank or iron lung, is even more 
+effective. 
+
+
+2. An early effect of such an environment is 
+anxiety. How soon it appears and how strong it is depends 
+upon the psychological characteristics of the individual. 
+
+
+3. The interrogator can benefit from the subject's 
+anxiety. As the interrogator becomes linked in the subject's 
+mind with the reward of lessened anxiety, human contact, and 
+meaningful activity, and thus with providing relief for growing 
+discomfort, the questioner assumes a benevolent role. (7) 
+
+
+4. The deprivation of stimuli induces regression 
+by depriving the subject's mind of contact with an outer world 
+and thus forcing it in upon itself. At the same time, the 
+calculated provision of stimuli during interrogation tends to 
+make the regressed subject view the interrogator as a father- 
+figure. The result, normally, is a strengthening of the 
+subject's tendencies toward compliance. 
+
+The threat of coercion usually weakens or destroys 
+resistance more effectively than coercion itself. The threat 
+to inflict pain, for example, can trigger fears more damaging 
+than the immediate sensation of pain. In fact, most people 
+underestimate their capacity to withstand pain. The same 
+principle holds for other fears: sustained long enough, a 
+strong fear of anything vague or unknown induces regression, 
+whereas the materialization of the fear, the infliction of some 
+form of punishment, is likely to come as a relief. The subject 
+finds that he can hold out, and his resistances are strengthened. © 
+“In general, direct physical brutality creates only resentment, 
+hostility, and further defiance." (18) 
+
+
+The effectiveness of a threat depends not only on what 
+sort of person the interrogatee is and whether he believes 
+that his questioner can and will carry the threat out but also 
+on the interrogator's reasons for threatening. If the interrogator 
+threatens because he is angry, the subject frequently senses 
+the fear of failure underlying the anger and is strengthened 
+in his own resolve to resist. Threats delivered coldly are 
+more effective than those shouted in rage. It is especially 
+important that a threat not be uttered in response to the 
+interrogatee's own expressions of hostility. These, if ignored, 
+can induce feelings of guilt, whereas retorts in kind relieve 
+the subject's feelings. 
+
+
+Another reason why threats induce compliance not 
+evoked by the inflection of duress is that the threat grants 
+the interrogatee time for compliance. It is not enough that a 
+resistant source should be placed under the tension of fear; 
+he must also discern an acceptable escape route. Biderman 
+observes, "Not only can the shame or guilt of defeat in the 
+encounter with the interrogator be involved, but also the more 
+fundamental injunction to protect one's self-autonomy or 
+‘will'.... A simple defense against threats to the self from 
+the anticipation of being forced to comply is, of course, to 
+comply ‘deliberately’ or'voluntarily'.... To the extent that 
+the foregoing interpretation holds, the more intensely motivated 
+the Giiterrogate¢7 is to resist, the more intense is the 
+, pressure toward early compliance from such anxieties, for 
+the greater is the threat to self-esteem which is involved 
+in contemplating the possibility of being ‘forced to' comply 
+eeee'' (6) In brief, the threat is like all other coercive 
+techniques in being most effective when so used as to foster 
+regression and when joined with a suggested way out of the 
+dilemma, a rationalization acceptable to the interrogatee. 
+
+The threat of death has often been found to be worse 
+than useless. It "has the highest position in law as a 
+defense, but in many interrogation situations it is a highly 
+ineffective threat. Many prisoners, in fact, have refused 
+to yield in the face of such threats who have subsequently 
+been 'broken' by other procedures.'' (3) The principal 
+reason is that the ultimate threat is likely to induce sheer 
+hopelessness if the interrogatee does not believe that it 
+is a trick; he feels that he is as likely to be condemned 
+after compliance as before. The threat of death is also 
+ineffective when used against hard-headed types who 
+realize that silencing them forever would defeat the 
+interrogator's purpose. If the threat is recognized as a 
+bluff, it will not only fail but also pave the way to failure 
+for later coercive ruses used by the interrogator. 
+
+No report of scientific investigation of the effect 
+of debility upon the interrogatee's powers of resistance 
+has been discovered. For centuries interrogators have 
+employed various methods of inducing physical weakness: 
+prolonged constraint; prolonged exertion; extremes of heat, 
+cold, or moisture; and deprivation or drastic reduction of 
+food or sleep. Apparently the assumption is that lowering 
+the source's physiological resistance will lower his 
+psychological capacity for opposition. If this notion were 
+valid, however, it might reasonably be expected that those 
+subjects who are physically weakest at the beginning of 
+an interrogation would be the quickest to capitulate, a 
+concept not supported by experience. The available 
+evidence suggests that resistance is sapped principally 
+by psychological rather than physical pressures. The 
+threat of debility - for example, a brief deprivation of 
+food - may induce much more anxiety than prolonged 
+hunger, which will result after a while in apathy and, 
+perhaps, eventual delusions or hallucinations. In brief, 
+it appears probable that the techniques of inducing debility 
+become counter-productive at an early stage. The discomfort, 
+tension, and restless search for an avenue of escape are 
+followed by withdrawal symptoms, a turning away from 
+external stimuli, and a sluggish unresponsiveness. 
+
+
+Another objection to the deliberate inducing of 
+debility is that prolonged exertion, loss of sleep, etc., 
+themselves become patterns to which the subject adjusts 
+through apathy. The interrogator should use his power 
+over the resistant subject's physical environment to 
+disrupt patterns of response, not to create them. Meals 
+and sleep granted irregularly, in more than abundance 
+or less than adequacy, the shifts occuring on no discernible 
+time pattern, will normally disorient an interrogatee and 
+sap his will to resist more effectively than a sustained 
+deprivation leading to debility. 
+
+Everyone is aware that people react very 
+differently to pain. The reason, apparently, is not a 
+physical difference in the intensity of the sensation itself. 
+Lawrence E. Hinkle observes, "The sensation of pain 
+seems to be roughly equal in all men, that is to say, 
+all people have approximately the same threshold at which 
+they begin to feel pain, and when carefully graded stimuli 
+are applied to them, their estimates of severity are 
+approximately the same.... Yet... when men are very 
+highly motivated...they have been known to carry out 
+rather complex tasks while enduring the most intense 
+pain."' He also states, "In general, it appears that 
+whatever may be the role of the constitutional endowment 
+in determining the reaction to pain, it is a much less 
+important determinant than is the attitude of the man who 
+experiences the pain."' (7) 
+
+
+The wide range of individual reactions to pain 
+may be partially explicable in terms of early conditioning. 
+The person whose first encounters with pain were 
+frightening and intense may be more violently affected 
+by its later infliction than one whose original experiences 
+were mild. Or the reverse may be true, and the man 
+whose childhood familiarized him with pain may dread 
+it less, and react less, than one whose distress is heightened 
+by fear of the unknown. The individual remains the determinant. 
+
+
+It has been plausibly suggested that, whereas pain 
+inflicted on a person from outside himself may actually focus 
+or intensify his will to resist, his resistance is likelier to 
+be sapped by pain which he seems to inflict upon himself. 
+
+"In the simple torture situation the contest is one between 
+the individual and his tormentor (.... and he can frequently 
+endure). When the individual is told to stand at attention 
+for long periods, an intervening factor is introduced. The 
+immediate source of pain is not the interrogator but the 
+victim himself. The motivational strength of the individual 
+is likely to exhaust itself in this internal encounter.... As 
+long as the subject remains standing, he is attributing to 
+his captor the power to do something worse to him, but there 
+is actually no showdown of the ability of the interrogator 
+to do so."' (4) 
+
+
+Interrogatees who are withholding but who feel qualms 
+of guilt and a secret desire to yield are likely to become 
+intractable if made to endure pain. The reason is that they 
+can then interpret the pain as punishment and hence as 
+expiation. There are also persons who enjoy pain and its 
+anticipation and who will keep back information that they 
+might otherwise divulge if they are given reason to expect 
+that withholding will result in the punishment that they 
+want. Persons of considerable moral or intellectual 
+stature often find in pain inflicted by others a confirmation 
+of the belief that they are in the hands of inferiors, and 
+their resolve not to submit is strengthened. 
+
+
+Intense pain is quite likely to produce false confessions, 
+concocted as a means of escaping from distress. A time- 
+consuming delay results, while investigation is conducted 
+and the admissions are proven untrue. During this respite 
+the interrogatée can pull himself together. He may even 
+use the time to think up new, more complex "admissions" 
+that take still longer to disprove. KUBARK is especially 
+vulnerable to such tactics because the interrogation is 
+conducted for the sake of information and not for police purposes. 
+
+If an interrogatee is caused to suffer pain rather late 
+in the interrogation process and after other tactics have 
+failed, he is almost certain to conclude that the interrogator 
+is becoming desperate. He may then decide that if he can 
+just hold out against this final assault, he will win the struggle 
+and his freedom. And he is likely to be right. Interrogatees 
+who have withstood pain are more difficult to handle by other 
+methods. The effect has been not to repress the subject but 
+to restore his confidence and maturity. 
+
+In recent years a number of hypotheses about hypnosis 
+have been advanced by psychologists and others in the guise of 
+proven principles. Among these are the flat assertions that a 
+person connot be hypnotized against his will; that while 
+hypnotized he cannot be induced to divulge information that he 
+wants urgently to conceal; and that he will not undertake, in 
+trance or through post-hypnotic suggestion, actions to which 
+he would normally have serious moral or ethical objections. 
+
+If these and related contentions were proven valid, hypnosis 
+would have scant value for the interrogator. 
+
+
+But despite the fact that hypnosis has been an object of 
+scientific inquiry for a very long time, none of these theories 
+has yet been tested adequately. Each of them is in conflict 
+with some observations of fact. In any event, an interrogation 
+handbook cannot and need not include a lengthy discussion of 
+hypnosis. The case officer or interrogator needs to know 
+enough about the subject to understand the circumstances under 
+which hypnosis can be a useful tool, so that he can request 
+expert assistance appropriately. 
+
+
+Operational personnel, including interrogators, who 
+chance to have some lay experience or skill in hypnotism 
+should not themselves use hypnotic techniques for interrogation 
+or other operational purposes. There are two reasons for 
+this position. The first is that hypnotism used as an operational 
+tool by a practitioner who is not a psychologist, psychiatrist, 
+or M.D. can produce irreversible psychological damage. The 
+lay practitioner does not know enough to use the technique 
+safely. The second reason is that an unsuccessful attempt 
+to hypnotize a subject for purposes of interrogation, or a 
+successful attempt not adequately covered by post-hypnotic 
+amnesia or other protection, can easily lead to lurid and 
+embarrassing publicity or legal charges. 
+
+
+Hypnosis is frequently called a state of heightened 
+suggestibility, but the phrase is a description rather than a 
+definition. Merton M. Gill and Margaret Brenman state, 
+"The psychoanalytic theory of hypnosis clearly implies, 
+where it does not explicitly state, that hypnosis is a form 
+of regression." And they add, "...induction/f hypnosis/ 
+is the process of bringing about a regression, while the 
+hypnotic state is the established regression." (13) It is 
+suggested that the interrogator will find this definition the 
+most useful. The problem of overcoming the resistance 
+of an uncooperative interrogatee is essentially a problem 
+of inducing regression to a level at which the resistance 
+can no longer be sustained. Hypnosis is one way of 
+regressing people. 
+
+
+Martin T. Orne has written at some length about 
+hypnosis and interrogation. Almost all of his conclusions 
+are tentatively negative. Concerning the role played by the 
+will or attitude of the interrogatee, Orne says, "Although 
+the crucial experiment has not yet been done, there is 
+little or no evidence to indicate that trance can be induced 
+against a person's wishes." He adds, "...the actual 
+occurrence of the trance state is related to the wish of 
+the subject to enter hypnosis." And he also observes, 
+",..whether a subject will or will not enter trance depends 
+upon his relationship with the hyponotist rather than upon 
+the technical procedure of trance induction.'"' These 
+views are probably representative of those of many 
+psychologists, but they are not definitive. As Orne 
+himself later points out, the interrogatee "'...could be 
+given a hypnotic drug with appropriate verbal suggestions 
+to talk about a given topic. Eventually enough of the drug 
+would be given to cause a short period of unconsciousness, 
+When the subject wakesn, the interrogator could then read 
+from his 'notes' of the hypnotic interview the information 
+presumably told him." (Orne had previously pointed out 
+that this technique requires that the interrogator possess 
+significant information about the subject without the subject's 
+knowledge.) "It can readily be seen how this... maneuver... 
+would facilitate the elicitation of information in subsequent 
+interviews." (7) Techniques of inducing trance in resistant 
+subjects through preliminary administration of so-called 
+silent drugs (drugs which the subject does not know he has 
+taken) or through other non-routine methods of induction 
+are still under investigation. Until more facts are known, 
+the question of whether a resister can be hypnotized involun- 
+tarily must go unanswered, 
+
+
+Orne also holds that even if a resister can be 
+hypnotized, his resistance does not cease. He postulates 
+",,. that only in rare interrogation subjects would a 
+sufficiently deep trance be obtainable to even attempt to 
+induce the subject to discuss material which he is unwilling 
+to discuss in the waking state. The kind of information which 
+can be obtained in these rare instances is still an unanswered 
+question. '"' He adds that it is doubtful that a subject in trance 
+could be made to reveal information which he wished to 
+safeguard. But here too Orne seems somewhat too cautious 
+or pessimistic. Once an interrogatee is in a hypnotic trance, 
+his understanding of reality becomes subject to manipulation. 
+For example, a KUBARK interrogator could tell a suspect 
+double agent in trance that the KGB is conducting the questioning, 
+and thus invert the whole frame of reference. In other words, 
+Orne is probably right in holding that most recalcitrant subjects 
+will continue effective resistance as long as the frame of 
+reference is undisturbed. But once the subject is tricked into 
+believing that he is talking to friend rather than foe, or that 
+divulging the truth is the best way to serve his own purposes, 
+his resistance will be replaced by cooperation. The value 
+of hypnotic trance is not that it permits the interrogator to 
+impose his will but rather that it can be used to convince the 
+interrogatee that there is no valid reason not to be forthcoming. 
+
+A third objection raised by Orne and others is that 
+material elicited during trance is not reliable. Orne says, 
+",..it has been shown that the accuracy of such information... 
+would not be guaranteed since subjects in hypnosis are fully 
+capable of lying."" Again, the observation is correct; no known 
+manipulative method guarantees veracity. But if hypnosis 
+is employed not as an immediate instrument for digging out 
+the truth but rather as a way of making the subject want to 
+align himself with his interrogators, the objection evaporates. 
+
+
+Hypnosis offers one advantage not inherent in other 
+interrogation techniques or aids: the post-hypnotic suggestion. 
+Under favorable circumstances it should be possible to 
+administer a silent drug to a resistant source, persuade 
+him as the drug takes effect that he is slipping into a hypnotic 
+trance, place him under actual hypnosis as consciousness is 
+returning, shift his frame of reference so that his reasons 
+for resistance become reasons for cooperating, interrogate 
+him, and conclude the session by implanting the suggestion 
+that when he emerges from trance he will not remember 
+anything about what has happened. 
+
+
+This sketchy outline of possible uses of hypnosis in 
+the interrogation of resistant sources has no higher goal 
+than to remind operational personnel that the technique 
+may provide the answer to a problem not otherwise soluble. 
+To repeat: hypnosis is distinctly not a do-it-yourself project. 
+Therefore the interrogator, base, or center that is considering 
+its use must anticipate the timing sufficiently not only to secure 
+the obligatory headquarters permission but also to allow for an 
+expert's travel time and briefing. 
+
+Just as the threat of pain may more effectively induce 
+compliance than its infliction, so an interrogatee's mistaken 
+belief that he has been drugged may make him a more useful 
+interrogation subject than he would be under narcosis. Louis 
+A. Gottschalk cites a group of studies as indicating "that 30 to 50 
+per cent of individuals are placebo reactors, that is, respond 
+
+with symptomatic relief to taking an inert substance." (7) 
+In the interrogation situation, moreover, the effectiveness 
+of a placebo may be enhanced because of its ability to placate 
+the conscience. The subject's primary source of resistance 
+to confession or divulgence may be pride, patriotism, 
+personal loyalty to superiors, or fear of retribution if he is 
+returned to their hands. Under such circumstances his 
+natural desire to escape from stress by complying with the 
+interrogator's wishes may become decisive if he is provided 
+_an acceptable rationalization for compliance. "I was drugged" 
+is one of the best excuses. 
+
+
+Drugs are no more the answer to the interrogator's 
+prayer than the polygraph, ‘hypnosis, or other aids. Studies 
+and reports "dealing with the validity of material extracted 
+from reluctant informants. ..indicate that there is no drug 
+which can force every informant to report all the information 
+he has. Not only may the inveterate criminal psychopath lie 
+under the influence of drugs which have been tested, but the 
+relatively normal and well-adjusted individual may also 
+successfully disguise factual data.'"' (3) Gottschalk reinforces 
+the latter observation in mentioning an experiment involving 
+drugs which indicated that ''the more normal, well-integrated 
+individuals could lie better than the guilt-ridden, neurotic 
+subjects." (7) 
+
+
+Nevertheless, drugs can be effective in overcoming 
+resistance not dissolved by other techniques. As has already 
+been noted, the so-called silent drug (a pharmacologically 
+potent substance given to a person unaware of its administration) 
+can make possible the induction of hypnotic trance ina 
+previously unwilling subject. Gottschalk says, "The judicious 
+choice of a drug with minimal side effects, its matching to 
+the subject's personality, careful gauging of dosage, and a 
+sense of timing.../make/ silent administration a hard-to-equal 
+‘ ally for the hypnotist intent on producing self-fulfilling and 
+
+inescapable suggestions...the drug effects should prove... 
+compelling to the subject since the perceived sensations originate 
+entirely within himself." (7) 
+
+Particularly important is the reference to matching the 
+drug to the personality of the interrogatee. The effect of most 
+drugs depends more upon the personality of the subject than 
+upon the physical characteristics of the drugs themselves. If 
+the approval of Headquarters has been obtained and if a doctor 
+is at hand for administration, one of the most important of 
+the interrogator's functions is providing the doctor with a 
+full and accurate description of the psychological make-up 
+of the interrogatee, to facilitate the best possible choice of 
+a drug. 
+
+
+Persons burdened with feelings of shame or guilt are 
+likely to unburden themselves when drugged, especially if 
+these feelings have been reinforced by the interrogator. 
+And like the placebo, the drug provides an excellent 
+rationalization of helplessness for the interrogatee who 
+wants to yield but has hitherto been unable to violate his 
+own values or loyalties. 
+
+
+Like other coercive media, drugs may affect the content 
+of what an interrogatee divulges. Gottschalk notes that certain 
+drugs ''may give rise to psychotic manifestations such as 
+hallucinations, illusions, delusions, or disorientation", so 
+that "the verbal material obtained cannot always be considered 
+valid." (7) For this reason drugs (and the other aids discussed in 
+this section) should not be used persistently to facilitate the 
+interrogative debriefing that follows capitulation. Their function 
+is to cause capitulation, to aid in the shift from resistance to 
+cooperation. Once this shift has been accomplished, coercive 
+techniques should be abandoned both for moral reasons and 
+because they are unnecessary and even counter-productive. 
+
+
+This discussion does not include a list of drugs that 
+have been employed for interrogation purposes or a 
+discussion of their properties because these are medical 
+considerations within the province of a doctor rather than 
+an interogator. 
+
+The detection of malingering is obviously not an 
+interrogation technique, coercive or otherwise. But the 
+history of interrogation is studded with the stories of persons 
+who have attempted, often successfully, to evade the 
+mounting pressures of interrogation by feigning physical 
+or mental illness. KUBARK interrogators may encounter 
+seemingly sick or irrational interrogatees at times and 
+places which make it difficult or next-to-impossible to 
+summon medical or other professional assistance. Because 
+a few tips may make it possible for the interrogator to 
+distinguish between the malingerer and the person who is 
+genuinely ill, and because both illness and malingering are 
+sometimes produced by coercive interrogation, a brief discussion 
+of the topic has been included here. 
+
+
+Most persons who feign a mental or physical illness itn - 
+do not know enough about it to deceive the well-informed. 
+Malcolm L. Meltzer says, "The detection of malingering 
+depends to a great extent on the simulator's failure to 
+understand adequately the characteristics of the role he 
+is feigning.... Often he presents symptoms which are 
+exceedingly rare, existing mainly in the fancy of the layman. 
+One such symptom is the delusion of misidentification, 
+characterized by the...belief that he is some powerful 
+or historic personage. This symptom is very unusual in 
+true psychosis, but is used by a number of simulators. In 
+schizophrenia, the onset tends to be gradual, delusions 
+do not spring up full-blown over night; in simulated disorders, 
+the onset is usually fast and delusions may be readily 
+available. The feigned psychosis often contains many 
+contradictory and inconsistent symptoms, rarely existing 
+together. The malingerer tends to go to extremes in his 
+protrayal of his symptoms; he exaggerates, overdramatizes, 
+grimaces, shouts, is overly bjzarre, and calls attention 
+to himself in other ways.... 
+
+
+"Another characteristic of the malingerer is that he 
+will usually seek to evade or postpone examination. A study 
+of the behavior of lie-detector subjects, for example, showed 
+that persons later ‘proven guilty' showed certain similarities 
+of behavior. The guilty persons were reluctant to take the 
+test, and they tried in various ways to postpone or delay it. 
+They often appeared highly anxio6us and sometimes took a 
+hostile attitude toward the test and the examiner. Evasive 
+tactics sometimes appeared, such as sighing, yawning, 
+moving about, all of which foil the examiner by obscuring 
+
+the recording. Before the examination, they felt it necessary 
+to explain why their responses might mislead the examiner 
+into thinking they were lying. Thus the procedure of subjecting 
+a suspected -malingerer to a lie-detector test might evoke 
+behavior which would reinforce the suspicion of fraud." (7) 
+
+
+Meltzer also notes that malingerers who are not 
+professional psychologists can usually be exposed through 
+Rorschach tests. 
+
+
+An important element in malingering is the frame of 
+mind of the examiner. A person pretending madness 
+awakens in a professional examiner not only suspicion but 
+also a desire to expose the fraud, whereas a well person 
+who pretends to be concealing mental illness and who 
+permits only a minor symptom or two to peep through is 
+much likelier to create in the expert a desire to expose 
+the hidden sickness, 
+
+
+Meltzer observes that simulated mutism and amnesia 
+can usually be distinguished from the true states by 
+narcoanalysis. The reason, however, is the reverse of 
+the popular misconception. Under the influence of appropriate 
+drugs the malingerer will persist in not speaking or in not © 
+remembering, whereas the symptoms of the genuinely 
+afflicted will temporarily disappear. Another technique 
+is to pretend to take the deception seriously, express 
+grave concern, and tell the "patient" that the only remedy 
+for his illness is a series of electric shock treatments 
+or a frontal lobotomy. 
+
+A brief summary of the foregoing may help to 
+pull the major concepts of coercive interrogation together: 
+
+
+1, The principal coercive techniques are arrest, 
+detention, the deprivation of sensory stimuli, threats and. 
+fear, debility, pain, heightened suggestibility and hypnosis, 
+and drugs. 
+
+
+2. If a coercive technique is to be used, or if 
+two or more are to be employed jointly, they should be 
+chosen for their effect upon the individual and carefully 
+selected to match his personality. 
+
+
+3. The usual effect of coercion is regression. 
+The interrogatee's mature defenses crumbles as he becomes 
+more childlike. During the process of regression the subject 
+may experience feelings of guilt, and it is usually useful to 
+intensify these. 
+
+
+4. When regression has proceeded far enough 
+so that the subject's desire to yield begins to overbalance 
+his resistance, the interrogator should supply a face- 
+saving rationalization. Like the coercive technique, the 
+rationalization must be carefully chosen to fit the subject's 
+personality. 
+
+
+5. The pressures of duress should be slackened 
+or lifted after compliance has been obtained, so that the 
+interrogatee's voluntary cooperation will not be impeded. 
+
+
+No mention has been made of what is frequently the 
+last step in an interrogation conducted by a Communist 
+service: the attempted conversion. In the Western view 
+the goal of the questioning is information; once a sufficient 
+degree of cooperation has been obtained to permit the 
+interrogator access to the information he seeks, he is not 
+ordinarily concerned with the attitudes of the source. Under 
+some circumstances, however, this pragmatic indifference 
+can be short-sighted. If the interrogatee remains semi- 
+hostile or remorseful after a successful interrogation has 
+ended, less time may be required to complete his conversion 
+(and conceivably to create an enduring asset) than might be 
+needed to deal with his antagonism if he is merely squeezed 
+and forgotten. 
+
+The questions that follow are intended as reminders for the 
+interrogator and his superiors. 
+
+
+1. Have local (federal or other) laws affecting KUBARK's 
+conduct of a unilateral or joint interrogation been compiled and 
+learned? 
+
+
+2. If the interrogatee is to be held, how long may he be 
+legally detained? 
+
+
+3. Are interrogations conducted by other ODYOKE depart- 
+ments and agencies with foreign counterintelligence responsibilities 
+being coordinated with KUBARK if subject to the provisions of 
+Chief/KUBARK Directive, lor Chief/KUBARK Directive ? (b)(3) 
+Has a planned KUBARK interrogation subject to the same provisions 
+been appropriately coordinated? 
+
+
+Have applicable KUBARK regulations and directives been 
+observed? These include the related Ch Directives,
+pertinen and the provisions governing duress which appear
+in various paragraphs of this handbook. 
+
+
+
+5. Is the prospective interrogatee a PBPRIME citizen? If 
+so, have the added considerations listed on various paragraphs 
+been duly noted? 
+
+
+6. Does the interrogators selected for the task meet the four 
+criteria of
+(a) adequate training and experience, 
+(b) genuine familiarity with the language to be used, 
+(c) knowledge of the geographical cultural area concerned,
+(d) psychological comprehension of the interrogatee? 
+
+7. Has the prospective interrogatee been screened? What 
+are his major psychological characteristics? Does he belong to 
+one of the nine major categories listed in pp. 19-28? Which? 
+
+
+8 Has all available and pertinent information about the 
+subject been assembled and studied? 
+
+
+9. Is the source to be sent to an interrogation center, or 
+will questioning be completed elsewhere? If at a base or station, 
+will the interrogator, interrogatee, and facilities be available for 
+the time estimated as necessary to the completion of the process? 
+If he Is to be sent to a center, has the approval of the center or of 
+Headquarters been obtained? 
+
+
+10. Have all appropriate documents carried by the prospective 
+interrogatee been subjected to technical analysis? 
+
+
+ll, Has a check of logical overt sources been conducted? Is 
+the interrogation necessary? 
+
+
+12, Have field and headquarters traces been run on the potential 
+interrogatee and persons closely associated with him by emotional, 
+family, or business ties? 
+
+
+13, Has a preliminary assessment of bona fides been carried 
+out? With what results? 
+
+
+14. If an admission of prior association with one or more 
+foreign intelligence services or Communist parties or fronts has 
+been obtained, have full particulars been acquired and reported? 
+
+
+15. Has LCFLUTTER been administered? As early as 
+practicable? More than once? When? 
+
+
+16. Is it estimated that the prospective interrogatee is likely 
+to prove cooperative or recalcitrant? If resistance is expected, 
+what is its anticipated source: fear, patriotism, personal considera- 
+tions, political onvictions, stubbornness, other? 
+
+17. What is the purpose of the interrogation? 
+
+18. Has an interrogation plan been prepared? 
+
+
+19. If the interrogation is to be conducted jointly with a 
+liaison service, has due regard been paid to the opportunity thus, d 
+afforded to acquire additional information about that service 
+while minimizing KUBARK's exposure to it? 
+
+
+20. Is an appropriate setting for interrogation avallable? 
+
+
+21, Will the interrogation sessions be recorded? Is the 
+equipment available? Installed? 
+
+
+22. Have arrangements been made to feed, bed, and guard 
+the subject as necessary? 
+
+
+23. Does the interrogation plan call for more than one in- 
+terrogator? If so, have roles been assigned and schedules pre- 
+pared? 
+
+
+24. Is the interrogational environment fully subject to the 
+interrogator's manipulation and control? 
+
+
+25. What disposition is planned for the interrogatee after 
+the questioning ends? 
+
+
+26. Is it possible, early in the questioning, to determine 
+the subject's personal response to the interrogator or interrogators? 
+What is the interrogator's reaction to the subject? Is there an 
+emotional reaction strong enough to distort results? If so, can the 
+interrogator be replaced? 
+
+
+27. If the source is resistant, will noncoercive or coercive 
+techniques be used? What is the reason for the choice? 
+
+
+‘ 28. Has the subject been interrogated earlier? Is he sophis-~- 
+ticated about interrogation techniques? 
+
+
+29. Does the impression made by the interrogatee during the 
+opening phase of the interrogation confirm or conflict with the 
+preliminary assessment formed before interrogation started? 
+If there are significant differences, what are they and how do 
+they affect the plan for the remainder of the questioning? 
+
+
+30, During the opening phase, have the subject's voice, 
+eyes, mouth, gestures, silences, or other visible clues suggested 
+areas of sensitivity? If so, on what topics? 
+
+
+31. Has rapport been established during the opening phase? 
+
+
+32. Has the opening phase been followed by a reconnaissance? 
+What are the key areas of resistance? What tactics and how much 
+pressure will be required to overcome the resistance? Should the ; 
+estimated duration of interrogation be revised? If so, are further : 
+arrangements necessary for continued detention, liaison support, : 
+guarding, or other purposes? 
+
+33. In the view of the interrogator, what is the emotional 
+reaction of the subject to the interrogator? Why? 
+
+
+34, Are interrogation reports being prepared after each 
+session, from notes or tapes? 
+
+
+35, What disposition of the interrogatee is to be made after 
+questioning ends? If the subject is suspected of being a hostile 
+agent and if interrogation has not produced confession, what 
+measures will be taken to ensure that he is not left to operate as : 
+before, unhindered and unchecked? iG 
+
+
+36. Are any promises made to the interrogatee unfulfilled 
+when questioning ends? Is the subject vengeful? Likely to try to 
+strike back? How? 
+
+37. If one or more of the non-coercive techniques discussed 
+on pp. 52-81 have been selected for use, how do they match the 
+subject's personality? 
+
+
+38. Are coercive techniques to be employed? If so, have 
+all field personnel in the interrogator's direct chain of command been notified? Have they approved? 
+39. Has prior Headquarters permission been obtained? 
+
+
+40. Is arrest contemplated? By whom? Is the arrest fully 
+legal? If difficulties develop, will the arresting liaison service 
+reveal KUBARK's role or interest? - 
+
+
+41. As above, for confinement. If the interrogatee is to be 
+confined, can KUBARK control his environment fully? Can the 
+normal routines be disrupted for interrogation purposes? 
+
+
+42. ‘Is solitary confinement to be used? Why? Does the 
+place of confinement permit the practical elimination of sensory 
+stimuli? 
+
+
+43. Are threats to be employed? As part of a plan? Has 
+the nature of the threat been matched to that of the interrogatee? 
+
+
+44. If hypnosis or drugs are thought necessary, has Head- 
+quarters been given enough advance notice? Has adequate allowance 
+been made for travel time and other preliminaries? 
+
+
+45. Is the interrogatee suspected of malingering? If the 
+interrogator is uncertain, are the services of an expert available? 
+
+
+46. At the conclusion of the interrogation, has a comprehensive 
+summary report been prepared? 
+
+
+47. Is the interrogatee to be used operationally when interroga- 
+tion is over? If so, what effect (if any) is the interrogation expected 
+to have upon the operation? 
+
+48. If the interrogation was conducted jointly with a liaison 
+service, or was supported by liaison, how much did the host device 
+learn about KUBARK as a result? 
+
+
+49. Was the interrogation a success? Why? 
+
+
+50. A failure? Why? 
+
+This bibliography is selective; most of the books and articles 
+consulted during the preparation of this study have not been included 
+here. Those that have no real bearing on the counterintelligence in- 
+terrogation of resistant sources have been left out. Also omitted 
+are some sources considered elementary, inferior, or unsound. It 
+is not claimed that what remains is comprehensive as well as selective, 
+for the number of published works having some relevance even to the 
+restricted subject is over a thousand. But it is believed that all the 
+items listed here merit reading by KUBARK personnel concerned with 
+interrogation. 
+
+This paper is a one-hour lecture on the subject. It is thoughtful, forth-
+right, and based on extensive experience. It deals only with interrogation 
+following arrest and detention. Because the scope is nevertheless broad, 
+the discussion is brisk but necessarily less than profound. 
+
+
+2. Barioux, Max, "A Method for the Selection, Training, and 
+Evaluation of Interviewers," Public Opinion Quarterly, Spring 1952, 
+Vol. 16, No. 1. This article deals with the problems of interviewers 
+conducting public opinion polls. It is of only slight value for interroga- 
+tors, although it does suggest pitfalls produced by asking questions 
+that suggest their own answers. 
+
+
+3. Biderman, Albert D., A Study for Development of Improved 
+Interrogation Techniques: Study SR 177-D (U), Secret, final report of 
+
+
+Contract AF 18 (600) 1797, Bureau of Social Science Research Inc., 
+Washington, D.C., March 1959. Although this book (207 pages of text) 
+is principally concerned with lessons derived from the interrogation 
+
+of American POW's by Communist services and with the problem of 
+resisting interrogation, it also deals with the interrogation of resistant 
+subjects. It has the added advantage of incorporating the findings and 
+views of a number of scholars and specialists in subjects closely 
+related to interrogation. As the frequency of citation indicates, 
+this book was one of the most useful works consulted; few KUBARK 
+interrogators would fail to profit from reading it. It also contains 
+a descriminating but undescribed bibliography of 343 items. 
+
+
+4, Biderman, Albert D., "Communist Attempts to Elicit False 
+Confession from Air Force Prisoners of War", Bulletin of the New York 
+Academy of Medicine, September 1957, Vol. 33. An excellent analysis 
+of the psychological pressures applied by Chinese Communists to 
+American POW's to extract ''confessions" for propaganda purposes. 
+
+
+5. Biderman, Albert D., "Communist Techniques of Coercive 
+Interrogation", Air Intelligence, July 1955, Vol. 8, No. 7. This short 
+article does not discuss details. Its subject is closely related to that 
+of item 4 above; but the focus is on interrogation rather than the eli- 
+citation of "confessions", 
+
+
+6. Biderman, Albert D., "Social Psychological Needs and 
+Involuntary' Behavior as Illustrated by Compliance in Interrogation", 
+Sociometry, June 1960, Vol. 23. This interesting article is directly 
+relevant. It provides a useful insight into the interaction between 
+interrogator and interrogatee. It should be compared with Milton W. 
+Horowitz's 'Psychology of Confession" (see below). 
+
+
+7. Biderman, Albert D. and Herbert Zimmer, The Manipulation 
+of Human Behavior, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York and London, 
+1961. This book of 304 pages consists of an introduction by the editors 
+and seven chapters by the following specialists; Dr. Lawrence E. 
+Hinkle Jr., ''The Physiological State of the Interrogation Subject as 
+it Affects Brain Function"; Dr. Philip E. Kubzansky, "The Effects 
+of Reduced Environmental Stimulation on Human Behavior: A Review"; 
+Dr. Louis A. Gottschalk, 'The Use of Drugs in Interrogation"; Dr. 
+‘ R.C. Davis, "Physiological Responses as a Means of Evaluating In- 
+formation'' (this chapter deals with the polygraph); Dr. Martin T. Orne, 
+"The Potential Uses of Hypnosis in Interrogation"; Drs. Robert R. Blake 
+‘ and Jane S. Mouton, ''The Experimental Investigation of Interpersonal 
+Influence"; and Dr. Malcolm L. Meltzer, 'Countermanipulation through 
+Malingering.'' Despite the editors preliminary announcement that the 
+book has "a particular frame of reference; the interrogation of an un- 
+willing subject'', the stress is on the listed psychological specialties; 
+and interrogation gets comparitively short shrift. Nevertheless, 
+
+the KUBARK interrogator should read this book, especially the 
+chapters by Drs. Orne and Meltzer, He will find that the book is 
+
+by scientists for scientists and that the contributions consistently 
+demonstrate too theoretical an understanding of interrogation per se. 
+He will also find that practically no valid experimentation the results 
+of which were unclassified and available to the authors has been con- 
+ducted under interrogation conditions. Conclusions are suggested, 
+almost invariably, on a basis of extrapolation. But the book does 
+contain much useful information, as frequent references in this 
+study show. The combined bibliographies contain a total of 771 
+items. A good, brief discussion of the purpose, tools, and techniques employed 
+in the interrogation of arrestees. Although the author says that his 
+essay "is slanted toward relatively unsophisticated cases, and does / 
+not cover the subtler techniques....', he manages in a very short 
+paper to discuss a number of the essentials of questioning resistant 
+sources. Interrogators will find that much of the material is familiar 
+but that the article makes rewarding reading nonetheless. 
+
+All interrogators should read this short, authoritative essay. 
+ 
+This articie ts a review of current hypotheses about the reliability of infor- 
+mation obtained from a subject in trance, the hypnosis of unwilling 
+subjects, attempts to induce the performance of crimes through hypnosis, 
+and the possible prophylactic value of hypnosis as a defense against in- 
+terrogation. The author obviously speaks with a good deal of authority. 
+Most of his conclusions are negative-i.e., hypnosis can be a useful 
+aid for interrogators but is far from a magic solution for all problems. 
+
+"Brainwashing, Conditioning, and DDD," Soctometry, December 1957, 
+Vol. 20, No. 4. The "DDD" refers to the debility, dependency, and 
+dread syndrome, postulated by the authors are the three 
+essentials of the "brainwashing" process. The article is 
+well worth reading. 
+
+This article provides some sound information 
+but the discussion of interrogation as such, though clear and be 
+well-ordered, contains a few questionable postulates. The 
+article merits reading but is not recommended as a guide to 
+the conduct of interrogation. 
+
+
+13. Gill, Merton, Inc., and Margaret Brenman, 
+Hypnosis and Related States: Psychoanalytic Studies in 
+Regression, International Universities Press Inc., New York, 
+1959. This book is a scholarly and comprehensive examination 
+of hypnosis. The approach is basically Freudian but the authors 
+are neither narrow nor doctrinaire. The book discusses the 
+induction of hypnosis, the hypnotic state, theories of induétion 
+and of the hypnotic condition, the concept of regression as a 
+basic element in hypnosis, relationships between hypnosis and 
+drugs, sleep, fugue, etc., and the use of hypnosis in 
+psychotherapy. Interrogators may find the comparison 
+between hypnosis and "brainwashing" in chapter 9 more 
+relevant than other parts. The book is recommended, 
+however, not because it contains any discussion of the 
+employment of hypnosis in interrogation (it does not) but 
+because it provides the interrogator with sound information 
+about what hypnosis can and cannot do. 
+
+"Communist Interrogation and Indoctrination of Enemies 
+‘ of the State", AMA Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 
+August 1956, Vol. 76, No, 2. This article summarizes 
+the physiological and psychological reactions of American 
+prisoners to Communist detention and interrogation, It 
+merits reading but not study, chiefly because of the vast 
+differences between Communist interrogation of American 
+POW's and KUBARK interrogation of known or suspected 
+personnel of Communist services or parties. 
+
+15. Horowitz, Milton W., "Psychology of Confession. " 
+Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, July- 
+August 1956, Vol. 47. The author lists the following principles of 
+confession: (1) the subject feels accused; (2) he is confronted by 
+authority wielding power greater than his own; (3) he believes that 
+evidence damaging to him is available to or possessed by the authority: 
+(4) the accused is cut off from friendly support; (5) self-hostility is 
+generated; and (6) confession to authority promises relief. Although 
+the article is essentially a speculation rather than a report of verified 
+facts, it merits close reading. 
+
+
+16.  Inbau, Fred E, and John E, Reid, Lie Detection and 
+Criminal Investigation, Williams and Wilkins Co., 1953. The 
+first part of this book consists of a discussion of the polygraph. It 
+will be more useful to the KUBARK interrogator than the second, which 
+deals with the elements of criminal interrogation. 
+
+
+17. KHOKHLOV, Nicolai, In the Name of Conscience, David 
+McKay Co., New York, 1959. This entry is included chiefly because 
+of the cited quotation. It does provide, however, some interesting 
+insights into the attitudes of an interrogatee. 
+
+
+18. KUBARK, Communist Control Methods, Appendix 1: 
+"The Use of Scientific Design and Guidance Drugs and Hypnosis in 
+Communist Interrogation and Indoctrination Procedures." Secret, no 
+date, The appendix reports a study of whether Communist interroga- 
+tion methods included such aids as hypnosis and drugs. Although 
+experimentation in these areas is, of.course, conducted in Communist 
+countries, the study found no evidence that such methods are used in 
+Communist interrogations -- or that they would be necessary. 
+
+
+19. KUBARK (KUSODA), Communist Control Techniques, 
+Secret, 2 April 1956. This study is an analysis of the methods used 
+by Communist State police in the arrest, interrogation, and indoctrina- 
+tion of persons regarded as enemies of the state. This paper, like 
+others which deal with Communist interrogation techniques, may be 
+useful to any KUBARK interrogator charged with questioning a former 
+member of an Orbit intelligence or security service but does not deal 
+with interrogation conducted without police powers. 
+
+20, KUBARK, Hostile Contro] and Interrogation Techniques, 
+Secret, undated, This paper consists of 28 pages and two annexes. 
+It provides counsel to. KUBARK personnel on how to resist inte rroga- 
+tion conducted by a hostile service. Although it includes sensible 
+advice on resistance, it does not present any new information about the 
+theories or practices of interrogation. 
+
+23. Laycock, Keith, 'Handwriting Analysis as an Assess- 
+ment Aid, '' Studies in Intelligence, Summer 1959, Vol. 3, No. 3. A 
+defense of graphology by an "educated amateur, "' Although the article i's 
+interesting, it does not present tested evidence that the analysis of 
+a subject's handwriting would be a useful aid to an interrogator. 
+Recommended, nevertheless, for interrogators unfamiliar with the 
+subject. 
+
+
+24. Lefton, Robert Jay, "Chinese Communist 'Thought 
+Reform.': Confession and Reeducation of Western Civilians, "' 
+Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, September 1957, 
+( Vol. 33. A sound article about Chicom brainwashing techniques. The 
+information was compiled from first-hand interviews with prisoners 
+who had been subjected to the process, Recommended as background 
+reading. 
+
+
+25, Levenson, Bernard and Lee Wiggins, A Guide for 
+Intelligence Interviewing of Voluntary Foreign Sources, Official 
+Use Only, Officer Education Research Laboratory, ARDC, Maxwell 
+Air Force Base (Technical Memorandum OERL-TM-54-4.) A good, 
+though generalized, treatise on interviewing techniques. As the title 
+shows, the subject is different from that of the present study. 
+
+
+26. Lilly, John C,, "Mental Effects of Reduction of Ordinary 
+Levels of Physical Stimuli on Intact Healthy Persons. ' Psychological 
+Research Report #5, American Psychiatric Association, 1956. After 
+presenting a short sumrnary of a few autobiographical accounts 
+written about relative isolation at sea (in small boats) or polar regions, 
+the author describes two experiments designed to mask or drastically 
+reduce most sensory stimulation. The effect was to speed up the 
+results of the more usual sort of isolation (for example, solitary 
+confinement). Delusions and hallucinations, preceded by other 
+symptoms, appeared after short periods. The author does not discuss 
+the possible relevance of his findings to interrogation. 
+
+
+27. Meerlo, Joost A.M., The Rape of the Mind, World 
+Publishing Co., Cleveland, 1956, This book's primary value for the 
+interrogator is that it will make him aware of a number of elements 
+in the responses of an interrogatee which are not directly related to 
+the questions asked or the interrogation setting but are instead the 
+product of (or are at least influenced by) all questioning that the subject . 
+has undergone earlier, especially as a child, For many interrogatees 
+the interrogator becomes, for better or worse, the parent or authority 
+symbol. Whether the subject is submissive or belligerent may be 
+determined in part by his childhood relationships with his parents. 
+Because the same forces are at work in the interrogator, the interro- 
+gation may be chiefly a cover for a deeper layer of exchange or 
+conflict between the two. For the interrogator a primary value of 
+this book (and of much related psychological and psychoanalytic 
+work) is that it may give him a deeper insight into himself. « 
+
+
+28. Moloney, James Clark, "Psychic Self-Abandon and 
+Extortion of Confessions, "' International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 
+January/February 1955, Vol. 36, This short article relates the 
+psychological release obtained through confession (i.e., the sense of 
+well-being following surrender as a solution to an otherwise unsolvable 
+conflict) with religious experience generally and some ten Buddhistic 
+practices particularly. The interrogator will find little here that is 
+not more helpfully discussed in other sources, including Gill and 
+Brenman's Hypnosis and Related States. Marginal. 
+
+
+
+
+
+29. Oatis, William N., "Why I Confessed, " Life, 21 September 
+1953, Vol. 35. Of some marginal value because it combines the 
+writer's profession of innocence ("I am not a spy and never was") 
+with an account of how he was brought to "'confess"' to espionage within 
+three days of his arrest. Although Oatis was periodically deprived 
+of sleep (once for 42 hours) and forced to stand until weary, the 
+Czechs obtained the "confession" without torture or starvation and 
+without sophisticated techniques. 
+
+
+30. Rundquist, E,A., 'The Assessment of Graphology," 
+Studies in Intelligence, Secret, Summer 1959, Vol. 3, No. 3. The 
+author concludes that scientific testing of graphology is needed to 
+permit an objective assessment of the claims made in its behalf. This 
+article should be read in conjunction with No, 23, above. 
+
+
+31. Schachter, Stanley, The Psychology of Affiliation: 
+
+
+Experimental Studies of the Sources of Gregariousness, Stanford 
+University Press, Stanford, California, 1959. A report of 133 pages, 
+
+
+chiefly concerned with experiments and statistical analyses performed 
+at the University of Minnesota by Dr. Schachter and colleagues. The 
+principal findings concern relationships among anxiety, strength of 
+affiliative tendencies, and the ordinal position (i.e., rank in birth 
+sequence among siblings). Some tentative conclusions of significance 
+for interrogators are reached, the following among them: 
+
+
+a. "One of the consequences of isolation appears to be 
+a psychological state which in its extreme form resembles a 
+full-blown anxiety attack." (p. 12.) 
+
+
+b. Anxiety increases the desire to be with others who 
+share the same fear. 
+
+
+Bs Persons who are first-born or only children are 
+typically more nervous or afraid than those born later. First- 
+borns and onlies are also "considerably less willing or able to 
+withstand pain than are later-born children." (p. 49.) 
+
+
+In brief, this book presents hypotheses of interest to interrogators, 
+but much further research is needed to test validity and applicability. 
+
+
+32. Sheehan, Robert, Police Interview and Interrogations and 
+the Preparation and Signing of Statements. A 23-page pamphlet, 
+unclassified and undated, that discusses some techniques and tricks 
+that can be used in counterintelligence interrogation. The style is 
+sprightly, but most of the material is only slightly related to KUBARK's 
+interrogation problems. Recommended as background reading. 
+
+
+33, Singer, Margaret Thaler and Edgar H. Schein, "Projective 
+Test Responses of Prisoners of War Following Repatriation." Psychiatry, 
+1958, Vol. 21. Tests conducted on American ex-POW's returned during 
+the Big and Little Switches in Korea showed differences in characteristics 
+between non-collaborators and corraborators., The latter showed more 
+typical and humanly responsive reactions to psychological testing than 
+the former, who tended to be more apathetic and emotionally barren 
+or withdrawn. Active resisters, however, often showed a pattern of 
+reaction or responsiveness like that of collaborators. Rorschach 
+tests provided clues, with a good statistical incidence of reliability, 
+for differentation between collaborators and non-collaborators. The 
+tests and results described are worth noting in conjunction with the 
+screening procedures recommended in this paper. 
+
+
+34. Sullivan, Harry Stack, The Psychiatric Interview, W.W. 
+Norton and Co,, New York, 1954. Any interrogator reading this book 
+will be struck by parallels between the psychiatric interview and the 
+interrogation, The book is also valuable because the author, a 
+psychiatrist of considerable repute, obviously had a deep understand- 
+ing of the nature of the inter-personal relationship and of resistance. 
+
+
+35. U.S, Army, Office of the Chief of Military History, . 
+Russian Methods of Interrogating Captured Personnel in World War II, 
+Secret, Washington, 1951. A comprehensive treatise on Russian 
+intelligence and police systems and on the history of Russian treat- 
+ment of captives, military and civilian, during and following World 
+War Il. The appendix contains some specific case summaries of 
+physical torture by the secret police. Only a small part of the book 
+deals with interrogation, Background reading. 
+
+36. U.S, Army, 7707 European Command Intelligence Center, 
+Guide for Intelligence Interrogators of Eastern Cases, Secret, April 
+1958. This specialized study is of some marginal value for KUBARK 
+interrogators dealing with Russians and other Slavs. 
+
+
+
+
+
+37. U.S. Army, The Army Intelligence School, Fort Holabird, 
+Techniques of Interrogation, Instructors Folder I-6437/A, January 
+1956. This folder consists largely of an article, "Without Torture, "' 
+by a German ex-interrogator, Hans Joachim Scharff. Both the pre- 
+liminary discussion and the Scharff article (first published in Argosy, 
+May 1950) are exclusively concerned with the interrogation of POW's. 
+Although Scharff claims that the methods used by German Military 
+Intelligence against captured U.S. Air Force personnel". . . were 
+almost trresistible,"' the basic technique consisted of impressing 
+upon the prisoner the false conviction that his information was already 
+known to the Germans in full detail, The success of this method de- 
+pends upon circumstances that are usually lacking in the peacetime 
+interrogation of a staff or agent member of a hostile intelligence 
+service. The article merits reading, nevertheless, because it shows 
+vividly the advantages that result from good planning and organization. 
+
+
+38. U.S. Army, Counterintelligence Corps, Fort Holabird, 
+Interrogations, Restricted, 5 September 1952. Basic coverage of 
+military interrogation. Among the subjects discussed are the interro- 
+gation of witnesses, suspects, POW's, and refugees, and the employment 
+of interpreters and of the polygraph, Although this text does not 
+concentrate upon the basic problems confronting KUBARK interrogators, 
+it will repay reading. 
+
+
+39. U.S, Army, Counterintelligence Corps, Fort Holabird, 
+Investigative Subjects Department, Interrogations, Restricted, 
+1 May 1950. This 70-page booklet on counterintelligence interroga- 
+tion is basic, succinct, practical, and sound. Recommended for close 
+' reading. 
+
+
+40. U.S, Defector Reception Center, Defector Reception 
+Center Procedures Manual, Secret, 1 January 1956. Almost wholly 
+devoted to the administration and handling of defectors and refugees, 
+the manual devotes only two generalized pages to interrogation. KUBARK 
+personnel concerned with reception center processing should read it. 
+
+
+41. Wellman, Francis L., The Art of Cross-Examination, 
+Garden City Publishing Co. (now Doubleday), New York, originally 
+1903, 4th edition, 1948, Most of this book is but indirectly related to 
+the subject of this study; it is primarily concerned with tripping up 
+witnesses and impressing juries. Chapter VIII, "Fallacies of 
+Testimony, "' is worth reading, however, because some of its warnings 
+are applicable. 
+
+
+42. Wexler, Donald, Jack Mendelson, Herbert Leiderman, 
+and Philip Solomon, "Sensory Deprivation, '" A,.M,A, Archives of 
+Neurology and Psychiatry, 1958, 79, pp. 225-233. This article 
+reports an experiment designed to test the results of eliminating most 
+sensory stimuli and masking others. Paid volunteers spent periods from 
+1 hour and 38 minutes to 36 hours in a tank-respirator, The results 
+included inability to concentrate effectively, daydreaming and 
+fantasy, illusions, delusions, and hallucinations, The suitability of 
+this procedure as a means of speeding up the effects of solitary con- 
+finement upon recalcitrant subjects has not been considered. 
+
+The following bibliographies on interrogation were noted 
+during the preparation of this study. 
+
+
+1. Brainwashing, A Guide to the Literature, prepared 
+by the Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology, Inc., 
+
+
+Forest Hills, New York, December 1960. A wide variety of 
+materials is represented: scholarly and scientific reports, 
+governmental and organizational reports, legal discussions, 
+biographical accounts, fiction, journalism, and miscellaneous. 
+The number of items in each category is, respectively, 139, 
+28, 7, 75, 10, 14, and 19, a total of 418. One or two sentence 
+descriptions follow the titles. These are restricted to an 
+indication of content and do not express value judgements. The 
+first section contains a number of especially useful references. 
+
+
+2. Comprehensive Bibliography of Interrogation 
+
+
+Techniques, Procedures, and Experiences, Air Intelligence 
+Information Report, Unclassified, 10 June 1959. This 
+
+
+bibliography of 158 items dating between 1915 and 1957 
+comprises "the monographs on this subject available in the 
+Library of Congress and arranged in alphabetical order by 
+author, or in the absence of an author, by title."' No 
+descriptions are included, except for explanatory sub-titles. 
+The monographs, in several languages, are not categorized. 
+This collection is extremely heterogeneous. Most of the 
+items are of scant or peripheral value to the interrogator. 
+
+
+3. Interrogation Methods and Techniques, KUPALM, 
+L-3,024,941, July 1959, Secret/NOFORN. This bibliography 
+of 114 items includes references to four categories: books 
+and pamphlets, articles from periodicals, classified documents, 
+and materials from classified periodicals. No descriptions 
+
+
+(except sub-titles) are included. The range is broad, so that 
+a number of nearly-irrelevant titles are included (e.g., 
+Employment psychology: the Interview, Interviewing in social 
+research, and ''Phrasing questions; the question of bias in 
+interviewing", from Journal of Marketing). 
+
+
+4. Survey of the Literature on Interrogation Techniques, 
+KUSODA, 1) March 1957, Confidential. Although now somewhat 
+dated because of the significant work done since its publication, 
+this bibliography remains the best of those listed. It groups 
+its 114 items in four categories: Basic Recommended Reading, 
+Recommended Reading, Reading of Limited or Marginal Value, 
+and Reading of No Value. A brief description of each item is 
+included. Although some element of subjectivity inevitably 
+tinges these brief, critical appraisals, they are judicious; and 
+they are also real time-savers for interrogators too busy to 
+plough through the acres of print on the specialty. 
+