warp-lang 1.0.1__py3-none-manylinux2014_x86_64.whl → 1.1.0__py3-none-manylinux2014_x86_64.whl

warp/tests/test_grad.py

@@ -1,640 +1,746 @@
-# Copyright (c) 2022 NVIDIA CORPORATION.  All rights reserved.
-# NVIDIA CORPORATION and its licensors retain all intellectual property
-# and proprietary rights in and to this software, related documentation
-# and any modifications thereto.  Any use, reproduction, disclosure or
-# distribution of this software and related documentation without an express
-# license agreement from NVIDIA CORPORATION is strictly prohibited.
-
-import unittest
-from typing import Any
-
-import numpy as np
-
-import warp as wp
-from warp.tests.unittest_utils import *
-
-wp.init()
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def scalar_grad(x: wp.array(dtype=float), y: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-    y[0] = x[0] ** 2.0
-
-
-def test_scalar_grad(test, device):
-    x = wp.array([3.0], dtype=float, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    y = wp.zeros_like(x)
-
-    tape = wp.Tape()
-    with tape:
-        wp.launch(scalar_grad, dim=1, inputs=[x, y], device=device)
-
-    tape.backward(y)
-
-    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), np.array(6.0))
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def for_loop_grad(n: int, x: wp.array(dtype=float), s: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-    sum = float(0.0)
-
-    for i in range(n):
-        sum = sum + x[i] * 2.0
-
-    s[0] = sum
-
-
-def test_for_loop_grad(test, device):
-    n = 32
-    val = np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32)
-
-    x = wp.array(val, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    sum = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-
-    tape = wp.Tape()
-    with tape:
-        wp.launch(for_loop_grad, dim=1, inputs=[n, x, sum], device=device)
-
-    # ensure forward pass outputs correct
-    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), 2.0 * np.sum(x.numpy()))
-
-    tape.backward(loss=sum)
-
-    # ensure forward pass outputs persist
-    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), 2.0 * np.sum(x.numpy()))
-    # ensure gradients correct
-    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), 2.0 * val)
-
-
-def test_for_loop_graph_grad(test, device):
-    wp.load_module(device=device)
-
-    n = 32
-    val = np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32)
-
-    x = wp.array(val, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    sum = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-
-    wp.capture_begin(device, force_module_load=False)
-    try:
-        tape = wp.Tape()
-        with tape:
-            wp.launch(for_loop_grad, dim=1, inputs=[n, x, sum], device=device)
-
-        tape.backward(loss=sum)
-    finally:
-        graph = wp.capture_end(device)
-
-    wp.capture_launch(graph)
-    wp.synchronize_device(device)
-
-    # ensure forward pass outputs persist
-    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), 2.0 * np.sum(x.numpy()))
-    # ensure gradients correct
-    assert_np_equal(x.grad.numpy(), 2.0 * val)
-
-    wp.capture_launch(graph)
-    wp.synchronize_device(device)
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def for_loop_nested_if_grad(n: int, x: wp.array(dtype=float), s: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-    sum = float(0.0)
-
-    for i in range(n):
-        if i < 16:
-            if i < 8:
-                sum = sum + x[i] * 2.0
-            else:
-                sum = sum + x[i] * 4.0
-        else:
-            if i < 24:
-                sum = sum + x[i] * 6.0
-            else:
-                sum = sum + x[i] * 8.0
-
-    s[0] = sum
-
-
-def test_for_loop_nested_if_grad(test, device):
-    n = 32
-    val = np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32)
-    # fmt: off
-    expected_val = [
-        2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0,
-        4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0,
-        6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0,
-        8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0,
-    ]
-    expected_grad = [
-        2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0,
-        4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0,
-        6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0,
-        8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0,
-    ]
-    # fmt: on
-
-    x = wp.array(val, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    sum = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-
-    tape = wp.Tape()
-    with tape:
-        wp.launch(for_loop_nested_if_grad, dim=1, inputs=[n, x, sum], device=device)
-
-    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), np.sum(expected_val))
-
-    tape.backward(loss=sum)
-
-    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), np.sum(expected_val))
-    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), np.array(expected_grad))
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def for_loop_grad_nested(n: int, x: wp.array(dtype=float), s: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-    sum = float(0.0)
-
-    for i in range(n):
-        for j in range(n):
-            sum = sum + x[i * n + j] * float(i * n + j) + 1.0
-
-    s[0] = sum
-
-
-def test_for_loop_nested_for_grad(test, device):
-    x = wp.zeros(9, dtype=float, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    s = wp.zeros(1, dtype=float, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-
-    tape = wp.Tape()
-    with tape:
-        wp.launch(for_loop_grad_nested, dim=1, inputs=[3, x, s], device=device)
-
-    tape.backward(s)
-
-    assert_np_equal(s.numpy(), np.array([9.0]))
-    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), np.arange(0.0, 9.0, 1.0))
-
-
-# differentiating thought most while loops is not supported
-# since doing things like i = i + 1 breaks adjointing
-
-# @wp.kernel
-# def while_loop_grad(n: int,
-#                     x: wp.array(dtype=float),
-#                     c: wp.array(dtype=int),
-#                     s: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-
-#     tid = wp.tid()
-
-#     while i < n:
-#         s[0] = s[0] + x[i]*2.0
-#         i = i + 1
-
-
-# def test_while_loop_grad(test, device):
-
-#     n = 32
-#     x = wp.array(np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32), device=device, requires_grad=True)
-#     c = wp.zeros(1, dtype=int, device=device)
-#     sum = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device)
-
-#     tape = wp.Tape()
-#     with tape:
-#         wp.launch(while_loop_grad, dim=1, inputs=[n, x, c, sum], device=device)
-
-#     tape.backward(loss=sum)
-
-#     assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), 2.0*np.sum(x.numpy()))
-#     assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), 2.0*np.ones_like(x.numpy()))
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def preserve_outputs(
-    n: int, x: wp.array(dtype=float), c: wp.array(dtype=float), s1: wp.array(dtype=float), s2: wp.array(dtype=float)
-):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-
-    # plain store
-    c[tid] = x[tid] * 2.0
-
-    # atomic stores
-    wp.atomic_add(s1, 0, x[tid] * 3.0)
-    wp.atomic_sub(s2, 0, x[tid] * 2.0)
-
-
-# tests that outputs from the forward pass are
-# preserved by the backward pass, i.e.: stores
-# are omitted during the forward reply
-def test_preserve_outputs_grad(test, device):
-    n = 32
-
-    val = np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32)
-
-    x = wp.array(val, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    c = wp.zeros_like(x)
-
-    s1 = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    s2 = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-
-    tape = wp.Tape()
-    with tape:
-        wp.launch(preserve_outputs, dim=n, inputs=[n, x, c, s1, s2], device=device)
-
-    # ensure forward pass results are correct
-    assert_np_equal(x.numpy(), val)
-    assert_np_equal(c.numpy(), val * 2.0)
-    assert_np_equal(s1.numpy(), np.array(3.0 * n))
-    assert_np_equal(s2.numpy(), np.array(-2.0 * n))
-
-    # run backward on first loss
-    tape.backward(loss=s1)
-
-    # ensure inputs, copy and sum are unchanged by backwards pass
-    assert_np_equal(x.numpy(), val)
-    assert_np_equal(c.numpy(), val * 2.0)
-    assert_np_equal(s1.numpy(), np.array(3.0 * n))
-    assert_np_equal(s2.numpy(), np.array(-2.0 * n))
-
-    # ensure gradients are correct
-    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), 3.0 * val)
-
-    # run backward on second loss
-    tape.zero()
-    tape.backward(loss=s2)
-
-    assert_np_equal(x.numpy(), val)
-    assert_np_equal(c.numpy(), val * 2.0)
-    assert_np_equal(s1.numpy(), np.array(3.0 * n))
-    assert_np_equal(s2.numpy(), np.array(-2.0 * n))
-
-    # ensure gradients are correct
-    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), -2.0 * val)
-
-
-def gradcheck(func, func_name, inputs, device, eps=1e-4, tol=1e-2):
-    """
-    Checks that the gradient of the Warp kernel is correct by comparing it to the
-    numerical gradient computed using finite differences.
-    """
-
-    kernel = wp.Kernel(func=func, key=func_name)
-
-    def f(xs):
-        # call the kernel without taping for finite differences
-        wp_xs = [wp.array(xs[i], ndim=1, dtype=inputs[i].dtype, device=device) for i in range(len(inputs))]
-        output = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device)
-        wp.launch(kernel, dim=1, inputs=wp_xs, outputs=[output], device=device)
-        return output.numpy()[0]
-
-    # compute numerical gradient
-    numerical_grad = []
-    np_xs = []
-    for i in range(len(inputs)):
-        np_xs.append(inputs[i].numpy().flatten().copy())
-        numerical_grad.append(np.zeros_like(np_xs[-1]))
-        inputs[i].requires_grad = True
-
-    for i in range(len(np_xs)):
-        for j in range(len(np_xs[i])):
-            np_xs[i][j] += eps
-            y1 = f(np_xs)
-            np_xs[i][j] -= 2 * eps
-            y2 = f(np_xs)
-            np_xs[i][j] += eps
-            numerical_grad[i][j] = (y1 - y2) / (2 * eps)
-
-    # compute analytical gradient
-    tape = wp.Tape()
-    output = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    with tape:
-        wp.launch(kernel, dim=1, inputs=inputs, outputs=[output], device=device)
-
-    tape.backward(loss=output)
-
-    # compare gradients
-    for i in range(len(inputs)):
-        grad = tape.gradients[inputs[i]]
-        assert_np_equal(grad.numpy(), numerical_grad[i], tol=tol)
-
-    tape.zero()
-
-
-def test_vector_math_grad(test, device):
-    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
-
-    # test unary operations
-    for dim, vec_type in [(2, wp.vec2), (3, wp.vec3), (4, wp.vec4), (4, wp.quat)]:
-
-        def check_length(vs: wp.array(dtype=vec_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-            out[0] = wp.length(vs[0])
-
-        def check_length_sq(vs: wp.array(dtype=vec_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-            out[0] = wp.length_sq(vs[0])
-
-        def check_normalize(vs: wp.array(dtype=vec_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-            out[0] = wp.length_sq(wp.normalize(vs[0]))  # compress to scalar output
-
-        # run the tests with 5 different random inputs
-        for _ in range(5):
-            x = wp.array(rng.random(size=(1, dim), dtype=np.float32), dtype=vec_type, device=device)
-            gradcheck(check_length, f"check_length_{vec_type.__name__}", [x], device)
-            gradcheck(check_length_sq, f"check_length_sq_{vec_type.__name__}", [x], device)
-            gradcheck(check_normalize, f"check_normalize_{vec_type.__name__}", [x], device)
-
-
-def test_matrix_math_grad(test, device):
-    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
-
-    # test unary operations
-    for dim, mat_type in [(2, wp.mat22), (3, wp.mat33), (4, wp.mat44)]:
-
-        def check_determinant(vs: wp.array(dtype=mat_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-            out[0] = wp.determinant(vs[0])
-
-        def check_trace(vs: wp.array(dtype=mat_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-            out[0] = wp.trace(vs[0])
-
-        # run the tests with 5 different random inputs
-        for _ in range(5):
-            x = wp.array(rng.random(size=(1, dim, dim), dtype=np.float32), ndim=1, dtype=mat_type, device=device)
-            gradcheck(check_determinant, f"check_length_{mat_type.__name__}", [x], device)
-            gradcheck(check_trace, f"check_length_sq_{mat_type.__name__}", [x], device)
-
-
-def test_3d_math_grad(test, device):
-    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
-
-    # test binary operations
-    def check_cross(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-        out[0] = wp.length(wp.cross(vs[0], vs[1]))
-
-    def check_dot(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-        out[0] = wp.dot(vs[0], vs[1])
-
-    def check_mat33(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-        a = vs[0]
-        b = vs[1]
-        c = wp.cross(a, b)
-        m = wp.mat33(a[0], b[0], c[0], a[1], b[1], c[1], a[2], b[2], c[2])
-        out[0] = wp.determinant(m)
-
-    def check_trace_diagonal(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-        a = vs[0]
-        b = vs[1]
-        c = wp.cross(a, b)
-        m = wp.mat33(
-            1.0 / (a[0] + 10.0),
-            0.0,
-            0.0,
-            0.0,
-            1.0 / (b[1] + 10.0),
-            0.0,
-            0.0,
-            0.0,
-            1.0 / (c[2] + 10.0),
-        )
-        out[0] = wp.trace(m)
-
-    def check_rot_rpy(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-        v = vs[0]
-        q = wp.quat_rpy(v[0], v[1], v[2])
-        out[0] = wp.length(wp.quat_rotate(q, vs[1]))
-
-    def check_rot_axis_angle(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-        v = wp.normalize(vs[0])
-        q = wp.quat_from_axis_angle(v, 0.5)
-        out[0] = wp.length(wp.quat_rotate(q, vs[1]))
-
-    def check_rot_quat_inv(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-        v = vs[0]
-        q = wp.normalize(wp.quat(v[0], v[1], v[2], 1.0))
-        out[0] = wp.length(wp.quat_rotate_inv(q, vs[1]))
-
-    # run the tests with 5 different random inputs
-    for _ in range(5):
-        x = wp.array(
-            rng.standard_normal(size=(2, 3), dtype=np.float32), dtype=wp.vec3, device=device, requires_grad=True
-        )
-        gradcheck(check_cross, "check_cross_3d", [x], device)
-        gradcheck(check_dot, "check_dot_3d", [x], device)
-        gradcheck(check_mat33, "check_mat33_3d", [x], device, eps=2e-2)
-        gradcheck(check_trace_diagonal, "check_trace_diagonal_3d", [x], device)
-        gradcheck(check_rot_rpy, "check_rot_rpy_3d", [x], device)
-        gradcheck(check_rot_axis_angle, "check_rot_axis_angle_3d", [x], device)
-        gradcheck(check_rot_quat_inv, "check_rot_quat_inv_3d", [x], device)
-
-
-def test_multi_valued_function_grad(test, device):
-    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
-
-    @wp.func
-    def multi_valued(x: float, y: float, z: float):
-        return wp.sin(x), wp.cos(y) * z, wp.sqrt(wp.abs(z)) / wp.abs(x)
-
-    # test multi-valued functions
-    def check_multi_valued(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-        tid = wp.tid()
-        v = vs[tid]
-        a, b, c = multi_valued(v[0], v[1], v[2])
-        out[tid] = a + b + c
-
-    # run the tests with 5 different random inputs
-    for _ in range(5):
-        x = wp.array(
-            rng.standard_normal(size=(2, 3), dtype=np.float32), dtype=wp.vec3, device=device, requires_grad=True
-        )
-        gradcheck(check_multi_valued, "check_multi_valued_3d", [x], device)
-
-
-def test_mesh_grad(test, device):
-    pos = wp.array(
-        [
-            [0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
-            [1.0, 0.0, 0.0],
-            [0.0, 1.0, 0.0],
-            [0.0, 0.0, 1.0],
-        ],
-        dtype=wp.vec3,
-        device=device,
-        requires_grad=True,
-    )
-    indices = wp.array(
-        [0, 1, 2, 0, 2, 3, 0, 3, 1, 1, 3, 2],
-        dtype=wp.int32,
-        device=device,
-    )
-
-    mesh = wp.Mesh(points=pos, indices=indices)
-
-    @wp.func
-    def compute_triangle_area(mesh_id: wp.uint64, tri_id: int):
-        mesh = wp.mesh_get(mesh_id)
-        i, j, k = mesh.indices[tri_id * 3 + 0], mesh.indices[tri_id * 3 + 1], mesh.indices[tri_id * 3 + 2]
-        a = mesh.points[i]
-        b = mesh.points[j]
-        c = mesh.points[k]
-        return wp.length(wp.cross(b - a, c - a)) * 0.5
-
-    @wp.kernel
-    def compute_area(mesh_id: wp.uint64, out: wp.array(dtype=wp.float32)):
-        wp.atomic_add(out, 0, compute_triangle_area(mesh_id, wp.tid()))
-
-    num_tris = int(len(indices) / 3)
-
-    # compute analytical gradient
-    tape = wp.Tape()
-    output = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
-    with tape:
-        wp.launch(compute_area, dim=num_tris, inputs=[mesh.id], outputs=[output], device=device)
-
-    tape.backward(loss=output)
-
-    ad_grad = mesh.points.grad.numpy()
-
-    # compute finite differences
-    eps = 1e-3
-    pos_np = pos.numpy()
-    fd_grad = np.zeros_like(ad_grad)
-
-    for i in range(len(pos)):
-        for j in range(3):
-            pos_np[i, j] += eps
-            pos = wp.array(pos_np, dtype=wp.vec3, device=device)
-            mesh = wp.Mesh(points=pos, indices=indices)
-            output.zero_()
-            wp.launch(compute_area, dim=num_tris, inputs=[mesh.id], outputs=[output], device=device)
-            f1 = output.numpy()[0]
-            pos_np[i, j] -= 2 * eps
-            pos = wp.array(pos_np, dtype=wp.vec3, device=device)
-            mesh = wp.Mesh(points=pos, indices=indices)
-            output.zero_()
-            wp.launch(compute_area, dim=num_tris, inputs=[mesh.id], outputs=[output], device=device)
-            f2 = output.numpy()[0]
-            pos_np[i, j] += eps
-            fd_grad[i, j] = (f1 - f2) / (2 * eps)
-
-    assert np.allclose(ad_grad, fd_grad, atol=1e-3)
-
-
-@wp.func
-def name_clash(a: float, b: float) -> float:
-    return a + b
-
-
-@wp.func_grad(name_clash)
-def adj_name_clash(a: float, b: float, adj_ret: float):
-    # names `adj_a` and `adj_b` must not clash with function args of generated function
-    adj_a = 0.0
-    adj_b = 0.0
-    if a < 0.0:
-        adj_a = adj_ret
-    if b > 0.0:
-        adj_b = adj_ret
-
-    wp.adjoint[a] += adj_a
-    wp.adjoint[b] += adj_b
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def name_clash_kernel(
-    input_a: wp.array(dtype=float),
-    input_b: wp.array(dtype=float),
-    output: wp.array(dtype=float),
-):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-    output[tid] = name_clash(input_a[tid], input_b[tid])
-
-
-def test_name_clash(test, device):
-    # tests that no name clashes occur when variable names such as `adj_a` are used in custom gradient code
-    with wp.ScopedDevice(device):
-        input_a = wp.array([1.0, -2.0, 3.0], dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
-        input_b = wp.array([4.0, 5.0, -6.0], dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
-        output = wp.zeros(3, dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
-
-        tape = wp.Tape()
-        with tape:
-            wp.launch(name_clash_kernel, dim=len(input_a), inputs=[input_a, input_b], outputs=[output])
-
-        tape.backward(grads={output: wp.array(np.ones(len(input_a), dtype=np.float32))})
-
-        assert_np_equal(input_a.grad.numpy(), np.array([0.0, 1.0, 0.0]))
-        assert_np_equal(input_b.grad.numpy(), np.array([1.0, 1.0, 0.0]))
-
-
-@wp.struct
-class NestedStruct:
-    v: wp.vec2
-
-
-@wp.struct
-class ParentStruct:
-    a: float
-    n: NestedStruct
-
-
-@wp.func
-def noop(a: Any):
-    pass
-
-
-@wp.func
-def sum2(v: wp.vec2):
-    return v[0] + v[1]
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def test_struct_attribute_gradient_kernel(src: wp.array(dtype=float), res: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-
-    p = ParentStruct(src[tid], NestedStruct(wp.vec2(2.0 * src[tid])))
-
-    # test that we are not losing gradients when accessing attributes
-    noop(p.a)
-    noop(p.n)
-    noop(p.n.v)
-
-    res[tid] = p.a + sum2(p.n.v)
-
-
-def test_struct_attribute_gradient(test_case, device):
-    src = wp.array([1], dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
-    res = wp.empty_like(src)
-
-    tape = wp.Tape()
-    with tape:
-        wp.launch(test_struct_attribute_gradient_kernel, dim=1, inputs=[src, res])
-
-    res.grad.fill_(1.0)
-    tape.backward()
-
-    test_case.assertEqual(src.grad.numpy()[0], 5.0)
-
-
-devices = get_test_devices()
-
-
-class TestGrad(unittest.TestCase):
-    pass
-
-
-# add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_while_loop_grad", test_while_loop_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_for_loop_nested_for_grad", test_for_loop_nested_for_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_scalar_grad", test_scalar_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_for_loop_grad", test_for_loop_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(
-    TestGrad, "test_for_loop_graph_grad", test_for_loop_graph_grad, devices=get_unique_cuda_test_devices()
-)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_for_loop_nested_if_grad", test_for_loop_nested_if_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_preserve_outputs_grad", test_preserve_outputs_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_vector_math_grad", test_vector_math_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_matrix_math_grad", test_matrix_math_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_3d_math_grad", test_3d_math_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_multi_valued_function_grad", test_multi_valued_function_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_mesh_grad", test_mesh_grad, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_name_clash", test_name_clash, devices=devices)
-add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_struct_attribute_gradient", test_struct_attribute_gradient, devices=devices)
-
-
-if __name__ == "__main__":
-    wp.build.clear_kernel_cache()
-    unittest.main(verbosity=2, failfast=False)
+# Copyright (c) 2022 NVIDIA CORPORATION.  All rights reserved.
+# NVIDIA CORPORATION and its licensors retain all intellectual property
+# and proprietary rights in and to this software, related documentation
+# and any modifications thereto.  Any use, reproduction, disclosure or
+# distribution of this software and related documentation without an express
+# license agreement from NVIDIA CORPORATION is strictly prohibited.
+
+import unittest
+from typing import Any
+
+import numpy as np
+
+import warp as wp
+from warp.tests.unittest_utils import *
+
+wp.init()
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def scalar_grad(x: wp.array(dtype=float), y: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+    y[0] = x[0] ** 2.0
+
+
+def test_scalar_grad(test, device):
+    x = wp.array([3.0], dtype=float, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    y = wp.zeros_like(x)
+
+    tape = wp.Tape()
+    with tape:
+        wp.launch(scalar_grad, dim=1, inputs=[x, y], device=device)
+
+    tape.backward(y)
+
+    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), np.array(6.0))
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def for_loop_grad(n: int, x: wp.array(dtype=float), s: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+    sum = float(0.0)
+
+    for i in range(n):
+        sum = sum + x[i] * 2.0
+
+    s[0] = sum
+
+
+def test_for_loop_grad(test, device):
+    n = 32
+    val = np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32)
+
+    x = wp.array(val, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    sum = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+
+    tape = wp.Tape()
+    with tape:
+        wp.launch(for_loop_grad, dim=1, inputs=[n, x, sum], device=device)
+
+    # ensure forward pass outputs correct
+    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), 2.0 * np.sum(x.numpy()))
+
+    tape.backward(loss=sum)
+
+    # ensure forward pass outputs persist
+    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), 2.0 * np.sum(x.numpy()))
+    # ensure gradients correct
+    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), 2.0 * val)
+
+
+def test_for_loop_graph_grad(test, device):
+    wp.load_module(device=device)
+
+    n = 32
+    val = np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32)
+
+    x = wp.array(val, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    sum = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+
+    wp.capture_begin(device, force_module_load=False)
+    try:
+        tape = wp.Tape()
+        with tape:
+            wp.launch(for_loop_grad, dim=1, inputs=[n, x, sum], device=device)
+
+        tape.backward(loss=sum)
+    finally:
+        graph = wp.capture_end(device)
+
+    wp.capture_launch(graph)
+    wp.synchronize_device(device)
+
+    # ensure forward pass outputs persist
+    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), 2.0 * np.sum(x.numpy()))
+    # ensure gradients correct
+    assert_np_equal(x.grad.numpy(), 2.0 * val)
+
+    wp.capture_launch(graph)
+    wp.synchronize_device(device)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def for_loop_nested_if_grad(n: int, x: wp.array(dtype=float), s: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+    sum = float(0.0)
+
+    for i in range(n):
+        if i < 16:
+            if i < 8:
+                sum = sum + x[i] * 2.0
+            else:
+                sum = sum + x[i] * 4.0
+        else:
+            if i < 24:
+                sum = sum + x[i] * 6.0
+            else:
+                sum = sum + x[i] * 8.0
+
+    s[0] = sum
+
+
+def test_for_loop_nested_if_grad(test, device):
+    n = 32
+    val = np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32)
+    # fmt: off
+    expected_val = [
+        2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0,
+        4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0,
+        6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0,
+        8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0,
+    ]
+    expected_grad = [
+        2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0,
+        4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0,
+        6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0,
+        8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0,
+    ]
+    # fmt: on
+
+    x = wp.array(val, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    sum = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+
+    tape = wp.Tape()
+    with tape:
+        wp.launch(for_loop_nested_if_grad, dim=1, inputs=[n, x, sum], device=device)
+
+    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), np.sum(expected_val))
+
+    tape.backward(loss=sum)
+
+    assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), np.sum(expected_val))
+    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), np.array(expected_grad))
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def for_loop_grad_nested(n: int, x: wp.array(dtype=float), s: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+    sum = float(0.0)
+
+    for i in range(n):
+        for j in range(n):
+            sum = sum + x[i * n + j] * float(i * n + j) + 1.0
+
+    s[0] = sum
+
+
+def test_for_loop_nested_for_grad(test, device):
+    x = wp.zeros(9, dtype=float, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    s = wp.zeros(1, dtype=float, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+
+    tape = wp.Tape()
+    with tape:
+        wp.launch(for_loop_grad_nested, dim=1, inputs=[3, x, s], device=device)
+
+    tape.backward(s)
+
+    assert_np_equal(s.numpy(), np.array([9.0]))
+    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), np.arange(0.0, 9.0, 1.0))
+
+
+# differentiating thought most while loops is not supported
+# since doing things like i = i + 1 breaks adjointing
+
+# @wp.kernel
+# def while_loop_grad(n: int,
+#                     x: wp.array(dtype=float),
+#                     c: wp.array(dtype=int),
+#                     s: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+
+#     tid = wp.tid()
+
+#     while i < n:
+#         s[0] = s[0] + x[i]*2.0
+#         i = i + 1
+
+
+# def test_while_loop_grad(test, device):
+
+#     n = 32
+#     x = wp.array(np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32), device=device, requires_grad=True)
+#     c = wp.zeros(1, dtype=int, device=device)
+#     sum = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device)
+
+#     tape = wp.Tape()
+#     with tape:
+#         wp.launch(while_loop_grad, dim=1, inputs=[n, x, c, sum], device=device)
+
+#     tape.backward(loss=sum)
+
+#     assert_np_equal(sum.numpy(), 2.0*np.sum(x.numpy()))
+#     assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), 2.0*np.ones_like(x.numpy()))
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def preserve_outputs(
+    n: int, x: wp.array(dtype=float), c: wp.array(dtype=float), s1: wp.array(dtype=float), s2: wp.array(dtype=float)
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    # plain store
+    c[tid] = x[tid] * 2.0
+
+    # atomic stores
+    wp.atomic_add(s1, 0, x[tid] * 3.0)
+    wp.atomic_sub(s2, 0, x[tid] * 2.0)
+
+
+# tests that outputs from the forward pass are
+# preserved by the backward pass, i.e.: stores
+# are omitted during the forward reply
+def test_preserve_outputs_grad(test, device):
+    n = 32
+
+    val = np.ones(n, dtype=np.float32)
+
+    x = wp.array(val, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    c = wp.zeros_like(x)
+
+    s1 = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    s2 = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+
+    tape = wp.Tape()
+    with tape:
+        wp.launch(preserve_outputs, dim=n, inputs=[n, x, c, s1, s2], device=device)
+
+    # ensure forward pass results are correct
+    assert_np_equal(x.numpy(), val)
+    assert_np_equal(c.numpy(), val * 2.0)
+    assert_np_equal(s1.numpy(), np.array(3.0 * n))
+    assert_np_equal(s2.numpy(), np.array(-2.0 * n))
+
+    # run backward on first loss
+    tape.backward(loss=s1)
+
+    # ensure inputs, copy and sum are unchanged by backwards pass
+    assert_np_equal(x.numpy(), val)
+    assert_np_equal(c.numpy(), val * 2.0)
+    assert_np_equal(s1.numpy(), np.array(3.0 * n))
+    assert_np_equal(s2.numpy(), np.array(-2.0 * n))
+
+    # ensure gradients are correct
+    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), 3.0 * val)
+
+    # run backward on second loss
+    tape.zero()
+    tape.backward(loss=s2)
+
+    assert_np_equal(x.numpy(), val)
+    assert_np_equal(c.numpy(), val * 2.0)
+    assert_np_equal(s1.numpy(), np.array(3.0 * n))
+    assert_np_equal(s2.numpy(), np.array(-2.0 * n))
+
+    # ensure gradients are correct
+    assert_np_equal(tape.gradients[x].numpy(), -2.0 * val)
+
+
+def gradcheck(func, func_name, inputs, device, eps=1e-4, tol=1e-2):
+    """
+    Checks that the gradient of the Warp kernel is correct by comparing it to the
+    numerical gradient computed using finite differences.
+    """
+
+    kernel = wp.Kernel(func=func, key=func_name)
+
+    def f(xs):
+        # call the kernel without taping for finite differences
+        wp_xs = [wp.array(xs[i], ndim=1, dtype=inputs[i].dtype, device=device) for i in range(len(inputs))]
+        output = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device)
+        wp.launch(kernel, dim=1, inputs=wp_xs, outputs=[output], device=device)
+        return output.numpy()[0]
+
+    # compute numerical gradient
+    numerical_grad = []
+    np_xs = []
+    for i in range(len(inputs)):
+        np_xs.append(inputs[i].numpy().flatten().copy())
+        numerical_grad.append(np.zeros_like(np_xs[-1]))
+        inputs[i].requires_grad = True
+
+    for i in range(len(np_xs)):
+        for j in range(len(np_xs[i])):
+            np_xs[i][j] += eps
+            y1 = f(np_xs)
+            np_xs[i][j] -= 2 * eps
+            y2 = f(np_xs)
+            np_xs[i][j] += eps
+            numerical_grad[i][j] = (y1 - y2) / (2 * eps)
+
+    # compute analytical gradient
+    tape = wp.Tape()
+    output = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    with tape:
+        wp.launch(kernel, dim=1, inputs=inputs, outputs=[output], device=device)
+
+    tape.backward(loss=output)
+
+    # compare gradients
+    for i in range(len(inputs)):
+        grad = tape.gradients[inputs[i]]
+        assert_np_equal(grad.numpy(), numerical_grad[i], tol=tol)
+
+    tape.zero()
+
+
+def test_vector_math_grad(test, device):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+
+    # test unary operations
+    for dim, vec_type in [(2, wp.vec2), (3, wp.vec3), (4, wp.vec4), (4, wp.quat)]:
+
+        def check_length(vs: wp.array(dtype=vec_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+            out[0] = wp.length(vs[0])
+
+        def check_length_sq(vs: wp.array(dtype=vec_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+            out[0] = wp.length_sq(vs[0])
+
+        def check_normalize(vs: wp.array(dtype=vec_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+            out[0] = wp.length_sq(wp.normalize(vs[0]))  # compress to scalar output
+
+        # run the tests with 5 different random inputs
+        for _ in range(5):
+            x = wp.array(rng.random(size=(1, dim), dtype=np.float32), dtype=vec_type, device=device)
+            gradcheck(check_length, f"check_length_{vec_type.__name__}", [x], device)
+            gradcheck(check_length_sq, f"check_length_sq_{vec_type.__name__}", [x], device)
+            gradcheck(check_normalize, f"check_normalize_{vec_type.__name__}", [x], device)
+
+
+def test_matrix_math_grad(test, device):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+
+    # test unary operations
+    for dim, mat_type in [(2, wp.mat22), (3, wp.mat33), (4, wp.mat44)]:
+
+        def check_determinant(vs: wp.array(dtype=mat_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+            out[0] = wp.determinant(vs[0])
+
+        def check_trace(vs: wp.array(dtype=mat_type), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+            out[0] = wp.trace(vs[0])
+
+        # run the tests with 5 different random inputs
+        for _ in range(5):
+            x = wp.array(rng.random(size=(1, dim, dim), dtype=np.float32), ndim=1, dtype=mat_type, device=device)
+            gradcheck(check_determinant, f"check_length_{mat_type.__name__}", [x], device)
+            gradcheck(check_trace, f"check_length_sq_{mat_type.__name__}", [x], device)
+
+
+def test_3d_math_grad(test, device):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+
+    # test binary operations
+    def check_cross(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+        out[0] = wp.length(wp.cross(vs[0], vs[1]))
+
+    def check_dot(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+        out[0] = wp.dot(vs[0], vs[1])
+
+    def check_mat33(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+        a = vs[0]
+        b = vs[1]
+        c = wp.cross(a, b)
+        m = wp.mat33(a[0], b[0], c[0], a[1], b[1], c[1], a[2], b[2], c[2])
+        out[0] = wp.determinant(m)
+
+    def check_trace_diagonal(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+        a = vs[0]
+        b = vs[1]
+        c = wp.cross(a, b)
+        m = wp.mat33(
+            1.0 / (a[0] + 10.0),
+            0.0,
+            0.0,
+            0.0,
+            1.0 / (b[1] + 10.0),
+            0.0,
+            0.0,
+            0.0,
+            1.0 / (c[2] + 10.0),
+        )
+        out[0] = wp.trace(m)
+
+    def check_rot_rpy(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+        v = vs[0]
+        q = wp.quat_rpy(v[0], v[1], v[2])
+        out[0] = wp.length(wp.quat_rotate(q, vs[1]))
+
+    def check_rot_axis_angle(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+        v = wp.normalize(vs[0])
+        q = wp.quat_from_axis_angle(v, 0.5)
+        out[0] = wp.length(wp.quat_rotate(q, vs[1]))
+
+    def check_rot_quat_inv(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+        v = vs[0]
+        q = wp.normalize(wp.quat(v[0], v[1], v[2], 1.0))
+        out[0] = wp.length(wp.quat_rotate_inv(q, vs[1]))
+
+    # run the tests with 5 different random inputs
+    for _ in range(5):
+        x = wp.array(
+            rng.standard_normal(size=(2, 3), dtype=np.float32), dtype=wp.vec3, device=device, requires_grad=True
+        )
+        gradcheck(check_cross, "check_cross_3d", [x], device)
+        gradcheck(check_dot, "check_dot_3d", [x], device)
+        gradcheck(check_mat33, "check_mat33_3d", [x], device, eps=2e-2)
+        gradcheck(check_trace_diagonal, "check_trace_diagonal_3d", [x], device)
+        gradcheck(check_rot_rpy, "check_rot_rpy_3d", [x], device)
+        gradcheck(check_rot_axis_angle, "check_rot_axis_angle_3d", [x], device)
+        gradcheck(check_rot_quat_inv, "check_rot_quat_inv_3d", [x], device)
+
+
+def test_multi_valued_function_grad(test, device):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+
+    @wp.func
+    def multi_valued(x: float, y: float, z: float):
+        return wp.sin(x), wp.cos(y) * z, wp.sqrt(wp.abs(z)) / wp.abs(x)
+
+    # test multi-valued functions
+    def check_multi_valued(vs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), out: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+        tid = wp.tid()
+        v = vs[tid]
+        a, b, c = multi_valued(v[0], v[1], v[2])
+        out[tid] = a + b + c
+
+    # run the tests with 5 different random inputs
+    for _ in range(5):
+        x = wp.array(
+            rng.standard_normal(size=(2, 3), dtype=np.float32), dtype=wp.vec3, device=device, requires_grad=True
+        )
+        gradcheck(check_multi_valued, "check_multi_valued_3d", [x], device)
+
+
+def test_mesh_grad(test, device):
+    pos = wp.array(
+        [
+            [0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
+            [1.0, 0.0, 0.0],
+            [0.0, 1.0, 0.0],
+            [0.0, 0.0, 1.0],
+        ],
+        dtype=wp.vec3,
+        device=device,
+        requires_grad=True,
+    )
+    indices = wp.array(
+        [0, 1, 2, 0, 2, 3, 0, 3, 1, 1, 3, 2],
+        dtype=wp.int32,
+        device=device,
+    )
+
+    mesh = wp.Mesh(points=pos, indices=indices)
+
+    @wp.func
+    def compute_triangle_area(mesh_id: wp.uint64, tri_id: int):
+        mesh = wp.mesh_get(mesh_id)
+        i, j, k = mesh.indices[tri_id * 3 + 0], mesh.indices[tri_id * 3 + 1], mesh.indices[tri_id * 3 + 2]
+        a = mesh.points[i]
+        b = mesh.points[j]
+        c = mesh.points[k]
+        return wp.length(wp.cross(b - a, c - a)) * 0.5
+
+    @wp.kernel
+    def compute_area(mesh_id: wp.uint64, out: wp.array(dtype=wp.float32)):
+        wp.atomic_add(out, 0, compute_triangle_area(mesh_id, wp.tid()))
+
+    num_tris = int(len(indices) / 3)
+
+    # compute analytical gradient
+    tape = wp.Tape()
+    output = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.float32, device=device, requires_grad=True)
+    with tape:
+        wp.launch(compute_area, dim=num_tris, inputs=[mesh.id], outputs=[output], device=device)
+
+    tape.backward(loss=output)
+
+    ad_grad = mesh.points.grad.numpy()
+
+    # compute finite differences
+    eps = 1e-3
+    pos_np = pos.numpy()
+    fd_grad = np.zeros_like(ad_grad)
+
+    for i in range(len(pos)):
+        for j in range(3):
+            pos_np[i, j] += eps
+            pos = wp.array(pos_np, dtype=wp.vec3, device=device)
+            mesh = wp.Mesh(points=pos, indices=indices)
+            output.zero_()
+            wp.launch(compute_area, dim=num_tris, inputs=[mesh.id], outputs=[output], device=device)
+            f1 = output.numpy()[0]
+            pos_np[i, j] -= 2 * eps
+            pos = wp.array(pos_np, dtype=wp.vec3, device=device)
+            mesh = wp.Mesh(points=pos, indices=indices)
+            output.zero_()
+            wp.launch(compute_area, dim=num_tris, inputs=[mesh.id], outputs=[output], device=device)
+            f2 = output.numpy()[0]
+            pos_np[i, j] += eps
+            fd_grad[i, j] = (f1 - f2) / (2 * eps)
+
+    assert np.allclose(ad_grad, fd_grad, atol=1e-3)
+
+
+@wp.func
+def name_clash(a: float, b: float) -> float:
+    return a + b
+
+
+@wp.func_grad(name_clash)
+def adj_name_clash(a: float, b: float, adj_ret: float):
+    # names `adj_a` and `adj_b` must not clash with function args of generated function
+    adj_a = 0.0
+    adj_b = 0.0
+    if a < 0.0:
+        adj_a = adj_ret
+    if b > 0.0:
+        adj_b = adj_ret
+
+    wp.adjoint[a] += adj_a
+    wp.adjoint[b] += adj_b
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def name_clash_kernel(
+    input_a: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    input_b: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    output: wp.array(dtype=float),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    output[tid] = name_clash(input_a[tid], input_b[tid])
+
+
+def test_name_clash(test, device):
+    # tests that no name clashes occur when variable names such as `adj_a` are used in custom gradient code
+    with wp.ScopedDevice(device):
+        input_a = wp.array([1.0, -2.0, 3.0], dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
+        input_b = wp.array([4.0, 5.0, -6.0], dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
+        output = wp.zeros(3, dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
+
+        tape = wp.Tape()
+        with tape:
+            wp.launch(name_clash_kernel, dim=len(input_a), inputs=[input_a, input_b], outputs=[output])
+
+        tape.backward(grads={output: wp.array(np.ones(len(input_a), dtype=np.float32))})
+
+        assert_np_equal(input_a.grad.numpy(), np.array([0.0, 1.0, 0.0]))
+        assert_np_equal(input_b.grad.numpy(), np.array([1.0, 1.0, 0.0]))
+
+
+@wp.struct
+class NestedStruct:
+    v: wp.vec2
+
+
+@wp.struct
+class ParentStruct:
+    a: float
+    n: NestedStruct
+
+
+@wp.func
+def noop(a: Any):
+    pass
+
+
+@wp.func
+def sum2(v: wp.vec2):
+    return v[0] + v[1]
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def test_struct_attribute_gradient_kernel(src: wp.array(dtype=float), res: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    p = ParentStruct(src[tid], NestedStruct(wp.vec2(2.0 * src[tid])))
+
+    # test that we are not losing gradients when accessing attributes
+    noop(p.a)
+    noop(p.n)
+    noop(p.n.v)
+
+    res[tid] = p.a + sum2(p.n.v)
+
+
+def test_struct_attribute_gradient(test, device):
+    with wp.ScopedDevice(device):
+        src = wp.array([1], dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
+        res = wp.empty_like(src)
+
+        tape = wp.Tape()
+        with tape:
+            wp.launch(test_struct_attribute_gradient_kernel, dim=1, inputs=[src, res])
+
+        res.grad.fill_(1.0)
+        tape.backward()
+
+        test.assertEqual(src.grad.numpy()[0], 5.0)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def copy_kernel(a: wp.array(dtype=wp.float32), b: wp.array(dtype=wp.float32)):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    ai = a[tid]
+    bi = ai
+    b[tid] = bi
+
+
+def test_copy(test, device):
+    with wp.ScopedDevice(device):
+        a = wp.array([-1.0, 2.0, 3.0], dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
+        b = wp.array([0.0, 0.0, 0.0], dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
+
+        wp.launch(copy_kernel, 1, inputs=[a, b])
+
+        b.grad = wp.array([1.0, 1.0, 1.0], dtype=wp.float32)
+        wp.launch(copy_kernel, a.shape[0], inputs=[a, b], adjoint=True, adj_inputs=[None, None])
+
+        assert_np_equal(a.grad.numpy(), np.array([1.0, 1.0, 1.0]))
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def aliasing_kernel(a: wp.array(dtype=wp.float32), b: wp.array(dtype=wp.float32)):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    x = a[tid]
+
+    y = x
+    if y > 0.0:
+        y = x * x
+    else:
+        y = x * x * x
+
+    b[tid] = y
+
+
+def test_aliasing(test, device):
+    with wp.ScopedDevice(device):
+        a = wp.array([-1.0, 2.0, 3.0], dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
+        b = wp.array([0.0, 0.0, 0.0], dtype=wp.float32, requires_grad=True)
+
+        wp.launch(aliasing_kernel, 1, inputs=[a, b])
+
+        b.grad = wp.array([1.0, 1.0, 1.0], dtype=wp.float32)
+        wp.launch(aliasing_kernel, a.shape[0], inputs=[a, b], adjoint=True, adj_inputs=[None, None])
+
+        assert_np_equal(a.grad.numpy(), np.array([3.0, 4.0, 6.0]))
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def square_kernel(x: wp.array(dtype=float), y: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    y[tid] = x[tid] ** 2.0
+
+
+def test_gradient_internal(test, device):
+    with wp.ScopedDevice(device):
+        a = wp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
+        b = wp.array([0.0, 0.0, 0.0], dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
+
+        wp.launch(square_kernel, a.size, inputs=[a, b])
+
+        # use internal gradients (.grad), adj_inputs are None
+        b.grad = wp.array([1.0, 1.0, 1.0], dtype=float)
+        wp.launch(square_kernel, a.shape[0], inputs=[a, b], adjoint=True, adj_inputs=[None, None])
+
+        assert_np_equal(a.grad.numpy(), np.array([2.0, 4.0, 6.0]))
+
+
+def test_gradient_external(test, device):
+    with wp.ScopedDevice(device):
+        a = wp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], dtype=float, requires_grad=False)
+        b = wp.array([0.0, 0.0, 0.0], dtype=float, requires_grad=False)
+
+        wp.launch(square_kernel, a.size, inputs=[a, b])
+
+        # use external gradients passed in adj_inputs
+        a_grad = wp.array([0.0, 0.0, 0.0], dtype=float)
+        b_grad = wp.array([1.0, 1.0, 1.0], dtype=float)
+        wp.launch(square_kernel, a.shape[0], inputs=[a, b], adjoint=True, adj_inputs=[a_grad, b_grad])
+
+        assert_np_equal(a_grad.numpy(), np.array([2.0, 4.0, 6.0]))
+
+
+def test_gradient_precedence(test, device):
+    with wp.ScopedDevice(device):
+        a = wp.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
+        b = wp.array([0.0, 0.0, 0.0], dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
+
+        wp.launch(square_kernel, a.size, inputs=[a, b])
+
+        # if both internal and external gradients are present, the external one takes precedence,
+        # because it's explicitly passed by the user in adj_inputs
+        a_grad = wp.array([0.0, 0.0, 0.0], dtype=float)
+        b_grad = wp.array([1.0, 1.0, 1.0], dtype=float)
+        wp.launch(square_kernel, a.shape[0], inputs=[a, b], adjoint=True, adj_inputs=[a_grad, b_grad])
+
+        assert_np_equal(a_grad.numpy(), np.array([2.0, 4.0, 6.0]))  # used
+        assert_np_equal(a.grad.numpy(), np.array([0.0, 0.0, 0.0]))  # unused
+
+
+devices = get_test_devices()
+
+
+class TestGrad(unittest.TestCase):
+    pass
+
+
+# add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_while_loop_grad", test_while_loop_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_for_loop_nested_for_grad", test_for_loop_nested_for_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_scalar_grad", test_scalar_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_for_loop_grad", test_for_loop_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(
+    TestGrad, "test_for_loop_graph_grad", test_for_loop_graph_grad, devices=get_selected_cuda_test_devices()
+)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_for_loop_nested_if_grad", test_for_loop_nested_if_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_preserve_outputs_grad", test_preserve_outputs_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_vector_math_grad", test_vector_math_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_matrix_math_grad", test_matrix_math_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_3d_math_grad", test_3d_math_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_multi_valued_function_grad", test_multi_valued_function_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_mesh_grad", test_mesh_grad, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_name_clash", test_name_clash, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_struct_attribute_gradient", test_struct_attribute_gradient, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_copy", test_copy, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_aliasing", test_aliasing, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_gradient_internal", test_gradient_internal, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_gradient_external", test_gradient_external, devices=devices)
+add_function_test(TestGrad, "test_gradient_precedence", test_gradient_precedence, devices=devices)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    wp.build.clear_kernel_cache()
+    unittest.main(verbosity=2, failfast=False)