scipy 1.15.3__cp312-cp312-macosx_12_0_arm64.whl → 1.16.0rc2__cp312-cp312-macosx_12_0_arm64.whl

scipy/spatial/transform/tests/test_rigid_transform.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1221 @@
+import pytest
+
+import numpy as np
+from scipy.spatial.transform import Rotation, RigidTransform
+from scipy.spatial.transform._rigid_transform import normalize_dual_quaternion
+from scipy._lib._array_api import (
+    is_lazy_array,
+    xp_vector_norm,
+    is_numpy,
+    xp_assert_close,
+)
+import scipy._lib.array_api_extra as xpx
+
+
+pytestmark = pytest.mark.skip_xp_backends(np_only=True)
+
+
+def rotation_to_xp(r: Rotation, xp):
+    return Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+
+
+def rigid_transform_to_xp(r: RigidTransform, xp):
+    return RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.asarray(r.as_matrix()))
+
+
+def test_repr(xp):
+    actual = repr(RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.eye(4)))
+    expected = """\
+RigidTransform.from_matrix(array([[1., 0., 0., 0.],
+                                  [0., 1., 0., 0.],
+                                  [0., 0., 1., 0.],
+                                  [0., 0., 0., 1.]]))"""
+    assert actual == expected
+
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.asarray(RigidTransform.identity(2).as_matrix()))
+    actual = repr(tf)
+    expected = """\
+RigidTransform.from_matrix(array([[[1., 0., 0., 0.],
+                                   [0., 1., 0., 0.],
+                                   [0., 0., 1., 0.],
+                                   [0., 0., 0., 1.]],
+                           
+                                  [[1., 0., 0., 0.],
+                                   [0., 1., 0., 0.],
+                                   [0., 0., 1., 0.],
+                                   [0., 0., 0., 1.]]]))"""
+    assert actual == expected
+
+
+def test_from_rotation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test single rotation
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(xp.eye(3))
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_rotation(r)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), xp.eye(4), atol=atol)
+    assert tf.single
+
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_rotation(r)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[:3, :3], r.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[:3, 3], xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0]), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[3, :], xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]), atol=atol)
+    assert tf.single
+
+    # Test multiple rotations
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('zyx', xp.asarray([[90, 0, 0], [0, 90, 0]]), degrees=True)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_rotation(r)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[:, :3, :3], r.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[:, :3, 3], xp.asarray([[0.0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]),
+                    atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[:, 3, :], xp.asarray([[0.0, 0, 0, 1], [0, 0, 0, 1]]),
+                    atol=atol)
+    assert not tf.single
+
+
+def test_from_translation(xp):
+    # Test single translation
+    t = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_translation(t)
+    expected = xp.eye(4)
+    expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., :3, 3].set(t)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), expected)
+    assert tf.single
+
+    # Test multiple translations
+    t = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_translation(t)
+    for i in range(t.shape[0]):
+        expected = xp.eye(4)
+        expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., :3, 3].set(t[i, ...])
+        xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[i, ...], expected)
+    assert not tf.single
+
+
+def test_from_translation_array_like():
+    # Test single translation
+    t = [1, 2, 3]
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_translation(t)
+    tf_expected = RigidTransform.from_translation(np.array(t))
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), tf_expected.as_matrix())
+    assert tf.single
+
+    # Test multiple translations
+    t = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_translation(t)
+    tf_expected = RigidTransform.from_translation(np.array(t))
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), tf_expected.as_matrix())
+    assert not tf.single
+
+
+def test_from_matrix(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test single transform matrix
+    matrix = xp.eye(4)
+    matrix = xpx.at(matrix)[..., :3, 3].set(xp.asarray([1, 2, 3]))
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), matrix, atol=atol)
+    assert tf.single
+
+    # Test multiple transform matrices
+    matrices = xp.repeat(xp.eye(4)[None, ...], 2, axis=0)
+    matrices = xpx.at(matrices)[0, :3, 3].set(xp.asarray([1, 2, 3]))
+    matrices = xpx.at(matrices)[1, :3, 3].set(xp.asarray([4, 5, 6]))
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrices)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), matrices, atol=atol)
+    assert not tf.single
+
+    # Test non-1 determinant
+    matrix = xp.eye(4)
+    matrix = xpx.at(matrix)[..., :3, :3].set(xp.eye(3) * 2.0)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), xp.eye(4), atol=atol)
+
+    # Test non-orthogonal rotation matrix
+    matrix = xp.asarray([[1, 1, 0, 0],
+                         [0, 1, 0, 0],
+                         [0, 0, 1, 0],
+                         [0, 0, 0, 1]])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix)
+    expected = xp.asarray([[0.894427,  0.447214, 0, 0],
+                           [-0.447214,  0.894427, 0, 0],
+                           [0, 0, 1, 0],
+                           [0, 0, 0, 1]])
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), expected, atol=1e-6)
+
+    # Test invalid matrix
+    invalid = xp.eye(4)
+    invalid = xpx.at(invalid)[..., 3, 3].set(2)  # Invalid last row
+    if is_lazy_array(invalid):
+        tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(invalid)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(tf.as_matrix()))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            RigidTransform.from_matrix(invalid)
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_array_like():
+    # Test single transform matrix
+    matrix = [[1, 0, 0, 0],
+              [0, 1, 0, 0],
+              [0, 0, 1, 0],
+              [0, 0, 0, 1]]
+    expected = np.eye(4)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), expected)
+    assert tf.single
+
+    # Test multiple transform matrices
+    matrices = [matrix, matrix]
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrices)
+    for i in range(len(matrices)):
+        xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[i, ...], expected)
+    assert not tf.single
+
+
+def test_from_components(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test single rotation and translation
+    t = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+    r = Rotation.from_euler("zyx", xp.asarray([90, 0, 0]), degrees=True)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    expected = xp.zeros((4, 4))
+    expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., :3, :3].set(r.as_matrix())
+    expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., :3, 3].set(t)
+    expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., 3, 3].set(1)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), expected, atol=atol)
+    assert tf.single
+
+    # Test single rotation and multiple translations
+    t = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    assert not tf.single
+
+    for i in range(t.shape[0]):
+        expected = xp.zeros((4, 4))
+        expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., :3, :3].set(r.as_matrix())
+        expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., :3, 3].set(t[i, ...])
+        expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., 3, 3].set(1)
+        xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[i, ...], expected, atol=atol)
+
+    # Test multiple rotations and translations
+    t = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('zyx', xp.asarray([[90, 0, 0], [0, 90, 0]]), degrees=True)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    assert not tf.single
+
+    for i in range(t.shape[0]):
+        expected = xp.zeros((4, 4))
+        expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., :3, :3].set(r.as_matrix()[i, ...])
+        expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., :3, 3].set(t[i, ...])
+        expected = xpx.at(expected)[..., 3, 3].set(1)
+        xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix()[i, ...], expected, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_from_components_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Test single rotation and translation
+    t = [1, 2, 3]
+    r = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    tf_expected = RigidTransform.from_components(np.array(t), r)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), tf_expected.as_matrix(), atol=1e-12)
+    assert tf.single
+
+    # Test multiple rotations and translations
+    t = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
+    r = Rotation.random(len(t), rng=rng)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    tf_expected = RigidTransform.from_components(np.array(t), r)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), tf_expected.as_matrix(), atol=1e-12)
+    assert not tf.single
+
+
+
+def test_as_components(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    n = 10
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    t = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(n, 3)))
+    r = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(n, rng=rng), xp=xp)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    new_t, new_r = tf.as_components()
+    assert all(new_r.approx_equal(r, atol=atol))
+    xp_assert_close(new_t, t, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_from_exp_coords(xp):
+    # example from 3.3 of
+    # https://hades.mech.northwestern.edu/images/2/25/MR-v2.pdf
+    angle1 = np.deg2rad(30.0)
+    mat = xp.asarray([
+        [np.cos(angle1), -np.sin(angle1), 0.0, 1.0],
+        [np.sin(angle1), np.cos(angle1), 0.0, 2.0],
+        [0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0],
+        [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]
+    ])
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_matrix(mat)
+    angle2 = np.deg2rad(60.0)
+    mat = xp.asarray([
+        [np.cos(angle2), -np.sin(angle2), 0.0, 2.0],
+        [np.sin(angle2), np.cos(angle2), 0.0, 1.0],
+        [0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0],
+        [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]
+    ])
+    tf2 = RigidTransform.from_matrix(mat)
+    expected = tf2 * tf1.inv()
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(
+        np.deg2rad(30.0) * xp.asarray([0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 3.37, -3.37, 0.0]))
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected.as_matrix(), atol=1e-2)
+
+    # test cases generated by comparison to pytransform3d
+    exp_coords = xp.asarray([
+        [-2.01041204, -0.52983629, 0.65773501,
+         0.10386614, 0.05855009, 0.54959179],
+        [-0.22537438, -0.24132627, -2.4747121,
+         -0.09158594,  1.88075832, -0.03197204]
+    ])
+    expected_matrix = xp.asarray([
+        [[0.76406621, 0.10504613, -0.63652819, -0.10209961],
+         [0.59956454, -0.47987325, 0.64050295, 0.40158789],
+         [-0.2381705, -0.87102639, -0.42963687, 0.19637636],
+         [0., 0., 0., 1.]],
+        [[-0.78446989, 0.61157488, 0.10287448, 1.33330055],
+         [-0.58017785, -0.78232107, 0.22664378, 0.52660831],
+         [0.21909052, 0.11810973, 0.96852952, -0.02968529],
+         [0., 0., 0., 1.]]
+    ])
+    xp_assert_close(
+        RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(exp_coords).as_matrix(),
+        expected_matrix, atol=1e-8)
+
+    # identity
+    xp_assert_close(
+        RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(xp.zeros(6)).as_matrix(),
+        xp.eye(4), atol=1e-12)
+
+    # only translation
+    expected_matrix = xp.asarray([
+        [[1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 3.0],
+         [0.0, 1.0, 0.0, -5.4],
+         [0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 100.2],
+         [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]],
+        [[1.0, 0.0, 0.0, -3.0],
+         [0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 13.3],
+         [0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 1.3],
+         [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]]
+    ])
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 3.0, -5.4, 100.2],
+        [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, -3.0, 13.3, 1.3],
+    ]))
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected_matrix, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # only rotation
+    rot = Rotation.from_euler(
+        'zyx',
+        xp.asarray([[34, -12, 0.5],
+                    [-102, -55, 30]]),
+        degrees=True)
+    rotvec = rot.as_rotvec()
+    expected_matrix = xp.repeat(xp.eye(4)[None, ...], 2, axis=0)
+    expected_matrix = xpx.at(expected_matrix)[..., :3, :3].set(rot.as_matrix())
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(
+        xp.concat((rotvec, xp.zeros((2, 3))), axis=-1))
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected_matrix, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_from_exp_coords_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Test single transform
+    t = np.array([1, 2, 3])
+    r = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    tf_expected = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    exp_coords = tf_expected.as_exp_coords().tolist()
+    assert isinstance(exp_coords, list)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(exp_coords)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), tf_expected.as_matrix(), atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Test multiple transforms
+    t = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
+    r = Rotation.random(len(t), rng=rng)
+    tf_expected = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    exp_coords = tf_expected.as_exp_coords().tolist()
+    assert isinstance(exp_coords, list)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(exp_coords)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), tf_expected.as_matrix(), atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_as_exp_coords(xp):
+    # identity
+    expected = xp.zeros(6)
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(expected).as_exp_coords()
+    xp_assert_close(actual, expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(10)
+
+    # pure rotation
+    rot_vec = xp.asarray(rng.normal(scale=0.1, size=(1000, 3)))
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_rotation(Rotation.from_rotvec(rot_vec))
+    exp_coords = tf.as_exp_coords()
+    xp_assert_close(exp_coords[:, :3], rot_vec, rtol=1e-13)
+    expected = xp.zeros_like(rot_vec)
+    xp_assert_close(exp_coords[:, 3:], expected, atol=1e-16)
+
+    # pure translation
+    translation = xp.asarray(rng.normal(scale=100.0, size=(1000, 3)))
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_translation(translation)
+    exp_coords = tf.as_exp_coords()
+    xp_assert_close(exp_coords[:, :3], expected, atol=1e-16)
+    xp_assert_close(exp_coords[:, 3:], translation, rtol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_from_dual_quat(xp):
+    # identity
+    xp_assert_close(
+        RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+            xp.asarray([0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0])).as_matrix(),
+        xp.eye(4), atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(
+        RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+            xp.asarray([1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]),
+            scalar_first=True).as_matrix(),
+        xp.eye(4), atol=1e-12)
+
+    # only translation
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1, 0.25, 0.15, -0.7, 0]))
+    expected_matrix = xp.asarray([
+        [1, 0, 0, 0.5],
+        [0, 1, 0, 0.3],
+        [0, 0, 1, -1.4],
+        [0, 0, 0, 1]
+    ])
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected_matrix, atol=1e-12)
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.25, 0.15, -0.7]), scalar_first=True)
+    expected_matrix = xp.asarray([
+        [1, 0, 0, 0.5],
+        [0, 1, 0, 0.3],
+        [0, 0, 1, -1.4],
+        [0, 0, 0, 1]
+    ])
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected_matrix, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # only rotation
+    actual_rot = Rotation.from_euler("xyz", xp.asarray([65, -13, 90]), degrees=True)
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        xp.concat((actual_rot.as_quat(), xp.zeros(4)), axis=-1))
+    expected_matrix = xp.eye(4)
+    expected_matrix = xpx.at(expected_matrix)[..., :3, :3].set(actual_rot.as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected_matrix, atol=1e-12)
+
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        xp.concat((actual_rot.as_quat(scalar_first=True), xp.zeros(4)), axis=-1),
+        scalar_first=True)
+    expected_matrix = xp.eye(4)
+    expected_matrix = xpx.at(expected_matrix)[..., :3, :3].set(actual_rot.as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected_matrix, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # rotation and translation
+    # rtol is set to 1e-7 because xp_assert_close deviates from
+    # np.testing.assert_allclose in that it does not automatically default to 1e-7 for
+    # floating point inputs.
+    # See https://numpy.org/doc/2.2/reference/generated/numpy.testing.assert_allclose.html
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        xp.asarray(
+        [[0.0617101, -0.06483886, 0.31432811, 0.94508498,
+          0.04985168, -0.26119618, 0.1691491, -0.07743254],
+         [0.19507259, 0.49404931, -0.06091285, 0.8450749,
+          0.65049656, -0.30782513, 0.16566752, 0.04174544]]))
+    expected_matrix = xp.asarray(
+        [[[0.79398752, -0.60213598, -0.08376202, 0.24605262],
+          [0.58613113, 0.79477941, -0.15740392, -0.4932833],
+          [0.16135089, 0.07588122, 0.98397557, 0.34262676],
+          [0., 0., 0., 1.]],
+         [[0.50440981, 0.2957028, 0.81125249, 1.20934468],
+          [0.08979911, 0.91647262, -0.3898898, -0.70540077],
+          [-0.8587822, 0.26951399, 0.43572393, -0.47776265],
+          [0., 0., 0., 1.]]])
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected_matrix, atol=1e-12, rtol=1e-7)
+
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        xp.asarray(
+        [[0.94508498, 0.0617101, -0.06483886, 0.31432811,
+          -0.07743254, 0.04985168, -0.26119618, 0.1691491],
+         [0.8450749, 0.19507259, 0.49404931, -0.06091285,
+          0.04174544, 0.65049656, -0.30782513, 0.16566752]]),
+        scalar_first=True)
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), expected_matrix, atol=1e-12, rtol=1e-7)
+
+    # unnormalized dual quaternions
+
+    # invalid real quaternion with norm 0
+    actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(xp.zeros(8))
+    xp_assert_close(actual.as_matrix(), xp.eye(4), atol=1e-12)
+
+    # real quaternion with norm != 1
+    unnormalized_dual_quat = xp.asarray(
+        [-0.2547655, 1.23506123, 0.20230088, 0.24247194,  # norm 1.3
+         0.38559628, 0.08184063, 0.1755943, -0.1582222]  # orthogonal
+    )
+    xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(unnormalized_dual_quat[:4]), xp.asarray(1.3)[()],
+                    atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(xp.vecdot(unnormalized_dual_quat[:4],
+                              unnormalized_dual_quat[4:])[()],
+                    xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=1e-8)
+
+    dual_quat = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        unnormalized_dual_quat).as_dual_quat()
+    xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(dual_quat[:4]), xp.asarray(1.0)[()], atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(xp.vecdot(dual_quat[:4], dual_quat[4:])[()], xp.asarray(0.0)[()],
+                    atol=1e-12)
+
+    # real and dual quaternion are not orthogonal
+    unnormalized_dual_quat = xp.asarray(
+        [0.20824458, 0.75098079, 0.54542913, -0.30849493,  # unit norm
+         -0.16051025, 0.10742978, 0.21277201, 0.20596935]  # not orthogonal
+    )
+    xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(unnormalized_dual_quat[:4]), xp.asarray(1.0)[()],
+                    atol=1e-12)
+    assert xp.vecdot(unnormalized_dual_quat[:4], unnormalized_dual_quat[4:]) != 0.0
+    dual_quat = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        unnormalized_dual_quat).as_dual_quat()
+    xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(dual_quat[:4]), xp.asarray(1.0)[()], atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(xp.vecdot(dual_quat[:4], dual_quat[4:])[()], xp.asarray(0.0)[()],
+                    atol=1e-12)
+
+    # invalid real quaternion with norm 0, non-orthogonal dual quaternion
+    unnormalized_dual_quat = xp.asarray(
+        [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, -0.16051025, 0.10742978, 0.21277201, 0.20596935])
+    assert xp.vecdot(xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]), unnormalized_dual_quat[4:]) != 0.0
+    dual_quat = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        unnormalized_dual_quat).as_dual_quat()
+    xp_assert_close(dual_quat[:4], xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]), atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(xp.vecdot(dual_quat[:4], dual_quat[4:])[()], xp.asarray(0.0)[()],
+                    atol=1e-12)
+
+    # compensation for precision loss in real quaternion
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(1000)
+    t = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(3,)))
+    r = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(10, rng=rng), xp=xp)
+    random_dual_quats = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r).as_dual_quat()
+
+    # ensure that random quaternions are not normalized
+    random_dual_quats = xpx.at(random_dual_quats)[:, :4].add(0.01)
+    assert not xp.any(xpx.isclose(xp_vector_norm(random_dual_quats[:, :4], axis=1), 
+                                  1.0, atol=0.0001))
+    dual_quat_norm = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        random_dual_quats).as_dual_quat()
+    expected = xp.ones(dual_quat_norm.shape[0])
+    xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(dual_quat_norm[:, :4], axis=1), expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # compensation for precision loss in dual quaternion, results in violation
+    # of orthogonality constraint
+    t = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(10, 3)))
+    r = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(10, rng=rng), xp=xp)
+    random_dual_quats = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r).as_dual_quat()
+
+    # ensure that random quaternions are not normalized
+    random_dual_quats = xpx.at(random_dual_quats)[:, 4:].add(0.01)
+    q_norm = xp.vecdot(random_dual_quats[:, :4], random_dual_quats[:, 4:])
+    assert not xp.any(xpx.isclose(q_norm, 0.0, atol=0.0001))
+    dual_quat_norm = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(
+        random_dual_quats).as_dual_quat()
+    expected = xp.zeros(dual_quat_norm.shape[0])
+    xp_assert_close(xp.vecdot(dual_quat_norm[:, :4], dual_quat_norm[:, 4:]), expected,
+                              atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(random_dual_quats[:, :4], dual_quat_norm[:, :4], atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_from_dual_quat_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Test single transform
+    t = np.array([1, 2, 3])
+    r = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    tf_expected = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    dual_quat = tf_expected.as_dual_quat().tolist()
+    assert isinstance(dual_quat, list)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(dual_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), tf_expected.as_matrix(), atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Test multiple transforms
+    t = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
+    r = Rotation.random(len(t), rng=rng)
+    tf_expected = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    dual_quat = tf_expected.as_dual_quat().tolist()
+    assert isinstance(dual_quat, list)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(dual_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), tf_expected.as_matrix(), atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_as_dual_quat(xp):
+    # identity
+    expected = xp.asarray([0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0])
+    actual = xp.asarray(RigidTransform.identity().as_dual_quat())
+    xp_assert_close(actual, expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+    expected = xp.asarray([1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0])
+    actual = xp.asarray(RigidTransform.identity().as_dual_quat(scalar_first=True))
+    xp_assert_close(actual, expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(10)
+
+    # only rotation
+    for _ in range(10):
+        real_part = xp.asarray(Rotation.random(rng=rng).as_quat())
+        dual_part = xp.zeros(4)
+        expected = xp.concat((real_part, dual_part), axis=-1)
+        actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(expected).as_dual_quat()
+        # because of double cover:
+        if xp.sign(expected[0]) != xp.sign(actual[0]):
+            actual = -actual
+        xp_assert_close(actual, expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # only translation
+    for _ in range(10):
+        tf = 0.5 * rng.normal(size=3)
+        expected = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1, *tf.tolist(), 0])
+        actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(expected).as_dual_quat()
+        # because of double cover:
+        if xp.sign(expected[0]) != xp.sign(actual[0]):
+            actual = -actual
+        xp_assert_close(actual, expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # rotation and translation
+    for _ in range(10):
+        t = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=3))
+        r = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(rng=rng), xp=xp)
+        expected = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r).as_dual_quat()
+        actual = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(expected).as_dual_quat()
+        # because of double cover:
+        if xp.sign(expected[0]) != xp.sign(actual[0]):
+            actual = -actual
+        xp_assert_close(actual, expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_from_as_internal_consistency(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    n = 1000
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(10)
+    t = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(n, 3)))
+    r = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(n, rng=rng), xp=xp)
+    tf0 = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_components(*tf0.as_components())
+    xp_assert_close(tf0.as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_components(tf0.translation, tf0.rotation)
+    xp_assert_close(tf0.as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(tf0.as_exp_coords())
+    xp_assert_close(tf0.as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_matrix(tf0.as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(tf0.as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(tf0.as_dual_quat())
+    xp_assert_close(tf0.as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+    # exp_coords small rotation
+    tf0 = RigidTransform.from_components(
+        xp.asarray(rng.normal(scale=1000.0, size=(1000, 3))),
+        Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray(rng.normal(scale=1e-10, size=(1000, 3)))))
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(tf0.as_exp_coords())
+    xp_assert_close(tf0.as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_identity():
+    # We do not use xp here because identity always returns numpy arrays
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test single identity
+    tf = RigidTransform.identity()
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), np.eye(4), atol=atol)
+
+    # Test multiple identities
+    tf = RigidTransform.identity(5)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), np.array([np.eye(4)] * 5), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_apply(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    ## Single transform
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    t = xp.asarray([2, 3, 4])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    # Single vector, single transform
+    vec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    expected = t + r.apply(vec)
+    res = tf.apply(vec)
+    xp_assert_close(res, expected, atol=atol)
+
+    # Multiple vectors, single transform
+    vecs = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
+    expected = t + r.apply(vecs)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vecs), expected, atol=atol)
+
+    ## Multiple transforms
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray([90, 0]), degrees=True)
+    t = xp.asarray([[2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7]])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    # Single vector, multiple transforms
+    vec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    expected = t + r.apply(vec)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+
+    # Multiple vectors, multiple transforms
+    vecs = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
+    expected = t + r.apply(vecs)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vecs), expected, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_apply_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single vector
+    t = np.array([1, 2, 3])
+    r = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    vec = [1, 0, 0]
+    expected = t + r.apply(vec)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vec), expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple vectors
+    t = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    r = Rotation.random(len(t), rng=rng)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    vec = [[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
+    expected = t + r.apply(vec)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vec), expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_inverse_apply(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test applying inverse transform
+    t = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    # Test single vector
+    vec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    expected = tf.inv().apply(vec)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vec, inverse=True), expected, atol=atol)
+
+    # Test multiple vectors
+    vecs = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
+    expected = tf.inv().apply(vecs)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vecs, inverse=True), expected, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_rotation_alone(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_rotation(r)
+    vec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    expected = r.apply(vec)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_translation_alone(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    t = xp.asarray([1.0, 2, 3])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_translation(t)
+    vec = xp.asarray([5.0, 6, 7])
+    expected = t + vec
+    xp_assert_close(tf.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_composition(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test composing single transforms
+    t1 = xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0])
+    r1 = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_components(t1, r1)
+
+    t2 = xp.asarray([0, 1, 0])
+    r2 = Rotation.from_euler('x', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    tf2 = RigidTransform.from_components(t2, r2)
+
+    composed = tf2 * tf1
+    vec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    expected = tf2.apply(tf1.apply(vec))
+    xp_assert_close(composed.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+    assert composed.single
+
+    expected = t2 + r2.apply(t1 + r1.apply(vec))
+    xp_assert_close(composed.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+
+    # Multiple transforms with single transform
+    t2 = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    tf2 = RigidTransform.from_components(t2, r2)
+
+    composed = tf2 * tf1
+    expected = tf2.apply(tf1.apply(vec))
+    xp_assert_close(composed.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+    assert not composed.single
+
+    expected = t2 + r2.apply(t1 + r1.apply(vec))
+    xp_assert_close(composed.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+
+    # Multiple transforms with multiple transforms
+    t1 = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [0, -1, 1]])
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_components(t1, r1)
+
+    composed = tf2 * tf1
+    expected = tf2.apply(tf1.apply(vec))
+    xp_assert_close(composed.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+    assert not composed.single
+
+    expected = t2 + r2.apply(t1 + r1.apply(vec))
+    xp_assert_close(composed.apply(vec), expected, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_pow(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    num = 10
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(100)
+    t = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(num, 3)))
+    r = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(num, rng=rng), xp=xp)
+    p = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    p_inv = p.inv()
+
+    # Test the short-cuts and other integers
+    for n in [-5, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 5]:
+        q = p**n
+        r = rigid_transform_to_xp(RigidTransform.identity(num), xp=xp)
+        for _ in range(abs(n)):
+            if n > 0:
+                r = r * p
+            else:
+                r = r * p_inv
+        xp_assert_close(q.as_matrix(), r.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+        # Test shape preservation
+        r = RigidTransform.from_rotation(Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1])))
+        assert (r**n).as_matrix().shape == (4, 4)
+        r = RigidTransform.from_rotation(Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 1]])))
+        assert (r**n).as_matrix().shape == (1, 4, 4)
+
+    # Test fractional powers
+    q = p**0.5
+    xp_assert_close((q * q).as_matrix(), p.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    q = p**-0.5
+    xp_assert_close((q * q).as_matrix(), p.inv().as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    q = p** 1.5
+    xp_assert_close((q * q).as_matrix(), (p**3).as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    q = p** -1.5
+    xp_assert_close((q * q).as_matrix(), (p**-3).as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+    # pow function
+    tf = pow(RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.eye(4)), 2)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.as_matrix(), xp.eye(4), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_pow_equivalence_with_rotation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    num = 10
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(100)
+    r = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(num, rng=rng), xp=xp)
+    p = RigidTransform.from_rotation(r)
+    for n in [-5, -2, -1.5, -1, -0.5, 0.0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 5]:
+        xp_assert_close((p**n).rotation.as_matrix(), (r**n).as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_inverse(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test inverse transform
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    t = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    # Test that tf * tf.inv() equals identity
+    tf_inv = tf.inv()
+    composed = tf * tf_inv
+    xp_assert_close(composed.as_matrix(), xp.eye(4), atol=atol)
+
+    n = 10
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(1000)
+    t = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(n, 3)))
+    r = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(n, rng=rng), xp=xp)
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    tf_inv = tf.inv()
+    composed = tf * tf_inv
+    expected = xp.repeat(xp.eye(4)[None, ...], n, axis=0)
+    xp_assert_close(composed.as_matrix(), expected, atol=atol)
+
+    # Test multiple transforms
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('zyx', xp.asarray([[90, 0, 0], [0, 90, 0]]), degrees=True)
+    t = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+    tf_inv = tf.inv()
+    composed = tf * tf_inv
+    expected = xp.repeat(xp.eye(4)[None, ...], 2, axis=0)
+    xp_assert_close(composed.as_matrix(), expected, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_properties(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test rotation and translation properties for single transform
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    t = xp.asarray([1.0, 2, 3])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    xp_assert_close(tf.rotation.as_matrix(), r.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    assert tf.rotation.approx_equal(r)
+    xp_assert_close(tf.translation, t, atol=atol)
+
+    # Test rotation and translation properties for multiple transforms
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('zyx', xp.asarray([[90, 0, 0], [0, 90, 0]]), degrees=True)
+    t = xp.asarray([[1.0, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    xp_assert_close(tf.rotation.as_matrix(), r.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    assert all(tf.rotation.approx_equal(r))
+    xp_assert_close(tf.translation, t, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_indexing(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test indexing for multiple transforms
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('zyx', xp.asarray([[90, 0, 0], [0, 90, 0]]), degrees=True)
+    t = xp.asarray([[1.0, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    # Test single index
+    xp_assert_close(tf[0].as_matrix()[:3, :3], r[0].as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf[0].as_matrix()[:3, 3], t[0, ...], atol=atol)
+
+    # Test slice
+    tf_slice = tf[0:2]
+    xp_assert_close(tf_slice.as_matrix()[:, :3, :3], r[0:2].as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf_slice.as_matrix()[:, :3, 3], t[0:2, ...], atol=atol)
+
+    # Test boolean indexing
+    tf_masked = tf[xp.asarray([True, True])]
+    xp_assert_close(tf_masked.as_matrix()[:, :3, :3], r.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf_masked.as_matrix()[:, :3, 3], t, atol=atol)
+
+    tf_masked = tf[xp.asarray([False, True])]
+    xp_assert_close(tf_masked.as_matrix()[:, :3, :3],
+                    r[xp.asarray([False, True])].as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf_masked.as_matrix()[:, :3, 3], t[xp.asarray([False, True])],
+                    atol=atol)
+
+    tf_masked = tf[xp.asarray([False, False])]
+    assert len(tf_masked) == 0
+
+
+def test_indexing_array_like():
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('zyx', np.array([[90, 0, 0], [0, 90, 0]]), degrees=True)
+    t = np.array([[1.0, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(t, r)
+
+    tf_masked = tf[[False, True]]
+    xp_assert_close(tf_masked.as_matrix()[:, :3, :3], r[[False, True]].as_matrix(),
+                    atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(tf_masked.as_matrix()[:, :3, 3], t[[False, True]], atol=atol)
+    tf_masked = tf[[False, False]]
+    assert len(tf_masked) == 0
+
+
+def test_concatenate(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+
+    # Test concatenation of transforms
+    t1 = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    r1 = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    tf1 = RigidTransform.from_components(t1, r1)
+
+    t2 = xp.asarray([0, 1, 0])
+    r2 = Rotation.from_euler('x', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True)
+    tf2 = RigidTransform.from_components(t2, r2)
+
+    # Concatenate single transforms
+    concatenated1 = RigidTransform.concatenate([tf1, tf2])
+    xp_assert_close(concatenated1[0].as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(concatenated1[1].as_matrix(), tf2.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+    # Concatenate multiple transforms
+    concatenated2 = RigidTransform.concatenate([tf1, concatenated1])
+    xp_assert_close(concatenated2[0].as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(concatenated2[1].as_matrix(), tf1.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(concatenated2[2].as_matrix(), tf2.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_input_validation(xp):
+    # Test invalid matrix shapes
+    inputs = [xp.eye(3), xp.zeros((4, 3)), [], xp.zeros((1, 1, 4, 4))]
+    for input in inputs:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected `matrix` to have shape"):
+            RigidTransform.from_matrix(input)
+
+    # Test invalid last row
+    matrix = xp.eye(4)
+    matrix = xpx.at(matrix)[3, :].set(xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 1]))
+    if is_lazy_array(matrix):
+        matrix = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix).as_matrix()
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(matrix))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="last row of transformation matrix 0"):
+            RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix)
+
+    # Test invalid last row for multiple transforms
+    matrix = xp.zeros((2, 4, 4))
+    matrix = xpx.at(matrix)[...].set(xp.eye(4))
+    matrix = xpx.at(matrix)[1, 3, :].set(xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 1]))
+    if is_lazy_array(matrix):
+        matrix = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix).as_matrix()
+        assert not xp.any(xp.isnan(matrix[0, ...]))
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(matrix[1, ...]))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="last row of transformation matrix 1"):
+            RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix)
+
+    # Test left handed rotation matrix
+    matrix = xp.eye(4)
+    matrix = xpx.at(matrix)[0, 0].set(-1)
+    if is_lazy_array(matrix):
+        matrix = RigidTransform.from_matrix(matrix).as_matrix()
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(matrix[..., :3, :3]))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Non-positive determinant"):
+            RigidTransform(matrix, normalize=True)
+
+    # Test non-Rotation input
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                       match="Expected `rotation` to be a `Rotation` instance"):
+        RigidTransform.from_rotation(xp.eye(3))
+
+
+def test_translation_validation(xp):
+    # Test invalid translation shapes
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected `translation` to have shape"):
+        RigidTransform.from_translation(xp.asarray([1, 2]))
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected `translation` to have shape"):
+        RigidTransform.from_translation(xp.zeros((2, 2)))
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected `translation` to have shape"):
+        RigidTransform.from_translation(xp.zeros((1, 1, 3)))
+
+
+def test_vector_validation(xp):
+    tf = rigid_transform_to_xp(RigidTransform.identity(2), xp=xp)
+
+    # Test invalid vector shapes
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected vector to have shape"):
+        tf.apply(xp.asarray([1, 2]))
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected vector to have shape"):
+        tf.apply(xp.zeros((2, 2)))
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected vector to have shape"):
+        tf.apply(xp.zeros((1, 1, 3)))
+
+
+def test_indexing_validation(xp):
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.eye(4))
+
+    # Test indexing on single transform
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="Single transform is not subscriptable"):
+        tf[0]
+
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="Single transform is not subscriptable"):
+        tf[0:1]
+
+    # Test length on single transform
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="Single transform has no len"):
+        len(tf)
+
+
+def test_composition_validation(xp):
+    tf2 = RigidTransform.from_translation(xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]))
+    tf3 = RigidTransform.from_translation(xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]))
+
+    # Test incompatible shapes
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected equal number of transforms"):
+        tf2 * tf3
+
+
+def test_concatenate_validation(xp):
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.eye(4))
+
+    # Test invalid inputs
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError,
+                       match="input must contain RigidTransform objects"):
+        RigidTransform.concatenate([tf, xp.eye(4)])
+
+
+def test_setitem_validation(xp):
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_translation(xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]))
+    single = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.eye(4))
+
+    # Test setting item on single transform
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="Single transform is not subscriptable"):
+        single[0] = tf
+
+    # Test invalid value type
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="value must be a RigidTransform"):
+        tf[0] = xp.eye(4)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.skip_xp_backends("jax.numpy",
+                              reason="JAX does not support memory sharing")
+def test_copy_flag(xp):
+    # Test that copy=True creates new memory
+    matrix = xp.eye(4)
+    tf = RigidTransform(matrix, normalize=False, copy=True)
+    matrix[0, 0] = 2
+    assert tf.as_matrix()[0, 0] == 1
+
+    # Test that copy=False shares memory
+    matrix = xp.eye(4)
+    tf = RigidTransform(matrix, normalize=False, copy=False)
+    matrix[0, 0] = 2
+    assert tf.as_matrix()[0, 0] == 2
+
+
+def test_normalize_dual_quaternion(xp):
+    dual_quat = normalize_dual_quaternion(xp.zeros((1, 8)))
+    xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(dual_quat[0, :4], axis=-1), xp.asarray(1.0)[()],
+                    atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(xp.vecdot(dual_quat[0, :4], dual_quat[0, 4:])[()],
+                    xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=1e-12)
+
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(103213650)
+    dual_quat = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(1000, 8)))
+    dual_quat = normalize_dual_quaternion(dual_quat)
+    expected = xp.ones(dual_quat.shape[0])
+    xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(dual_quat[:, :4], axis=-1), expected, atol=1e-12)
+    expected = xp.zeros(dual_quat.shape[0])
+    xp_assert_close(xp.vecdot(dual_quat[:, :4], dual_quat[:, 4:]), expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_empty_transform_construction(xp):
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.empty((0, 4, 4)))
+    assert len(tf) == 0
+    assert not tf.single
+    
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_rotation(Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4))))
+    assert len(tf) == 0
+    assert not tf.single
+
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_translation(xp.empty((0, 3)))
+    assert len(tf) == 0
+    assert not tf.single
+
+    empty_rot = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_components(xp.empty((0, 3)), empty_rot)
+    assert len(tf) == 0
+    assert not tf.single
+
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_exp_coords(xp.empty((0, 6)))
+    assert len(tf) == 0
+    assert not tf.single
+
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_dual_quat(xp.empty((0, 8)))
+    assert len(tf) == 0
+    assert not tf.single
+
+    tf = RigidTransform.identity(0)
+    assert len(tf) == 0
+    assert not tf.single
+
+
+def test_empty_transform_representation(xp):
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.empty((0, 4, 4)))
+
+    assert len(tf.rotation) == 0
+    assert tf.translation.shape == (0, 3)
+
+    t, r = tf.as_components()
+    assert t.shape == (0, 3)
+    assert len(r) == 0
+
+    assert tf.as_matrix().shape == (0, 4, 4)
+    assert tf.as_exp_coords().shape == (0, 6)
+    assert tf.as_dual_quat().shape == (0, 8)
+
+
+def test_empty_transform_application(xp):
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.empty((0, 4, 4)))
+
+    assert tf.apply(xp.zeros((3,))).shape == (0, 3)
+    assert tf.apply(xp.empty((0, 3))).shape == (0, 3)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="operands could not be broadcast together"):
+        tf.apply(xp.zeros((2, 3)))
+
+
+def test_empty_transform_composition(xp):
+    tf_empty = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.empty((0, 4, 4)))
+    tf_single = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.eye(4))
+    tf_many = rigid_transform_to_xp(RigidTransform.identity(3), xp=xp)
+
+    assert len(tf_empty * tf_empty) == 0
+    assert len(tf_empty * tf_single) == 0
+    assert len(tf_single * tf_empty) == 0
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected equal number of transforms"):
+        tf_many * tf_empty
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected equal number of transforms"):
+        tf_empty * tf_many
+
+
+def test_empty_transform_concatenation(xp):
+    tf_empty = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.empty((0, 4, 4)))
+    tf_single = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.eye(4))
+    tf_many = rigid_transform_to_xp(RigidTransform.identity(2), xp=xp)
+
+    assert len(RigidTransform.concatenate([tf_empty, tf_empty])) == 0
+    assert len(RigidTransform.concatenate([tf_empty, tf_single])) == 1
+    assert len(RigidTransform.concatenate([tf_single, tf_empty])) == 1
+    assert len(RigidTransform.concatenate([tf_empty, tf_many])) == 2
+    assert len(RigidTransform.concatenate([tf_many, tf_empty])) == 2
+    assert len(RigidTransform.concatenate([tf_many, tf_empty, tf_single])) == 3
+
+
+def test_empty_transform_inv_and_pow(xp):
+    tf = RigidTransform.from_matrix(xp.empty((0, 4, 4)))
+    assert len(tf.inv()) == 0
+    assert len(tf ** 0) == 0
+    assert len(tf ** 1) == 0
+    assert len(tf ** -1) == 0
+    assert len(tf ** 0.5) == 0
+
+
+def test_empty_transform_indexing(xp):
+    tf_many = rigid_transform_to_xp(RigidTransform.identity(3), xp=xp)
+    tf_zero = tf_many[xp.asarray([], dtype=xp.int64)]
+    assert len(tf_zero) == 0
+
+    assert len(tf_zero[xp.asarray([], dtype=xp.int64)]) == 0
+    # Array API does not specify out-of-bounds indexing. Only check for numpy.
+    if is_numpy(xp):
+        assert len(tf_zero[:5]) == 0  # Slices can go out of bounds.
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        tf_zero[0]
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        tf_zero[xp.asarray([0, 2])]
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        tf_zero[xp.asarray([False, True])]