relationalai 0.13.0__py3-none-any.whl → 0.13.0.dev0__py3-none-any.whl

v0/relationalai/semantics/sql/compiler.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2503 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import datetime
+import logging
+from collections import defaultdict
+from dataclasses import dataclass, field
+from functools import partial
+from itertools import chain
+from typing import Tuple, cast, Optional, Union
+from decimal import Decimal as PyDecimal
+
+import math
+
+from v0.relationalai.semantics.metamodel.rewrite import (Flatten, ExtractNestedLogicals, DNFUnionSplitter,
+                                                      DischargeConstraints)
+from v0.relationalai.semantics.metamodel.visitor import ReadWriteVisitor
+from v0.relationalai.util.graph import topological_sort
+from v0.relationalai.semantics.metamodel import ir, compiler as c, visitor as v, builtins, types, helpers
+from v0.relationalai.semantics.metamodel.typer import Checker, InferTypes, typer
+from v0.relationalai.semantics.metamodel.builtins import from_cdc_annotation, concept_relation_annotation
+from v0.relationalai.semantics.metamodel.types import (Hash, String, Number, Int64, Int128, Bool, Date, DateTime, Float,
+                                                    RowId, UInt128)
+from v0.relationalai.semantics.metamodel.util import (FrozenOrderedSet, OrderedSet, frozen, ordered_set, filter_by_type,
+                                                   NameCache)
+from v0.relationalai.semantics.sql import sql, rewrite
+
+
+class Compiler(c.Compiler):
+    def __init__(self, skip_denormalization:bool=False):
+        rewrites = [
+            DischargeConstraints(),
+            Checker(),
+            ExtractNestedLogicals(),  # before InferTypes to avoid extracting casts
+            InferTypes(),
+            DNFUnionSplitter(),
+            Flatten(handle_outputs=False),
+            rewrite.RecursiveUnion(),
+            rewrite.DoubleNegation(),
+            rewrite.SortOutputQuery()
+        ]
+        if not skip_denormalization:
+            # group updates, compute SCCs, use Sequence to denote their order
+            rewrites.append(rewrite.Denormalize())
+        super().__init__(rewrites)
+        self.model_to_sql = ModelToSQL()
+
+    def do_compile(self, model: ir.Model, options:dict={}) -> tuple[str, ir.Model]:
+        """
+        Compile the rewritten model into a SQL string. Returns the SQL string together
+        with the rewritten model (after the rewrite passes, before translating to sql).
+        """
+        return str(self.model_to_sql.to_sql(model, options)), model
+
+@dataclass(frozen=True)
+class OutputVar:
+    value: ir.Value
+    alias: Optional[str] = None
+    value_type: Optional[str] = None
+    task: Optional[ir.Task] = None
+
+@dataclass
+class RelationInfo:
+    used: bool = False
+    view_selects: list[sql.Select] = field(default_factory=list)
+    table_selects: list[sql.Select] = field(default_factory=list)
+    dynamic_table_selects: list[sql.Select] = field(default_factory=list)
+
+@dataclass
+class ImportSpec:
+    value: str
+    module: Optional[str] = None  # e.g., "scipy.special"
+
+    def render(self) -> str:
+        return f"from {self.module} import {self.value}" if self.module else f"import {self.value}"
+
+
+@dataclass
+class UDFConfig:
+    handler: str
+    code: str
+    imports: list[ImportSpec] = field(default_factory=list)
+    packages: list[str] = field(default_factory=list)
+
+@dataclass
+class ModelToSQL:
+    """ Generates SQL from an IR Model, assuming the compiler rewrites were done. """
+
+    _is_duck_db: bool = False
+    _warehouse: str = 'MAIN_WH'
+    _query_compilation: bool = False
+    _default_dynamic_table_target_lag: str = '5 minutes'
+    relation_name_cache: NameCache = field(default_factory=NameCache)
+    relation_arg_name_cache: NameCache = field(default_factory=NameCache)
+    relation_infos: dict[ir.Relation, RelationInfo] = field(default_factory=dict)
+    _error_relation_names: set[str] = field(default_factory=lambda: {'Error', 'pyrel_error_attrs'})
+
+    def to_sql(self, model: ir.Model, options:dict) -> sql.Program:
+        self.relation_infos.clear()
+        self._is_duck_db = options.get("is_duck_db", False)
+        self._warehouse = options.get("warehouse") or self._warehouse
+        self._query_compilation = options.get("query_compilation", False)
+        self._default_dynamic_table_target_lag = (options.get("default_dynamic_table_target_lag") or
+                                                  self._default_dynamic_table_target_lag)
+        return sql.Program(self._sort_dependencies(self._union_output_selects(self._generate_statements(model))))
+
+    def _generate_statements(self, model: ir.Model) -> list[sql.Node]:
+        table_relations, used_builtins = self._get_relations(model)
+
+        self._register_relation_args(table_relations)
+        self._register_external_relations(model)
+
+        statements: list[sql.Node] = []
+        # 1. Process root logical body
+        root = cast(ir.Logical, model.root)
+        for child in root.body:
+            if isinstance(child, ir.Logical):
+                statements.extend(self._create_statement(cast(ir.Logical, child)))
+            elif isinstance(child, ir.Union):
+                statements.append(self._create_recursive_view(cast(ir.Union, child)))
+
+        relation_selects = {
+            relation: info.dynamic_table_selects + info.view_selects + info.table_selects
+            for relation, info in self.relation_infos.items()
+            if info.dynamic_table_selects or info.view_selects or info.table_selects
+        }
+
+        # 3. Handle each relation with proper priority
+        for relation, selects in relation_selects.items():
+            table_name = self._relation_name(relation)
+
+            info = self._get_relation_info(relation)
+            if info.table_selects:
+                # Relation is a table → insert into it
+                columns = [self._var_name(relation.id, f) for f in relation.fields]
+                if len(selects) == 1:
+                    statements.append(sql.Insert(table_name, columns, [], selects[0]))
+                else:
+                    statements.append(sql.Insert(table_name, columns, [],
+                                                 sql.CTE(False, f"{table_name}_cte", columns, selects, True)))
+            elif info.view_selects:
+                statements.append(sql.CreateView(table_name, selects))
+            else:
+                # Snowflake currently has issues when using DISTINCT together with UNION in a Dynamic Table.
+                # As a workaround, we generate a CTE without DISTINCT, using UNION ALL.
+                # Then, we create a dynamic table with `SELECT DISTINCT * FROM CTE` to remove duplicates.
+                columns = [self._var_name(relation.id, f) for f in relation.fields]
+                statements.append(
+                    sql.CreateDynamicTable(
+                        table_name,
+                        sql.CTE(False, f"{table_name}_cte", columns, selects, True),
+                        self._default_dynamic_table_target_lag,
+                        self._warehouse
+                    )
+                )
+
+        # 4. Create physical tables for explicitly declared table relations
+        for relation in table_relations:
+            info = self.relation_infos.get(relation)
+            if info is None or info.table_selects:
+                statements.append(self._create_table(relation))
+
+        #5. Create Snowflake user-defined functions
+        if not self._is_duck_db:
+            statements.extend(self._create_user_defined_functions(used_builtins))
+
+        return statements
+
+    #--------------------------------------------------
+    # SQL Generation
+    #--------------------------------------------------
+    def _create_table(self, r: ir.Relation) -> sql.Node:
+        return sql.CreateTable(
+            sql.Table(self._relation_name(r),
+                list(map(lambda f: sql.Column(self._var_name(r.id, f), self._convert_type(f.type)), r.fields))
+            ), self._query_compilation)
+
+    def _create_recursive_view(self, union: ir.Union) -> sql.Node:
+        assert len(union.tasks) >= 2, f"Recursive CTE requires at least 2 tasks (anchor + recursive), but got {len(union.tasks)}."
+        assert all(isinstance(task, ir.Logical) for task in union.tasks), (
+            "All tasks in a recursive CTE must be of type `ir.Logical`. "
+            f"Invalid types: {[type(task).__name__ for task in union.tasks if not isinstance(task, ir.Logical)]}"
+        )
+
+        def make_case_select(logical: ir.Logical):
+            # TODO - assuming a single update per case
+            update = v.collect_by_type(ir.Update, logical).some()
+
+            # Rewrite relation references for recursive lookups
+            old_relation = update.relation
+            new_relation = ir.Relation(f"{old_relation.name}_rec", old_relation.fields, frozen(), frozen())
+            rlr = RecursiveLookupsRewriter(old_relation, new_relation)
+            result = rlr.walk(logical)
+
+            # TODO - improve the typing info to avoid these casts
+            nots = cast(list[ir.Not], filter_by_type(result.body, ir.Not))
+            unions = cast(list[ir.Union], filter_by_type(result.body, ir.Union))
+            lookups = cast(list[ir.Lookup], filter_by_type(result.body, ir.Lookup))
+            constructs = cast(list[ir.Construct], filter_by_type(result.body, ir.Construct))
+
+            aliases = []
+            for i, arg in enumerate(update.args):
+                relation_field = old_relation.fields[i]
+                field_type = self._convert_type(relation_field.type)
+                aliases.append(OutputVar(arg, self._var_name(old_relation.id, relation_field), value_type=field_type))
+
+            return self._make_select(lookups, aliases, nots, unions, constructs)
+
+        # get a representative update
+        update = v.collect_by_type(ir.Update, union).some()
+
+        relation = update.relation
+        self.mark_used(relation)
+        return sql.CreateView(
+            self._relation_name(relation),
+            sql.CTE(
+                True,
+                f"{self._relation_name(relation)}_rec",
+                [self._var_name(relation.id, field) for field in update.relation.fields],
+                [
+                    make_case_select(cast(ir.Logical, task))
+                    for task in union.tasks
+                ]
+            )
+        )
+
+    def _create_user_defined_functions(self, relations: list[ir.Relation]) -> list[sql.CreateFunction]:
+        # Central UDF metadata configuration
+        udf_relations: dict[str, UDFConfig] = {
+            builtins.acot.name: UDFConfig(
+                handler="compute",
+                imports=[ImportSpec("math")],
+                code="""def compute(x): return math.atan(1 / x) if x != 0 else math.copysign(math.pi / 2, x)"""
+            ),
+            builtins.erf.name: UDFConfig(
+                handler="compute",
+                imports=[ImportSpec("math")],
+                code="""def compute(x): return math.erf(x)"""
+            ),
+            builtins.erfinv.name: UDFConfig(
+                handler="compute",
+                imports=[ImportSpec("erfinv", module="scipy.special")],
+                packages=["'scipy'"],
+                code="""def compute(x): return erfinv(x)"""
+            )
+        }
+
+        statements: list[sql.CreateFunction] = []
+
+        for r in relations:
+            meta = udf_relations.get(r.name)
+            if not meta:
+                continue
+
+            # Split relation fields into inputs and return type
+            # We expect a single return argument per builtin relation
+            return_type = None
+            input_columns: list[sql.Column] = []
+            for f in r.fields:
+                if f.input:
+                    input_columns.append(sql.Column(self._var_name(r.id, f), self._convert_type(f.type)))
+                else:
+                    return_type = self._convert_type(f.type)
+
+            # Build a full code block (imports + code)
+            imports_code = "\n".join(imp.render() for imp in meta.imports)
+            python_block = "\n".join(part for part in (imports_code, meta.code) if part)
+
+            assert return_type, f"No return type found for relation '{r.name}'"
+            statements.append(
+                sql.CreateFunction(
+                    name=r.name,
+                    inputs=input_columns,
+                    return_type=return_type,
+                    handler=meta.handler,
+                    body=python_block,
+                    packages=meta.packages
+                )
+            )
+
+        return statements
+
+    def _create_statement(self, task: ir.Logical):
+
+        # TODO - improve the typing info to avoid these casts
+        nots = cast(list[ir.Not], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Not))
+        lookups = cast(list[ir.Lookup], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Lookup))
+        updates = cast(list[ir.Update], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Update))
+        outputs = cast(list[ir.Output], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Output))
+        logicals = cast(list[ir.Logical], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Logical))
+        constructs = cast(list[ir.Construct], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Construct))
+        ranks = cast(list[ir.Rank], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Rank))
+        aggs = cast(list[ir.Aggregate], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Aggregate))
+        unions = cast(list[ir.Union], filter_by_type(task.body, ir.Union))
+
+        var_to_construct = {c.id_var: c for c in constructs} if constructs else {}
+
+        statements = []
+        if updates and not lookups and not nots and not aggs and not logicals and not unions:
+            for u in updates:
+                r = u.relation
+                if r == builtins.raw_source:
+                    lang, src = u.args[0], u.args[1]
+                    if not (isinstance(lang, str) and lang.lower() == "sql"):
+                        logging.warning(f"Unsupported language for RawSource: {lang}")
+                        continue
+                    if not isinstance(src, str):
+                        raise Exception(f"Expected SQL source to be a string, got: {type(src).__name__}")
+                    statements.append(sql.RawSource(src))
+                else:
+                    # Generate select with static values: SELECT hash(V1, ...), V2, V3
+                    #   We need to use `SELECT` instead of `VALUES` because Snowflake parses and restricts certain expressions in VALUES(...).
+                    #       Built-in functions like HASH() or MD5() are often rejected unless used in SELECT.
+                    for values in self._get_tuples(task, u):
+                        output_vars = [
+                            sql.VarRef(str(value), alias=self._var_name(r.id, f))
+                            for f, value in zip(r.fields, values)
+                        ]
+                        self.add_table_select(r, sql.Select(False, output_vars))
+        elif lookups or outputs or nots or aggs or updates:
+            # Some of the lookup relations we wrap into logical and we need to get them out for the SQL compilation.
+            #    For example QB `decimal(0)` in IR will look like this:
+            #        Logical ^[res]
+            #           Exists(vDecimal128)
+            #               Logical
+            #                   cast(Decimal128, 0, vDecimal128)
+            #                   decimal128(vDecimal128, res)
+            unions = self._extract_all_of_type_from_logical(task, ir.Union) if logicals else unions
+            all_lookups = self._extract_all_of_type_from_logical(task, ir.Lookup) if logicals else lookups
+
+            var_to_union = {
+                a: u
+                for u in unions
+                for t in u.tasks
+                if isinstance(t, ir.Lookup)
+                for a in t.args
+                if isinstance(a, ir.Var)
+            } if unions else {}
+
+            if updates:
+                # insert values that match a query: INSERT INTO ... SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE ...
+                for u in updates:
+                    r = u.relation
+                    if self._is_error_relation(r):
+                        # TODO: revisit this during `RAI-39124`. For now we filter out all error relations.
+                        continue
+                    # We shouldn’t create or populate tables for value types that can be directly sourced from existing Snowflake tables.
+                    if not self._is_value_type_population_relation(r):
+                        if all_lookups and all(builtins.is_builtin(lookup.relation) for lookup in all_lookups):
+                            # Assuming static values insert when you have only builtin lookups (like `cast`, etc.) and you do not have table lookups.
+                            aliases = self._get_update_aliases(u, var_to_construct, var_to_union, True)
+                            select = self._make_select(all_lookups, aliases, nots, unions, constructs)
+                            self.add_table_select(r, select)
+                        else:
+                            select = None
+                            drv = DerivedRelationsVisitor()
+                            task.accept(drv)
+                            if aggs:
+                                # After flatten it can be only one aggregation per rule.
+                                select = self._make_agg_select(u, all_lookups, aggs[0], nots, unions, constructs)
+                            elif ranks:
+                                # After flatten it can be only one rank per rule.
+                                select = self._make_rank_select(u, all_lookups, ranks[0], nots, unions, constructs)
+                            else:
+                                # Snowflake currently has issues when using DISTINCT together with UNION in a Dynamic Table.
+                                # That is why we generate statements without DISTINCT, and we remove duplicates later
+                                #   by using CTE + DISTINCT to declare the Dynamic Tables
+                                distinct = True if self._is_duck_db or not drv.is_derived() else False
+                                aliases = self._get_update_aliases(u, var_to_construct, var_to_union)
+
+                                if not unions:
+                                    select = self._make_select(all_lookups, aliases, nots, unions, constructs, distinct)
+                                elif lookups:
+                                    select = self._make_match_select(all_lookups, aliases, unions, nots, constructs, distinct)
+                                else:
+                                    select = self._make_full_outer_join_select(aliases, unions, constructs, distinct)
+
+                            if drv.is_derived() and not self._is_duck_db:
+                                self.add_dynamic_table_select(r, select)
+                            else:
+                                self.add_view_select(r, select)
+            elif outputs:
+                # output a query: SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE ...
+                aliases = []
+                distinct = False
+                for output in outputs:
+                    distinct = distinct or output.keys is None
+                    for key, arg in output.aliases:
+                        aliases.append(self._get_alias(key, arg, None, var_to_construct, var_to_union))
+
+                if not unions:
+                    if all(builtins.is_builtin(lookup.relation) for lookup in all_lookups):
+                        # Example:
+                        #   QB: select(1).where(Foo(1) == Bar(1))
+                        #   IR:
+                        #       Logical
+                        #           1::Foo = 1::Bar
+                        #           -> output(1 as 'v')
+                        select = self._make_select(all_lookups, aliases, nots, unions, constructs, distinct, True)
+                    else:
+                        select = self._make_left_outer_join_select(task, all_lookups, aliases, nots, constructs, distinct)
+                elif lookups:
+                    select = self._make_match_select(all_lookups, aliases, unions, nots, constructs, distinct, True)
+                else:
+                    select = self._make_full_outer_join_select(aliases, unions, constructs, distinct, True)
+
+                statements.append(select)
+        elif logicals:
+            for logical in logicals:
+                statements.extend(self._create_statement(logical))
+        elif not updates and not outputs:
+            # Example:
+            #   QB:
+            #       (
+            #         where(Person.age >= 65).define(Senior(Person)) |
+            #         where(Person.age >= 18).define(Adult(Person)) |
+            #         define(Child(Person))
+            #       )
+            #   After `flatten` IR will look like this:
+            #       Logical
+            #           Union
+            #               _match_7(person_7)
+            #               _match_8(person_7)
+            #               _match_9(person_7)
+            #
+            # Nothing to query or define, we need to skip this task.
+            return statements
+        else:
+            raise Exception(f"Cannot create SQL statement for:\n{task}")
+        return statements
+
+    def _make_agg_select(self, update: ir.Update, lookups: list[ir.Lookup], agg: ir.Aggregate,
+                         nots: Optional[list[ir.Not]] = None, unions: Optional[list[ir.Union]] = None,
+                         constructs: Optional[list[ir.Construct]] = None) -> sql.Select:
+
+        """
+        Generate a SQL SELECT for an aggregation using a DISTINCT subquery.
+
+        Example output:
+            SELECT
+                department, count(v) AS v
+            FROM (
+                SELECT DISTINCT
+                    v0.department, v0.employees AS v
+                FROM
+                    department_employees AS v0,
+                    Department AS v1
+                WHERE
+                    v0.department = v1.department
+            ) GROUP BY department;
+
+        Rationale:
+        In the IR, it’s not always explicit whether aggregation should be applied over distinct rows.
+        By wrapping the aggregation in a DISTINCT subquery, we ensure correctness regardless of whether
+        the original query used `count(...)` or `count(distinct ...)`.
+
+        Compare:
+
+        QB: select(count(Person.name))
+        IR:
+            Logical
+                Logical ^[name=None, person_4=None]
+                    Person(person_4)
+                    name(person_4, name)
+                count([person_4, name], [], [v])
+                -> derive _aggregate_1(v)
+
+        QB: select(count(distinct Person.name))
+        IR:
+            Logical
+                Logical ^[name=None]
+                    Person(person_4)
+                    name(person_4, name)
+                count([name], [], [v])
+                -> derive _aggregate_1(v)
+
+        Note:
+        The key difference is that in the `distinct` case, the grouping variable `person_4` is absent from the projection.
+        The subquery pattern unifies both cases by projecting all aggregation arguments, ensuring correctness.
+        """
+
+        seen_args = set()
+        outputs: list[Union[sql.VarRef, sql.RowNumberVar, int]] = []
+        sub_query_outputs: list[OutputVar] = []
+
+        relation = update.relation
+        agg_var = agg.args[0] if agg.aggregation == builtins.count else agg.args[1]
+        # Group across all non-aggregated variables.
+        group_by: list[sql.VarRef] = []
+
+        for i, arg in enumerate(update.args):
+            if arg not in seen_args:
+                relation_field = relation.fields[i]
+                field_type = self._convert_type(relation_field.type)
+                field_name = self._var_name(relation.id, relation_field)
+                if isinstance(arg, ir.Var) and arg == agg_var:
+                    outputs.append(sql.VarRef(f"{agg.aggregation.name}({field_name})", alias=field_name, type=field_type))
+                    sub_query_outputs.append(OutputVar(arg, field_name, task=agg))
+                else:
+                    group_by.append(sql.VarRef(field_name))
+                    outputs.append(sql.VarRef(field_name, alias=field_name, type=field_type))
+                    sub_query_outputs.append(OutputVar(arg, field_name))
+                seen_args.add(arg)
+
+        for arg in agg.projection:
+            if arg not in seen_args:
+                if agg.aggregation == builtins.count and arg == agg.projection[-1]:
+                    continue
+                sub_query_outputs.append(OutputVar(value=arg))
+                seen_args.add(arg)
+
+        sub_select = self._make_select(lookups, sub_query_outputs, nots, unions, constructs, True)
+
+        return sql.Select(False, outputs, sub_select, group_by=group_by)
+
+    def _make_rank_select(self, update: ir.Update, lookups: list[ir.Lookup], rank: ir.Rank,
+                         nots: Optional[list[ir.Not]] = None, unions: Optional[list[ir.Union]] = None,
+                         constructs: Optional[list[ir.Construct]] = None):
+
+        """
+        Generate a SQL SELECT for a rank using a DISTINCT subquery.
+
+        Example output:
+            SELECT
+                cat, name, ROW_NUMBER() OVER ( ORDER BY name ASC ) as v
+            FROM (
+                SELECT DISTINCT
+                    v0.cat, v1.name
+                FROM
+                    Cat AS v0, cat_name AS v1
+                WHERE
+                    v0.cat = v1.cat
+            ) ORDER BY v LIMIT 10;
+
+        Rationale:
+        In the IR, it’s not always explicit whether rank should be applied over distinct rows.
+        By wrapping the rank in a DISTINCT subquery, we ensure correctness regardless of whether
+        the original query used `rank(...)` or `rank(distinct ...)`.
+
+        Compare:
+
+        QB: select(rank(Cat.name))
+        IR:
+            Logical
+                Cat(cat_5)
+                name(cat_5, name)
+                rank([cat_5], [], [name'↑'], v)
+                -> derive _rank_1(cat_5, name, v)
+
+        QB: select(rank(distinct(Cat.name)))
+        IR:
+            Logical
+                Cat(cat_5)
+                name(cat_5, name)
+                rank([], [], [name'↑'], v)
+                -> derive _rank_1(name, v)
+
+        Note:
+        The key difference is that in the `distinct` case, the grouping variable `cat_5` is absent from the projection.
+        The subquery pattern unifies both cases by projecting all rank arguments, ensuring correctness.
+        """
+
+        seen_args = set()
+        outputs: list[Union[sql.VarRef, sql.RowNumberVar, int]] = []
+        sub_query_outputs: list[OutputVar] = []
+
+        order_by_vars = []
+        for arg, is_ascending in zip(rank.args, rank.arg_is_ascending):
+            order_by_vars.append(sql.OrderByVar(arg.name, is_ascending))
+        partition_by_vars = [arg.name for arg in rank.group] if rank.group else []
+
+        relation = update.relation
+
+        rank_result_field_name = None
+        for i, arg in enumerate(update.args):
+            if arg not in seen_args:
+                relation_field = relation.fields[i]
+                field_type = self._convert_type(relation_field.type)
+                field_name = self._var_name(relation.id, relation_field)
+                if isinstance(arg, ir.Var) and arg == rank.result:
+                    rank_result_field_name = field_name
+                    outputs.append(sql.RowNumberVar(order_by_vars, partition_by_vars, field_name, field_type))
+                else:
+                    outputs.append(sql.VarRef(field_name, alias=field_name, type=field_type))
+                sub_query_outputs.append(OutputVar(arg, field_name))
+                seen_args.add(arg)
+
+        for arg in rank.projection:
+            if arg not in seen_args:
+                sub_query_outputs.append(OutputVar(value=arg))
+                seen_args.add(arg)
+
+        sub_select = self._make_select(lookups, sub_query_outputs, nots, unions, constructs, True)
+
+        assert rank_result_field_name is not None, "Rank result variable not found in update.args."
+        return sql.Select(False, outputs, sub_select, order_by=[sql.VarRef(rank_result_field_name)], limit=rank.limit)
+
+    def _make_match_select(self, lookups: list[ir.Lookup], outputs: list[OutputVar], unions: list[ir.Union],
+                           nots: Optional[list[ir.Not]] = None, constructs: Optional[list[ir.Construct]] = None,
+                           distinct: bool = False, is_output: bool = False):
+
+        """
+        Generate a SQL SELECT statement representing a match operation.
+
+        Example output:
+            SELECT
+                COALESCE(v2.v0, v3.v0) as v0, v0.name, COALESCE(v4.v0, v5.v0) as v02
+            FROM
+                person_name AS v0
+                JOIN Person AS v1 ON v0.person = v1.person
+                LEFT OUTER JOIN _match_3 AS v2 ON v1.person = v2.person
+                LEFT OUTER JOIN _match_4 AS v3 ON v1.person = v3.person
+                LEFT OUTER JOIN _match_5 AS v4 ON v1.person = v4.person
+                LEFT OUTER JOIN _match_6 AS v5 ON v1.person = v5.person
+            WHERE
+                ( v2.person IS NOT NULL OR v3.person IS NOT NULL ) AND
+                ( v4.person IS NOT NULL OR v5.person IS NOT NULL );
+
+        Explanation:
+            This query performs a series of joins to gather matching records based on shared keys (`person`).
+            - INNER JOINs are used for mandatory relations (e.g. `Person`, `person_name`).
+            - LEFT OUTER JOINs are used to include optional match sets from auxiliary `_match_*` tables.
+            - `COALESCE(expr1, expr2, ...)` is used to merge values from multiple sources,
+                returning the first non-null value among the arguments (or NULL if all are null).
+            This is particularly useful for flattening results from union-style matches and preserving partial matches
+                in a single SELECT clause.
+        """
+
+        var_to_construct = {c.id_var: c for c in constructs} if constructs else {}
+
+        union_lookups: dict[ir.Union, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = self._extract_all_lookups_per_union(unions)
+
+        table_lookups = OrderedSet.from_iterable(t for t in lookups if not builtins.is_builtin(t.relation))
+        froms, joins, wheres, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups = self._extract_match_lookups_metadata(table_lookups, union_lookups)
+
+        builtin_lookups = OrderedSet.from_iterable(t for t in lookups if builtins.is_builtin(t.relation))
+        builtin_vars, builtin_wheres, builtin_table_expressions = (
+            self._resolve_builtins(builtin_lookups, var_lookups, var_column, sql_vars, var_to_construct, outputs))
+
+        froms.extend(self._process_builtin_table_expressions(builtin_table_expressions))
+
+        wheres.extend(builtin_wheres)
+
+        construct_wheres = self._process_constructs(table_lookups, var_lookups, var_column, sql_vars, builtin_vars,
+                                                    var_to_construct)
+        wheres.extend(construct_wheres)
+
+        not_null_vars, vars = self._generate_select_output(outputs, builtin_vars, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups,
+                                                           var_to_construct)
+
+        if not_null_vars:
+            wheres.extend(sql.NotNull(var) for var in not_null_vars)
+
+        not_exists, _ = self._generate_select_nots(nots, var_lookups, sql_vars, var_column, len(sql_vars))
+        wheres.extend(not_exists)
+
+        where = self._process_wheres_clauses(wheres)
+
+        return sql.Select(distinct, vars, froms, where, joins, is_output=is_output)
+
+    def _make_full_outer_join_select(self, outputs: list[OutputVar], unions: list[ir.Union],
+                                     constructs: Optional[list[ir.Construct]] = None, distinct: bool = False,
+                                     is_output: bool = False):
+
+        """
+        Generate a SQL SELECT statement representing a match operation that combines multiple sets of data
+        (using FULL OUTER JOINs), without additional lookup filtering.
+
+        This method is used when the input IR (Intermediate Representation) does not contain table lookups
+        but consists of `Union` operations grouped under a `Logical` node. The goal is to preserve all values
+        from each union input while aligning their corresponding fields via outer joins.
+
+        IR Example:
+            Logical
+                Logical ^[v0=None]
+                    Union ^[v0]
+                        _match_10(v0)
+                        _match_11(v0)
+                Logical ^[v0_2=None]
+                    Union ^[v0_2]
+                        _match_12(v0_2)
+                        _match_13(v0_2)
+                -> output(v0, v0_2 as 'v02')
+
+        This corresponds to an output schema with two final fields:
+        - `v0`, derived from `_match_10` and `_match_11`
+        - `v02`, derived from `_match_12` and `_match_13`
+
+        Example output:
+            SELECT DISTINCT
+                COALESCE(v0.v0, v1.v0) as v0, COALESCE(v2.v0, v3.v0) as v02
+            FROM
+                _match_10 AS v0
+                FULL OUTER JOIN _match_11 AS v1 ON TRUE
+                FULL OUTER JOIN _match_12 AS v2 ON TRUE
+                FULL OUTER JOIN _match_13 AS v3 ON TRUE;
+
+        Explanation:
+            - Each `Union` is compiled into one or more subqueries (e.g. `_match_10`, `_match_11`) that may represent
+              disjoint subsets of data.
+            - These are combined using `FULL OUTER JOIN` to retain all possible values from each side, including `NULL`s.
+            - `COALESCE()` is used to merge values from the joined tables into a single column per output field.
+            - This strategy ensures completeness when different subsets may contain different keys or match results.
+        """
+
+        var_to_construct = {c.id_var: c for c in constructs} if constructs else {}
+
+        union_lookups: dict[ir.Union, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = self._extract_all_lookups_per_union(unions)
+        froms, joins, wheres, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups = self._extract_union_lookups_metadata(union_lookups)
+
+        not_null_vars, vars = self._generate_select_output(outputs, {}, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups,
+                                                           var_to_construct)
+
+        if not_null_vars:
+            wheres.extend(sql.NotNull(var) for var in not_null_vars)
+
+        where = self._process_wheres_clauses(wheres)
+
+        return sql.Select(distinct, vars, froms, where, joins, is_output=is_output)
+
+    def _make_left_outer_join_select(self, task: ir.Logical, lookups: list[ir.Lookup], outputs: list[OutputVar],
+                                     nots: Optional[list[ir.Not]] = None, constructs: Optional[list[ir.Construct]] = None,
+                                     distinct: bool = False) -> sql.Select:
+
+        """
+        Generate a SQL SELECT statement from an output query by combining INNER JOIN and LEFT OUTER JOIN clauses
+        based on the IR structure.
+
+        ### JOIN Rules:
+
+        1. **Top-level lookups** (direct children of the root `Logical`) always use **INNER JOIN**.
+
+        2. **LEFT OUTER JOIN** is used for a lookup if:
+           - It appears inside a nested `Logical`, and
+           - The corresponding variable is hoisted with a `None` value in that `Logical`.
+           - Example: `id(student, id)` is translated as a LEFT OUTER JOIN if the `Logical` hoists `id=None`.
+
+        3. If a variable is hoisted with `None` in one `Logical`, but used in another lookup that is hoisted without `None`,
+            the corresponding join becomes **INNER JOIN**.
+           - This resolves ambiguity when a lookup's output variable is reused meaningfully elsewhere.
+
+        ---
+
+        ### IR Example 1 (with LEFT OUTER JOIN):
+
+        IR:
+            Logical
+                Logical
+                    Student(student)
+                    goes_at(student, school)
+                    subject(school, subject)
+                    desc(subject, desc)
+                    desc = "English"
+                    Logical ^[id=None]
+                        id(student, id)
+                    Logical ^[name=None, course=None]
+                        attends(student, course)
+                        instructor(course, instructor)
+                        name(instructor, name)
+                    -> output[student, course, subject](id, name, desc)
+
+        SQL Output:
+            SELECT
+                v0.id, v3.name, v7.desc
+            FROM
+                Student AS v4
+                JOIN student_goes_at AS v5 ON v4.student = v5.student
+                JOIN school_subject AS v6 ON v5.school = v6.school
+                JOIN subject_desc AS v7 ON v6.subject = v7.subject
+                LEFT OUTER JOIN student_id AS v0 ON v5.student = v0.student
+                LEFT OUTER JOIN student_attends AS v1 ON v5.student = v1.student
+                LEFT OUTER JOIN course_instructor AS v2 ON v1.course = v2.course
+                LEFT OUTER JOIN instructor_name AS v3 ON v2.instructor = v3.instructor
+            WHERE
+                v7.desc = 'English';
+
+        ---
+
+        ### IR Example 2 (with NOT EXISTS):
+
+        IR:
+            Logical
+                Not
+                    Logical
+                        Logical ^[person, age]
+                            _union_1(person, age)
+                Person(person)
+                Logical ^[name=None]
+                    name(person, name)
+                Logical ^[age=None]
+                    age(person, age)
+                -> output[person](name, age)
+
+        Note: Even though `age` is hoisted with `None`, it is also used in `_union_1` which is hoisted without `None`
+        (i.e., `^[person, age]`). Therefore, `age(person, age)` is compiled as an INNER JOIN.
+
+        SQL Output:
+            SELECT
+                v0.name,
+                v1.age
+            FROM
+                Person AS v2
+                JOIN person_name AS v0 ON v2.person = v0.person
+                JOIN person_age AS v1 ON v2.person = v1.person
+            WHERE
+                NOT EXISTS ( SELECT 1 FROM _union_1 AS v3 WHERE v3.person = v0.person AND v3.age = v1.age );
+
+        ---
+        """
+
+        var_to_construct = {c.id_var: c for c in constructs} if constructs else {}
+
+        table_lookups = OrderedSet.from_iterable(t for t in lookups if not builtins.is_builtin(t.relation))
+        froms, joins, wheres, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups = (
+            self._extract_left_outer_joins_lookups_metadata(task, table_lookups, nots))
+
+        builtin_lookups = OrderedSet.from_iterable(t for t in lookups if builtins.is_builtin(t.relation))
+        builtin_vars, builtin_wheres, builtin_table_expressions = (
+            self._resolve_builtins(builtin_lookups, var_lookups, var_column, sql_vars, var_to_construct, outputs))
+
+        # SF in case of `LEFT OUTER JOIN` and `ARRAY_GENERATE_RANGE` doesn't allow usage of `ON TRUE` but
+        #   for DuckDB this is mandatory that is why we have 2 different join classes.
+        make_join = (lambda e, a: sql.Join(e, a)) if self._is_duck_db else (lambda e, a: sql.JoinWithoutCondition(e, a))
+        joins.extend(make_join(expr, alias) for alias, expr in builtin_table_expressions.items())
+
+        wheres.extend(builtin_wheres)
+
+        construct_wheres = self._process_constructs(table_lookups, var_lookups, var_column, sql_vars, builtin_vars,
+                                                    var_to_construct)
+        wheres.extend(construct_wheres)
+
+        _, vars = self._generate_select_output(outputs, builtin_vars, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups, var_to_construct)
+
+        not_exists, _ = self._generate_select_nots(nots, var_lookups, sql_vars, var_column, len(sql_vars))
+        wheres.extend(not_exists)
+
+        where = self._process_wheres_clauses(wheres)
+
+        return sql.Select(distinct, vars, froms, where, joins, is_output=True)
+
+    def _make_select(self, lookups: list[ir.Lookup], outputs: list[OutputVar], nots: Optional[list[ir.Not]] = None,
+                     unions: Optional[list[ir.Union]] = None, constructs: Optional[list[ir.Construct]] = None,
+                     distinct: bool = False, is_output: bool = False) -> sql.Select:
+
+        var_to_construct = {c.id_var: c for c in constructs} if constructs else {}
+
+        union_lookups: dict[ir.Union, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = self._extract_all_lookups_per_union(unions)
+        all_lookups = lookups + list(chain.from_iterable(union_lookups.values()))
+
+        table_lookups = OrderedSet.from_iterable(t for t in all_lookups if not builtins.is_builtin(t.relation))
+        froms, wheres, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups = self._extract_lookups_metadata(table_lookups)
+
+        builtin_lookups = OrderedSet.from_iterable(t for t in all_lookups if builtins.is_builtin(t.relation))
+        builtin_vars, builtin_wheres, builtin_table_expressions = (
+            self._resolve_builtins(builtin_lookups, var_lookups, var_column, sql_vars, var_to_construct, outputs))
+
+        froms.extend(self._process_builtin_table_expressions(builtin_table_expressions))
+
+        wheres.extend(builtin_wheres)
+
+        construct_wheres = self._process_constructs(table_lookups, var_lookups, var_column, sql_vars, builtin_vars,
+                                                    var_to_construct)
+        wheres.extend(construct_wheres)
+
+        wheres.extend(self._generate_where_clauses(var_lookups, var_column, sql_vars, union_lookups))
+
+        not_null_vars, vars = self._generate_select_output(outputs, builtin_vars, sql_vars, var_column,
+                                                                  var_lookups, var_to_construct)
+
+        if not_null_vars:
+            wheres.extend(sql.NotNull(var) for var in not_null_vars)
+
+        not_exists, _ = self._generate_select_nots(nots, var_lookups, sql_vars, var_column, len(sql_vars))
+        wheres.extend(not_exists)
+
+        where = self._process_wheres_clauses(wheres)
+
+        return sql.Select(distinct, vars, froms, where, is_output=is_output)
+
+    def _extract_lookups_metadata(self, lookups: OrderedSet[ir.Lookup], start_index: int = 0):
+        froms: list[sql.From] = []
+        wheres: list[sql.Expr] = []
+        sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str] = dict()  # one var per table lookup
+        var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field] = dict()
+        var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = defaultdict(OrderedSet)
+        i = start_index
+
+        for lookup in lookups:
+            varname = f"v{i}"
+            froms.append(sql.From(self._relation_name(lookup.relation), varname))
+            sql_vars[lookup] = varname
+            self._process_lookup_args(lookup, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups, wheres)
+            i += 1
+
+        return froms, wheres, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups
+
+    def _extract_match_lookups_metadata(self, lookups: OrderedSet[ir.Lookup],
+                                         union_lookups: dict[ir.Union, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]], start_index: int = 0):
+        wheres: list[sql.Expr] = []
+        sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str] = dict()  # one var per table lookup
+        var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field] = dict()
+        var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = defaultdict(OrderedSet)
+        i = start_index
+
+        def process_lookups(lookup_set: OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]):
+            nonlocal i
+            for lookup in lookup_set:
+                sql_vars[lookup] = f"v{i}"
+                self._process_lookup_args(lookup, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups, wheres)
+                i += 1
+
+        # Step 1: assign aliases and populate helper mappings
+        process_lookups(lookups)
+        for values in union_lookups.values():
+            process_lookups(values)
+
+        # Step 2: build joins
+        used_lookups = ordered_set()
+        first_lookup = next(iter(lookups))
+        used_lookups.add(first_lookup)
+        froms: list[sql.From] = []
+        joins: list[sql.Join] = []
+
+        # Start with the first table as the root FROM
+        froms.append(sql.From(self._relation_name(first_lookup.relation), sql_vars[first_lookup]))
+
+        def _process_joins(lookup: ir.Lookup, is_left_join: bool = False):
+            # Try to find a shared variable with any *latest* used lookup
+            join_conditions = []
+            lookup_not_null_conditions = []
+
+            for arg in lookup.args:
+                if isinstance(arg, ir.Var) and arg in var_lookups:
+                    for other_lookup in reversed(list(used_lookups)):  # reversed: prioritize most recent join
+                        if other_lookup in var_lookups[arg]:
+                            left_alias = sql_vars[other_lookup]
+                            right_alias = sql_vars[lookup]
+
+                            left_field = self._var_name(other_lookup.relation.id, var_column[(arg, other_lookup)])
+                            right_field = self._var_name(lookup.relation.id, var_column[(arg, lookup)])
+
+                            left_var = f"{left_alias}.{left_field}"
+                            right_var = f"{right_alias}.{right_field}"
+
+                            join_conditions.append(sql.Terminal(f"{left_var} = {right_var}"))
+
+                            if is_left_join:
+                                lookup_not_null_conditions.append(sql.NotNull(right_var))
+
+                            break  # stop on first recent match
+
+            if join_conditions:
+                on = sql.And(join_conditions) if len(join_conditions) > 1 else join_conditions[0]
+                join = sql.LeftOuterJoin(self._relation_name(lookup.relation), sql_vars[lookup], on) if is_left_join \
+                    else sql.Join(self._relation_name(lookup.relation), sql_vars[lookup], on)
+                joins.append(join)
+
+                if is_left_join:
+                    return sql.And(lookup_not_null_conditions) if len(lookup_not_null_conditions) > 1 else lookup_not_null_conditions[0]
+                else:
+                    used_lookups.add(lookup)
+                    return None
+            else:
+                raise ValueError(f"No join condition found for lookup: {lookup}")
+
+        # Add JOINs based on shared variables
+        for lookup in lookups:
+            if lookup not in used_lookups:
+                _process_joins(lookup)
+
+        # Add LEFT JOINs based on shared variables
+        for values in union_lookups.values():
+            not_null_conditions = []
+            for lookup in values:
+                if lookup not in used_lookups:
+                    lookup_condition = _process_joins(lookup, is_left_join=True)
+                    not_null_conditions.append(lookup_condition)
+
+            if not_null_conditions:
+                wheres.append(sql.Or(not_null_conditions))
+
+        return froms, joins, wheres, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups
+
+    def _extract_union_lookups_metadata(self, lookups: dict[ir.Union, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]], start_index: int = 0):
+        wheres: list[sql.Expr] = []
+        sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str] = {}
+        var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field] = {}
+        var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = defaultdict(OrderedSet)
+        froms: list[sql.From] = []
+        joins: list[sql.Join] = []
+        used_lookups = ordered_set()
+
+        i = start_index
+        first_lookup_handled = False
+
+        for values in lookups.values():
+            for lookup in values:
+                sql_vars[lookup] = f"v{i}"
+                self._process_lookup_args(lookup, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups, wheres)
+                i += 1
+
+                if not first_lookup_handled:
+                    # Use this as the base FROM
+                    froms.append(sql.From(self._relation_name(lookup.relation), sql_vars[lookup]))
+                    used_lookups.add(lookup)
+                    first_lookup_handled = True
+                else:
+                    # Join the rest
+                    joins.append(sql.FullOuterJoin(self._relation_name(lookup.relation), sql_vars[lookup]))
+
+        return froms, joins, wheres, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups
+
+    def _extract_left_outer_joins_lookups_metadata(self, task: ir.Logical, lookups: OrderedSet[ir.Lookup],
+                                                   nots: Optional[list[ir.Not]] = None, start_index: int = 0):
+        wheres: list[sql.Expr] = []
+        sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str] = dict()  # one var per table lookup
+        var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field] = dict()
+        var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = defaultdict(OrderedSet)
+
+        # Step 1: assign aliases and populate helper mappings
+        i = start_index
+        for lookup in lookups:
+            sql_vars[lookup] = f"v{i}"
+            self._process_lookup_args(lookup, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups, wheres)
+            i += 1
+
+        froms: list[sql.From] = []
+        joins: list[sql.Join] = []
+        full_context = ordered_set()
+
+        # Choose a root FROM table
+        first_lookup = next(iter(lookups))
+        froms.append(sql.From(self._relation_name(first_lookup.relation), sql_vars[first_lookup]))
+        full_context.add(first_lookup)
+
+        @dataclass(frozen=True)
+        class JoinMetadata:
+            on: Optional[sql.Expr] = None
+            inner_join: bool = False
+
+        joins_metadata: dict[ir.Lookup, JoinMetadata] = {}
+        not_null_vars: set[ir.Var] = self._extract_all_not_null_vars_from_nots(nots)
+
+        def _process_joins(lookup: ir.Lookup, context: OrderedSet[ir.Lookup], inner_join: bool = True):
+            join_conditions = []
+            seen_pairs = set()
+
+            # We want most recent joins first from context, then from full_context
+            search_context = list(reversed(context)) + [
+                lk for lk in reversed(full_context) if lk not in context
+            ]
+
+            for arg in lookup.args:
+                inner_join = arg in not_null_vars or inner_join
+                if isinstance(arg, ir.Var) and arg in var_lookups:
+                    for other_lookup in search_context:
+                        if other_lookup in var_lookups[arg]:
+                            right_alias = sql_vars[lookup]
+                            left_alias = sql_vars[other_lookup]
+
+                            right_field = self._var_name(lookup.relation.id, var_column[(arg, lookup)])
+                            left_field = self._var_name(other_lookup.relation.id, var_column[(arg, other_lookup)])
+
+                            pair = (left_alias, left_field, right_alias, right_field)
+                            if pair not in seen_pairs:
+                                seen_pairs.add(pair)
+                                join_conditions.append(sql.Terminal(f"{left_alias}.{left_field} = {right_alias}.{right_field}"))
+                            break  # stop at first matching lookup
+
+            on = None
+            if join_conditions:
+                on = sql.And(join_conditions) if len(join_conditions) > 1 else join_conditions[0]
+
+            join_metadata = joins_metadata.get(lookup)
+
+            if join_metadata:
+                # Upgrade to inner join only if previously marked as left outer join
+                if inner_join and not join_metadata.inner_join:
+                    joins_metadata[lookup] = JoinMetadata(on, inner_join)
+            else:
+                joins_metadata[lookup] = JoinMetadata(on, inner_join)
+
+        def _process_logical(logical: ir.Logical, parent_context: Optional[OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = None):
+            # Step 1: Prepare null variables from hoisted defaults
+            null_vars = {
+                v.var for v in (logical.hoisted or [])
+                if isinstance(v, ir.Default) and v.value is None
+            }
+
+            # Step 2: Create a working context from parent_context
+            context = OrderedSet.from_iterable(parent_context) if parent_context else ordered_set()
+
+            # Step 3: Process all sub-tasks
+            for sub_task in logical.body:
+                if isinstance(sub_task, ir.Logical):
+                    _process_logical(sub_task, context)
+                elif isinstance(sub_task, ir.Lookup):
+                    lookup = cast(ir.Lookup, sub_task)
+                    if lookup != first_lookup and not builtins.is_builtin(lookup.relation):
+                        inner_join = False if null_vars else True
+                        _process_joins(lookup, context, inner_join)
+                        context.add(lookup)
+                        full_context.add(lookup)
+
+        _process_logical(task, full_context)
+
+        for lookup, metadata in joins_metadata.items():
+            if metadata.inner_join:
+                joins.append(sql.Join(self._relation_name(lookup.relation), sql_vars[lookup], metadata.on))
+            else:
+                joins.append(sql.LeftOuterJoin(self._relation_name(lookup.relation), sql_vars[lookup], metadata.on))
+
+        return froms, joins, wheres, sql_vars, var_column, var_lookups
+
+    def _process_lookup_args(self, lookup: ir.Lookup, sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str],
+                             var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field],
+                             var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]], wheres: list[sql.Expr]):
+        relation = lookup.relation
+        for j, arg in enumerate(lookup.args):
+            rel_field = relation.fields[j]
+            if isinstance(arg, ir.Var):
+                var_column[arg, lookup] = rel_field
+                var_lookups[arg].add(lookup)
+            # case when Literal is used as a relation argument: `test(1, x)`
+            elif isinstance(arg, (int, str, float, bool, ir.Literal)):
+                ref = f"{sql_vars[lookup]}.{self._var_name(relation.id, rel_field)}"
+                wheres.append(sql.Terminal(f"{ref} = {self._convert_value(arg)}"))
+
+    def _var_reference(self, var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]], sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str],
+                       var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field], v):
+        if isinstance(v, ir.Var):
+            # TODO - assuming the built-in reference was grounded elsewhere
+            lookup = var_lookups[v].some()
+            return f"{sql_vars[lookup]}.{self._var_name(lookup.relation.id, var_column[(v, lookup)])}"
+        return f"'{v}'" if isinstance(v, str) else str(v)
+
+    def _resolve_builtin_var(self, builtin_vars: dict[ir.Var, ir.Value|str|int], var):
+        # We need recursive lookup because it maybe a case when we need to join more than 2 lookups.
+        #    For example QB `a != decimal(0)` in IR will look like this:
+        #        Logical ^[res]
+        #           Exists(vDecimal128)
+        #               Logical
+        #                   cast(Decimal128, 0, vDecimal128)
+        #                   decimal128(vDecimal128, res)
+        #        a != res
+        #    But we need to convert it to `a != 0` in SQL.
+        if isinstance(var, ir.Var) and var in builtin_vars:
+            val = builtin_vars[var]
+            return self._resolve_builtin_var(builtin_vars, val) if isinstance(val, ir.Var) else val
+        return var
+
+    def _build_hash_expression(self, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, values):
+        """Generate hash expression like hash(`x`, `y`, TABLE_ALIAS.COLUMN_NAME)."""
+        elements = []
+        for val in values:
+            resolved_val = resolve_builtin_var(val)
+            if val != resolved_val and isinstance(resolved_val, str):
+                # In case we parsed builtin into some expression, we may add it as an element.
+                # For example, `TO_DATE('1990-1-1', 'Y-m-d')` or `(v1.value + 5)`.
+                elements.append(f"{resolved_val}")
+                continue
+            if isinstance(resolved_val, ir.Var):
+                if resolved_val in var_to_construct:
+                    elements.append(self._resolve_construct_var(reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, var_to_construct[resolved_val]))
+                else:
+                    elements.append(reference(resolved_val))
+            else:
+                elements.append(str(self._convert_value(resolved_val)))
+        return f"hash({', '.join(elements)})"
+
+    def _resolve_construct_var(self, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, construct: ir.Construct):
+        return self._build_hash_expression(reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, construct.values)
+
+    def _resolve_hash_var(self, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, arg: Union[ir.ListType, ir.Value]):
+        if isinstance(arg, Tuple):
+            return self._build_hash_expression(reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, arg)
+        return self._build_hash_expression(reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, [arg])
+
+    def _resolve_builtins(self, builtin_lookups: OrderedSet[ir.Lookup], var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]],
+                          var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field], sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str],
+                          var_to_construct: dict[ir.Var, ir.Construct],
+                          outputs: Optional[list[OutputVar]] = None):
+
+        wheres: list[sql.Expr] = []
+        # We need to maintain a mapping of these builtin expressions because they generate a new table, which must be
+        #   referenced in the FROM clause as part of a JOIN. Structure is `SQL table variable` -> `generated expression`
+        table_expressions: dict[str, str] = {}
+        builtin_vars: dict[ir.Var, ir.Value|str|int] = {}
+        # TODO: remove this when we introduce date periods in builtins
+        date_period_var_type: dict[ir.Var, str] = {}
+
+        output_vars = {
+            output.value
+            for output in outputs or []
+            if isinstance(output.value, ir.Var)
+        }
+
+        intermediate_builtin_vars: set[ir.Var] = {
+            arg for lookup in builtin_lookups
+            for arg in lookup.args
+            if isinstance(arg, ir.Var) and arg not in var_lookups
+        }
+
+        reference = partial(self._var_reference, var_lookups, sql_vars, var_column)
+        resolve_builtin_var = partial(self._resolve_builtin_var, builtin_vars)
+
+        for lookup in self._sort_builtin_lookups(list(builtin_lookups), output_vars):
+            args = lookup.args
+            relation = lookup.relation
+            relation_name = self._relation_name(relation)
+
+            if relation == builtins.substring:
+                assert len(args) == 4, f"Expected 4 args for `strings.substring`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+
+                # Unpack and process arguments
+                lhs_raw, from_idx_raw, to_idx_raw, output = args
+                assert isinstance(output, ir.Var), "Fourth argument (output) must be a variable"
+                from_idx = self._convert_value(from_idx_raw)
+                to_idx = self._convert_value(to_idx_raw)
+
+                # Resolve the left-hand side expression
+                left = self._var_to_expr(lhs_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+
+                # Calculate substring length: SQL is 1-based and end-inclusive
+                substring_len = int(to_idx) - int(from_idx) + 1
+                assert substring_len >= 0, f"Invalid substring range: from {from_idx} to {to_idx}"
+
+                expr = f"substring({left}, {from_idx}, {substring_len})"
+                builtin_vars[output] = expr
+            elif relation == builtins.replace:
+                assert len(args) == 4, f"Expected 4 args for `replace`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                subject_raw, pattern_raw, replacement_raw, output = args
+                subject = self._var_to_expr(subject_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                pattern = self._var_to_expr(pattern_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                replacement = self._var_to_expr(replacement_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                assert isinstance(output, ir.Var), "Fourth argument (output) must be a variable"
+                builtin_vars[output] = f"replace({subject}, {pattern}, {replacement})"
+            elif relation == builtins.split_part:
+                assert len(args) == 4, f"Expected 4 args for `split_part`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                separator_raw, s_raw, idx_raw, output = args
+                separator = self._var_to_expr(separator_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                s = self._var_to_expr(s_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                idx = self._var_to_expr(idx_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                assert isinstance(output, ir.Var)
+                builtin_vars[output] = f"split_part({s}, {separator}, {idx})"
+            elif relation == builtins.split:
+                assert len(args) == 4, f"Expected 4 args for `split`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                separator_raw, value_raw, index, part = args
+                value = self._var_to_expr(value_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                separator = self._var_to_expr(separator_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                table_sql_var = f"v{len(sql_vars)}"
+                sql_vars[lookup] = table_sql_var
+                if self._is_duck_db:
+                    table_alias = f"{table_sql_var}(data)"
+                    table_expressions[table_alias] = f"VALUES(string_split({value}, {separator}))"
+
+                    part_expr = f"unnest({table_sql_var}.data)"
+                    index_expr = f"generate_subscripts({table_sql_var}.data, 1)"
+                else:
+                    table_expressions[table_sql_var] = f"LATERAL FLATTEN(input => SPLIT({value}, {separator}))"
+
+                    # SF returns values in `""` and to avoid this, we need to cast it to `TEXT` type
+                    part_expr = f"cast({table_sql_var}.value as TEXT)"
+                    index_expr = f"({table_sql_var}.index + 1)" # SF is 0-based internally, adjust to it back
+                assert isinstance(index, ir.Var) and isinstance(part, ir.Var), "Third and fourth arguments (index, part) must be variables"
+                builtin_vars[part] = part_expr
+                builtin_vars[index] = index_expr
+            elif relation == builtins.range:
+                assert len(args) == 4, f"Expected 4 args for `range`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                start_raw, stop_raw, step_raw, result = args
+                start = self._var_to_expr(start_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                stop = self._var_to_expr(stop_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                step = self._var_to_expr(step_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                table_sql_var = f"v{len(sql_vars)}"
+                sql_vars[lookup] = table_sql_var
+                # In SQL range is 1...stop exclusive, and because we did `-1` in PyRel v1 we need to return it here
+                if self._is_duck_db:
+                    table_expr = f"LATERAL range(cast({start} as bigint), cast(({stop} + 1) as bigint), cast({step} as bigint))"
+                    expr = f"{table_sql_var}.range"
+                else:
+                    table_expr = f"LATERAL FLATTEN(input => ARRAY_GENERATE_RANGE({start}, ({stop} + 1), {step}))"
+                    expr = f"{table_sql_var}.value"
+                table_expressions[table_sql_var] = table_expr
+                assert isinstance(result, ir.Var), "Fourth argument (result) must be a variable"
+                builtin_vars[result] = f"{expr}"
+            elif relation == builtins.cast:
+                assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for `cast`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+
+                _, original_raw, result = args
+                assert isinstance(result, ir.Var), "Third argument (result) must be a variable"
+
+                builtin_vars[result] = original_raw
+            elif relation in {builtins.isnan, builtins.isinf}:
+                arg_expr = self._var_to_expr(args[0], reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                expr = "cast('NaN' AS DOUBLE)" if relation == builtins.isnan else "cast('Infinity' AS DOUBLE)"
+                wheres.append(sql.Terminal(f"{arg_expr} = {expr}"))
+            elif relation == builtins.construct_date:
+                assert len(args) == 4, f"Expected 4 args for `construct_date`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                year_raw, month_raw, day_raw, result = args
+                year = self._var_to_expr(year_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                month = self._var_to_expr(month_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                day = self._var_to_expr(day_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+
+                assert isinstance(result, ir.Var), "Fourth argument (result) must be a variable."
+                if self._is_duck_db:
+                    expr = f"make_date(cast({year} as bigint), cast({month} as bigint), cast({day} as bigint))"
+                else:
+                    expr = f"date_from_parts({year}, {month}, {day})"
+                builtin_vars[result] = expr
+            elif relation == builtins.construct_datetime_ms_tz:
+                assert len(args) == 9, f"Expected 9 args for `construct_datetime_ms_tz`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+
+                year_raw, month_raw, day_raw, hour_raw, minute_raw, second_raw, millisecond_raw, tz_raw, result = args
+                assert isinstance(result, ir.Var), "Ninth argument (result) must be a variable."
+
+                year = self._var_to_expr(year_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                month = self._var_to_expr(month_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                day = self._var_to_expr(day_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                hour = self._var_to_expr(hour_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                minute = self._var_to_expr(minute_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                second = self._var_to_expr(second_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                millisecond = self._var_to_expr(millisecond_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                tz = self._var_to_expr(tz_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+
+                if self._is_duck_db:
+                    sub_expr = (f"make_timestamp(cast({year} as bigint), cast({month} as bigint), cast({day} as bigint), "
+                                f"cast({hour} as bigint), cast({minute} as bigint), cast({second} as bigint) + {millisecond}/1000.0)")
+                    if tz.lower() != "'utc'":
+                        sub_expr = f"(({sub_expr} at time zone {tz}) at time zone 'UTC')"
+                else:
+                    sub_expr = (f"to_timestamp_ntz(lpad({year}, 4, '0') || '-' || lpad({month}, 2, '0') || '-' || "
+                                f"lpad({day}, 2, '0') || ' ' || lpad({hour}, 2, '0') || ':' || "
+                                f"lpad({minute}, 2, '0') || ':' || lpad({second}, 2, '0') || '.' || "
+                                f"lpad({millisecond}, 3, '0'), 'YYYY-MM-DD HH24:MI:SS.FF3')")
+                    if tz.lower() != "'utc'":
+                        sub_expr = f"convert_timezone({tz}, 'UTC', {sub_expr})"
+                builtin_vars[result] = f"cast({sub_expr} as DATETIME)"
+            elif relation == builtins.infomap:
+                raise NotImplementedError("`infomap` is not supported in SQL")
+            elif relation == builtins.louvain:
+                raise NotImplementedError("`louvain` is not supported in SQL")
+            elif relation == builtins.label_propagation:
+                raise NotImplementedError("`label_propagation` is not supported in SQL")
+            else:
+                # Assuming infix binary or ternary operators here
+                lhs, rhs = args[0], args[1]
+                if relation in builtins.string_binary_builtins:
+                    left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    if relation == builtins.num_chars and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                        builtin_vars[rhs] = f"length({left})"
+                    elif relation == builtins.lower and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                        builtin_vars[rhs] = f"lower({left})"
+                    elif relation == builtins.upper and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                        builtin_vars[rhs] = f"upper({left})"
+                    elif relation == builtins.strip and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                        builtin_vars[rhs] = f"trim({left})"
+                    elif relation == builtins.regex_match:
+                        right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                        # swap left and right for SQL
+                        wheres.append(sql.RegexLike(right, left))
+                    else:
+                        right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, False)
+                        if relation == builtins.starts_with:
+                            expr = f"concat({right}, '%')" if isinstance(rhs, ir.Var) else f"'{right}%'"
+                        elif relation == builtins.ends_with:
+                            expr = f"concat('%', {right})" if isinstance(rhs, ir.Var) else f"'%{right}'"
+                        elif relation == builtins.like_match:
+                            expr = right if isinstance(rhs, ir.Var) else f"'{right}'"
+                        elif relation == builtins.contains:
+                            expr = f"concat('%', {right}, '%')" if isinstance(rhs, ir.Var) else f"'%{right}%'"
+                        else:
+                            raise Exception(f"Unsupported string builtin relation: {relation}")
+                        wheres.append(sql.Like(left, expr))
+                elif relation == builtins.levenshtein:
+                    assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for `levenshtein`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                    left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    function = "levenshtein" if self._is_duck_db else "editdistance"
+                    assert isinstance(args[2], ir.Var)
+                    builtin_vars[args[2]] = f"{function}({left}, {right})"
+                elif relation == builtins.concat:
+                    assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for `concat`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                    left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    assert isinstance(args[2], ir.Var)
+                    builtin_vars[args[2]] = f"concat({left}, {right})"
+                elif relation == builtins.join:
+                    assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for `join`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                    assert isinstance(lhs, tuple)
+                    f_args = [
+                        self._var_to_expr(item, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                        for item in lhs
+                    ]
+                    right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    assert isinstance(args[2], ir.Var)
+                    builtin_vars[args[2]] = f"concat_ws({right}, {', '.join(f_args)})"
+                elif relation == builtins.hash and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                    builtin_vars[rhs] = self._resolve_hash_var(reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, lhs)
+                elif relation == builtins.string and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                    if isinstance(lhs, ir.Var) and typer.to_base_primitive(lhs.type) == DateTime:
+                        lhs = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                        # Convert DateTime to string in the ISO 8601 format.
+                        if self._is_duck_db:
+                            builtin_vars[rhs] = f"""strftime({lhs}, '%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S.%f')"""
+                        else:
+                            builtin_vars[rhs] = f"""to_varchar({lhs}, 'YYYY-MM-DD"T"HH24:MI:SS.FF3')"""
+                    else:
+                        builtin_vars[rhs] = lhs
+                elif relation == builtins.parse_float and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                    left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    builtin_vars[rhs] = f"cast({left} AS DOUBLE)"
+                elif relation == builtins.parse_date:
+                    if self._is_duck_db:
+                        raise Exception("DuckDB: unsupported builtin relation 'parse_date'.")
+                    assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for `parse_date`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                    left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    assert isinstance(args[2], ir.Var)
+                    builtin_vars[args[2]] = f"to_date({left}, {right})"
+                elif relation == builtins.parse_datetime:
+                    assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for `parse_datetime`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                    left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    sub_expr = left
+                    if 'z' in right:  # this means that out datetime formatter includes timezone, and we need to convert first.
+                        if self._is_duck_db:
+                            sub_expr = f"({left} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC')"
+                        else:
+                            sub_expr = f"convert_timezone('UTC', to_timestamp_tz({left}))"
+                    assert isinstance(args[2], ir.Var)
+                    builtin_vars[args[2]] = f"cast({sub_expr} as DATETIME)"
+                elif relation in builtins.date_periods and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                    builtin_vars[rhs] = lhs
+                    date_period_var_type[rhs] = relation.name
+                elif relation in builtins.date_builtins:
+                    if relation in {builtins.date_add, builtins.date_subtract, builtins.datetime_add,
+                                    builtins.datetime_subtract}:
+                        assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for {relation}, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                        assert isinstance(rhs, ir.Var), f"Period variable must be `ir.Var`, got: {rhs}"
+                        period = date_period_var_type[rhs]
+                        period_val = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+
+                        left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+
+                        if self._is_duck_db:
+                            op = "+" if relation in {builtins.date_add, builtins.datetime_add} else "-"
+                            expr = f"({left} {op} {period_val} * interval 1 {period})"
+                        else:
+                            sign = 1 if relation in {builtins.date_add, builtins.datetime_add} else -1
+                            expr = f"dateadd({period}, ({sign} * {period_val}), {left})"
+
+                        result_var = args[2]
+                        assert isinstance(result_var, ir.Var), (
+                            f"Expected `ir.Var` type for the result of `{relation}`, "
+                            f"but got `{type(result_var).__name__}`: {result_var}"
+                        )
+                        builtin_vars[result_var] = expr
+                    # handle binary cases
+                    elif len(args) == 2:
+                        assert isinstance(rhs, ir.Var), f"Resulting variable must be `ir.Var`, got: {rhs}"
+                        expr_map = {
+                            builtins.date_year: "year",
+                            builtins.date_quarter: "quarter",
+                            builtins.date_month: "month",
+                            builtins.date_week: "week",
+                            builtins.date_day: "day",
+                            builtins.date_dayofyear: "dayofyear",
+                            builtins.date_weekday: "isodow" if self._is_duck_db else "dayofweekiso",
+                            builtins.datetime_second: "second",
+                        }
+                        expr = expr_map.get(relation)
+                        lhs = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                        builtin_vars[rhs] = f"{expr}({lhs})"
+                    elif len(args) == 3:
+                        result_var = args[2]
+                        assert isinstance(result_var, ir.Var), f"Resulting variable must be `ir.Var`, got: {result_var}"
+                        expr_map = {
+                            builtins.datetime_year: "year",
+                            builtins.datetime_quarter: "quarter",
+                            builtins.datetime_month: "month",
+                            builtins.datetime_week: "week",
+                            builtins.datetime_day: "day",
+                            builtins.datetime_dayofyear: "dayofyear",
+                            builtins.datetime_hour: "hour",
+                            builtins.datetime_minute: "minute",
+                            builtins.datetime_weekday: "isodow" if self._is_duck_db else "dayofweekiso",
+                            builtins.dates_period_days: "date_diff" if self._is_duck_db else "datediff",
+                            builtins.datetimes_period_milliseconds: "date_diff" if self._is_duck_db else "datediff"
+                        }
+                        expr = expr_map.get(relation)
+                        lhs = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                        rhs = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                        if relation == builtins.dates_period_days:
+                            sub_expr = f"'day', {lhs}, {rhs}" if self._is_duck_db else f"day, {lhs}, {rhs}"
+                        elif relation == builtins.datetimes_period_milliseconds:
+                            sub_expr = f"'millisecond', {lhs}, {rhs}" if self._is_duck_db else f"millisecond, {lhs}, {rhs}"
+                        else:
+                            sub_expr = self._convert_timezone(lhs, rhs)
+                        builtin_vars[result_var] = f"{expr}({sub_expr})"
+                    else:
+                        raise NotImplementedError("Unsupported number of arguments for date builtin (3+).")
+                elif relation == builtins.construct_date_from_datetime:
+                    assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for `construct_date_from_datetime`, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+                    dt_raw, tz, result = args
+                    tz = self._convert_value(tz)
+
+                    assert isinstance(tz, str), "Timezone argument (tz) must be a string."
+                    assert isinstance(result, ir.Var), "Third argument (result) must be a variable."
+
+                    # Note that the order of utc and dt is swapped in construct_date_from_datetime and construct_datetime,
+                    # because datetime->date (this case) ensures "the datetime is converted to the specified
+                    # timezone or offset string before extracting the date", while date->datetime (next case below)
+                    # ensures "the datetime is converted to UTC from the specified timezone or offset string."
+                    # (quotes are from pyrel0 docs for fromdate and fromdatetime).
+                    dt = self._var_to_expr(dt_raw, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    sub_expr = self._convert_timezone(dt, tz)
+                    sub_expr = f"cast({sub_expr} AS DATE)"
+                    builtin_vars[result] = sub_expr
+                elif relation in builtins.math_builtins:
+                    result_var = rhs
+                    rel_name = relation.name
+                    left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    if relation in builtins.math_unary_builtins:
+                        method = "ln" if rel_name == builtins.natural_log.name else rel_name
+                        sub_expr = left
+                        if rel_name == builtins.factorial.name and self._is_duck_db:
+                            # Factorial requires an integer operand in DuckDB
+                            sub_expr = f"{left}::INTEGER"
+                        elif rel_name == builtins.log10.name:
+                            # log10 is not supported, so we use log with base 10
+                            sub_expr = f"10, {left}"
+                            method = "log"
+                        expr = f"{method}({sub_expr})"
+                    elif rel_name in {builtins.minimum.name, builtins.maximum.name, builtins.trunc_div.name,
+                                      builtins.power.name, builtins.mod.name, builtins.pow.name,
+                                      builtins.log.name}:
+                        assert len(args) == 3, f"Expected 3 args for {relation}, got {len(args)}: {args}"
+
+                        result_var = args[2]
+                        right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+
+                        if rel_name == builtins.minimum.name:
+                            expr = f"least({left}, {right})"
+                        elif rel_name == builtins.maximum.name:
+                            expr = f"greatest({left}, {right})"
+                        elif rel_name == builtins.trunc_div.name:
+                            expr = f"trunc({left} / {right})"
+                        elif rel_name == builtins.power.name or rel_name == builtins.pow.name:
+                            expr = f"power({left}, {right})"
+                        elif rel_name == builtins.log.name:
+                            expr = f"log({left}, {right})"
+                        else:
+                            expr = f"mod({left}, {right})"
+                    else:
+                        raise Exception(f"Unsupported math builtin relation: {relation}")
+                    assert isinstance(result_var, ir.Var), (
+                        f"Expected `ir.Var` type for the result of `{relation}`, "
+                        f"but got `{type(result_var).__name__}`: {result_var}"
+                    )
+                    builtin_vars[result_var] = expr
+                elif relation in {builtins.parse_int64, builtins.parse_int128} and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                    builtin_vars[rhs] = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, False)
+                elif helpers.is_from_cast(lookup) and isinstance(rhs, ir.Var):
+                    # For the `from cast` relations we keep the raw var, and we will ground it later.
+                    builtin_vars[rhs] = lhs
+                elif isinstance(lhs, ir.Var) and lhs in intermediate_builtin_vars and lhs not in (builtin_vars | var_to_construct):
+                    # Example IR:
+                    #   Logical
+                    #       Logical ^[v0]
+                    #           int = 2
+                    #           Logical ^[res=None]
+                    #               Logical ^[res]
+                    #                   cast(Float, int, int_Float)
+                    #                   res = 2.1 * int_Float
+                    #           v0 = res
+                    #       -> derive _match_1(v0)
+                    #
+                    # In this example, the `int` variable is an intermediate result produced by the `=` (assignment) builtin.
+                    # We must retain this value in the `builtin_vars` mapping so it can be used when compiling the `cast`.
+                    # Ultimately, this allows us to fully resolve the final expression: `v0 = 2.1 * 2`.
+                    builtin_vars[lhs] = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                elif isinstance(rhs, ir.Var) and rhs in intermediate_builtin_vars and rhs not in (builtin_vars | var_to_construct):
+                    # Please see the example above but in this case it will be `2 = int` builtin lookup instead of `int = 2`.
+                    builtin_vars[rhs] = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                else:
+                    left = self._var_to_expr(lhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+                    right = self._var_to_expr(rhs, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct)
+
+                    if len(args) == 3:
+                        out_var = args[2]
+                        if isinstance(out_var, ir.Var):
+                            out_var = resolve_builtin_var(out_var)
+                            expr = f"({left} {relation_name} {right})"
+                            if isinstance(out_var, ir.Var):
+                                # For example, when this is an intermediate result
+                                # example: c = a - b in the IR is (a - b = d) and (d = c)
+                                builtin_vars[out_var] = expr
+                            else:
+                                # This means that var was already grounded, and we can add a WHERE clause.
+                                wheres.append(sql.Terminal(f"{expr} = {out_var}"))
+                        else:
+                            raise Exception(
+                                f"Expected `ir.Var` type for the relation `{relation}` output but got `{type(out_var).__name__}`: {out_var}"
+                            )
+                    else:
+                        # Replace intermediate vars with disjoined expressions
+                        expr = f"{left} {relation_name} {right}"
+                        wheres.append(sql.Terminal(expr))
+
+        # After handling all builtins we need to generate where statements for args with single lookup.
+        for arg, lookup_set in var_lookups.items():
+            if len(lookup_set) == 1:
+                lookup = lookup_set[0]
+                column = var_column[cast(ir.Var, arg), lookup]
+                column_name = self._var_name(lookup.relation.id, column)
+                ref = f"{sql_vars[lookup]}.{column_name}"
+                # case when we have a builtin operation as a relation argument
+                #   example: `test(a - 1, b)` and we are handling here `a - 1` arg.
+                if arg in builtin_vars:
+                    rhs_ref = resolve_builtin_var(arg)
+                    if isinstance(rhs_ref, ir.Var):
+                        rhs = reference(rhs_ref) if rhs_ref in var_lookups else rhs_ref.name
+                    elif isinstance(rhs_ref, ir.Literal):
+                        rhs = self._convert_value(rhs_ref.value)
+                    else:
+                        rhs = str(rhs_ref)
+                    wheres.append(sql.Terminal(f"{ref} = {rhs}"))
+
+        return builtin_vars, wheres, table_expressions
+
+    def _convert_timezone(self, dt: str, tz: str) -> str:
+        if tz.lower() != "'utc'":
+            if self._is_duck_db:
+                return f"({dt} at time zone 'UTC') at time zone {tz}"
+            else:
+                return f"convert_timezone('UTC', {tz}, {dt})"
+        return dt
+
+    def _process_builtin_table_expressions(self, builtin_table_expressions: dict[str, str]):
+        """Convert builtin table expressions into SQL FROM clauses."""
+        return [
+            sql.From(expr, alias)
+            for alias, expr in builtin_table_expressions.items()
+        ]
+
+    def _process_constructs(self, lookups: OrderedSet[ir.Lookup], var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]],
+                            var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field], sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str],
+                            builtin_vars: dict[ir.Var, ir.Value|str|int], var_to_construct: dict[ir.Var, ir.Construct]) -> list[sql.Expr]:
+        """
+        Handles `filter_by` constructs that require generating SQL `WHERE` conditions.
+
+        Example:
+
+            QB:
+                Name = m.Concept('Name', extends=[str])
+                Bank = m.Concept('Bank', identify_by={'name': Name})
+
+                where(Bank.filter_by(name="Chase")).select(Bank)
+
+            IR:
+                construct(Bank, "name"::String, "Chase"::String, bank::Bank)
+                Bank(bank::Bank)
+
+            SQL:
+                ... FROM Bank v0
+                WHERE v0.bank = hash('Bank', 'name', 'Chase')
+        """
+
+        wheres: list[sql.Expr] = []
+
+        reference = partial(self._var_reference, var_lookups, sql_vars, var_column)
+        resolve_builtin_var = partial(self._resolve_builtin_var, builtin_vars)
+
+        seen_vars: set[ir.Var] = set()
+
+        for lookup in lookups:
+            relation = lookup.relation
+            for j, arg in enumerate(lookup.args):
+                if isinstance(arg, ir.Var) and arg in var_to_construct and arg not in seen_vars:
+                    seen_vars.add(arg)
+
+                    rel_field = relation.fields[j]
+                    ref = f"{sql_vars[lookup]}.{self._var_name(relation.id, rel_field)}"
+
+                    construct = var_to_construct[arg]
+                    construct_expr = self._resolve_construct_var(
+                        reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, construct
+                    )
+
+                    wheres.append(sql.Terminal(f"{ref} = {construct_expr}"))
+
+        return wheres
+
+    def _generate_where_clauses(self, var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]],
+                                var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field], sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str],
+                                union_lookups: dict[ir.Union, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]]):
+        # Reverse mapping: lookup -> union
+        lookup_to_union: dict[ir.Lookup, ir.Union] = {}
+        for union, lookups in union_lookups.items():
+            for lu in lookups:
+                lookup_to_union[lu] = union
+
+        wheres: list[sql.Expr] = []
+        plain_refs_by_var: dict[ir.Var, list[str]] = defaultdict(list)
+        all_union_members: dict[str, dict[ir.Var, str]] = defaultdict(dict)
+        for arg, lookup_set in var_lookups.items():
+            # if there are 2 lookups for the same variable, we need a join
+            if len(lookup_set) > 1:
+                # Step 1: Collect all lookups by union member or plain
+                for lu in lookup_set:
+                    col = var_column[arg, lu]
+                    col_name = self._var_name(lu.relation.id, col)
+
+                    matched_union = lookup_to_union.get(lu)
+                    if matched_union:
+                        for u_lu in union_lookups[matched_union]:
+                            u_ref = f"{sql_vars[u_lu]}.{col_name}"
+                            all_union_members[sql_vars[u_lu]][arg] = u_ref
+                    else:
+                        ref = f"{sql_vars[lu]}.{col_name}"
+                        plain_refs_by_var[arg].append(ref)
+
+        # Step 2: Build AND chain of plain lookups
+        and_clauses = []
+        for refs in plain_refs_by_var.values():
+            # join variable references pairwise (e.g. "x.id = y.id AND y.id = z.id")
+            for lhs, rhs in zip(refs, refs[1:]):
+                and_clauses.append(sql.Terminal(f"{lhs} = {rhs}"))
+
+        # Step 3: Build one OR clause across union members
+        or_groups: list[sql.Expr] = []
+        for member_ref_map in all_union_members.values():
+            expressions = []
+            for arg_var, rhs in member_ref_map.items():
+                plain_refs = plain_refs_by_var.get(arg_var)
+                if plain_refs:
+                    lhs = plain_refs[-1]  # last plain ref for that var
+                    expressions.append(sql.Terminal(f"{lhs} = {rhs}"))
+            if expressions:
+                or_groups.append(sql.And(expressions) if len(expressions) > 1 else expressions[0])
+
+        wheres.extend(and_clauses)
+        if or_groups:
+            wheres.append(sql.Or(or_groups))
+
+        return wheres
+
+    def _process_wheres_clauses(self, wheres: list[sql.Expr]) -> Optional[sql.Where]:
+        # conjunction of not_wheres
+        if len(wheres) == 0:
+            where = None
+        elif len(wheres) == 1:
+            where = sql.Where(wheres[0])
+        else:
+            where = sql.Where(sql.And(wheres))
+        return where
+
+    def _generate_select_output(self, outputs: list[OutputVar], builtin_vars: dict[ir.Var, ir.Value|str|int],
+                                sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str], var_column: dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field],
+                                var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]],
+                                var_to_construct: dict[ir.Var, ir.Construct]):
+
+        reference = partial(self._var_reference, var_lookups, sql_vars, var_column)
+        resolve_builtin_var = partial(self._resolve_builtin_var, builtin_vars)
+
+        def handle_lookup_var(var, var_type, alias):
+            lookup = var_lookups[var].some()
+            relation = lookup.relation
+            var_name = sql_vars[lookup]
+            column_name = self._var_name(relation.id, var_column[var, lookup])
+            vars.append(sql.VarRef(var_name, column_name, alias, var_type))
+            if from_cdc_annotation in relation.annotations:
+                not_null_vars.add(f"{var_name}.{column_name}")
+
+        def handle_construct(construct):
+            # Generate constructions like hash(`x`, `y`, TABLE_ALIAS.COLUMN_NAME)
+            elements = []
+            for val in construct.values:
+                if val in builtin_vars:
+                    val = resolve_builtin_var(val)
+                    if isinstance(val, str):
+                        # In case we parsed builtin into some expression, we may add it as an element.
+                        # For example, `TO_DATE('1990-1-1', 'Y-m-d')` or `(v1.value + 5)`.
+                        elements.append(f"{val}")
+                        continue
+                if isinstance(val, ir.Var):
+                    if val in var_to_construct:
+                        elements.append(handle_construct(var_to_construct[val]))
+                    else:
+                        lookup = var_lookups[val].some()
+                        column_name = self._var_name(lookup.relation.id, var_column[val, lookup])
+                        lookup_var = f"{sql_vars[lookup]}.{column_name}"
+                        elements.append(lookup_var)
+                        if from_cdc_annotation in lookup.relation.annotations:
+                            not_null_vars.add(lookup_var)
+                else:
+                    elements.append(str(self._convert_value(val)))
+            return f"hash({', '.join(elements)})"
+
+        # finally, compute what the select will return
+        vars = []
+        not_null_vars = ordered_set()
+        for output in outputs:
+            alias, var, var_type, task = output.alias, output.value, output.value_type, output.task
+            if isinstance(var, ir.Var):
+                if var in var_lookups and not task:
+                    handle_lookup_var(var, var_type, alias)
+                elif var in builtin_vars:
+                    var_ref = resolve_builtin_var(var)
+                    if var_ref in var_lookups:
+                        # Case: result of `cast` variable
+                        handle_lookup_var(var_ref, var_type, alias)
+                    elif isinstance(var_ref, ir.Literal):
+                        # Case: literal value from `cast` relation, e.g. `decimal(0)`
+                        vars.append(sql.VarRef(str(self._convert_value(var_ref.value)), alias=alias, type=var_type))
+                    else:
+                        # Example: We may have `decimal(0)` in QB which turns in IR into:
+                        #   (cast(Decimal128, 0, vDecimal128) and decimal128(vDecimal128, res_3))
+                        #   and we need to make it `0` in SQL.
+                        var_ref = var_ref.name if isinstance(var_ref, ir.Var) else str(var_ref)
+                        vars.append(sql.VarRef(var_ref, alias=alias, type=var_type))
+                elif task:
+                    if isinstance(task, ir.Construct):
+                        # Generate constructions like hash(`x`, `y`, TABLE_ALIAS.COLUMN_NAME) as `alias`
+                        vars.append(sql.VarRef(handle_construct(task), alias=alias, type=var_type))
+                    elif isinstance(task, ir.Aggregate):
+                        result_arg = task.projection[-1] if task.aggregation == builtins.count else task.args[0]
+                        result_arg = resolve_builtin_var(result_arg)
+                        ref = reference(result_arg) if isinstance(result_arg, ir.Var) else str(result_arg)
+                        vars.append(sql.VarRef(str(ref), alias=alias, type=var_type))
+                    elif isinstance(task, ir.Union):
+                        # Handle `COALESCE` of all lookups of this var from the union
+                        lookups = self._extract_all_lookups_from_union(task)
+                        elements = []
+
+                        for lu in lookups:
+                            if any(isinstance(arg, ir.Var) and arg == var for arg in lu.args):
+                                column_name = self._var_name(lu.relation.id, var_column[var, lu])
+                                elements.append(f"{sql_vars[lu]}.{column_name}")
+
+                        expr = "COALESCE(" + ", ".join(elements) + ")"
+                        vars.append(sql.VarRef(expr, alias=alias, type=var_type))
+            else:
+                # TODO - abusing even more here, because var is a value!
+                vars.append(sql.VarRef(str(self._convert_value(var)), alias=alias, type=var_type))
+        return not_null_vars, vars
+
+    def _generate_select_nots(self, nots: Optional[list[ir.Not]], var_lookups: dict[ir.Var, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]],
+                              sql_vars: dict[ir.Lookup, str], var_column:dict[Tuple[ir.Var, ir.Lookup], ir.Field],
+                              index: int) -> tuple[list[sql.NotExists], int]:
+        not_exists = []
+        if nots:
+            for not_expr in nots:
+                unions = []
+                inner_nots = []
+                constructs = []
+                if isinstance(not_expr.task, ir.Lookup):
+                    all_lookups = [not_expr.task]
+                else:
+                    logical = cast(ir.Logical, not_expr.task)
+                    all_lookups = cast(list[ir.Lookup], filter_by_type(logical.body, ir.Lookup))
+                    logicals = cast(list[ir.Logical], filter_by_type(logical.body, ir.Logical))
+                    inner_nots = cast(list[ir.Not], filter_by_type(logical.body, ir.Not))
+                    unions = cast(list[ir.Union], filter_by_type(logical.body, ir.Union))
+                    constructs = cast(list[ir.Construct], filter_by_type(logical.body, ir.Construct))
+
+                    # Some of the lookup relations we wrap into logical and we need to get them out for the SQL compilation.
+                    #    For example QB `decimal(0)` in IR will look like this:
+                    #        Logical ^[res]
+                    #           Exists(vDecimal128)
+                    #               Logical
+                    #                   cast(Decimal128, 0, vDecimal128)
+                    #                   decimal128(vDecimal128, res)
+                    if logicals:
+                        unions = self._extract_all_of_type_from_logicals(logicals, ir.Union) + unions
+                        all_lookups = self._extract_all_of_type_from_logicals(logicals, ir.Lookup) + all_lookups
+
+                union_lookups: dict[ir.Union, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]] = self._extract_all_lookups_per_union(unions)
+                all_lookups.extend(list(chain.from_iterable(union_lookups.values())))
+
+                lookups = OrderedSet.from_iterable(t for t in all_lookups if not builtins.is_builtin(t.relation))
+                froms, wheres, not_sql_vars, not_var_column, not_var_lookups = self._extract_lookups_metadata(lookups, index)
+                index += len(not_sql_vars)
+
+                all_sql_vars = {**sql_vars, **not_sql_vars}
+                all_var_column = {**var_column, **not_var_column}
+                all_var_lookups = {**var_lookups, **not_var_lookups}
+
+                var_to_construct = {c.id_var: c for c in constructs} if constructs else {}
+                builtin_lookups = OrderedSet.from_iterable(t for t in all_lookups if builtins.is_builtin(t.relation))
+                builtin_vars, builtin_wheres, builtin_table_expressions = (
+                    self._resolve_builtins(builtin_lookups, all_var_lookups, all_var_column, all_sql_vars, var_to_construct))
+
+                froms.extend(self._process_builtin_table_expressions(builtin_table_expressions))
+
+                wheres.extend(builtin_wheres)
+
+                construct_wheres = self._process_constructs(lookups, var_lookups, var_column, sql_vars, builtin_vars,
+                                                            var_to_construct)
+                wheres.extend(construct_wheres)
+
+                # We need to join the not exists select with the outside select query context
+                for arg, lookup_set in not_var_lookups.items():
+                    if len(lookup_set) > 0:
+                        lu = lookup_set[0]
+                        column = not_var_column[cast(ir.Var, arg), lu]
+                        column_name = self._var_name(lu.relation.id, column)
+                        lhs = f"{not_sql_vars[lu]}.{column_name}"
+
+                        # lookup the same var from the outside context to make the join
+                        matching_lookup = next(
+                            (lookup for (var, lookup) in var_column if var == arg),
+                            None
+                        )
+
+                        if matching_lookup is not None:
+                            matching_column = var_column[(arg, matching_lookup)]
+                            matching_column_name = self._var_name(matching_lookup.relation.id, matching_column)
+                            rhs = f"{sql_vars[matching_lookup]}.{matching_column_name}"
+                            wheres.append(sql.Terminal(f"{lhs} = {rhs}"))
+
+                wheres.extend(self._generate_where_clauses(not_var_lookups, not_var_column, not_sql_vars, union_lookups))
+
+                inner_not_exists, index = self._generate_select_nots(inner_nots, not_var_lookups, not_sql_vars, not_var_column, index)
+                wheres.extend(inner_not_exists)
+
+                where = self._process_wheres_clauses(wheres)
+                not_exists.append(sql.NotExists(sql.Select(False, [1], froms, where)))
+
+        return not_exists, index
+
+    def _extract_all_of_type_from_logical(self, task: ir.Logical, target_type: type) -> list:
+        """Recursively extract all instances of `target_type` from a Logical task."""
+        return self._extract_all_of_type_from_logicals([task], target_type)
+
+    def _extract_all_of_type_from_logicals(self, logicals: list[ir.Logical], target_type: type) -> list:
+        """Recursively extract all instances of `target_type` from a list of Logical tasks."""
+        result = ordered_set()
+
+        def visit(logical: ir.Logical):
+            for expr in logical.body:
+                if isinstance(expr, ir.Logical):
+                    visit(expr)
+                elif isinstance(expr, target_type):
+                    result.add(expr)
+
+        for logical in logicals or []:
+            visit(logical)
+
+        return result.list if result.list else []
+
+    def _extract_all_lookups_per_union(self, unions: Optional[list[ir.Union]]) -> dict[ir.Union, OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]]:
+        return {
+            union: self._extract_all_lookups_from_union(union)
+            for union in unions or []
+        }
+
+    def _extract_all_lookups_from_union(self, union: ir.Union) -> OrderedSet[ir.Lookup]:
+        lookups: OrderedSet[ir.Lookup] = OrderedSet()
+        for task in union.tasks:
+            if isinstance(task, ir.Logical):
+                lookups.update(self._extract_all_of_type_from_logicals([task], ir.Lookup))
+            elif isinstance(task, ir.Lookup):
+                lookups.add(cast(ir.Lookup, task))
+        return lookups
+
+    def _extract_all_not_null_vars_from_nots(self, nots: Optional[list[ir.Not]]) -> set[ir.Var]:
+        vars: set[ir.Var] = set()
+        null_vars: set[ir.Var] = set()
+
+        def visit(task):
+            if isinstance(task, ir.Not):
+                visit(task.task)
+            elif isinstance(task, ir.Logical):
+                for var in task.hoisted:
+                    if isinstance(var, ir.Var):
+                        vars.add(var)
+                    elif isinstance(var, ir.Default):
+                        (vars if var.value is not None else null_vars).add(var.var)
+                for subtask in task.body:
+                    visit(subtask)
+            elif isinstance(task, ir.Lookup):
+                vars.update(arg for arg in task.args if isinstance(arg, ir.Var))
+
+        for not_task in nots or []:
+            visit(not_task)
+
+        return vars - null_vars
+
+    def _var_to_expr(self, var, reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct: dict[ir.Var, ir.Construct],
+                     quote_strings: bool = True):
+        """
+        Convert a variable to an expression string.
+        """
+        if isinstance(var, ir.Var) and var in var_to_construct:
+            return self._resolve_construct_var(reference, resolve_builtin_var, var_to_construct, var_to_construct[var])
+        resolved = resolve_builtin_var(var)
+        if isinstance(resolved, ir.Var):
+            return reference(resolved)
+        elif isinstance(resolved, ir.Literal):
+            return str(self._convert_value(resolved, quote_strings=quote_strings))
+        elif isinstance(resolved, int):
+            return str(resolved)
+        else:
+            return str(resolved) if isinstance(var, ir.Var) or not quote_strings else f"'{resolved}'"
+
+    def _get_update_aliases(self, update: ir.Update, var_to_construct, var_to_union, skip_type:bool=False):
+        relation = update.relation
+        return [
+            self._get_alias(
+                self._var_name(relation.id, f),
+                arg,
+                self._convert_type(f.type) if not skip_type else None,
+                var_to_construct,
+                var_to_union,
+            )
+            for f, arg in zip(relation.fields, update.args)
+        ]
+
+    def _get_alias(self, key, arg, arg_type, var_to_construct, var_to_union):
+        if not isinstance(arg, ir.Var):
+            return OutputVar(arg, key, arg_type)
+
+        return OutputVar(arg, key, arg_type, var_to_construct.get(arg) or var_to_union.get(arg))
+
+    def _get_tuples(self, logical: ir.Logical, u: ir.Update):
+        """
+        Get a list of tuples to perform this update.
+
+        This function traverses the update args, assuming they contain only static values or
+        variables bound to a construct task, and generates a list of tuples to insert. There
+        may be multiple tuples because arguments can be lists of values bound to a field
+        whose role is multi.
+        """
+        # TODO - this only works if the variable is bound to a Construct task, we need a more general approach.
+
+        def find_construct(var):
+            for stmt in logical.body:
+                if isinstance(stmt, ir.Construct) and stmt.id_var == var:
+                    return stmt
+            return None
+
+        def resolve_value(arg):
+            if isinstance(arg, ir.Var):
+                construct = find_construct(arg)
+                if not construct:
+                    return self._convert_value(arg)
+
+                resolved = []
+                for val in construct.values:
+                    if isinstance(val, ir.Var):
+                        inner_construct = find_construct(val)
+                        if inner_construct:
+                            nested = [str(self._convert_value(x)) for x in inner_construct.values]
+                            resolved.append(f"hash({', '.join(nested)})")
+                        else:
+                            resolved.append(str(self._convert_value(val)))
+                    else:
+                        resolved.append(str(self._convert_value(val)))
+
+                return f"hash({', '.join(resolved)})"
+            elif isinstance(arg, FrozenOrderedSet):
+                return frozen(*[self._convert_value(v) for v in arg])
+            else:
+                return self._convert_value(arg)
+
+        values = [resolve_value(a) for a in u.args]
+        return self._product(values)
+
+    def _product(self, values):
+        """ Compute a cartesian product of values when the value is a FrozenOrderedSet. """
+        # TODO - some pass needs to check that this is correct, i.e. that we are using a
+        # FrozenOrderedSet only if the field is of role multi.
+        tuples = [[]]
+        for value in values:
+            if isinstance(value, FrozenOrderedSet):
+                tuples = [prev + [element] for prev in tuples for element in value]
+            else:
+                tuples = [prev + [value] for prev in tuples]
+        return [tuple(t) for t in tuples]
+
+    def _convert_value(self, v, quote_strings:bool=True) -> str|int:
+        """ Convert the literal value in v to a SQL value."""
+        if isinstance(v, str):
+            return f"'{v}'" if quote_strings else v
+        if isinstance(v, PyDecimal):
+            return str(v)
+        if isinstance(v, ir.ScalarType):
+            return f"'{v.name}'"
+        if isinstance(v, ir.Literal):
+            if v.type == types.Date:
+                return f"cast('{v.value}' as date)"
+            if v.type == types.DateTime:
+                return f"cast('{v.value}' as datetime)"
+            return self._convert_value(v.value, quote_strings)
+        if isinstance(v, float):
+            if math.isnan(v):
+                return "cast('NaN' as DOUBLE)"
+            elif v == float("inf"):
+                return "cast('Infinity' as DOUBLE)"
+            elif v == float("-inf"):
+                return "cast('-Infinity' as DOUBLE)"
+            return str(v)
+        if isinstance(v, datetime.datetime):
+            return f"cast('{v}' as datetime)"
+        if isinstance(v, datetime.date):
+            return f"cast('{v}' as date)"
+        if isinstance(v, bool):
+            return str(v).lower()
+        if isinstance(v, int):
+            return v
+        return str(v)
+
+    COMMON_CONVERSION = {
+        Hash: "DECIMAL(38, 0)",
+        String: "TEXT",
+        Number: "DOUBLE",
+        Bool: "BOOLEAN",
+        Date: "DATE",
+        DateTime: "DATETIME",
+        Float: "FLOAT(53)",
+        RowId: "NUMBER(38, 0)", # NUMBER(38,0) cannot hold the full UInt128 range — it can only go up to about 2¹²⁶. We need to find something better.
+        UInt128: "NUMBER(38, 0)" # NUMBER(38,0) cannot hold the full UInt128 range — it can only go up to about 2¹²⁶. We need to find something better.
+    }
+    SNOWFLAKE_OVERRIDES = {
+        Int64: "NUMBER(19, 0)",
+        Int128: "NUMBER(38, 0)",
+    }
+    DUCKDB_OVERRIDES = {
+        Int64: "BIGINT",
+        Int128: "HUGEINT",
+    }
+    SF_BUILTIN_CONVERSION = {**COMMON_CONVERSION, **SNOWFLAKE_OVERRIDES}
+    DUCKDB_BUILTIN_CONVERSION = {**COMMON_CONVERSION, **DUCKDB_OVERRIDES}
+    def _convert_type(self, t: ir.Type) -> str:
+        """ Convert the type t into the equivalent SQL type."""
+        # entities become DECIMAL(38, 0)
+        if not types.is_builtin(t) and not types.is_value_type(t):
+            return "DECIMAL(38, 0)"
+
+        # convert known builtins
+        base_type = typer.to_base_primitive(t)
+        if isinstance(base_type, ir.ScalarType):
+            if self._is_duck_db and base_type in self.DUCKDB_BUILTIN_CONVERSION:
+                return self.DUCKDB_BUILTIN_CONVERSION[base_type]
+            elif base_type in self.SF_BUILTIN_CONVERSION:
+                return self.SF_BUILTIN_CONVERSION[base_type]
+        if isinstance(base_type, ir.DecimalType):
+            return f"DECIMAL({base_type.precision},{base_type.scale})"
+        raise Exception(f"Unknown built-in type: {t}")
+
+    def _get_relations(self, model: ir.Model) -> Tuple[list[ir.Relation], list[ir.Relation]]:
+        rw = ReadWriteVisitor()
+        model.accept(rw)
+
+        root = cast(ir.Logical, model.root)
+
+        # For query compilation exclude read-only tables because we do not need to declare `CREATE TABLE` statements
+        used_relations = rw.writes(root) if self._query_compilation else rw.writes(root) | rw.reads(root)
+
+        # Filter only relations that require table creation
+        table_relations = [
+            r for r in used_relations
+            if self._is_table_creation_required(r)
+        ]
+
+        used_builtins = [
+            r for r in rw.reads(root)
+            if builtins.is_builtin(r)
+        ]
+
+        return table_relations, used_builtins
+
+    def _is_table_creation_required(self, r: ir.Relation) -> bool:
+        """
+        Determine whether the given relation should result in a SQL table creation.
+
+        Skips creation for:
+        - Built-in relations or annotations
+        - CDC relations
+        - Boxed types or special "rank" name
+        - Relations with unresolved field types (types.Any)
+        - ValueType population relations
+        """
+        if (
+            builtins.is_builtin(r) or
+            builtins.is_annotation(r) or
+            from_cdc_annotation in r.annotations or
+            r.name == "rank" or
+            # TODO: revisit this during `RAI-39124`. For now we filter out all error relations.
+            self._is_error_relation(r)
+        ):
+            return False
+
+        if any(relation_field.type == types.Any for relation_field in r.fields):
+            if not r.overloads:
+                raise ValueError(f"Relation '{r.name}' has unresolved field types (`types.Any`) and no overloads.")
+            return False
+
+        return not self._is_value_type_population_relation(r)
+
+    def _is_error_relation(self, r: ir.Relation) -> bool:
+        return r.name in self._error_relation_names or self._relation_name(r).startswith('error_')
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _is_value_type_population_relation(r: ir.Relation) -> bool:
+        """
+        Check if the relation is a ValueType population relation:
+        - Has exactly one field
+        - Field type is a value type
+        - Annotated with concept_relation_annotation
+        """
+        if not r.fields or len(r.fields) != 1:
+            return False
+        return types.is_value_type(r.fields[0].type) and concept_relation_annotation in r.annotations
+
+    def _relation_name(self, relation: ir.Relation):
+        if helpers.is_external(relation) or helpers.builtins.is_builtin(relation):
+            return relation.name
+        return self.relation_name_cache.get_name(relation.id, helpers.sanitize(relation.name), helpers.relation_name_prefix(relation))
+
+    def _register_external_relations(self, model: ir.Model):
+        # force all external relations to get a name in the cache, so that internal relations
+        # cannot use those names in _relation_name
+        for r in model.relations:
+            if helpers.is_external(r):
+                self.relation_name_cache.get_name(r.id, r.name)
+
+    def _get_relation_info(self, relation: ir.Relation) -> RelationInfo:
+        if relation not in self.relation_infos:
+            self.relation_infos[relation] = RelationInfo()
+        return self.relation_infos[relation]
+
+    def mark_used(self, relation: ir.Relation):
+        self._get_relation_info(relation).used = True
+
+    def add_table_select(self, relation: ir.Relation, select: sql.Select):
+        self._get_relation_info(relation).table_selects.append(select)
+
+    def add_view_select(self, relation: ir.Relation, select: sql.Select):
+        self._get_relation_info(relation).view_selects.append(select)
+
+    def add_dynamic_table_select(self, relation: ir.Relation, select: sql.Select):
+        self._get_relation_info(relation).dynamic_table_selects.append(select)
+
+    def _var_name(self, relation_id: int, arg: Union[ir.Var, ir.Field]):
+        name = helpers.sanitize(self.relation_arg_name_cache.get_name((relation_id, arg.id), arg.name))
+        return f'"{name}"' if name.lower() in {"any", "order"} else name
+
+    def _register_relation_args(self, relations: list[ir.Relation]):
+        """
+        Register all relation arguments in the cache to ensure they have unique names.
+        This is necessary for SQL compilation to avoid name collisions.
+        """
+        self.relation_arg_name_cache = NameCache()
+        for r in relations:
+            for rel_field in r.fields:
+                self.relation_arg_name_cache.get_name((r.id, rel_field.id), rel_field.name)
+
+    def _sort_builtin_lookups(self, lookups: list[ir.Lookup], output_vars: set[ir.Var]) -> list[ir.Lookup]:
+        # Process lookups with output vars at last because they depend on other builtin lookups.
+        lookups_with_output_vars = [lookup for lookup in lookups if builtins.is_eq(lookup.relation)
+                                    and any(arg in output_vars for arg in lookup.args)]
+        other_lookups = [lookup for lookup in lookups if lookup not in lookups_with_output_vars]
+
+        sorted_lookups = topological_sort(other_lookups, self._build_builtin_lookups_dependencies(other_lookups))
+
+        return sorted_lookups + lookups_with_output_vars
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _build_builtin_lookups_dependencies(lookups: list[ir.Lookup]) -> list[Tuple[ir.Lookup, ir.Lookup]]:
+        """
+        Builds dependency edges for topological_sort:
+        1. Terminal comparisons (neq, gt, lt, gte, lte) come last.
+        2. Conditionals (starts_with, contains, etc.) come after basic lookups but before terminals.
+        3. eq with only constants comes first.
+        4. eq with two vars must wait until one of them is grounded.
+        5. A lookup whose last argument is used non-terminally in another must come first.
+        6. For builtins that take multiple input arguments (like range, concat, substring, etc.),
+            ensure that all non-terminal arguments are processed before the builtin that consumes them.
+        """
+
+        edges = []
+        arg_usages = defaultdict(list)  # arg -> List[(lookup, position)]
+
+        terminal_relations = {
+            builtins.neq.name, builtins.gt.name, builtins.lt.name, builtins.gte.name, builtins.lte.name
+        }
+
+        conditional_relations = {
+            builtins.starts_with.name, builtins.ends_with.name, builtins.contains.name, builtins.like_match.name
+        }
+
+        # Step 1: Collect argument usage positions
+        for lookup in lookups:
+            for idx, arg in enumerate(lookup.args):
+                arg_usages[arg].append((lookup, idx))
+
+        # Step 2: Add edges based on lookup semantics
+        for lookup in lookups:
+            relation_name = lookup.relation.name
+            args = lookup.args
+
+            # Rule 1: Terminal relations depend on everything else
+            if relation_name in terminal_relations:
+                for other in lookups:
+                    other_name = other.relation.name
+                    if other is not lookup and other_name not in terminal_relations:
+                        edges.append((other, lookup))
+                continue  # skip rest of rules for terminal lookups
+
+            # Rule 2: Conditional relations go before terminals, but after others
+            if relation_name in conditional_relations:
+                for other in lookups:
+                    if other is not lookup:
+                        other_name = other.relation.name
+                        if other_name not in terminal_relations and other_name not in conditional_relations:
+                            edges.append((other, lookup))  # only non-conditional, non-terminal
+                continue
+
+            if relation_name == builtins.eq.name:
+                var_args = [arg for arg in args if isinstance(arg, ir.Var)]
+
+                # Rule 3: eq with only constants comes first
+                if len(var_args) == 1:
+                    # This lookup defines a var — should come before any that use this var non-terminally
+                    grounded_var = var_args[0]
+                    for other, pos in arg_usages[grounded_var]:
+                        if other is not lookup:
+                            if pos != len(other.args) - 1:
+                                edges.append((lookup, other))
+                    continue  # skip adding other edges among terminal assignments like a=2, b=2
+
+                # Rule 4: eq with two vars must wait until one of them is grounded
+                elif len(var_args) == 2:
+                    # eq(x, y): both are vars — lookup must come after those grounding either var
+                    for var in var_args:
+                        for other, pos in arg_usages[var]:
+                            if other is not lookup:
+                                if other.args[-1] == var:
+                                    edges.append((other, lookup))
+                    continue
+
+            # In generate builtins has a single output var but `split` returns `index` and `part`
+            num_outputs = 2 if lookup.relation == builtins.split else 1
+
+            # Rule 5: last output args must go first if used elsewhere non-terminally
+            for out_arg in args[-num_outputs:]:
+                for other, pos in arg_usages.get(out_arg, []):
+                    if other is not lookup and pos != len(other.args) - 1:
+                        edges.append((lookup, other))
+
+            # Rule 6: builtins with multiple input args must wait until all input args are grounded,
+            #   for example, range(start, end, step, result)
+            if len(args) > num_outputs:
+                for input_arg in args[:-num_outputs]:
+                    for other, pos in arg_usages.get(input_arg, []):
+                        if other is not lookup:
+                            other_name = other.relation.name
+                            if other_name not in terminal_relations and other_name not in conditional_relations:
+                                # Ensure any lookup that defines this arg (as last) comes before
+                                if other.args[-1] == input_arg:
+                                    edges.append((other, lookup))
+
+        return edges
+
+    def _union_output_selects(self, statements: list[sql.Node]) -> list[sql.Node]:
+        """Group consecutive sql.Select nodes into a single sql.UnionAllSelect if there is multiple."""
+        result: list[sql.Node] = []
+        selects: list[sql.Select] = []
+
+        for statement in statements:
+            if isinstance(statement, sql.Select):
+                selects.append(statement)
+            else:
+                result.append(statement)
+
+        if selects:
+            if len(selects) > 1:
+                result.append(sql.UnionAllSelect(selects))
+            else:
+                result.extend(selects)
+
+        return result
+
+    def _sort_dependencies(self, statements: list[sql.Node]) -> list[sql.Node]:
+        """
+            Sorts SQL statements to ensure proper execution order:
+            1. CREATE TABLE statements
+            2. INSERT statements and CREATE VIEW (topologically sorted by dependencies)
+            3. UPDATE statements
+            3. Other statements except SELECT queries
+            4. SELECT queries
+        """
+        udfs = []
+        create_tables = []
+        need_sort: dict[str, list[Union[sql.Insert, sql.CreateView, sql.CreateDynamicTable]]] = defaultdict(list)
+        updates = []
+        miscellaneous_statements = []
+        selects = []
+
+        for statement in statements:
+            if isinstance(statement, sql.CreateTable):
+                create_tables.append(statement)
+            elif isinstance(statement, sql.Insert):
+                need_sort[statement.table].append(statement)
+            elif isinstance(statement, sql.CreateView):
+                need_sort[statement.name].append(statement)
+            elif isinstance(statement, sql.CreateDynamicTable):
+                need_sort[statement.name].append(statement)
+            elif isinstance(statement, sql.Update):
+                updates.append(statement)
+            elif isinstance(statement, sql.Select):
+                selects.append(statement)
+            elif isinstance(statement, sql.CreateFunction):
+                udfs.append(statement)
+            else:
+                miscellaneous_statements.append(statement)
+
+        sorted_statements = self._sort_statements_dependency_graph(need_sort)
+
+        return udfs + create_tables + sorted_statements + updates + miscellaneous_statements + selects
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _sort_statements_dependency_graph(statements: dict[str, list[Union[sql.Insert, sql.CreateView, sql.CreateDynamicTable]]]) -> list[sql.Insert]:
+        """ Topologic sort INSERT and CREATE VIEW statements based on dependencies in their SELECT FROM clauses. """
+        edges = ordered_set()
+        nodes = OrderedSet.from_iterable(statements.keys())
+
+        def extract_dependencies(select: Optional[sql.Select], target_table: str):
+            """Recursively extract dependency edges from FROM, JOIN, and WHERE clauses."""
+            if not select:
+                return
+
+            def register_dependency(source_table: str):
+                edges.add((source_table, target_table))
+                nodes.add(source_table)
+
+            # Process FROM clause
+            if select.froms:
+                if isinstance(select.froms, sql.Select):  # Single sub-select
+                    extract_dependencies(select.froms, target_table)
+                else:
+                    for from_clause in select.froms:
+                        register_dependency(from_clause.table)
+
+            # Process JOIN clause
+            if select.joins:
+                for join in select.joins:
+                    register_dependency(join.table)
+
+            # Process WHERE clause recursively
+            def _extract_from_expr(expr: sql.Expr):
+                if isinstance(expr, sql.NotExists):
+                    extract_dependencies(expr.expr, target_table)
+                elif isinstance(expr, (sql.And, sql.Or)):
+                    for sub_expr in expr.expr:
+                        _extract_from_expr(sub_expr)
+
+            if select.where and select.where.expression:
+                _extract_from_expr(select.where.expression)
+
+        for target_table, table_statements in statements.items():
+            for statement in table_statements:
+                if statement.query:
+                    query = statement.query
+                    if isinstance(query, list):
+                        for sub_query in query:
+                            extract_dependencies(sub_query, target_table)
+                    elif isinstance(query, sql.Select):
+                        extract_dependencies(query, target_table)
+                    elif isinstance(query, sql.CTE):
+                        for select in query.selects:
+                            extract_dependencies(select, target_table)
+
+        sorted_tables = topological_sort(list(nodes), list(edges))
+
+        sorted_statements = []
+        for table in sorted_tables:
+            if table in statements:
+                sorted_statements.extend(statements.get(table, []))
+
+        return sorted_statements
+
+class RecursiveLookupsRewriter(v.Rewriter):
+    def __init__(self, recursive_relation: ir.Relation, new_recursive_relation: ir.Relation):
+        super().__init__()
+        self._recursive_relation:ir.Relation = recursive_relation
+        self._new_recursive_relation:ir.Relation = new_recursive_relation
+
+    def handle_lookup(self, node: ir.Lookup, parent: ir.Node):
+        if node.relation == self._recursive_relation:
+            return node.reconstruct(node.engine, self._new_recursive_relation, node.args, node.annotations)
+        return node
+
+class DerivedRelationsVisitor(v.Visitor):
+    _is_derived: bool = True
+
+    def is_derived(self) -> bool:
+        return self._is_derived
+
+    def visit_relation(self, node: ir.Relation, parent: Optional[ir.Node]):
+        if self._is_derived and from_cdc_annotation in node.annotations:
+            self._is_derived = False