isotree 0.2.2 → 0.3.0

data/vendor/isotree/src/utils.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,3808 @@
+/*    Isolation forests and variations thereof, with adjustments for incorporation
+*     of categorical variables and missing values.
+*     Writen for C++11 standard and aimed at being used in R and Python.
+*     
+*     This library is based on the following works:
+*     [1] Liu, Fei Tony, Kai Ming Ting, and Zhi-Hua Zhou.
+*         "Isolation forest."
+*         2008 Eighth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining. IEEE, 2008.
+*     [2] Liu, Fei Tony, Kai Ming Ting, and Zhi-Hua Zhou.
+*         "Isolation-based anomaly detection."
+*         ACM Transactions on Knowledge Discovery from Data (TKDD) 6.1 (2012): 3.
+*     [3] Hariri, Sahand, Matias Carrasco Kind, and Robert J. Brunner.
+*         "Extended Isolation Forest."
+*         arXiv preprint arXiv:1811.02141 (2018).
+*     [4] Liu, Fei Tony, Kai Ming Ting, and Zhi-Hua Zhou.
+*         "On detecting clustered anomalies using SCiForest."
+*         Joint European Conference on Machine Learning and Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2010.
+*     [5] https://sourceforge.net/projects/iforest/
+*     [6] https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/3388518/expected-number-of-paths-required-to-separate-elements-in-a-binary-tree
+*     [7] Quinlan, J. Ross. C4. 5: programs for machine learning. Elsevier, 2014.
+*     [8] Cortes, David.
+*         "Distance approximation using Isolation Forests."
+*         arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.12362 (2019).
+*     [9] Cortes, David.
+*         "Imputing missing values with unsupervised random trees."
+*         arXiv preprint arXiv:1911.06646 (2019).
+*     [10] https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/3333220/expected-average-depth-in-random-binary-tree-constructed-top-to-bottom
+*     [11] Cortes, David.
+*          "Revisiting randomized choices in isolation forests."
+*          arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.13402 (2021).
+*     [12] Guha, Sudipto, et al.
+*          "Robust random cut forest based anomaly detection on streams."
+*          International conference on machine learning. PMLR, 2016.
+*     [13] Cortes, David.
+*          "Isolation forests: looking beyond tree depth."
+*          arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.11639 (2021).
+*     [14] Ting, Kai Ming, Yue Zhu, and Zhi-Hua Zhou.
+*          "Isolation kernel and its effect on SVM"
+*          Proceedings of the 24th ACM SIGKDD
+*          International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining. 2018.
+* 
+*     BSD 2-Clause License
+*     Copyright (c) 2019-2022, David Cortes
+*     All rights reserved.
+*     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+*     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+*     * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
+*       list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+*     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+*       this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+*       and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+*     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS"
+*     AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+*     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+*     DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+*     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+*     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
+*     SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
+*     CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY,
+*     OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+*     OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+*/
+#include "isotree.hpp"
+
+/* ceil(log2(x)) done with bit-wise operations ensures perfect precision (and it's faster too)
+   https://stackoverflow.com/questions/2589096/find-most-significant-bit-left-most-that-is-set-in-a-bit-array
+   https://stackoverflow.com/questions/11376288/fast-computing-of-log2-for-64-bit-integers  */
+#if SIZE_MAX == UINT32_MAX /* 32-bit systems */
+    constexpr static const uint32_t MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[32] =
+    {
+        0, 9,  1,  10, 13, 21, 2, 29, 11, 14, 16, 18, 22, 25, 3, 30,
+        8, 12, 20, 28, 15, 17, 24, 7, 19, 27, 23, 6,  26, 5,  4, 31
+    };
+    size_t log2ceil( size_t v )
+    {
+        v--;
+        v |= v >> 1; // first round down to one less than a power of 2
+        v |= v >> 2;
+        v |= v >> 4;
+        v |= v >> 8;
+        v |= v >> 16;
+
+        return MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[( uint32_t )( v * 0x07C4ACDDU ) >> 27] + 1;
+    }
+#elif SIZE_MAX == UINT64_MAX /* 64-bit systems */
+    constexpr static const uint64_t tab64[64] = {
+        63,  0, 58,  1, 59, 47, 53,  2,
+        60, 39, 48, 27, 54, 33, 42,  3,
+        61, 51, 37, 40, 49, 18, 28, 20,
+        55, 30, 34, 11, 43, 14, 22,  4,
+        62, 57, 46, 52, 38, 26, 32, 41,
+        50, 36, 17, 19, 29, 10, 13, 21,
+        56, 45, 25, 31, 35, 16,  9, 12,
+        44, 24, 15,  8, 23,  7,  6,  5};
+
+    size_t log2ceil(size_t value)
+    {
+        value--;
+        value |= value >> 1;
+        value |= value >> 2;
+        value |= value >> 4;
+        value |= value >> 8;
+        value |= value >> 16;
+        value |= value >> 32;
+        return tab64[((uint64_t)((value - (value >> 1))*0x07EDD5E59A4E28C2)) >> 58] + 1;
+    }
+#else /* other architectures - might be much slower */
+    #if (__cplusplus  >= 202002L)
+    #include <bit>
+    size_t log2ceil(size_t value)
+    {
+        size_t out = std::numeric_limits<size_t>::digits - std::countl_zero(value);
+        out -= (value == ((size_t)1 << (out-1)));
+        return out;
+    }
+    #else
+    size_t log2ceil(size_t value)
+    {
+        size_t value_ = value;
+        size_t out = 0;
+        while (value >= 1) {
+            value = value >> 1;
+            out++;
+        }
+        out -= (value_ == ((size_t)1 << (out-1)));
+        return out;
+    }
+    #endif
+#endif
+
+/* adapted from cephes */
+#define EULERS_GAMMA 0.577215664901532860606512
+double digamma(double x)
+{
+    double y, z, z2;
+
+    /* check for positive integer up to 128 */
+    if (unlikely((x <= 64) && (x == std::floor(x)))) {
+        return harmonic_recursive(1.0, (double)x) - EULERS_GAMMA;
+    }
+
+    if (likely(x < 1.0e17 ))
+    {
+        z = 1.0/(x * x);
+        z2 = square(z);
+        y = z * ( 8.33333333333333333333E-2
+                 -8.33333333333333333333E-3*z
+                 +3.96825396825396825397E-3*z2
+                 -4.16666666666666666667E-3*z2*z
+                 +7.57575757575757575758E-3*square(z2)
+                 -2.10927960927960927961E-2*square(z2)*z
+                 +8.33333333333333333333E-2*square(z2)*z2);
+    }
+    else {
+        y = 0.0;
+    }
+
+    y = ((-0.5/x) - y) + std::log(x);
+    return y;
+}
+
+/* http://fredrik-j.blogspot.com/2009/02/how-not-to-compute-harmonic-numbers.html
+   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_number
+   https://github.com/scikit-learn/scikit-learn/pull/19087 */
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+double harmonic(size_t n)
+{
+    ldouble_safe temp = (ldouble_safe)1 / square((ldouble_safe)n);
+    return  - (ldouble_safe)0.5 * temp * ( (ldouble_safe)1/(ldouble_safe)6  -   temp * ((ldouble_safe)1/(ldouble_safe)60 - ((ldouble_safe)1/(ldouble_safe)126)*temp) )
+            + (ldouble_safe)0.5 * ((ldouble_safe)1/(ldouble_safe)n)
+            + std::log((ldouble_safe)n) + (ldouble_safe)EULERS_GAMMA;
+}
+
+/* usage for getting harmonic(n) is like this: harmonic_recursive((double)1, (double)(n + 1)); */
+double harmonic_recursive(double a, double b)
+{
+    if (b == a + 1) return 1. / a;
+    double m = std::floor((a + b) / 2.);
+    return harmonic_recursive(a, m) + harmonic_recursive(m, b);
+}
+
+/* https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/423542/isolation-forest-and-average-expected-depth-formula
+   https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/3333220/expected-average-depth-in-random-binary-tree-constructed-top-to-bottom */
+#include "exp_depth_table.hpp"
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+double expected_avg_depth(size_t sample_size)
+{
+    if (likely(sample_size <= N_PRECALC_EXP_DEPTH)) {
+        return exp_depth_table[sample_size - 1];
+    }
+    return 2. * (harmonic<ldouble_safe>(sample_size) - 1.);
+}
+
+/* Note: H(x) = psi(x+1) + gamma */
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+double expected_avg_depth(ldouble_safe approx_sample_size)
+{
+    if (approx_sample_size <= 1)
+        return 0;
+    else if (approx_sample_size < (ldouble_safe)INT32_MAX)
+        return 2. * (digamma(approx_sample_size + 1.) + EULERS_GAMMA - 1.);
+    else {
+        ldouble_safe temp = (ldouble_safe)1 / square(approx_sample_size);
+        return (ldouble_safe)2 * std::log(approx_sample_size) + (ldouble_safe)2*((ldouble_safe)EULERS_GAMMA - (ldouble_safe)1)
+               + ((ldouble_safe)1/approx_sample_size)
+               - temp * ( (ldouble_safe)1/(ldouble_safe)6 -   temp * ((ldouble_safe)1/(ldouble_safe)60 - ((ldouble_safe)1/(ldouble_safe)126)*temp) );
+    }
+}
+
+/* https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/3388518/expected-number-of-paths-required-to-separate-elements-in-a-binary-tree */
+#define THRESHOLD_EXACT_S 87670 /* difference is <5e-4 */
+double expected_separation_depth(size_t n)
+{
+    switch(n)
+    {
+        case 0: return 0.;
+        case 1: return 0.;
+        case 2: return 1.;
+        case 3: return 1. + (1./3.);
+        case 4: return 1. + (1./3.) + (2./9.);
+        case 5: return 1.71666666667;
+        case 6: return 1.84;
+        case 7: return 1.93809524;
+        case 8: return 2.01836735;
+        case 9: return 2.08551587;
+        case 10: return 2.14268078;
+        default:
+        {
+            if (n >= THRESHOLD_EXACT_S)
+                return 3;
+            else
+                return expected_separation_depth_hotstart((double)2.14268078, (size_t)10, n);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+double expected_separation_depth_hotstart(double curr, size_t n_curr, size_t n_final)
+{
+    if (n_final >= 1360)
+    {    
+        if (n_final >= THRESHOLD_EXACT_S)
+            return 3;
+        else if (n_final >= 40774)
+            return 2.999;
+        else if (n_final >= 18844)
+            return 2.998;
+        else if (n_final >= 11956)
+            return 2.997;
+        else if (n_final >= 8643)
+            return 2.996;
+        else if (n_final >= 6713)
+            return 2.995;
+        else if (n_final >= 4229)
+            return 2.9925;
+        else if (n_final >= 3040)
+            return 2.99;
+        else if (n_final >= 2724)
+            return 2.989;
+        else if (n_final >= 1902)
+            return 2.985;
+        else if (n_final >= 1360)
+            return 2.98;
+
+        /* Note on the chosen precision: when calling it on smaller sample sizes,
+           the standard error of the separation depth will be larger, thus it's less
+           critical to get it right down to the smallest possible precision, while for
+           larger samples the standard error of the separation depth will be smaller */
+    }
+
+    for (size_t i = n_curr + 1; i <= n_final; i++)
+        curr += (-curr * (double)i + 3. * (double)i - 4.) / ((double)i * ((double)(i-1)));
+    return curr;
+}
+
+/* linear interpolation */
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+double expected_separation_depth(ldouble_safe n)
+{
+    if (n >= THRESHOLD_EXACT_S)
+        return 3;
+    double s_l = expected_separation_depth((size_t) std::floor(n));
+    ldouble_safe u = std::ceil(n);
+    double s_u = s_l + (-s_l * u + 3. * u - 4.) / (u * (u - 1.));
+    double diff = n - std::floor(n);
+    return s_l + diff * s_u;
+}
+
+void increase_comb_counter(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, size_t n, double counter[], double exp_remainder)
+{
+    size_t i, j;
+    size_t ncomb = calc_ncomb(n);
+    if (exp_remainder <= 1)
+        for (size_t el1 = st; el1 < end; el1++)
+        {
+            for (size_t el2 = el1 + 1; el2 <= end; el2++)
+            {
+                // counter[i * (n - (i+1)/2) + j - i - 1]++; /* beaware integer division */
+                i = ix_arr[el1]; j = ix_arr[el2];
+                counter[ix_comb(i, j, n, ncomb)]++;
+            }
+        }
+    else
+        for (size_t el1 = st; el1 < end; el1++)
+        {
+            for (size_t el2 = el1 + 1; el2 <= end; el2++)
+            {
+                i = ix_arr[el1]; j = ix_arr[el2];
+                counter[ix_comb(i, j, n, ncomb)] += exp_remainder;
+            }
+        }
+}
+
+void increase_comb_counter(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, size_t n,
+                           double *restrict counter, double *restrict weights, double exp_remainder)
+{
+    size_t i, j;
+    size_t ncomb = calc_ncomb(n);
+    if (exp_remainder <= 1)
+        for (size_t el1 = st; el1 < end; el1++)
+        {
+            for (size_t el2 = el1 + 1; el2 <= end; el2++)
+            {
+                i = ix_arr[el1]; j = ix_arr[el2];
+                counter[ix_comb(i, j, n, ncomb)] += weights[i] * weights[j];
+            }
+        }
+    else
+        for (size_t el1 = st; el1 < end; el1++)
+        {
+            for (size_t el2 = el1 + 1; el2 <= end; el2++)
+            {
+                i = ix_arr[el1]; j = ix_arr[el2];
+                counter[ix_comb(i, j, n, ncomb)] += weights[i] * weights[j] * exp_remainder;
+            }
+        }
+}
+
+/* Note to self: don't try merge this into a template with the one above, as the other one has 'restrict' qualifier */
+void increase_comb_counter(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, size_t n,
+                           double counter[], hashed_map<size_t, double> &weights, double exp_remainder)
+{
+    size_t i, j;
+    size_t ncomb = calc_ncomb(n);
+    if (exp_remainder <= 1)
+        for (size_t el1 = st; el1 < end; el1++)
+        {
+            for (size_t el2 = el1 + 1; el2 <= end; el2++)
+            {
+                i = ix_arr[el1]; j = ix_arr[el2];
+                counter[ix_comb(i, j, n, ncomb)] += weights[i] * weights[j];
+            }
+        }
+    else
+        for (size_t el1 = st; el1 < end; el1++)
+        {
+            for (size_t el2 = el1 + 1; el2 <= end; el2++)
+            {
+                i = ix_arr[el1]; j = ix_arr[el2];
+                counter[ix_comb(i, j, n, ncomb)] += weights[i] * weights[j] * exp_remainder;
+            }
+        }
+}
+
+void increase_comb_counter_in_groups(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, size_t split_ix, size_t n,
+                                     double counter[], double exp_remainder)
+{
+    size_t *ptr_split_ix = std::lower_bound(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1, split_ix);
+    size_t n_group = std::distance(ix_arr + st, ptr_split_ix);
+    n = n - split_ix;
+
+    if (exp_remainder <= 1)
+        for (size_t ix1 = st; ix1 < st + n_group; ix1++)
+            for (size_t ix2 = st + n_group; ix2 <= end; ix2++)
+                counter[ix_arr[ix1] * n + ix_arr[ix2] - split_ix]++;
+    else
+        for (size_t ix1 = st; ix1 < st + n_group; ix1++)
+            for (size_t ix2 = st + n_group; ix2 <= end; ix2++)
+                counter[ix_arr[ix1] * n + ix_arr[ix2] - split_ix] += exp_remainder;
+}
+
+void increase_comb_counter_in_groups(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, size_t split_ix, size_t n,
+                                     double *restrict counter, double *restrict weights, double exp_remainder)
+{
+    size_t *ptr_split_ix = std::lower_bound(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1, split_ix);
+    size_t n_group = std::distance(ix_arr + st, ptr_split_ix);
+    n = n - split_ix;
+
+    if (exp_remainder <= 1)
+        for (size_t ix1 = st; ix1 < st + n_group; ix1++)
+            for (size_t ix2 = st + n_group; ix2 <= end; ix2++)
+                counter[ix_arr[ix1] * n + ix_arr[ix2] - split_ix]
+                    +=
+                weights[ix_arr[ix1]] * weights[ix_arr[ix2]];
+    else
+        for (size_t ix1 = st; ix1 < st + n_group; ix1++)
+            for (size_t ix2 = st + n_group; ix2 <= end; ix2++)
+                counter[ix_arr[ix1] * n + ix_arr[ix2] - split_ix]
+                    +=
+                weights[ix_arr[ix1]] * weights[ix_arr[ix2]] * exp_remainder;
+}
+
+void tmat_to_dense(double *restrict tmat, double *restrict dmat, size_t n, double fill_diag)
+{
+    size_t ncomb = calc_ncomb(n);
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < (n-1); i++)
+    {
+        for (size_t j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
+        {
+            // dmat[i + j * n] = dmat[j + i * n] = tmat[i * (n - (i+1)/2) + j - i - 1];
+            dmat[i + j * n] = dmat[j + i * n] = tmat[ix_comb(i, j, n, ncomb)];
+        }
+    }
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < n; i++)
+        dmat[i + i * n] = fill_diag;
+}
+
+template <class real_t>
+void build_btree_sampler(std::vector<double> &btree_weights, real_t *restrict sample_weights,
+                         size_t nrows, size_t &restrict log2_n, size_t &restrict btree_offset)
+{
+    /* build a perfectly-balanced binary search tree in which each node will
+       hold the sum of the weights of its children */
+    log2_n = log2ceil(nrows);
+    if (btree_weights.empty())
+        btree_weights.resize(pow2(log2_n + 1), 0);
+    else
+        btree_weights.assign(btree_weights.size(), 0);
+    btree_offset = pow2(log2_n) - 1;
+
+    for (size_t ix = 0; ix < nrows; ix++)
+        btree_weights[ix + btree_offset] = std::fmax(0., sample_weights[ix]);
+    for (size_t ix = btree_weights.size() - 1; ix > 0; ix--)
+        btree_weights[ix_parent(ix)] += btree_weights[ix];
+    
+    if (std::isnan(btree_weights[0]) || btree_weights[0] <= 0)
+    {
+        fprintf(stderr, "Numeric precision error with sample weights, will not use them.\n");
+        log2_n = 0;
+        btree_weights.clear();
+        btree_weights.shrink_to_fit();
+    }
+}
+
+template <class real_t, class ldouble_safe>
+void sample_random_rows(std::vector<size_t> &restrict ix_arr, size_t nrows, bool with_replacement,
+                        RNG_engine &rnd_generator, std::vector<size_t> &restrict ix_all,
+                        real_t *restrict sample_weights, std::vector<double> &restrict btree_weights,
+                        size_t log2_n, size_t btree_offset, std::vector<bool> &is_repeated)
+{
+    size_t ntake = ix_arr.size();
+
+    /* if with replacement, just generate random uniform numbers */
+    if (with_replacement)
+    {
+        if (sample_weights == NULL)
+        {
+            std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t> runif(0, nrows - 1);
+            for (size_t &ix : ix_arr)
+                ix = runif(rnd_generator);
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            std::discrete_distribution<size_t> runif(sample_weights, sample_weights + nrows);
+            for (size_t &ix : ix_arr)
+                ix = runif(rnd_generator);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* if all the elements are needed, don't bother with any sampling */
+    else if (ntake == nrows)
+    {
+        std::iota(ix_arr.begin(), ix_arr.end(), (size_t)0);
+    }
+
+
+    /* if there are sample weights, use binary trees to keep track and update weight
+       https://stackoverflow.com/questions/57599509/c-random-non-repeated-integers-with-weights */
+    else if (sample_weights != NULL)
+    {
+        /* TODO: here could instead generate only 1 random number from zero to the full weight,
+           and then subtract from it as it goes down every level. Would have less precision
+           but should still work fine. */
+
+        double rnd_subrange, w_left;
+        double curr_subrange;
+        size_t curr_ix;
+        for (size_t &ix : ix_arr)
+        {
+            /* go down the tree by drawing a random number and
+               checking if it falls in the left or right ranges */
+            curr_ix = 0;
+            curr_subrange = btree_weights[0];
+            for (size_t lev = 0; lev < log2_n; lev++)
+            {
+                rnd_subrange = std::uniform_real_distribution<double>(0., curr_subrange)(rnd_generator);
+                w_left = btree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)];
+                curr_ix = ix_child(curr_ix) + (rnd_subrange >= w_left);
+                curr_subrange = btree_weights[curr_ix];
+            }
+
+            /* finally, determine element to choose in this iteration */
+            ix = curr_ix - btree_offset;
+
+            /* now remove the weight of the chosen element */
+            btree_weights[curr_ix] = 0;
+            for (size_t lev = 0; lev < log2_n; lev++)
+            {
+                curr_ix = ix_parent(curr_ix);
+                btree_weights[curr_ix] =   btree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)]
+                                         + btree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix) + 1];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* if no sample weights and not with replacement (most common case expected),
+       then use different algorithms depending on the sampled fraction */
+    else
+    {
+
+        /* if sampling a larger fraction, fill an array enumerating the rows, shuffle, and take first N  */
+        if (ntake >= (nrows / 2))
+        {
+
+            if (ix_all.empty())
+                ix_all.resize(nrows);
+
+            /* in order for random seeds to always be reproducible, don't re-use previous shuffles */
+            std::iota(ix_all.begin(), ix_all.end(), (size_t)0);
+
+            /* If the number of sampled elements is large, do a full shuffle, enjoy simd-instructs when copying over */
+            if (ntake >= ((nrows * 3)/4))
+            {
+                std::shuffle(ix_all.begin(), ix_all.end(), rnd_generator);
+                ix_arr.assign(ix_all.begin(), ix_all.begin() + ntake);
+            }
+
+            /* otherwise, do only a partial shuffle (use Yates algorithm) and copy elements along the way */
+            else
+            {
+                size_t chosen;
+                for (size_t i = nrows - 1; i >= nrows - ntake; i--)
+                {
+                    chosen = std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t>(0, i)(rnd_generator);
+                    ix_arr[nrows - i - 1] = ix_all[chosen];
+                    ix_all[chosen] = ix_all[i];
+                }
+            }
+
+        }
+
+        /* If the sample size is small, use Floyd's random sampling algorithm
+           https://stackoverflow.com/questions/2394246/algorithm-to-select-a-single-random-combination-of-values */
+        else
+        {
+
+            size_t candidate;
+
+            /* if the sample size is relatively large, use a temporary boolean vector */
+            if (((ldouble_safe)ntake / (ldouble_safe)nrows) > (1. / 50.))
+            {
+
+                if (is_repeated.empty())
+                    is_repeated.resize(nrows, false);
+                else
+                    is_repeated.assign(is_repeated.size(), false);
+
+                for (size_t rnd_ix = nrows - ntake; rnd_ix < nrows; rnd_ix++)
+                {
+                    candidate = std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t>(0, rnd_ix)(rnd_generator);
+                    if (is_repeated[candidate])
+                    {
+                        ix_arr[ntake - (nrows - rnd_ix)] = rnd_ix;
+                        is_repeated[rnd_ix] = true;
+                    }
+
+                    else
+                    {
+                        ix_arr[ntake - (nrows - rnd_ix)] = candidate;
+                        is_repeated[candidate] = true;
+                    }
+                }
+
+            }
+
+            /* if the sample size is very small, use an unordered set */
+            else
+            {
+
+                hashed_set<size_t> repeated_set;
+                repeated_set.reserve(ntake);
+                for (size_t rnd_ix = nrows - ntake; rnd_ix < nrows; rnd_ix++)
+                {
+                    candidate = std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t>(0, rnd_ix)(rnd_generator);
+                    if (repeated_set.find(candidate) == repeated_set.end()) /* TODO: switch to C++20 'contains' */
+                    {
+                        ix_arr[ntake - (nrows - rnd_ix)] = candidate;
+                        repeated_set.insert(candidate);
+                    }
+
+                    else
+                    {
+                        ix_arr[ntake - (nrows - rnd_ix)] = rnd_ix;
+                        repeated_set.insert(rnd_ix);
+                    }
+                }
+
+            }
+
+        }
+
+    }
+}
+
+/* https://stackoverflow.com/questions/57599509/c-random-non-repeated-integers-with-weights */
+template <class real_t>
+void weighted_shuffle(size_t *restrict outp, size_t n, real_t *restrict weights, double *restrict buffer_arr, RNG_engine &rnd_generator)
+{
+    /* determine smallest power of two that is larger than N */
+    size_t tree_levels = log2ceil(n);
+
+    /* initialize vector with place-holders for perfectly-balanced tree */
+    std::fill(buffer_arr, buffer_arr + pow2(tree_levels + 1), (double)0);
+
+    /* compute sums for the tree leaves at each node */
+    size_t offset = pow2(tree_levels) - 1;
+    for (size_t ix = 0; ix < n; ix++) {
+        buffer_arr[ix + offset] = std::fmax(0., weights[ix]);
+    }
+    for (size_t ix = pow2(tree_levels+1) - 1; ix > 0; ix--) {
+        buffer_arr[ix_parent(ix)] += buffer_arr[ix];
+    }
+
+    /* if the weights are invalid, produce an unweighted shuffle */
+    if (std::isnan(buffer_arr[0]) || buffer_arr[0] <= 0)
+    {
+        std::iota(outp, outp + n, (size_t)0);
+        std::shuffle(outp, outp + n, rnd_generator);
+        return;
+    }
+
+    /* sample according to uniform distribution */
+    double rnd_subrange, w_left;
+    double curr_subrange;
+    size_t curr_ix;
+
+    for (size_t el = 0; el < n; el++)
+    {
+        /* go down the tree by drawing a random number and
+           checking if it falls in the left or right sub-ranges */
+        curr_ix = 0;
+        curr_subrange = buffer_arr[0];
+        for (size_t lev = 0; lev < tree_levels; lev++)
+        {
+            rnd_subrange = std::uniform_real_distribution<double>(0., curr_subrange)(rnd_generator);
+            w_left = buffer_arr[ix_child(curr_ix)];
+            curr_ix = ix_child(curr_ix) + (rnd_subrange >= w_left);
+            curr_subrange = buffer_arr[curr_ix];
+        }
+
+        /* finally, add element from this iteration */
+        outp[el] = curr_ix - offset;
+
+        /* now remove the weight of the chosen element */
+        buffer_arr[curr_ix] = 0;
+        for (size_t lev = 0; lev < tree_levels; lev++)
+        {
+            curr_ix = ix_parent(curr_ix);
+            buffer_arr[curr_ix] =   buffer_arr[ix_child(curr_ix)]
+                                  + buffer_arr[ix_child(curr_ix) + 1];
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+double sample_random_uniform(double xmin, double xmax, RNG_engine &rng) noexcept
+{
+    double out;
+    std::uniform_real_distribution<double> runif(xmin, xmax);
+    for (int attempt = 0; attempt < 100; attempt++)
+    {
+        out = runif(rng);
+        if (likely(out < xmax)) return out;
+    }
+    return xmin;
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+template <class other_t>
+ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>& ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::operator=(const ColumnSampler<other_t> &other)
+{
+    this->col_indices = other.col_indices;
+    this->tree_weights = other.tree_weights;
+    this->curr_pos = other.curr_pos;
+    this->curr_col = other.curr_col;
+    this->last_given = other.last_given;
+    this->n_cols = other.n_cols;
+    this->tree_levels = other.tree_levels;
+    this->offset = other.offset;
+    this->n_dropped = other.n_dropped;
+    return *this;
+}
+
+/*  This one samples with replacement. When using weights, the algorithm is the
+    same as for the row sampler, but keeping the weights after taking each iteration. */
+/*  TODO: this column sampler could use coroutines from C++20 once compilers implement them. */
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+template <class real_t>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::initialize(real_t weights[], size_t n_cols)
+{
+    this->n_cols = n_cols;
+    this->tree_levels = log2ceil(n_cols);
+    if (this->tree_weights.empty())
+        this->tree_weights.resize(pow2(this->tree_levels + 1), 0);
+    else {
+        if (this->tree_weights.size() != pow2(this->tree_levels + 1))
+            this->tree_weights.resize(this->tree_levels);
+        std::fill(this->tree_weights.begin(), this->tree_weights.end(), 0.);
+    }
+
+    /* compute sums for the tree leaves at each node */
+    this->offset = pow2(this->tree_levels) - 1;
+    for (size_t ix = 0; ix < this->n_cols; ix++)
+        this->tree_weights[ix + this->offset] = std::fmax(0., weights[ix]);
+    for (size_t ix = this->tree_weights.size() - 1; ix > 0; ix--)
+        this->tree_weights[ix_parent(ix)] += this->tree_weights[ix];
+
+    /* if the weights are invalid, make it an unweighted sampler */
+    if (unlikely(std::isnan(this->tree_weights[0]) || this->tree_weights[0] <= 0))
+    {
+        this->drop_weights();
+    }
+
+    this->n_dropped = 0;
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::drop_weights()
+{
+    this->tree_weights.clear();
+    this->tree_weights.shrink_to_fit();
+    this->initialize(n_cols);
+    this->n_dropped = 0;
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+bool ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::has_weights()
+{
+    return !this->tree_weights.empty();
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::initialize(size_t n_cols)
+{
+    if (!this->has_weights())
+    {
+        this->n_cols = n_cols;
+        this->curr_pos = n_cols;
+        this->col_indices.resize(n_cols);
+        std::iota(this->col_indices.begin(), this->col_indices.end(), (size_t)0);
+    }
+}
+
+/* TODO: this one should instead call the same function for sampling rows,
+   and should be done at the time of initialization so as to avoid allocating
+   and filling the whole array. That way it'd be faster and use less memory. */
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::leave_m_cols(size_t m, RNG_engine &rnd_generator)
+{
+    if (m == 0 || m >= this->n_cols)
+        return;
+
+    if (!this->has_weights())
+    {
+        size_t chosen;
+        if (m <= this->n_cols / 4)
+        {
+            for (this->curr_pos = 0; this->curr_pos < m; this->curr_pos++)
+            {
+                chosen = std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t>(0, this->n_cols - this->curr_pos - 1)(rnd_generator);
+                std::swap(this->col_indices[this->curr_pos + chosen], this->col_indices[this->curr_pos]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        else if ((ldouble_safe)m >= (ldouble_safe)(3./4.) * (ldouble_safe)this->n_cols)
+        {
+            for (this->curr_pos = this->n_cols-1; this->curr_pos > this->n_cols - m; this->curr_pos--)
+            {
+                chosen = std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t>(0, this->curr_pos)(rnd_generator);
+                std::swap(this->col_indices[chosen], this->col_indices[this->curr_pos]);
+            }
+            this->curr_pos = m;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            std::shuffle(this->col_indices.begin(), this->col_indices.end(), rnd_generator);
+            this->curr_pos = m;
+        }
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        std::vector<double> curr_weights = this->tree_weights;
+        std::fill(this->tree_weights.begin(), this->tree_weights.end(), 0.);
+        double rnd_subrange, w_left;
+        double curr_subrange;
+        size_t curr_ix;
+
+        for (size_t col = 0; col < m; col++)
+        {
+            curr_ix = 0;
+            curr_subrange = curr_weights[0];
+            if (curr_subrange <= 0)
+            {
+                if (col == 0)
+                {
+                    this->drop_weights();
+                    return;
+                }
+
+                else
+                {
+                    m = col;
+                    goto rebuild_tree;
+                }
+            }
+
+            for (size_t lev = 0; lev < this->tree_levels; lev++)
+            {
+                rnd_subrange = std::uniform_real_distribution<double>(0., curr_subrange)(rnd_generator);
+                w_left = curr_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)];
+                curr_ix = ix_child(curr_ix) + (rnd_subrange >= w_left);
+                curr_subrange = curr_weights[curr_ix];
+            }
+
+            this->tree_weights[curr_ix] = curr_weights[curr_ix];
+
+            /* now remove the weight of the chosen element */
+            curr_weights[curr_ix] = 0;
+            for (size_t lev = 0; lev < this->tree_levels; lev++)
+            {
+                curr_ix = ix_parent(curr_ix);
+                curr_weights[curr_ix] =   curr_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)]
+                                        + curr_weights[ix_child(curr_ix) + 1];
+            }
+        }
+
+        /* rebuild the tree after getting new weights */
+        rebuild_tree:
+        for (size_t ix = this->tree_weights.size() - 1; ix > 0; ix--)
+            this->tree_weights[ix_parent(ix)] += this->tree_weights[ix];
+
+        this->n_dropped = this->n_cols - m;
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::drop_col(size_t col, size_t nobs_left)
+{
+    if (!this->has_weights())
+    {
+        if (this->col_indices[this->last_given] == col)
+        {
+            std::swap(this->col_indices[this->last_given], this->col_indices[--this->curr_pos]);
+        }
+
+        else if (this->curr_pos > 4*nobs_left)
+        {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            for (size_t ix = 0; ix < this->curr_pos; ix++)
+            {
+                if (this->col_indices[ix] == col)
+                {
+                    std::swap(this->col_indices[ix], this->col_indices[--this->curr_pos]);
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (this->curr_col) this->curr_col--;
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        this->n_dropped++;
+        size_t curr_ix = col + this->offset;
+        this->tree_weights[curr_ix] = 0.;
+        for (size_t lev = 0; lev < this->tree_levels; lev++)
+        {
+            curr_ix = ix_parent(curr_ix);
+            this->tree_weights[curr_ix] =   this->tree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)]
+                                          + this->tree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix) + 1];
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::drop_col(size_t col)
+{
+    this->drop_col(col, SIZE_MAX);
+}
+
+/* to be used exclusively when initializing the density calculator,
+   and only when 'col_indices' is a straight range with no dropped columns */
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::drop_from_tail(size_t col)
+{
+    std::swap(this->col_indices[col], this->col_indices[--this->curr_pos]);
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::prepare_full_pass()
+{
+    this->curr_col = 0;
+
+    if (this->has_weights())
+    {
+        if (this->col_indices.size() < this->n_cols)
+            this->col_indices.resize(this->n_cols);
+        this->curr_pos = 0;
+        for (size_t col = 0; col < this->n_cols; col++)
+        {
+            if (this->tree_weights[col + this->offset] > 0)
+                this->col_indices[this->curr_pos++] = col;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+bool ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::sample_col(size_t &col, RNG_engine &rnd_generator)
+{
+    if (!this->has_weights())
+    {
+        switch(this->curr_pos)
+        {
+            case 0: return false;
+            case 1:
+            {
+                this->last_given = 0;
+                col = this->col_indices[0];
+                return true;
+            }
+            default:
+            {
+                this->last_given = std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t>(0, this->curr_pos-1)(rnd_generator);
+                col = this->col_indices[this->last_given];
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        /* TODO: here could instead generate only 1 random number from zero to the full weight,
+           and then subtract from it as it goes down every level. Would have less precision
+           but should still work fine. */
+        size_t curr_ix = 0;
+        double rnd_subrange, w_left;
+        double curr_subrange = this->tree_weights[0];
+        if (curr_subrange <= 0)
+            return false;
+
+        for (size_t lev = 0; lev < tree_levels; lev++)
+        {
+            rnd_subrange = std::uniform_real_distribution<double>(0., curr_subrange)(rnd_generator);
+            w_left = this->tree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)];
+            curr_ix = ix_child(curr_ix) + (rnd_subrange >= w_left);
+            curr_subrange = this->tree_weights[curr_ix];
+        }
+
+        col = curr_ix - this->offset;
+        return true;
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+bool ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::sample_col(size_t &col)
+{
+    if (this->curr_pos == this->curr_col || this->curr_pos == 0)
+        return false;
+    this->last_given = this->curr_col;
+    col = this->col_indices[this->curr_col++];
+    return true;
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::shuffle_remainder(RNG_engine &rnd_generator)
+{
+    if (!this->has_weights())
+    {
+        this->prepare_full_pass();
+        std::shuffle(this->col_indices.begin(),
+                     this->col_indices.begin() + this->curr_pos,
+                     rnd_generator);
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        if (this->tree_weights[0] <= 0)
+            return;
+        std::vector<double> curr_weights = this->tree_weights;
+        this->curr_pos = 0;
+        this->curr_col = 0;
+
+        if (this->col_indices.size() < this->n_cols)
+            this->col_indices.resize(this->n_cols);
+
+        double rnd_subrange, w_left;
+        double curr_subrange;
+        size_t curr_ix;
+
+        for (this->curr_pos = 0; this->curr_pos < this->n_cols; this->curr_pos++)
+        {
+            curr_ix = 0;
+            curr_subrange = curr_weights[0];
+            if (curr_subrange <= 0)
+                return;
+
+            for (size_t lev = 0; lev < this->tree_levels; lev++)
+            {
+                rnd_subrange = std::uniform_real_distribution<double>(0., curr_subrange)(rnd_generator);
+                w_left = curr_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)];
+                curr_ix = ix_child(curr_ix) + (rnd_subrange >= w_left);
+                curr_subrange = curr_weights[curr_ix];
+            }
+
+            /* finally, add element from this iteration */
+            this->col_indices[this->curr_pos] = curr_ix - this->offset;
+
+            /* now remove the weight of the chosen element */
+            curr_weights[curr_ix] = 0;
+            for (size_t lev = 0; lev < this->tree_levels; lev++)
+            {
+                curr_ix = ix_parent(curr_ix);
+                curr_weights[curr_ix] =   curr_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)]
+                                        + curr_weights[ix_child(curr_ix) + 1];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+size_t ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::get_remaining_cols()
+{
+    if (!this->has_weights())
+        return this->curr_pos;
+    else
+        return this->n_cols - this->n_dropped;
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+void ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe>::get_array_remaining_cols(std::vector<size_t> &restrict cols)
+{
+    if (!this->has_weights())
+    {
+        cols.assign(this->col_indices.begin(), this->col_indices.begin() + this->curr_pos);
+        std::sort(cols.begin(), cols.begin() + this->curr_pos);
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        size_t n_rem = 0;
+        for (size_t col = 0; col < this->n_cols; col++)
+        {
+            if (this->tree_weights[col + this->offset] > 0)
+            {
+                cols[n_rem++] = col;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+bool SingleNodeColumnSampler<ldouble_safe, real_t>::initialize
+(
+    double *restrict weights,
+    std::vector<size_t> *col_indices,
+    size_t curr_pos,
+    size_t n_sample,
+    bool backup_weights
+)
+{
+    if (!curr_pos) return false;
+
+    this->col_indices = col_indices->data();
+    this->curr_pos = curr_pos;
+    this->n_left = this->curr_pos;
+    this->weights_orig = weights;
+    
+    if (n_sample > std::max(log2ceil(this->curr_pos), (size_t)3))
+    {
+        this->using_tree = true;
+        this->backup_weights = false;
+
+        if (this->used_weights.empty()) {
+            this->used_weights.reserve(col_indices->size());
+            this->mapped_indices.reserve(col_indices->size());
+            this->tree_weights.reserve(2 * col_indices->size());
+        }
+
+        this->used_weights.resize(this->curr_pos);
+        this->mapped_indices.resize(this->curr_pos);
+
+        for (size_t col = 0; col < this->curr_pos; col++) {
+            this->mapped_indices[col] = this->col_indices[col];
+            this->used_weights[col] = weights[this->col_indices[col]];
+            if (!weights[this->col_indices[col]]) this->n_left--;
+        }
+
+        this->tree_weights.resize(0);
+        build_btree_sampler(this->tree_weights, this->used_weights.data(),
+                            this->curr_pos, this->tree_levels, this->offset);
+
+        this->n_inf = 0;
+        if (std::isinf(this->tree_weights[0]))
+        {
+            if (this->mapped_inf_indices.empty())
+                this->mapped_inf_indices.resize(this->curr_pos);
+
+            for (size_t col = 0; col < this->curr_pos; col++)
+            {
+                if (std::isinf(weights[this->col_indices[col]]))
+                {
+                    this->mapped_inf_indices[this->n_inf++] = this->col_indices[col];
+                    weights[this->col_indices[col]] = 0;
+                }
+
+                else
+                {
+                    this->mapped_indices[col - this->n_inf] = this->col_indices[col];
+                    this->used_weights[col - this->n_inf] = weights[this->col_indices[col]];
+                }
+            }
+
+            this->tree_weights.resize(0);
+            build_btree_sampler(this->tree_weights, this->used_weights.data(),
+                                this->curr_pos - this->n_inf, this->tree_levels, this->offset);
+        }
+
+        this->used_weights.resize(0);
+
+        if (this->tree_weights[0] <= 0 && !this->n_inf)
+            return false;
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        this->using_tree = false;
+        this->backup_weights = backup_weights;
+
+        if (this->backup_weights)
+        {
+            if (this->weights_own.empty())
+                this->weights_own.resize(col_indices->size());
+            this->weights_own.assign(weights, weights + this->curr_pos);
+        }
+
+        this->cumw = 0;
+        for (size_t col = 0; col < this->curr_pos; col++) {
+            this->cumw += weights[this->col_indices[col]];
+            if (!weights[this->col_indices[col]]) this->n_left--;
+        }
+
+        if (std::isnan(this->cumw))
+            throw std::runtime_error("NAs encountered. Try using a different value for 'missing_action'.\n");
+
+        /* if it's infinite, will choose among columns with infinite weight first */
+        this->n_inf = 0;
+        if (std::isinf(this->cumw))
+        {
+            if (this->inifinite_weights.empty())
+                this->inifinite_weights.resize(col_indices->size());
+            else
+                this->inifinite_weights.assign(col_indices->size(), false);
+
+            this->cumw = 0;
+            for (size_t col = 0; col < this->curr_pos; col++)
+            {
+                if (std::isinf(weights[this->col_indices[col]])) {
+                    this->n_inf++;
+                    this->inifinite_weights[this->col_indices[col]] = true;
+                    weights[this->col_indices[col]] = 0;
+                }
+
+                else {
+                    this->cumw += weights[this->col_indices[col]];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (!this->cumw && !this->n_inf) return false;
+    }
+
+    return true;
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+bool SingleNodeColumnSampler<ldouble_safe, real_t>::sample_col(size_t &col_chosen, RNG_engine &rnd_generator)
+{
+    if (!this->using_tree)
+    {
+        if (this->backup_weights)
+            this->weights_orig = this->weights_own.data();
+
+        /* if there's infinites, choose uniformly at random from them */
+        if (this->n_inf)
+        {
+            size_t chosen = std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t>(0, this->n_inf-1)(rnd_generator);
+            size_t curr = 0;
+            for (size_t col = 0; col < this->curr_pos; col++)
+            {
+                curr += inifinite_weights[this->col_indices[col]];
+                if (curr == chosen)
+                {
+                    col_chosen = this->col_indices[col];
+                    this->n_inf--;
+                    this->inifinite_weights[col_chosen] = false;
+                    this->n_left--;
+                    return true;
+                }
+            }
+            assert(0);
+        }
+
+        if (!this->n_left) return false;
+
+        /* due to the way this is calculated, there can be large roundoff errors and even negatives */
+        if (this->cumw <= 0)
+        {
+            this->cumw = 0;
+            for (size_t col = 0; col < this->curr_pos; col++)
+                this->cumw += this->weights_orig[this->col_indices[col]];
+            if (unlikely(this->cumw <= 0))
+                unexpected_error();
+        }
+
+        /* if there are no infinites, choose a column according to weight */
+        ldouble_safe chosen = std::uniform_real_distribution<ldouble_safe>((ldouble_safe)0, this->cumw)(rnd_generator);
+        ldouble_safe cumw_ = 0;
+        for (size_t col = 0; col < this->curr_pos; col++)
+        {
+            cumw_ += this->weights_orig[this->col_indices[col]];
+            if (cumw_ >= chosen)
+            {
+                col_chosen = this->col_indices[col];
+                this->cumw -= this->weights_orig[col_chosen];
+                this->weights_orig[col_chosen] = 0;
+                this->n_left--;
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        col_chosen = this->col_indices[this->curr_pos-1];
+        this->cumw -= this->weights_orig[col_chosen];
+        this->weights_orig[col_chosen] = 0;
+        this->n_left--;
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        /* if there's infinites, choose uniformly at random from them */
+        if (this->n_inf)
+        {
+            size_t chosen = std::uniform_int_distribution<size_t>(0, this->n_inf-1)(rnd_generator);
+            col_chosen = this->mapped_inf_indices[chosen];
+            std::swap(this->mapped_inf_indices[chosen], this->mapped_inf_indices[--this->n_inf]);
+            this->n_left--;
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            /* TODO: should standardize all these tree traversals into one.
+               This one in particular could do with sampling only a single
+               random number as it will not typically require exhausting all
+               options like the usual column sampler. */
+            if (!this->n_left) return false;
+            size_t curr_ix = 0;
+            double rnd_subrange, w_left;
+            double curr_subrange = this->tree_weights[0];
+            if (curr_subrange <= 0)
+                return false;
+
+            for (size_t lev = 0; lev < tree_levels; lev++)
+            {
+                rnd_subrange = std::uniform_real_distribution<double>(0., curr_subrange)(rnd_generator);
+                w_left = this->tree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)];
+                curr_ix = ix_child(curr_ix) + (rnd_subrange >= w_left);
+                curr_subrange = this->tree_weights[curr_ix];
+            }
+
+            col_chosen = this->mapped_indices[curr_ix - this->offset];
+
+            this->tree_weights[curr_ix] = 0.;
+            for (size_t lev = 0; lev < this->tree_levels; lev++)
+            {
+                curr_ix = ix_parent(curr_ix);
+                this->tree_weights[curr_ix] =   this->tree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix)]
+                                              + this->tree_weights[ix_child(curr_ix) + 1];
+            }
+            
+            this->n_left--;
+            return true;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void SingleNodeColumnSampler<ldouble_safe, real_t>::backup(SingleNodeColumnSampler &other, size_t ncols_tot)
+{
+    other.n_inf = this->n_inf;
+    other.n_left = this->n_left;
+    other.using_tree = this->using_tree;
+
+    if (this->using_tree)
+    {
+        if (other.tree_weights.empty())
+        {
+            other.tree_weights.reserve(ncols_tot);
+            other.mapped_inf_indices.reserve(ncols_tot);
+        }
+        other.tree_weights.assign(this->tree_weights.begin(), this->tree_weights.end());
+        other.mapped_inf_indices.assign(this->mapped_inf_indices.begin(), this->mapped_inf_indices.end());
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        other.cumw = this->cumw;
+        if (this->backup_weights)
+        {
+            if (other.weights_own.empty())
+                other.weights_own.reserve(ncols_tot);
+            
+            other.weights_own.resize(this->n_left);
+            for (size_t col = 0; col < this->n_left; col++)
+                other.weights_own[col] = this->weights_own[this->col_indices[col]];
+        }
+
+        if (this->inifinite_weights.size())
+        {
+            if (other.inifinite_weights.empty())
+                other.inifinite_weights.reserve(ncols_tot);
+
+            other.inifinite_weights.resize(this->n_left);
+            for (size_t col = 0; col < this->n_left; col++)
+                other.inifinite_weights[col] = this->inifinite_weights[this->col_indices[col]];
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void SingleNodeColumnSampler<ldouble_safe, real_t>::restore(const SingleNodeColumnSampler &other)
+{
+    this->n_inf = other.n_inf;
+    this->n_left = other.n_left;
+    this->using_tree = other.using_tree;
+
+    if (this->using_tree)
+    {
+        this->tree_weights.assign(other.tree_weights.begin(), other.tree_weights.end());
+        this->mapped_inf_indices.assign(other.mapped_inf_indices.begin(), other.mapped_inf_indices.end());
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        this->cumw = other.cumw;
+        if (this->backup_weights)
+        {
+            for (size_t col = 0; col < this->n_left; col++)
+                this->weights_own[this->col_indices[col]] = other.weights_own[col];
+        }
+
+        if (this->inifinite_weights.size())
+        {
+            for (size_t col = 0; col < this->n_left; col++)
+                this->inifinite_weights[this->col_indices[col]] = other.inifinite_weights[col];
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::initialize(size_t max_depth, int max_categ, bool reserve_counts, ScoringMetric scoring_metric)
+{
+    this->multipliers.reserve(max_depth+3);
+    this->multipliers.clear();
+    if (scoring_metric != AdjDensity)
+        this->multipliers.push_back(0);
+    else
+        this->multipliers.push_back(1);
+
+    if (reserve_counts)
+    {
+        this->counts.resize(max_categ);
+    }
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+template <class InputData>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::initialize_bdens(const InputData &input_data,
+                                         const ModelParams &model_params,
+                                         std::vector<size_t> &ix_arr,
+                                         ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe> &col_sampler)
+{
+    this->fast_bratio = model_params.fast_bratio;
+    if (this->fast_bratio)
+    {
+        this->multipliers.reserve(model_params.max_depth + 3);
+        this->multipliers.push_back(0);
+    }
+
+    if (input_data.range_low != NULL || input_data.ncat_ != NULL)
+    {
+        if (input_data.ncols_numeric)
+        {
+            this->queue_box.reserve(model_params.max_depth+3);
+            this->box_low.assign(input_data.range_low, input_data.range_low + input_data.ncols_numeric);
+            this->box_high.assign(input_data.range_high, input_data.range_high + input_data.ncols_numeric);
+        }
+
+        if (input_data.ncols_categ)
+        {
+            this->queue_ncat.reserve(model_params.max_depth+2);
+            this->ncat.assign(input_data.ncat_, input_data.ncat_ + input_data.ncols_categ);
+        }
+
+        if (!this->fast_bratio)
+        {
+            if (input_data.ncols_numeric)
+            {
+                this->ranges.resize(input_data.ncols_numeric);
+                for (size_t col = 0; col < input_data.ncols_numeric; col++)
+                    this->ranges[col] = this->box_high[col] - this->box_low[col];
+            }
+
+            if (input_data.ncols_categ)
+            {
+                this->ncat_orig = this->ncat;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return;
+    }
+
+    if (input_data.ncols_numeric)
+    {
+        this->queue_box.reserve(model_params.max_depth+3);
+        this->box_low.resize(input_data.ncols_numeric);
+        this->box_high.resize(input_data.ncols_numeric);
+        if (!this->fast_bratio)
+            this->ranges.resize(input_data.ncols_numeric);
+    }
+    if (input_data.ncols_categ)
+    {
+        this->queue_ncat.reserve(model_params.max_depth+2);
+    }
+    bool unsplittable = false;
+    
+    size_t npresent = 0;
+    std::vector<signed char> categ_present;
+    if (input_data.ncols_categ)
+    {
+        categ_present.resize(input_data.max_categ);
+    }
+
+
+    col_sampler.prepare_full_pass();
+    size_t col;
+    while (col_sampler.sample_col(col))
+    {
+        if (col < input_data.ncols_numeric)
+        {
+            if (input_data.Xc_indptr != NULL)
+            {
+                get_range((size_t*)ix_arr.data(), (size_t)0, ix_arr.size()-(size_t)1, col,
+                          input_data.Xc, input_data.Xc_ind, input_data.Xc_indptr,
+                          model_params.missing_action, this->box_low[col], this->box_high[col], unsplittable);
+            }
+
+            else
+            {
+                get_range((size_t*)ix_arr.data(), input_data.numeric_data + input_data.nrows * col, (size_t)0, ix_arr.size()-(size_t)1,
+                          model_params.missing_action, this->box_low[col], this->box_high[col], unsplittable);
+            }
+
+
+            if (unsplittable)
+            {
+                this->box_low[col] = 0;
+                this->box_high[col] = 0;
+                if (!this->fast_bratio)
+                    this->ranges[col] = 0;
+                col_sampler.drop_col(col);
+            }
+
+            if (!this->fast_bratio)
+            {
+                this->ranges[col] = (ldouble_safe)this->box_high[col] - (ldouble_safe)this->box_low[col];
+                this->ranges[col] = std::fmax(this->ranges[col], (ldouble_safe)0);
+            }
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            get_categs((size_t*)ix_arr.data(),
+                       input_data.categ_data + input_data.nrows * (col - input_data.ncols_numeric),
+                       (size_t)0, ix_arr.size()-(size_t)1, input_data.ncat[col],
+                       model_params.missing_action, categ_present.data(), npresent, unsplittable);
+
+            if (unsplittable)
+            {
+                this->ncat[col - input_data.ncols_numeric] = 1;
+                col_sampler.drop_col(col);
+            }
+
+            else
+            {
+                this->ncat[col - input_data.ncols_numeric] = npresent;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (!this->fast_bratio)
+        this->ncat_orig = this->ncat;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+template <class InputData>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::initialize_bdens_ext(const InputData &input_data,
+                                             const ModelParams &model_params,
+                                             std::vector<size_t> &ix_arr,
+                                             ColumnSampler<ldouble_safe> &col_sampler,
+                                             bool col_sampler_is_fresh)
+{
+    this->vals_ext_box.reserve(model_params.max_depth + 3);
+    this->queue_ext_box.reserve(model_params.max_depth + 3);
+    this->vals_ext_box.push_back(0);
+
+    if (input_data.range_low != NULL)
+    {
+        this->box_low.assign(input_data.range_low, input_data.range_low + input_data.ncols_numeric);
+        this->box_high.assign(input_data.range_high, input_data.range_high + input_data.ncols_numeric);
+        return;
+    }
+
+    this->box_low.resize(input_data.ncols_numeric);
+    this->box_high.resize(input_data.ncols_numeric);
+    bool unsplittable = false;
+
+    /* TODO: find out if there's an optimal point for choosing one or the other loop
+       when using 'leave_m_cols' and when using 'prob_pick_col_by_range', then fill in the
+       lines that are commented out. */
+    // if (!input_data.ncols_categ || model_params.ncols_per_tree < input_data.ncols_numeric)
+    if (input_data.ncols_numeric)
+    {
+        col_sampler.prepare_full_pass();
+        size_t col;
+        while (col_sampler.sample_col(col))
+        {
+            if (col >= input_data.ncols_numeric)
+                continue;
+            if (input_data.Xc_indptr != NULL)
+            {
+                get_range((size_t*)ix_arr.data(), (size_t)0, ix_arr.size()-(size_t)1, col,
+                          input_data.Xc, input_data.Xc_ind, input_data.Xc_indptr,
+                          model_params.missing_action, this->box_low[col], this->box_high[col], unsplittable);
+            }
+
+            else
+            {
+                get_range((size_t*)ix_arr.data(), input_data.numeric_data + input_data.nrows * col, (size_t)0, ix_arr.size()-(size_t)1,
+                          model_params.missing_action, this->box_low[col], this->box_high[col], unsplittable);
+            }
+
+            if (unsplittable)
+            {
+                this->box_low[col] = 0;
+                this->box_high[col] = 0;
+                col_sampler.drop_col(col);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // else if (input_data.ncols_numeric)
+    // {
+    //     size_t n_unsplittable = 0;
+    //     std::vector<size_t> unsplittable_cols;
+    //     if (col_sampler_is_fresh && !col_sampler.has_weights())
+    //         unsplittable_cols.reserve(input_data.ncols_numeric);
+
+    //     /* TODO: this will do unnecessary calculations when using 'leave_m_cols' */
+    //     for (size_t col = 0; col < input_data.ncols_numeric; col++)
+    //     {
+    //         if (input_data.Xc_indptr != NULL)
+    //         {
+    //             get_range((size_t*)ix_arr.data(), (size_t)0, ix_arr.size()-(size_t)1, col,
+    //                       input_data.Xc, input_data.Xc_ind, input_data.Xc_indptr,
+    //                       model_params.missing_action, this->box_low[col], this->box_high[col], unsplittable);
+    //         }
+
+    //         else
+    //         {
+    //             get_range((size_t*)ix_arr.data(), input_data.numeric_data + input_data.nrows * col, (size_t)0, ix_arr.size()-(size_t)1,
+    //                       model_params.missing_action, this->box_low[col], this->box_high[col], unsplittable);
+    //         }
+
+    //         if (unsplittable)
+    //         {
+    //             this->box_low[col] = 0;
+    //             this->box_high[col] = 0;
+    //             n_unsplittable++;
+    //             if (col_sampler.has_weights())
+    //                 col_sampler.drop_col(col);
+    //             else if (col_sampler_is_fresh)
+    //                 unsplittable_cols.push_back(col);
+    //         }
+    //     }
+
+    //     if (n_unsplittable && col_sampler_is_fresh && !col_sampler.has_weights())
+    //     {
+    //         #if (__cplusplus >= 202002L)
+    //         for (auto col : unsplittable_cols | std::views::reverse)
+    //             col_sampler.drop_from_tail(col);
+    //         #else
+    //         for (size_t inv_col = 0; inv_col < unsplittable_cols.size(); inv_col++)
+    //         {
+    //             size_t col = unsplittable_cols.size() - inv_col - 1;
+    //             col_sampler.drop_from_tail(unsplittable_cols[col]);
+    //         }
+    //         #endif
+    //     }
+
+    //     else if (n_unsplittable > model_params.sample_size / 16 && !col_sampler_is_fresh && !col_sampler.has_weights())
+    //     {
+    //         /* TODO */
+    //     }
+    // }
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_density(double xmin, double xmax, double split_point)
+{
+    if (std::isinf(xmax) || std::isinf(xmin) || std::isnan(xmin) || std::isnan(xmax) || std::isnan(split_point))
+    {
+        this->multipliers.push_back(0);
+        return;
+    }
+
+    double range = std::fmax(xmax - xmin, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+    double dleft = std::fmax(split_point - xmin, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+    double dright = std::fmax(xmax - split_point, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+    double mult_left = std::log(dleft / range);
+    double mult_right = std::log(dright / range);
+    while (std::isinf(mult_left))
+    {
+        dleft = std::nextafter(dleft, (mult_left < 0)? HUGE_VAL : (-HUGE_VAL));
+        mult_left = std::log(dleft / range);
+    }
+    while (std::isinf(mult_right))
+    {
+        dright = std::nextafter(dright, (mult_right < 0)? HUGE_VAL : (-HUGE_VAL));
+        mult_right = std::log(dright / range);
+    }
+
+    mult_left = std::isnan(mult_left)? 0 : mult_left;
+    mult_right = std::isnan(mult_right)? 0 : mult_right;
+
+    ldouble_safe curr = this->multipliers.back();
+    this->multipliers.push_back(curr + mult_right);
+    this->multipliers.push_back(curr + mult_left);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_density(int n_left, int n_present)
+{
+    this->push_density(0., (double)n_present, (double)n_left);
+}
+
+/* For single category splits */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_density(size_t counts[], int ncat)
+{
+    /* this one assumes 'categ_present' has entries 0/1 for missing/present */
+    int n_present = 0;
+    for (int cat = 0; cat < ncat; cat++)
+        n_present += counts[cat] > 0;
+    this->push_density(0., (double)n_present, 1.);
+}
+
+/* For single category splits */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_density(int n_present)
+{
+    this->push_density(0., (double)n_present, 1.);
+}
+
+/* For binary categorical splits */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_density()
+{
+    this->multipliers.push_back(0);
+    this->multipliers.push_back(0);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_adj(double xmin, double xmax, double split_point, double pct_tree_left, ScoringMetric scoring_metric)
+{
+    double range = std::fmax(xmax - xmin, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+    double dleft = std::fmax(split_point - xmin, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+    double dright = std::fmax(xmax - split_point, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+    double chunk_left = dleft / range;
+    double chunk_right = dright / range;
+    if (std::isinf(xmax) || std::isinf(xmin) || std::isnan(xmin) || std::isnan(xmax) || std::isnan(split_point))
+    {
+        chunk_left = pct_tree_left;
+        chunk_right = 1. - pct_tree_left;
+        goto add_chunks;
+    }
+
+    if (std::isnan(chunk_left) || std::isnan(chunk_right))
+    {
+        chunk_left = 0.5;
+        chunk_right = 0.5;
+    }
+
+    chunk_left = pct_tree_left / chunk_left;
+    chunk_right = (1. - pct_tree_left) / chunk_right;
+
+    add_chunks:
+    chunk_left = 2. / (1. + .5/chunk_left);
+    chunk_right = 2. / (1. + .5/chunk_right);
+    // chunk_left = 2. / (1. + 1./chunk_left);
+    // chunk_right = 2. / (1. + 1./chunk_right);
+    // chunk_left = 2. - std::exp2(1. - chunk_left);
+    // chunk_right = 2. - std::exp2(1. - chunk_right);
+
+    ldouble_safe curr = this->multipliers.back();
+    if (scoring_metric == AdjDepth)
+    {
+        this->multipliers.push_back(curr + chunk_right);
+        this->multipliers.push_back(curr + chunk_left);
+    }
+
+    else 
+    {
+        this->multipliers.push_back(std::fmax(curr * chunk_right, (ldouble_safe)std::numeric_limits<double>::epsilon()));
+        this->multipliers.push_back(std::fmax(curr * chunk_left, (ldouble_safe)std::numeric_limits<double>::epsilon()));
+    }
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_adj(signed char *restrict categ_present, size_t *restrict counts, int ncat, ScoringMetric scoring_metric)
+{
+    /* this one assumes 'categ_present' has entries -1/0/1 for missing/right/left */
+    int cnt_cat_left = 0;
+    int cnt_cat = 0;
+    size_t cnt = 0;
+    size_t cnt_left = 0;
+    for (int cat = 0; cat < ncat; cat++)
+    {
+        if (counts[cat] > 0)
+        {
+            cnt += counts[cat];
+            cnt_cat_left += categ_present[cat];
+            cnt_left += categ_present[cat]? counts[cat] : 0;
+            cnt_cat++;
+        }
+    }
+
+    double pct_tree_left = (ldouble_safe)cnt_left / (ldouble_safe)cnt;
+    this->push_adj(0., (double)cnt_cat, (double)cnt_cat_left, pct_tree_left, scoring_metric);
+}
+
+/* For single category splits */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_adj(size_t *restrict counts, int ncat, int chosen_cat, ScoringMetric scoring_metric)
+{
+    /* this one assumes 'categ_present' has entries 0/1 for missing/present */
+    int cnt_cat = 0;
+    size_t cnt = 0;
+    for (int cat = 0; cat < ncat; cat++)
+    {
+        cnt += counts[cat];
+        cnt_cat += counts[cat] > 0;
+    }
+
+    double pct_tree_left = (ldouble_safe)counts[chosen_cat] / (ldouble_safe)cnt;
+    this->push_adj(0., (double)cnt_cat, 1., pct_tree_left, scoring_metric);
+}
+
+/* For binary categorical splits */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_adj(double pct_tree_left, ScoringMetric scoring_metric)
+{
+    this->push_adj(0., 1., 0.5, pct_tree_left, scoring_metric);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens(double split_point, size_t col)
+{
+    if (this->fast_bratio)
+        this->push_bdens_fast_route(split_point, col);
+    else
+        this->push_bdens_internal(split_point, col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens_internal(double split_point, size_t col)
+{
+    this->queue_box.push_back(this->box_high[col]);
+    this->box_high[col] = split_point;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens_fast_route(double split_point, size_t col)
+{
+    ldouble_safe curr_range = (ldouble_safe)this->box_high[col] - (ldouble_safe)this->box_low[col];
+    ldouble_safe fraction_left  =  ((ldouble_safe)split_point - (ldouble_safe)this->box_low[col]) / curr_range;
+    ldouble_safe fraction_right = ((ldouble_safe)this->box_high[col] - (ldouble_safe)split_point) / curr_range;
+    fraction_left   = std::fmax(fraction_left, (ldouble_safe)std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+    fraction_left   = std::fmin(fraction_left, (ldouble_safe)(1. - std::numeric_limits<double>::epsilon()));
+    fraction_left   = std::log(fraction_left);
+    fraction_left  += this->multipliers.back();
+    fraction_right  = std::fmax(fraction_right, (ldouble_safe)std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+    fraction_right  = std::fmin(fraction_right, (ldouble_safe)(1. - std::numeric_limits<double>::epsilon()));
+    fraction_right  = std::log(fraction_right);
+    fraction_right += this->multipliers.back();
+    this->multipliers.push_back(fraction_right);
+    this->multipliers.push_back(fraction_left);
+
+    this->push_bdens_internal(split_point, col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens(int ncat_branch_left, size_t col)
+{
+    if (this->fast_bratio)
+        this->push_bdens_fast_route(ncat_branch_left, col);
+    else
+        this->push_bdens_internal(ncat_branch_left, col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens_internal(int ncat_branch_left, size_t col)
+{
+    this->queue_ncat.push_back(this->ncat[col]);
+    this->ncat[col] = ncat_branch_left;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens_fast_route(int ncat_branch_left, size_t col)
+{
+    double fraction_left = std::log((double)ncat_branch_left / this->ncat[col]);
+    double fraction_right = std::log((double)(this->ncat[col] - ncat_branch_left) / this->ncat[col]);
+    ldouble_safe curr = this->multipliers.back();
+    this->multipliers.push_back(curr + fraction_right);
+    this->multipliers.push_back(curr + fraction_left);
+
+    this->push_bdens_internal(ncat_branch_left, col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens(const std::vector<signed char> &cat_split, size_t col)
+{
+    if (this->fast_bratio)
+        this->push_bdens_fast_route(cat_split, col);
+    else
+        this->push_bdens_internal(cat_split, col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens_internal(const std::vector<signed char> &cat_split, size_t col)
+{
+    int ncat_branch_left = 0;
+    for (auto el : cat_split)
+        ncat_branch_left += el == 1;
+    this->push_bdens_internal(ncat_branch_left, col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens_fast_route(const std::vector<signed char> &cat_split, size_t col)
+{
+    int ncat_branch_left = 0;
+    for (auto el : cat_split)
+        ncat_branch_left += el == 1;
+    this->push_bdens_fast_route(ncat_branch_left, col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::push_bdens_ext(const IsoHPlane &hplane, const ModelParams &model_params)
+{
+    double x1, x2;
+    double xlow = 0, xhigh = 0;
+    size_t col;
+    size_t col_num = 0;
+    size_t col_cat = 0;
+
+    for (size_t col_outer = 0; col_outer < hplane.col_num.size(); col_outer++)
+    {
+        switch (hplane.col_type[col_outer])
+        {
+            case Numeric:
+            {
+                col = hplane.col_num[col_outer];
+                x1 = hplane.coef[col_num] * (this->box_low[col] - hplane.mean[col_num]);
+                x2 = hplane.coef[col_num] * (this->box_high[col] - hplane.mean[col_num]);
+                xlow += std::fmin(x1, x2);
+                xhigh += std::fmax(x1, x2);
+                break;
+            }
+
+            case Categorical:
+            {
+                switch (model_params.cat_split_type)
+                {
+                    case SingleCateg:
+                    {
+                        xlow += std::fmin(hplane.fill_new[col_cat], 0.);
+                        xhigh += std::fmax(hplane.fill_new[col_cat], 0.);
+                        break;
+                    }
+
+                    case SubSet:
+                    {
+                        xlow += *std::min_element(hplane.cat_coef[col_cat].begin(), hplane.cat_coef[col_cat].end());
+                        xhigh += *std::max_element(hplane.cat_coef[col_cat].begin(), hplane.cat_coef[col_cat].end());
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+                break;
+            }
+
+            default:
+            {
+                assert(0);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    double chunk_left;
+    double chunk_right;
+    double xdiff = xhigh - xlow;
+
+    if (model_params.scoring_metric != BoxedDensity)
+    {
+        chunk_left = (hplane.split_point - xlow) / xdiff;
+        chunk_right = (xhigh - hplane.split_point) / xdiff;
+        chunk_left = std::fmin(chunk_left, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+        chunk_left = std::fmax(chunk_left, 1.-std::numeric_limits<double>::epsilon());
+        chunk_right = std::fmin(chunk_right, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+        chunk_right = std::fmax(chunk_right, 1.-std::numeric_limits<double>::epsilon());
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        chunk_left = xdiff / (hplane.split_point - xlow);
+        chunk_right = xdiff / (xhigh - hplane.split_point);
+        chunk_left = std::fmin(chunk_left, 1.);
+        chunk_right = std::fmin(chunk_right, 1.);
+    }
+
+    this->queue_ext_box.push_back(std::log(chunk_right) + this->vals_ext_box.back());
+    this->vals_ext_box.push_back(std::log(chunk_left) + this->vals_ext_box.back());
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop()
+{
+    this->multipliers.pop_back();
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_right()
+{
+    this->multipliers.pop_back();
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens(size_t col)
+{
+    if (this->fast_bratio)
+        this->pop_bdens_fast_route(col);
+    else
+        this->pop_bdens_internal(col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_internal(size_t col)
+{
+    double old_high = this->queue_box.back();
+    this->queue_box.pop_back();
+    this->queue_box.push_back(this->box_low[col]);
+    this->box_low[col] = this->box_high[col];
+    this->box_high[col] = old_high;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_fast_route(size_t col)
+{
+    this->multipliers.pop_back();
+    this->pop_bdens_internal(col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_right(size_t col)
+{
+    if (this->fast_bratio)
+        this->pop_bdens_right_fast_route(col);
+    else
+        this->pop_bdens_right_internal(col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_right_internal(size_t col)
+{
+    double old_low = this->queue_box.back();
+    this->queue_box.pop_back();
+    this->box_low[col] = old_low;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_right_fast_route(size_t col)
+{
+    this->multipliers.pop_back();
+    this->pop_bdens_right_internal(col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_cat(size_t col)
+{
+    if (this->fast_bratio)
+        this->pop_bdens_cat_fast_route(col);
+    else
+        this->pop_bdens_cat_internal(col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_cat_internal(size_t col)
+{
+    int old_ncat = this->queue_ncat.back();
+    this->ncat[col] = old_ncat - this->ncat[col];
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_cat_fast_route(size_t col)
+{
+    this->multipliers.pop_back();
+    this->pop_bdens_cat_internal(col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_cat_right(size_t col)
+{
+    if (this->fast_bratio)
+        this->pop_bdens_cat_right_fast_route(col);
+    else
+        this->pop_bdens_cat_right_internal(col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_cat_right_internal(size_t col)
+{
+    int old_ncat = this->queue_ncat.back();
+    this->queue_ncat.pop_back();
+    this->ncat[col] = old_ncat;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_cat_right_fast_route(size_t col)
+{
+    this->multipliers.pop_back();
+    this->pop_bdens_cat_right_internal(col);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_ext()
+{
+    this->vals_ext_box.pop_back();
+    this->vals_ext_box.push_back(this->queue_ext_box.back());
+    this->queue_ext_box.pop_back();
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::pop_bdens_ext_right()
+{
+    this->vals_ext_box.pop_back();
+}
+
+/* this outputs the logarithm of the density */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+double DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_density(ldouble_safe remainder, size_t sample_size)
+{
+    return std::log(remainder) - std::log((ldouble_safe)sample_size) - this->multipliers.back();
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+ldouble_safe DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_adj_depth()
+{
+    ldouble_safe out = this->multipliers.back();
+    return std::fmax(out, (ldouble_safe)std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+double DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_adj_density()
+{
+    return this->multipliers.back();
+}
+
+/* this outputs the logarithm of the density */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+ldouble_safe DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_bratio_inv_log()
+{
+    if (!this->multipliers.empty())
+        return -this->multipliers.back();
+
+    ldouble_safe sum_log_switdh = 0;
+    ldouble_safe ratio_col;
+    for (size_t col = 0; col < this->ranges.size(); col++)
+    {
+        if (!this->ranges[col]) continue;
+        ratio_col = this->ranges[col] / ((ldouble_safe)this->box_high[col] - (ldouble_safe)this->box_low[col]);
+        ratio_col = std::fmax(ratio_col, (ldouble_safe)1);
+        sum_log_switdh += std::log(ratio_col);
+    }
+
+    for (size_t col = 0; col < this->ncat.size(); col++)
+    {
+        if (this->ncat_orig[col] <= 1) continue;
+        sum_log_switdh += std::log((double)this->ncat_orig[col] / (double)this->ncat[col]);
+    }
+
+    return sum_log_switdh;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+ldouble_safe DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_bratio_log()
+{
+    if (!this->multipliers.empty())
+        return this->multipliers.back();
+
+    ldouble_safe sum_log_switdh = 0;
+    ldouble_safe ratio_col;
+    for (size_t col = 0; col < this->ranges.size(); col++)
+    {
+        if (!this->ranges[col]) continue;
+        ratio_col = ((ldouble_safe)this->box_high[col] - (ldouble_safe)this->box_low[col]) / this->ranges[col];
+        ratio_col = std::fmax(ratio_col, (ldouble_safe)std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+        ratio_col = std::fmin(ratio_col, (ldouble_safe)(1. - std::numeric_limits<double>::epsilon()));
+        sum_log_switdh += std::log(ratio_col);
+    }
+
+    for (size_t col = 0; col < this->ncat.size(); col++)
+    {
+        if (this->ncat_orig[col] <= 1) continue;
+        sum_log_switdh += std::log((double)this->ncat[col] / (double)this->ncat_orig[col]);
+    }
+
+    return sum_log_switdh;
+}
+
+/* this does NOT output the logarithm of the density */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+double DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_bratio()
+{
+    return std::exp(this->calc_bratio_log());
+}
+
+const double MIN_DENS = std::log(std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+
+/* this outputs the logarithm of the density */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+double DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_bdens(ldouble_safe remainder, size_t sample_size)
+{
+    double out = std::log(remainder) - std::log((ldouble_safe)sample_size) - this->calc_bratio_inv_log();
+    return std::fmax(out, MIN_DENS);
+}
+
+/* this outputs the logarithm of the density */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+double DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_bdens2(ldouble_safe remainder, size_t sample_size)
+{
+    double out = std::log(remainder) - std::log((ldouble_safe)sample_size) - this->calc_bratio_log();
+    return std::fmax(out, MIN_DENS);
+}
+
+/* this outputs the logarithm of the density */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+ldouble_safe DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_bratio_log_ext()
+{
+    return this->vals_ext_box.back();
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+double DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_bratio_ext()
+{
+    double out = std::exp(this->calc_bratio_log_ext());
+    return std::fmax(out, std::numeric_limits<double>::min());
+}
+
+/* this outputs the logarithm of the density */
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+double DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::calc_bdens_ext(ldouble_safe remainder, size_t sample_size)
+{
+    double out = std::log(remainder) - std::log((ldouble_safe)sample_size) - this->calc_bratio_log_ext();
+    return std::fmax(out, MIN_DENS);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::save_range(double xmin, double xmax)
+{
+    this->xmin = xmin;
+    this->xmax = xmax;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::restore_range(double &restrict xmin, double &restrict xmax)
+{
+    xmin = this->xmin;
+    xmax = this->xmax;
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::save_counts(size_t *restrict cat_counts, int ncat)
+{
+    this->counts.assign(cat_counts, cat_counts + ncat);
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::save_n_present_and_left(signed char *restrict split_left, int ncat)
+{
+    this->n_present = 0;
+    this->n_left = 0;
+    for (int cat = 0; cat < ncat; cat++)
+    {
+        this->n_present += split_left[cat] >= 0;
+        this->n_left += split_left[cat] == 1;
+    }
+}
+
+template<class ldouble_safe, class real_t>
+void DensityCalculator<ldouble_safe, real_t>::save_n_present(size_t *restrict cat_counts, int ncat)
+{
+    this->n_present = 0;
+    for (int cat = 0; cat < ncat; cat++)
+        this->n_present +=  cat_counts[cat] > 0;
+}
+
+/* For hyperplane intersections */
+size_t divide_subset_split(size_t ix_arr[], double x[], size_t st, size_t end, double split_point) noexcept
+{
+    size_t temp;
+    size_t st_orig = st;
+    for (size_t row = st_orig; row <= end; row++)
+    {
+        if (x[row - st_orig] <= split_point)
+        {
+            temp        = ix_arr[st];
+            ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+            ix_arr[row] = temp;
+            st++;
+        }
+    }
+    return st;
+}
+
+/* For numerical columns */
+template <class real_t>
+void divide_subset_split(size_t *restrict ix_arr, real_t x[], size_t st, size_t end, double split_point,
+                         MissingAction missing_action, size_t &restrict st_NA, size_t &restrict end_NA, size_t &restrict split_ix) noexcept
+{
+    size_t temp;
+
+    /* if NAs are not to be bothered with, just need to do a single pass */
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        /* move to the left if it's l.e. split point */
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[row]] <= split_point)
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        split_ix = st;
+    }
+
+    /* otherwise, first put to the left all l.e. and not NA, then all NAs to the end of the left */
+    else
+    {
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (!std::isnan(x[ix_arr[row]]) && x[ix_arr[row]] <= split_point)
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        st_NA = st;
+
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (unlikely(std::isnan(x[ix_arr[row]])))
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        end_NA = st;
+    }
+}
+
+/* For sparse numeric columns */
+template <class real_t, class sparse_ix>
+void divide_subset_split(size_t *restrict ix_arr, size_t st, size_t end, size_t col_num,
+                         real_t Xc[], sparse_ix *restrict Xc_ind, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_indptr, double split_point,
+                         MissingAction missing_action, size_t &restrict st_NA, size_t &restrict end_NA, size_t &restrict split_ix) noexcept
+{
+    /* TODO: this is a mess, needs refactoring */
+    /* TODO: when moving zeros, would be better to instead move by '>' (opposite as in here) */
+    /* TODO: should create an extra version to go along with 'predict' that would
+       add the range penalty right here to spare operations. */
+    if (Xc_indptr[col_num] == Xc_indptr[col_num + 1])
+    {
+        if (missing_action == Fail)
+        {
+            split_ix = (0 <= split_point)? (end+1) : st;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            st_NA  = (0 <= split_point)? (end+1) : st;
+            end_NA = (0 <= split_point)? (end+1) : st;
+        }
+
+    }
+
+    size_t st_col  = Xc_indptr[col_num];
+    size_t end_col = Xc_indptr[col_num + 1] - 1;
+    size_t curr_pos = st_col;
+    size_t ind_end_col = Xc_ind[end_col];
+    size_t temp;
+    bool   move_zeros = 0 <= split_point;
+    size_t *ptr_st = std::lower_bound(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[st_col]);
+
+    if (move_zeros && ptr_st > ix_arr + st)
+        st = ptr_st - ix_arr;
+
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        if (move_zeros)
+        {
+            for (size_t *row = ptr_st;
+                 row != ix_arr + end + 1;
+                )
+            {
+                if (curr_pos >= end_col + 1)
+                {
+                    for (size_t *r = row; r <= ix_arr + end; r++)
+                    {
+                        temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                        ix_arr[st] = *r;
+                        *r         = temp;
+                        st++;
+                    }
+                    break;
+                }
+
+                if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                {
+                    if (Xc[curr_pos] <= split_point)
+                    {
+                        temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                        ix_arr[st] = *row;
+                        *row       = temp;
+                        st++;
+                    }
+                    if (curr_pos == end_col && row < ix_arr + end)
+                    {
+                        for (size_t *r = row + 1; r <= ix_arr + end; r++)
+                        {
+                            temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                            ix_arr[st] = *r;
+                            *r         = temp;
+                            st++;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+                    curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+
+                else
+                {
+                    if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                    {
+                        while (row <= ix_arr + end && Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                        {
+                            temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                            ix_arr[st] = *row;
+                            *row       = temp;
+                            st++; row++;
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    else
+                        curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else /* don't move zeros */
+        {
+            for (size_t *row = ptr_st;
+                 row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+                )
+            {
+                if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                {
+                    if (Xc[curr_pos] <= split_point)
+                    {
+                        temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                        ix_arr[st] = *row;
+                        *row       = temp;
+                        st++;
+                    }
+                    if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+                    curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+
+                else
+                {
+                    if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                        row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+                    else
+                        curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        split_ix = st;
+    }
+
+    else /* can have NAs */
+    {
+
+        bool has_NAs = false;
+        if (move_zeros)
+        {
+            for (size_t *row = ptr_st;
+                 row != ix_arr + end + 1;
+                )
+            {
+                if (curr_pos >= end_col + 1)
+                {
+                    for (size_t *r = row; r <= ix_arr + end; r++)
+                    {
+                        temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                        ix_arr[st] = *r;
+                        *r         = temp;
+                        st++;
+                    }
+                    break;
+                }
+
+                if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                {
+                    if (unlikely(std::isnan(Xc[curr_pos])))
+                        has_NAs = true;
+                    else if (Xc[curr_pos] <= split_point)
+                    {
+                        temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                        ix_arr[st] = *row;
+                        *row       = temp;
+                        st++;
+                    }
+                    if (curr_pos == end_col && row < ix_arr + end)
+                        for (size_t *r = row + 1; r <= ix_arr + end; r++)
+                        {
+                            temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                            ix_arr[st] = *r;
+                            *r         = temp;
+                            st++;
+                        }
+                    if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+                    curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+
+                else
+                {
+                    if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                    {
+                        while (row <= ix_arr + end && Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                        {
+                            temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                            ix_arr[st] = *row;
+                            *row       = temp;
+                            st++; row++;
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    else
+                    {
+                        curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else /* don't move zeros */
+        {
+            for (size_t *row = ptr_st;
+                 row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+                )
+            {
+                if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                {
+                    if (unlikely(std::isnan(Xc[curr_pos]))) has_NAs = true;
+                    if (!std::isnan(Xc[curr_pos]) && Xc[curr_pos] <= split_point)
+                    {
+                        temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                        ix_arr[st] = *row;
+                        *row       = temp;
+                        st++;
+                    }
+                    if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+                    curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+
+                else
+                {
+                    if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                        row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+                    else
+                        curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+
+        st_NA = st;
+        if (has_NAs)
+        {
+            curr_pos = st_col;
+            std::sort(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1);
+            for (size_t *row = ix_arr + st;
+                 row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+                )
+            {
+                if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                {
+                    if (unlikely(std::isnan(Xc[curr_pos])))
+                    {
+                        temp       = ix_arr[st];
+                        ix_arr[st] = *row;
+                        *row       = temp;
+                        st++;
+                    }
+                    if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+                    curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+
+                else
+                {
+                    if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                        row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+                    else
+                        curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        end_NA = st;
+
+    }
+
+}
+
+/* For categorical columns split by subset */
+void divide_subset_split(size_t *restrict ix_arr, int x[], size_t st, size_t end, signed char split_categ[],
+                         MissingAction missing_action, size_t &restrict st_NA, size_t &restrict end_NA, size_t &restrict split_ix) noexcept
+{
+    size_t temp;
+
+    /* if NAs are not to be bothered with, just need to do a single pass */
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        /* move to the left if it's l.e. than the split point */
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (split_categ[ x[ix_arr[row]] ] == 1)
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        split_ix = st;
+    }
+
+    /* otherwise, first put to the left all l.e. and not NA, then all NAs to the end of the left */
+    else
+    {
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[row]] >= 0 && split_categ[ x[ix_arr[row]] ] == 1)
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        st_NA = st;
+
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[row]] < 0)
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        end_NA = st;
+    }
+}
+
+/* For categorical columns split by subset, used at prediction time (with similarity) */
+void divide_subset_split(size_t *restrict ix_arr, int x[], size_t st, size_t end, signed char split_categ[],
+                         int ncat, MissingAction missing_action, NewCategAction new_cat_action,
+                         bool move_new_to_left, size_t &restrict st_NA, size_t &restrict end_NA, size_t &restrict split_ix) noexcept
+{
+    size_t temp;
+    int cval;
+
+    /* if NAs are not to be bothered with, just need to do a single pass */
+    if (missing_action == Fail && new_cat_action != Weighted)
+    {
+        /* in this case, will need to fill 'split_ix', otherwise need to fill 'st_NA' and 'end_NA' */
+        if (new_cat_action == Smallest && move_new_to_left)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                if (cval >= ncat || split_categ[cval] == 1 || split_categ[cval] == (-1))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else if (new_cat_action == Random)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                cval = (cval >= ncat)? (cval % ncat) : cval;
+                if (split_categ[cval] == 1)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                if (cval < ncat && split_categ[cval] == 1)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        split_ix = st;
+    }
+
+    /* if there are new categories, and their direction was decided at random,
+       can just reuse what was randomly decided for previous columns by taking
+       a remainder w.r.t. the number of previous columns. Note however that this
+       will not be an unbiased decision if the model used a gain criterion. */
+    else if (new_cat_action == Random)
+    {
+        if (missing_action == Impute && !move_new_to_left)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                cval = (cval >= ncat)? (cval % ncat) : cval;
+                if (cval < 0 || split_categ[cval] == 1)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                cval = (cval >= ncat)? (cval % ncat) : cval;
+                if (cval >= 0 && split_categ[cval] == 1)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        st_NA = st;
+
+        if (!(missing_action == Impute && !move_new_to_left))
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                if (unlikely(x[ix_arr[row]] < 0))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        end_NA = st;
+    }
+
+    /* otherwise, first put to the left all l.e. and not NA, then all NAs to the end of the left */
+    else
+    {
+        /* Note: if having 'new_cat_action'='Smallest' and 'missing_action'='Impute', missing values
+           and new categories will necessarily go into different branches, thus it's possible to do
+           all the movements in one pass if certain conditions match. */
+
+        if (new_cat_action == Smallest && move_new_to_left)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                if (cval >= 0 && (cval >= ncat || split_categ[cval] == 1 || split_categ[cval] == (-1)))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else if (missing_action == Impute && !move_new_to_left)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                if (cval < ncat && (cval < 0 || split_categ[cval] == 1))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                if (cval >= 0 && cval < ncat && split_categ[cval] == 1)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        st_NA = st;
+
+        if (new_cat_action == Weighted && missing_action == Divide)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                if (cval < 0 || cval >= ncat || split_categ[cval] == (-1))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else if (new_cat_action == Weighted)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                cval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+                if (cval >= 0 && (cval >= ncat || split_categ[cval] == (-1)))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else if (missing_action == Divide)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                if (unlikely(x[ix_arr[row]] < 0))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        end_NA = st;
+    }
+}
+
+/* For categoricals split on a single category */
+void divide_subset_split(size_t *restrict ix_arr, int x[], size_t st, size_t end, int split_categ,
+                         MissingAction missing_action, size_t &restrict st_NA, size_t &restrict end_NA, size_t &restrict split_ix) noexcept
+{
+    size_t temp;
+
+    /* if NAs are not to be bothered with, just need to do a single pass */
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        /* move to the left if it's equal to the chosen category */
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[row]] == split_categ)
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        split_ix = st;
+    }
+
+    /* otherwise, first put to the left all equal to chosen and not NA, then all NAs to the end of the left */
+    else
+    {
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[row]] == split_categ)
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        st_NA = st;
+
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            if (unlikely(x[ix_arr[row]] < 0))
+            {
+                temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                st++;
+            }
+        }
+        end_NA = st;
+    }
+}
+
+/* For categoricals split on sub-set that turned out to have 2 categories only (prediction-time) */
+void divide_subset_split(size_t *restrict ix_arr, int x[], size_t st, size_t end,
+                         MissingAction missing_action, NewCategAction new_cat_action,
+                         bool move_new_to_left, size_t &restrict st_NA, size_t &restrict end_NA, size_t &restrict split_ix) noexcept
+{
+    size_t temp;
+
+    /* if NAs are not to be bothered with, just need to do a single pass */
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        /* move to the left if it's l.e. than the split point */
+        if (new_cat_action == Smallest && move_new_to_left)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                if (x[ix_arr[row]] == 0 || x[ix_arr[row]] > 1)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                if (x[ix_arr[row]] == 0)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        split_ix = st;
+    }
+
+    /* otherwise, first put to the left all l.e. and not NA, then all NAs to the end of the left */
+    else
+    {
+        if (new_cat_action == Smallest && move_new_to_left)
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                if (x[ix_arr[row]] == 0 || x[ix_arr[row]] > 1)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+            st_NA = st;
+
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                if (unlikely(x[ix_arr[row]] < 0))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+            end_NA = st;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                if (x[ix_arr[row]] == 0)
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+            st_NA = st;
+
+            for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+            {
+                if (unlikely(x[ix_arr[row]] < 0))
+                {
+                    temp        = ix_arr[st];
+                    ix_arr[st]  = ix_arr[row];
+                    ix_arr[row] = temp;
+                    st++;
+                }
+            }
+            end_NA = st;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/* for regular numeric columns */
+template <class real_t>
+void get_range(size_t ix_arr[], real_t *restrict x, size_t st, size_t end,
+               MissingAction missing_action, double &restrict xmin, double &restrict xmax, bool &unsplittable) noexcept
+{
+    xmin =  HUGE_VAL;
+    xmax = -HUGE_VAL;
+    double xval;
+
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            xval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+            xmin = (xval < xmin)? xval : xmin;
+            xmax = (xval > xmax)? xval : xmax;
+        }
+    }
+
+
+    else
+    {
+        for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        {
+            xval = x[ix_arr[row]];
+            xmin = std::fmin(xmin, xval);
+            xmax = std::fmax(xmax, xval);
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsplittable = (xmin == xmax) || (xmin == HUGE_VAL && xmax == -HUGE_VAL) || std::isnan(xmin) || std::isnan(xmax);
+}
+
+template <class real_t>
+void get_range(real_t *restrict x, size_t n,
+               MissingAction missing_action, double &restrict xmin, double &restrict xmax, bool &unsplittable) noexcept
+{
+    xmin =  HUGE_VAL;
+    xmax = -HUGE_VAL;
+
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        for (size_t row = 0; row < n; row++)
+        {
+            xmin = (x[row] < xmin)? x[row] : xmin;
+            xmax = (x[row] > xmax)? x[row] : xmax;
+        }
+    }
+
+
+    else
+    {
+        for (size_t row = 0; row < n; row++)
+        {
+            xmin = std::fmin(xmin, x[row]);
+            xmax = std::fmax(xmax, x[row]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsplittable = (xmin == xmax) || (xmin == HUGE_VAL && xmax == -HUGE_VAL) || std::isnan(xmin) || std::isnan(xmax);
+}
+
+/* for sparse inputs */
+template <class real_t, class sparse_ix>
+void get_range(size_t *restrict ix_arr, size_t st, size_t end, size_t col_num,
+               real_t *restrict Xc, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_ind, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_indptr,
+               MissingAction missing_action, double &restrict xmin, double &restrict xmax, bool &unsplittable) noexcept
+{
+    /* ix_arr must already be sorted beforehand */
+    xmin =  HUGE_VAL;
+    xmax = -HUGE_VAL;
+
+    size_t st_col  = Xc_indptr[col_num];
+    size_t end_col = Xc_indptr[col_num + 1];
+    size_t nnz_col = end_col - st_col;
+    end_col--;
+    size_t curr_pos = st_col;
+
+    if (!nnz_col || 
+        Xc_ind[st_col]         >   (sparse_ix)ix_arr[end] || 
+        (sparse_ix)ix_arr[st]  >   Xc_ind[end_col]
+        )
+    {
+        unsplittable = true;
+        return;
+    }
+
+    if (nnz_col < end - st + 1 ||
+        Xc_ind[st_col]  > (sparse_ix)ix_arr[st] ||
+        Xc_ind[end_col] < (sparse_ix)ix_arr[end]
+        )
+    {
+        xmin = 0;
+        xmax = 0;
+    }
+
+    size_t ind_end_col = Xc_ind[end_col];
+    size_t nmatches = 0;
+
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        for (size_t *row = std::lower_bound(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[st_col]);
+             row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+            )
+        {
+            if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+            {
+                nmatches++;
+                xmin = (Xc[curr_pos] < xmin)? Xc[curr_pos] : xmin;
+                xmax = (Xc[curr_pos] > xmax)? Xc[curr_pos] : xmax;
+                if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+                curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+            }
+
+            else
+            {
+                if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                    row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+                else
+                    curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    else /* can have NAs */
+    {
+        for (size_t *row = std::lower_bound(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[st_col]);
+             row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+            )
+        {
+            if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+            {
+                nmatches++;
+                xmin = std::fmin(xmin, Xc[curr_pos]);
+                xmax = std::fmax(xmax, Xc[curr_pos]);
+                if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+                curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+            }
+
+            else
+            {
+                if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                    row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+                else
+                    curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+            }
+        }
+
+    }
+
+    if (nmatches < (end - st + 1))
+    {
+        xmin = std::fmin(xmin, 0);
+        xmax = std::fmax(xmax, 0);
+    }
+
+    unsplittable = (xmin == xmax) || (xmin == HUGE_VAL && xmax == -HUGE_VAL) || std::isnan(xmin) || std::isnan(xmax);
+}
+
+template <class real_t, class sparse_ix>
+void get_range(size_t col_num, size_t nrows,
+               real_t *restrict Xc, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_ind, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_indptr,
+               MissingAction missing_action, double &restrict xmin, double &restrict xmax, bool &unsplittable) noexcept
+{
+    xmin =  HUGE_VAL;
+    xmax = -HUGE_VAL;
+
+    if ((size_t)(Xc_indptr[col_num+1] - Xc_indptr[col_num]) < nrows)
+    {
+        xmin = 0;
+        xmax = 0;
+    }
+
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        for (auto ix = Xc_indptr[col_num]; ix < Xc_indptr[col_num+1]; ix++)
+        {
+            xmin = (Xc[ix] < xmin)? Xc[ix] : xmin;
+            xmax = (Xc[ix] > xmax)? Xc[ix] : xmax;
+        }
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        for (auto ix = Xc_indptr[col_num]; ix < Xc_indptr[col_num+1]; ix++)
+        {
+            if (unlikely(std::isinf(Xc[ix]))) continue;
+            xmin = std::fmin(xmin, Xc[ix]);
+            xmax = std::fmax(xmax, Xc[ix]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsplittable = (xmin == xmax) || (xmin == HUGE_VAL && xmax == -HUGE_VAL) || std::isnan(xmin) || std::isnan(xmax);
+}
+
+
+void get_categs(size_t *restrict ix_arr, int x[], size_t st, size_t end, int ncat,
+                MissingAction missing_action, signed char categs[], size_t &restrict npresent, bool &unsplittable) noexcept
+{
+    std::fill(categs, categs + ncat, -1);
+    npresent = 0;
+    for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        if (likely(x[ix_arr[row]] >= 0))
+            categs[x[ix_arr[row]]] = 1;
+
+    npresent = std::accumulate(categs,
+                               categs + ncat,
+                               (size_t)0,
+                               [](const size_t a, const signed char b){return a + (b > 0);}
+                               );
+
+    unsplittable = npresent < 2;
+}
+
+template <class real_t>
+bool check_more_than_two_unique_values(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, real_t x[], MissingAction missing_action)
+{
+    if (end - st <= 1) return false;
+
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        real_t x0 = x[ix_arr[st]];
+        for (size_t ix = st+1; ix <= end; ix++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[ix]] != x0) return true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        real_t x0;
+        size_t ix;
+        for (ix = st; ix <= end; ix++)
+        {
+            if (likely(!is_na_or_inf(x[ix_arr[ix]])))
+            {
+                x0 = x[ix_arr[ix]];
+                ix++;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        for (; ix <= end; ix++)
+        {
+            if (!is_na_or_inf(x[ix_arr[ix]]) && x[ix_arr[ix]] != x0)
+                return true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return false;
+}
+
+bool check_more_than_two_unique_values(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, int x[], MissingAction missing_action)
+{
+    if (end - st <= 1) return false;
+
+    if (missing_action == Fail)
+    {
+        int x0 = x[ix_arr[st]];
+        for (size_t ix = st+1; ix <= end; ix++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[ix]] != x0) return true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        int x0;
+        size_t ix;
+        for (ix = st; ix <= end; ix++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[ix]] >= 0)
+            {
+                x0 = x[ix_arr[ix]];
+                ix++;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        for (; ix <= end; ix++)
+        {
+            if (x[ix_arr[ix]] >= 0 && x[ix_arr[ix]] != x0)
+                return true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return false;
+}
+
+template <class real_t, class sparse_ix>
+bool check_more_than_two_unique_values(size_t *restrict ix_arr, size_t st, size_t end, size_t col,
+                                       sparse_ix *restrict Xc_indptr, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_ind, real_t *restrict Xc,
+                                       MissingAction missing_action)
+{
+    if (end - st <= 1) return false;
+    if (Xc_indptr[col+1] == Xc_indptr[col]) return false;
+    bool has_zeros = (end - st + 1) > (size_t)(Xc_indptr[col+1] - Xc_indptr[col]);
+    if (has_zeros && !is_na_or_inf(Xc[Xc_indptr[col]]) && Xc[Xc_indptr[col]] != 0) return true;
+
+    size_t st_col  = Xc_indptr[col];
+    size_t end_col = Xc_indptr[col + 1] - 1;
+    size_t curr_pos = st_col;
+    size_t ind_end_col = Xc_ind[end_col];
+
+    /* 'ix_arr' should be sorted beforehand */
+    /* TODO: refactor this */
+    real_t x0 = 0;
+    size_t *row;
+    for (row = std::lower_bound(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[st_col]);
+         row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+        )
+    {
+        if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+        {
+            if (is_na_or_inf(Xc[curr_pos]) || (has_zeros && Xc[curr_pos] == 0))
+            {
+                if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) return false;
+                curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+            }
+
+            x0 = Xc[curr_pos];
+            if (has_zeros) return true;
+            else if (x0 == 0) has_zeros = true;
+            if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) return false;
+            curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+            break;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+            else
+                curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+        }
+    }
+
+    for (;
+         row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+        )
+    {
+        if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+        {
+            if (is_na_or_inf(Xc[curr_pos]) || (has_zeros && Xc[curr_pos] == 0))
+            {
+                if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+                curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+            }
+
+            else if (Xc[curr_pos] != x0)
+            {
+                return true;
+            }
+
+            if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+            curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+            else
+                curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return false;
+}
+
+template <class real_t, class sparse_ix>
+bool check_more_than_two_unique_values(size_t nrows, size_t col,
+                                       sparse_ix *restrict Xc_indptr, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_ind, real_t *restrict Xc,
+                                       MissingAction missing_action)
+{
+    if (nrows <= 1) return false;
+    if (Xc_indptr[col+1] == Xc_indptr[col]) return false;
+    bool has_zeros = nrows > (size_t)(Xc_indptr[col+1] - Xc_indptr[col]);
+    if (has_zeros && !is_na_or_inf(Xc[Xc_indptr[col]]) && Xc[Xc_indptr[col]] != 0) return true;
+
+    real_t x0 = 0;
+    sparse_ix ix;
+    for (ix = Xc_indptr[col]; ix < Xc_indptr[col+1]; ix++)
+    {
+        if (!is_na_or_inf(Xc[ix]))
+        {
+            if (has_zeros && Xc[ix] == 0) continue;
+            if (has_zeros) return true;
+            else if (Xc[ix] == 0) has_zeros = true;
+            x0 = Xc[ix];
+            ix++;
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+
+    for (ix = Xc_indptr[col]; ix < Xc_indptr[col+1]; ix++)
+    {
+        if (!is_na_or_inf(Xc[ix]))
+        {
+            if (has_zeros && Xc[ix] == 0) continue;
+            if (Xc[ix] != x0) return true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return false;
+}
+
+void count_categs(size_t *restrict ix_arr, size_t st, size_t end, int x[], int ncat, size_t *restrict counts)
+{
+    std::fill(counts, counts + ncat, (size_t)0);
+    for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+        if (likely(x[ix_arr[row]] >= 0))
+            counts[x[ix_arr[row]]]++;
+}
+
+int count_ncateg_in_col(const int x[], const size_t n, const int ncat, unsigned char buffer[])
+{
+    memset(buffer, 0, ncat*sizeof(char));
+    for (size_t ix = 0; ix < n; ix++)
+    {
+        if (likely(x[ix] >= 0)) buffer[x[ix]] = true;
+    }
+
+    int ncat_present = 0;
+    for (int cat = 0; cat < ncat; cat++)
+        ncat_present += buffer[cat];
+    return ncat_present;
+}
+
+template <class ldouble_safe>
+ldouble_safe calculate_sum_weights(std::vector<size_t> &ix_arr, size_t st, size_t end, size_t curr_depth,
+                                   std::vector<double> &weights_arr, hashed_map<size_t, double> &weights_map)
+{
+    if (curr_depth > 0 && !weights_arr.empty())
+        return std::accumulate(ix_arr.begin() + st,
+                               ix_arr.begin() + end + 1,
+                               (ldouble_safe)0,
+                               [&weights_arr](const ldouble_safe a, const size_t ix){return a + weights_arr[ix];});
+    else if (curr_depth > 0 && !weights_map.empty())
+        return std::accumulate(ix_arr.begin() + st,
+                               ix_arr.begin() + end + 1,
+                               (ldouble_safe)0,
+                               [&weights_map](const ldouble_safe a, const size_t ix){return a + weights_map[ix];});
+    else
+        return -HUGE_VAL;
+}
+
+template <class real_t>
+size_t move_NAs_to_front(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, real_t x[])
+{
+    size_t st_non_na = st;
+    size_t temp;
+
+    for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+    {
+        if (unlikely(is_na_or_inf(x[ix_arr[row]])))
+        {
+            temp = ix_arr[st_non_na];
+            ix_arr[st_non_na] = ix_arr[row];
+            ix_arr[row] = temp;
+            st_non_na++;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return st_non_na;
+}
+
+template <class real_t, class sparse_ix>
+size_t move_NAs_to_front(size_t *restrict ix_arr, size_t st, size_t end, size_t col_num, real_t Xc[], sparse_ix *restrict Xc_ind, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_indptr)
+{
+    size_t st_non_na = st;
+    size_t temp;
+
+    size_t st_col  = Xc_indptr[col_num];
+    size_t end_col = Xc_indptr[col_num + 1] - 1;
+    size_t curr_pos = st_col;
+    size_t ind_end_col = Xc_ind[end_col];
+    std::sort(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1);
+    size_t *ptr_st = std::lower_bound(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[st_col]);
+
+    for (size_t *row = ptr_st;
+         row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+        )
+    {
+        if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == *row)
+        {
+            if (unlikely(is_na_or_inf(Xc[curr_pos])))
+            {
+                temp = ix_arr[st_non_na];
+                ix_arr[st_non_na] = *row;
+                *row = temp;
+                st_non_na++;
+            }
+
+            if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+            curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > *row)
+                row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+            else
+                curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return st_non_na;
+}
+
+size_t move_NAs_to_front(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st, size_t end, int x[])
+{
+    size_t st_non_na = st;
+    size_t temp;
+
+    for (size_t row = st; row <= end; row++)
+    {
+        if (unlikely(x[ix_arr[row]] < 0))
+        {
+            temp = ix_arr[st_non_na];
+            ix_arr[st_non_na] = ix_arr[row];
+            ix_arr[row] = temp;
+            st_non_na++;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return st_non_na;
+}
+
+size_t center_NAs(size_t ix_arr[], size_t st_left, size_t st, size_t curr_pos)
+{
+    size_t temp;
+    for (size_t row = st_left; row < st; row++)
+    {
+        temp = ix_arr[--curr_pos];
+        ix_arr[curr_pos] = ix_arr[row];
+        ix_arr[row] = temp;
+    }
+
+    return curr_pos;
+}
+
+/* FIXME / TODO: this calculation would not take weight into account */
+/* Here:
+   - 'ix_arr' should be partitioned putting the NAs and Infs at the beginning: [st_orig, st)
+   - the rest of the range [st, end] should be sorted in ascending order
+   The output should have a filled-in 'x' with median values, plus a re-sorted 'ix_arr'
+   taking into account that now the median values are in the middle. */
+template <class real_t>
+void fill_NAs_with_median(size_t *restrict ix_arr, size_t st_orig, size_t st, size_t end, real_t *restrict x,
+                          double *restrict buffer_imputed_x, double *restrict xmedian)
+{
+    size_t tot = end - st + 1;
+    size_t idx_half = st + div2(tot);
+    bool is_odd = (tot % 2) != 0;
+    
+    if (is_odd)
+    {
+        *xmedian = x[ix_arr[idx_half]];
+        idx_half--;
+    }
+
+    else
+    {
+        idx_half--;
+        double xlow = x[ix_arr[idx_half]];
+        double xhigh = x[ix_arr[idx_half+(size_t)1]];
+        *xmedian = xlow + (xhigh-xlow)/2.;
+    }
+
+    for (size_t ix = st_orig; ix < st; ix++)
+        buffer_imputed_x[ix_arr[ix]] = (*xmedian);
+    for (size_t ix = st; ix <= end; ix++)
+        buffer_imputed_x[ix_arr[ix]] = x[ix_arr[ix]];
+
+    /* 'ix_arr' can be resorted in-place, but the logic is a bit complex */
+    /* step 1: move all NAs to their place by swapping them with the lower-half
+       in ascending order (after this, the lower half will be unordered).
+       along the way, copy the indices that claim the places where earlier
+       there were missing values. these copied indices will be sorted in
+       descending order at the end, as they were inserted in reverse order. */
+    size_t end_pointer = idx_half;
+    size_t n_move = std::min(st-st_orig, idx_half-st+1);
+    size_t temp;
+    for (size_t ix = st_orig; ix < st_orig + n_move; ix++)
+    {
+        temp = ix_arr[end_pointer];
+        ix_arr[end_pointer] = ix_arr[ix];
+        ix_arr[ix] = temp;
+        end_pointer--;
+    }
+
+    /* step 2: reverse the indices that were moved to the beginning so
+       as to maintain the sorting order */
+    std::reverse(ix_arr + st_orig, ix_arr + st_orig + n_move);
+    /* step 3: rotate the total number of elements by the number of moved elements */
+    size_t n_unmoved = (idx_half - st + 1) - n_move;
+    std::rotate(ix_arr + st_orig,
+                ix_arr + st_orig + n_move,
+                ix_arr + st_orig + n_move + n_unmoved);
+}
+
+template <class real_t, class sparse_ix>
+void todense(size_t *restrict ix_arr, size_t st, size_t end,
+             size_t col_num, real_t *restrict Xc, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_ind, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_indptr,
+             double *restrict buffer_arr)
+{
+    std::fill(buffer_arr, buffer_arr + (end - st + 1), (double)0);
+
+    size_t st_col  = Xc_indptr[col_num];
+    size_t end_col = Xc_indptr[col_num + 1] - 1;
+    size_t curr_pos = st_col;
+    size_t ind_end_col = Xc_ind[end_col];
+    size_t *ptr_st = std::lower_bound(ix_arr + st, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[st_col]);
+
+    for (size_t *row = ptr_st;
+         row != ix_arr + end + 1 && curr_pos != end_col + 1 && ind_end_col >= *row;
+        )
+    {
+        if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] == (sparse_ix)(*row))
+        {
+            buffer_arr[row - (ix_arr + st)] = Xc[curr_pos];
+            if (row == ix_arr + end || curr_pos == end_col) break;
+            curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *(++row)) - Xc_ind;
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            if (Xc_ind[curr_pos] > (sparse_ix)(*row))
+                row = std::lower_bound(row + 1, ix_arr + end + 1, Xc_ind[curr_pos]);
+            else
+                curr_pos = std::lower_bound(Xc_ind + curr_pos + 1, Xc_ind + end_col + 1, *row) - Xc_ind;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+
+template <class real_t>
+void colmajor_to_rowmajor(real_t *restrict X, size_t nrows, size_t ncols, std::vector<double> &X_row_major)
+{
+    X_row_major.resize(nrows * ncols);
+    for (size_t row = 0; row < nrows; row++)
+        for (size_t col = 0; col < ncols; col++)
+            X_row_major[row + col*nrows] = X[col + row*ncols];
+}
+
+template <class real_t, class sparse_ix>
+void colmajor_to_rowmajor(real_t *restrict Xc, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_ind, sparse_ix *restrict Xc_indptr,
+                          size_t nrows, size_t ncols,
+                          std::vector<double> &Xr, std::vector<size_t> &Xr_ind, std::vector<size_t> &Xr_indptr)
+{
+    /* First convert to COO */
+    size_t nnz = Xc_indptr[ncols];
+    std::vector<size_t> row_indices(nnz);
+    for (size_t col = 0; col < ncols; col++)
+    {
+        for (sparse_ix ix = Xc_indptr[col]; ix < Xc_indptr[col+1]; ix++)
+        {
+            row_indices[ix] = Xc_ind[ix];
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* Then copy the data argsorted by rows */
+    std::vector<size_t> argsorted_indices(nnz);
+    std::iota(argsorted_indices.begin(), argsorted_indices.end(), (size_t)0);
+    std::stable_sort(argsorted_indices.begin(), argsorted_indices.end(),
+                     [&row_indices](const size_t a, const size_t b)
+                     {return row_indices[a] < row_indices[b];});
+    Xr.resize(nnz);
+    Xr_ind.resize(nnz);
+    for (size_t ix = 0; ix < nnz; ix++)
+    {
+        Xr[ix] = Xc[argsorted_indices[ix]];
+        Xr_ind[ix] = Xc_ind[argsorted_indices[ix]];
+    }
+
+    /* Now build the index pointer */
+    Xr_indptr.resize(nrows+1);
+    size_t curr_row = 0;
+    size_t curr_n = 0;
+    for (size_t ix = 0; ix < nnz; ix++)
+    {
+        if (row_indices[argsorted_indices[ix]] != curr_row)
+        {
+            Xr_indptr[curr_row+1] = curr_n;
+            curr_n = 0;
+            curr_row = row_indices[argsorted_indices[ix]];
+        }
+
+        else
+        {
+            curr_n++;
+        }
+    }
+    for (size_t row = 1; row < nrows; row++)
+        Xr_indptr[row+1] += Xr_indptr[row];
+}
+
+
+bool interrupt_switch = false;
+bool handle_is_locked = false;
+
+/* Function to handle interrupt signals */
+void set_interrup_global_variable(int s)
+{
+    #pragma omp critical
+    {
+        interrupt_switch = true;
+    }
+}
+
+void check_interrupt_switch(SignalSwitcher &ss)
+{
+    if (interrupt_switch)
+    {
+        ss.restore_handle();
+        fprintf(stderr, "Error: procedure was interrupted\n");
+        raise(SIGINT);
+        #ifdef _FOR_R
+        Rcpp::checkUserInterrupt();
+        #elif !defined(DONT_THROW_ON_INTERRUPT)
+        throw std::runtime_error("Error: procedure was interrupted.\n");
+        #endif
+    }
+}
+
+#ifdef _FOR_PYTHON
+bool cy_check_interrupt_switch()
+{
+    return interrupt_switch;
+}
+
+void cy_tick_off_interrupt_switch()
+{
+    interrupt_switch = false;
+}
+#endif
+
+SignalSwitcher::SignalSwitcher()
+{
+    #pragma omp critical
+    {
+        if (!handle_is_locked)
+        {
+            handle_is_locked = true;
+            interrupt_switch = false;
+            this->old_sig = signal(SIGINT, set_interrup_global_variable);
+            this->is_active = true;
+        }
+
+        else {
+            this->is_active = false;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+SignalSwitcher::~SignalSwitcher()
+{
+    #ifndef _FOR_PYTHON
+    #pragma omp critical
+    {
+        if (this->is_active && handle_is_locked)
+            interrupt_switch = false;
+    }
+    #endif
+    this->restore_handle();
+}
+
+void SignalSwitcher::restore_handle()
+{
+    #pragma omp critical
+    {
+        if (this->is_active && handle_is_locked)
+        {
+            signal(SIGINT, this->old_sig);
+            this->is_active = false;
+            handle_is_locked = false;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+bool has_long_double()
+{
+    #ifndef NO_LONG_DOUBLE
+    return sizeof(long double) > sizeof(double);
+    #else
+    return false;
+    #endif
+}
+
+/* Return the #def'd constants from standard header. This is in order to determine if the return
+   value from the 'fit_model' function is a success or failure within Cython, which does not
+   allow importing #def'd macro values. */
+int return_EXIT_SUCCESS()
+{
+    return EXIT_SUCCESS;
+}
+int return_EXIT_FAILURE()
+{
+    return EXIT_FAILURE;
+}