pycontrails 0.58.0__cp314-cp314-win_amd64.whl

pycontrails/core/vector.py

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+"""Lightweight data structures for vector paths."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import hashlib
+import json
+import logging
+import sys
+import warnings
+from collections.abc import Generator, Iterable, Iterator, Sequence
+from typing import Any, Self, overload
+
+if sys.version_info >= (3, 12):
+    from typing import override
+else:
+    from typing_extensions import override
+
+import numpy as np
+import numpy.typing as npt
+import pandas as pd
+import xarray as xr
+
+from pycontrails.core import coordinates, interpolation
+from pycontrails.core import met as met_module
+from pycontrails.physics import units
+from pycontrails.utils import dependencies
+from pycontrails.utils import json as json_utils
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+
+class AttrDict(dict[str, Any]):
+    """Thin wrapper around dict to warn when setting a key that already exists."""
+
+    __slots__ = ()
+
+    def __setitem__(self, k: str, v: Any) -> None:
+        """Warn when setting values that already contain values.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        k : str
+            Key
+        v : Any
+            Value
+        """
+        if k in self and self[k] is not None and self[k] is not v:
+            warnings.warn(
+                f"Overwriting attr key `{k}`. Use `.update({k}=...)` to suppress warning."
+            )
+
+        super().__setitem__(k, v)
+
+    def setdefault(self, k: str, default: Any = None) -> Any:
+        """Thin wrapper around ``dict.setdefault``.
+
+        Overwrites value if value is None.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        k : str
+            Key
+        default : Any, optional
+            Default value for key ``k``
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Any
+            Value at ``k``
+        """
+        ret = self.get(k, None)
+        if ret is not None:
+            return ret
+
+        self[k] = default
+        return default
+
+
+class VectorDataDict(dict[str, np.ndarray]):
+    """Thin wrapper around ``dict[str, np.ndarray]`` to ensure consistency.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : dict[str, np.ndarray] | None, optional
+        Dictionary input. A shallow copy is always made.
+    """
+
+    __slots__ = ("_size",)
+
+    #: Length of the data
+    _size: int
+
+    def __init__(self, data: dict[str, np.ndarray] | None = None) -> None:
+        super().__init__(data or {})
+
+        # validate any arrays, first one defines _size attribute
+        for arr in self.values():
+            self._validate_array(arr)
+
+    def __setitem__(self, k: str, v: npt.ArrayLike) -> None:
+        """Set new key-value pair to instance and warn when overwriting existing key.
+
+        This method casts ``v`` to an :class:`numpy.ndarray` and ensures that the array size is
+        consistent with the instance.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        k : str
+            Key
+        v : npt.ArrayLike
+            Values
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :meth:`update`
+        """
+        v = np.asarray(v)  # asarray does NOT copy
+        self._validate_array(v)
+
+        if k in self and len(self[k]) and self[k] is not v:
+            warnings.warn(
+                f"Overwriting data in key `{k}`. Use `.update({k}=...)` to suppress warning."
+            )
+
+        super().__setitem__(k, v)
+
+    def __delitem__(self, k: str) -> None:
+        super().__delitem__(k)
+
+        # if no keys remain, delete _size attribute
+        if not self:
+            del self._size
+
+    def setdefault(self, k: str, default: npt.ArrayLike | None = None) -> np.ndarray:
+        """Thin wrapper around ``dict.setdefault``.
+
+        The main purpose of overriding is to run :meth:`_validate_array()` on set.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        k : str
+            Key
+        default : npt.ArrayLike | None, optional
+            Default value for key ``k``
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        np.ndarray
+            Value at ``k``
+        """
+        ret = self.get(k, None)
+        if ret is not None:
+            return ret
+
+        if default is None:
+            default = np.array([])
+
+        self[k] = default
+        return self[k]
+
+    def update(  # type: ignore[override]
+        self, other: dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | None = None, **kwargs: npt.ArrayLike
+    ) -> None:
+        """Update values without warning if overwriting.
+
+        This method casts values in  ``other`` to :class:`numpy.ndarray` and
+        ensures that the array sizes are consistent with the instance.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        other : dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | None, optional
+            Fields to update as dict
+        **kwargs : npt.ArrayLike
+            Fields to update as kwargs
+        """
+        other = other or {}
+        other_arrs = {k: np.asarray(v) for k, v in other.items()}
+        for arr in other_arrs.values():
+            self._validate_array(arr)
+
+        super().update(other_arrs)
+
+        # validate any kwarg arrays
+        kwargs_arr = {k: np.asarray(v) for k, v in kwargs.items()}
+        for arr in kwargs_arr.values():
+            self._validate_array(arr)
+
+        super().update(kwargs_arr)
+
+    def _validate_array(self, arr: np.ndarray) -> None:
+        """Ensure that ``arr`` is compatible (1 dimensional of equal size) with instance.
+
+        Set attribute ``_size`` if it has not yet been defined.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        arr : np.ndarray
+            Array to validate
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        ValueError
+            If ``arr`` is not compatible with instance.
+        """
+        if arr.ndim != 1:
+            raise ValueError("All np.arrays must have dimension 1.")
+
+        size = getattr(self, "_size", 0)
+        if not size:
+            self._size = arr.size
+            return
+
+        if arr.size != size:
+            raise ValueError(f"Incompatible array sizes: {arr.size} and {size}.")
+
+
+def _empty_vector_dict(keys: Iterable[str]) -> dict[str, np.ndarray]:
+    """Create a dictionary with keys defined by ``keys`` and empty arrays.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    keys : Iterable[str]
+        Keys to include in dictionary.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    dict[str, np.ndarray]
+        Dictionary with empty arrays.
+    """
+    data = {key: np.array([]) for key in keys}
+
+    # The default dtype is float64
+    # Time is special and should have a non-default dtype of datetime64[ns]
+    if "time" in data:
+        data.update(time=np.array([], dtype="datetime64[ns]"))
+
+    return data
+
+
+class VectorDataset:  # noqa: PLW1641
+    """Base class to hold 1D arrays of consistent size.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | pd.DataFrame | VectorDataset | None, optional
+        Initial data, by default None. A shallow copy is always made. Use the ``copy``
+        parameter to copy the underlying array data.
+    attrs : dict[str, Any] | None, optional
+        Dictionary of attributes, by default None. A shallow copy is always made.
+    copy : bool, optional
+        Copy individual arrays on instantiation, by default True.
+    **attrs_kwargs : Any
+        Additional attributes passed as keyword arguments.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If "time" variable cannot be converted to numpy array.
+    """
+
+    __slots__ = ("attrs", "data")
+
+    #: Generic dataset attributes
+    attrs: AttrDict
+
+    #: Vector data with labels as keys and :class:`numpy.ndarray` as values
+    data: VectorDataDict
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        data: dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | pd.DataFrame | VectorDataset | None = None,
+        *,
+        attrs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        copy: bool = True,
+        **attrs_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> None:
+        # Set data: always shallow copy
+        # -----------------------------
+
+        # Casting from one VectorDataset type to another
+        # e.g., flight = Flight(...); vector = VectorDataset(flight)
+        if isinstance(data, VectorDataset):
+            attrs = {**data.attrs, **(attrs or {})}
+            if copy:
+                self.data = VectorDataDict({k: v.copy() for k, v in data.data.items()})
+            else:
+                self.data = VectorDataDict(data.data)
+
+        elif data is None:
+            self.data = VectorDataDict()
+
+        elif isinstance(data, pd.DataFrame):
+            attrs = {**data.attrs, **(attrs or {})}
+
+            # Take extra caution with a time column
+            try:
+                time = data["time"]
+            except KeyError:
+                self.data = VectorDataDict({k: v.to_numpy(copy=copy) for k, v in data.items()})
+            else:
+                time = _handle_time_column(time)
+                data_np = {k: v.to_numpy(copy=copy) for k, v in data.items() if k != "time"}
+                data_np["time"] = time.to_numpy(copy=copy)
+                self.data = VectorDataDict(data_np)
+
+        # For anything else, we assume it is a dictionary of array-like and attach it
+        else:
+            self.data = VectorDataDict({k: np.array(v, copy=copy) for k, v in data.items()})
+
+        # Set attributes: always shallow copy
+        # -----------------------------------
+
+        self.attrs = AttrDict(attrs or {})
+        self.attrs.update(attrs_kwargs)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def _from_fastpath(
+        cls,
+        data: dict[str, np.ndarray],
+        attrs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Self:
+        """Create new instance from consistent data.
+
+        This is a low-level method that bypasses the standard constructor in certain
+        special cases. It is intended for internal use only.
+
+        In essence, this method skips any validation from __init__ and directly sets
+        ``data`` and ``attrs``. This is useful when creating a new instance from an existing
+        instance the data has already been validated.
+        """
+        obj = cls.__new__(cls)
+
+        obj.data = VectorDataDict(data)
+        obj.attrs = AttrDict(attrs or {})
+
+        for key, value in kwargs.items():
+            try:
+                setattr(obj, key, value)
+            # If key not present in __slots__ of class (or parents), it's intended for attrs
+            except AttributeError:
+                obj.attrs[key] = value
+
+        return obj
+
+    # ------------
+    # dict-like methods
+    # ------------
+    def __getitem__(self, key: str) -> np.ndarray:
+        """Get values from :attr:`data`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Key to get from :attr:`data`
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        np.ndarray
+            Values at :attr:`data[key]`
+        """
+        return self.data[key]
+
+    def get(self, key: str, default_value: Any = None) -> Any:
+        """Get values from :attr:`data` with ``default_value`` if ``key`` not in :attr:`data`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Key to get from :attr:`data`
+        default_value : Any, optional
+            Return ``default_value`` if `key` not in :attr:`data`, by default ``None``
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Any
+            Values at :attr:`data[key]` or ``default_value``
+        """
+        return self.data.get(key, default_value)
+
+    def __setitem__(self, key: str, values: npt.ArrayLike) -> None:
+        """Set values at key `key` on :attr:`data`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Key name in :attr:`data`
+        values : npt.ArrayLike
+            Values to set to :attr:`data`. Array size must be compatible with existing data.
+        """
+        self.data[key] = values
+
+    def __delitem__(self, key: str) -> None:
+        """Delete values at key `key` on :attr:`data`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Key name in :attr:`data`
+        """
+        del self.data[key]
+
+    def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[str]:
+        """Iterate over keys in :attr:`data`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Iterator[str]
+            Keys in :attr:`data`
+        """
+        return iter(self.data)
+
+    def __contains__(self, key: str) -> bool:
+        """Check if key `key` is in :attr:`data`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Key to check
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bool
+            True if `key` is in :attr:`data`, False otherwise
+        """
+        return key in self.data
+
+    def update(
+        self,
+        other: dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | None = None,
+        **kwargs: npt.ArrayLike,
+    ) -> None:
+        """Update values in  :attr:`data` dict without warning if overwriting.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        other : dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | None, optional
+            Fields to update as dict
+        **kwargs : npt.ArrayLike
+            Fields to update as kwargs
+        """
+        self.data.update(other, **kwargs)
+
+    def setdefault(self, key: str, default: npt.ArrayLike | None = None) -> np.ndarray:
+        """Shortcut to :meth:`VectorDataDict.setdefault`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Key in :attr:`data` dict.
+        default : npt.ArrayLike, optional
+            Values to use as default, if key is not defined
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        np.ndarray
+            Values at ``key``
+        """
+        return self.data.setdefault(key, default)
+
+    __marker = object()
+
+    def get_data_or_attr(self, key: str, default: Any = __marker) -> Any:
+        """Get value from :attr:`data` or :attr:`attrs`.
+
+        This method first checks if ``key`` is in :attr:`data` and returns the value if so.
+        If ``key`` is not in :attr:`data`, then this method checks if ``key`` is in :attr:`attrs`
+        and returns the value if so. If ``key`` is not in :attr:`data` or :attr:`attrs`,
+        then the ``default`` value is returned if provided. Otherwise a :class:`KeyError` is raised.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Key to get from :attr:`data` or :attr:`attrs`
+        default : Any, optional
+            Default value to return if ``key`` is not in :attr:`data` or :attr:`attrs`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Any
+            Value at :attr:`data[key]` or :attr:`attrs[key]`
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        KeyError
+            If ``key`` is not in :attr:`data` or :attr:`attrs` and ``default`` is not provided.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> vector = VectorDataset({"a": [1, 2, 3]}, attrs={"b": 4})
+        >>> vector.get_data_or_attr("a")
+        array([1, 2, 3])
+
+        >>> vector.get_data_or_attr("b")
+        4
+
+        >>> vector.get_data_or_attr("c")
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        KeyError: "Key 'c' not found in data or attrs."
+
+        >>> vector.get_data_or_attr("c", default=5)
+        5
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        get_constant
+        """
+        marker = self.__marker
+
+        out = self.get(key, marker)
+        if out is not marker:
+            return out
+
+        out = self.attrs.get(key, marker)
+        if out is not marker:
+            return out
+
+        if default is not marker:
+            return default
+
+        msg = f"Key '{key}' not found in data or attrs."
+        raise KeyError(msg)
+
+    # ------------
+
+    def __len__(self) -> int:
+        """Length of each array in :attr:`data`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        int
+            Length of each array in :attr:`data`
+        """
+        return self.size
+
+    def _display_attrs(self) -> dict[str, str]:
+        """Return properties used in `repr` constructions.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict[str, str]
+            Properties used in :meth:`__repr__` and :meth:`_repr_html_`.
+        """
+
+        # Clip any attribute value that is too long
+        def str_clip(v: Any) -> str:
+            s = str(v)
+            if len(s) < 80:
+                return s
+            return f"{s[:77]}..."
+
+        return {k: str_clip(v) for k, v in self.attrs.items()}
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str:
+        class_name = self.__class__.__name__
+        n_attrs = len(self.attrs)
+        n_keys = len(self.data)
+        _repr = f"{class_name} [{n_keys} keys x {self.size} length, {n_attrs} attributes]"
+
+        keys = list(self)
+        keys = [*keys[0:5], "...", *keys[-1:]] if len(keys) > 5 else keys
+        _repr += f"\n\tKeys: {', '.join(keys)}"
+
+        attrs = self._display_attrs()
+        _repr += "\n\tAttributes:\n"
+        _repr += "\n".join([f"\t{k:20}{v}" for k, v in attrs.items()])
+
+        return _repr
+
+    def _repr_html_(self) -> str:
+        name = type(self).__name__
+        n_attrs = len(self.attrs)
+        n_keys = len(self.data)
+        attrs = self._display_attrs()
+        size = self.size
+
+        title = f"<b>{name}</b> [{n_keys} keys x {size} length, {n_attrs} attributes]<br/ ><br/>"
+
+        # matching pd.DataFrame styling
+        header = '<tr style="border-bottom:1px solid silver"><th colspan="2">Attributes</th></tr>'
+        rows = [f"<tr><td>{k}</td><td>{v}</td></tr>" for k, v in attrs.items()]
+        table = f"<table>{header + ''.join(rows)}</table>"
+        return title + table + self.dataframe._repr_html_()
+
+    def __bool__(self) -> bool:
+        """Check if :attr:`data` is nonempty..
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bool
+            True if non-empty values are set in :attr:`data`
+        """
+        return self.size > 0
+
+    def __add__(self, other: Self | None) -> Self:
+        """Concatenate two compatible instances of VectorDataset.
+
+        In this context, compatibility means that both have identical :attr:`data` keys.
+
+        This operator behaves similarly to the ``__add__`` method on python lists.
+
+        If self is an empty VectorDataset, return other. This is useful when
+        calling :keyword:`sum` with an empty initial value.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        other : Self | None
+            Other values to concatenate
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Self
+            Concatenated values.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        KeyError
+            If `other` has different :attr:`data` keys than self.
+        """
+        # Short circuit: If other is empty or None, return self. The order here can matter.
+        # We let self (so the left addend) take priority.
+        if not other:
+            return self
+        if not self:
+            return other
+
+        return type(self).sum((self, other))
+
+    @classmethod
+    def sum(
+        cls,
+        vectors: Sequence[VectorDataset],
+        infer_attrs: bool = True,
+        fill_value: float | None = None,
+    ) -> Self:
+        """Sum a list of :class:`VectorDataset` instances.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        vectors : Sequence[VectorDataset]
+            List of :class:`VectorDataset` instances to concatenate.
+        infer_attrs : bool, optional
+            If True, infer attributes from the first element in the sequence.
+        fill_value : float | None, optional
+            Fill value to use when concatenating arrays. By default None, which raises
+            an error if incompatible keys are found.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Self
+            Sum of all instances in ``vectors``.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        KeyError
+            If incompatible :attr:`data` keys are found among ``vectors``.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> from pycontrails import VectorDataset
+        >>> v1 = VectorDataset({"a": [1, 2, 3], "b": [4, 5, 6]})
+        >>> v2 = VectorDataset({"a": [7, 8, 9], "b": [10, 11, 12]})
+        >>> v3 = VectorDataset({"a": [13, 14, 15], "b": [16, 17, 18]})
+        >>> v = VectorDataset.sum([v1, v2, v3])
+        >>> v.dataframe
+            a   b
+        0   1   4
+        1   2   5
+        2   3   6
+        3   7  10
+        4   8  11
+        5   9  12
+        6  13  16
+        7  14  17
+        8  15  18
+
+        """
+        if cls not in (VectorDataset, GeoVectorDataset):
+            msg = (
+                "Method 'sum' is only available on 'VectorDataset' and 'GeoVectorDataset'. "
+                "To sum 'Flight' instances, use 'Fleet.from_seq'."
+            )
+            raise TypeError(msg)
+
+        vectors = [v for v in vectors if v is not None]  # remove None values
+
+        if not vectors:
+            return cls()
+
+        keys: Iterable[str]
+        if fill_value is None:
+            keys = vectors[0].data.keys()
+            for v in vectors[1:]:
+                if v.data.keys() != keys:
+                    diff = set(v).symmetric_difference(keys)
+                    msg = f"Summands have incompatible keys. Difference: {diff}"
+                    raise KeyError(msg)
+
+        else:
+            keys = set().union(*[v.data.keys() for v in vectors])
+
+        def _get(k: str, v: VectorDataset) -> np.ndarray:
+            # Could also use VectorDataset.get() here, but we want to avoid creating
+            # an unused array if the key is present in the VectorDataset.
+            try:
+                return v[k]
+            except KeyError:
+                return np.full(v.size, fill_value)
+
+        def concat(key: str) -> np.ndarray:
+            values = [_get(key, v) for v in vectors]
+            return np.concatenate(values)
+
+        data = {key: concat(key) for key in keys}
+        attrs = vectors[0].attrs if infer_attrs else None
+
+        return cls._from_fastpath(data, attrs)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other: object) -> bool:
+        """Determine if two instances are equal.
+
+        NaN values are considered equal in this comparison.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        other : object
+            VectorDataset to compare with
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bool
+            True if both instances have identical :attr:`data` and :attr:`attrs`.
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, VectorDataset):
+            return False
+
+        # Check attrs
+        if self.attrs.keys() != other.attrs.keys():
+            return False
+
+        for key, val in self.attrs.items():
+            if isinstance(val, np.ndarray):
+                # equal_nan not supported for non-numeric data
+                equal_nan = not np.issubdtype(val.dtype, "O")
+                if not np.array_equal(val, other.attrs[key], equal_nan=equal_nan):
+                    return False
+            elif val != other.attrs[key]:
+                return False
+
+        # Check data
+        if self.data.keys() != other.data.keys():
+            return False
+
+        for key, val in self.data.items():
+            # equal_nan not supported for non-numeric data (e.g. strings)
+            equal_nan = not np.issubdtype(val.dtype, "O")
+            if not np.array_equal(val, other[key], equal_nan=equal_nan):
+                return False
+
+        return True
+
+    @property
+    def size(self) -> int:
+        """Length of each array in :attr:`data`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        int
+            Length of each array in :attr:`data`.
+        """
+        return getattr(self.data, "_size", 0)
+
+    @property
+    def shape(self) -> tuple[int]:
+        """Shape of each array in :attr:`data`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        tuple[int]
+            Shape of each array in :attr:`data`.
+        """
+        return (self.size,)
+
+    @property
+    def dataframe(self) -> pd.DataFrame:
+        """Shorthand property to access :meth:`to_dataframe` with ``copy=False``.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pd.DataFrame
+            Equivalent to the output from :meth:`to_dataframe()`
+        """
+        return self.to_dataframe(copy=False)
+
+    @property
+    def hash(self) -> str:
+        """Generate a unique hash for this class instance.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        str
+            Unique hash for flight instance (sha1)
+        """
+        _hash = json.dumps(self.data, cls=json_utils.NumpyEncoder)
+        return hashlib.sha1(bytes(_hash, "utf-8")).hexdigest()
+
+    # ------------
+    # Utilities
+    # ------------
+
+    def copy(self, **kwargs: Any) -> Self:
+        """Return a copy of this instance.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        **kwargs : Any
+            Additional keyword arguments passed into the constructor of the returned class.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Self
+            Copy of class
+        """
+        data = {key: value.copy() for key, value in self.data.items()}
+        return type(self)._from_fastpath(data, self.attrs, **kwargs)
+
+    def select(self: VectorDataset, keys: Iterable[str], copy: bool = True) -> VectorDataset:
+        """Return new class instance only containing specified keys.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        keys : Iterable[str]
+            An iterable of keys to filter by.
+        copy : bool, optional
+            Copy data on selection.
+            Defaults to True.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        VectorDataset
+            VectorDataset containing only data associated to ``keys``.
+            Note that this method always returns a :class:`VectorDataset`, even if
+            the calling class is a proper subclass of :class:`VectorDataset`.
+        """
+        data = {key: np.array(self[key], copy=copy) for key in keys}
+        return VectorDataset._from_fastpath(data, self.attrs)
+
+    def filter(self, mask: npt.NDArray[np.bool_], copy: bool = True, **kwargs: Any) -> Self:
+        """Filter :attr:`data` according to a boolean array ``mask``.
+
+        Entries corresponding to ``mask == True`` are kept.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        mask : npt.NDArray[np.bool_]
+            Boolean array with compatible shape.
+        copy : bool, optional
+            Copy data on filter. Defaults to True. See
+            `numpy best practices <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#slicing-and-striding>`_
+            for insight into whether copy is appropriate.
+        **kwargs : Any
+            Additional keyword arguments passed into the constructor of the returned class.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Self
+            Containing filtered data
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        TypeError
+            If ``mask`` is not a boolean array.
+        """
+        self.data._validate_array(mask)
+        if mask.dtype != bool:
+            raise TypeError("Parameter `mask` must be a boolean array.")
+
+        data = {key: np.array(value[mask], copy=copy) for key, value in self.data.items()}
+        return type(self)._from_fastpath(data, self.attrs, **kwargs)
+
+    def sort(self, by: str | list[str]) -> Self:
+        """Sort data by key(s).
+
+        This method always creates a copy of the data by calling
+        :meth:`pandas.DataFrame.sort_values`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        by : str | list[str]
+            Key or list of keys to sort by.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Self
+            Instance with sorted data.
+        """
+        return type(self)(data=self.dataframe.sort_values(by=by), attrs=self.attrs, copy=False)
+
+    def ensure_vars(self, vars: str | Iterable[str], raise_error: bool = True) -> bool:
+        """Ensure variables exist in column of :attr:`data` or :attr:`attrs`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        vars : str | Iterable[str]
+            A single string variable name or a sequence of string variable names.
+        raise_error : bool, optional
+            Raise KeyError if data does not contain variables.
+            Defaults to True.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bool
+            True if all variables exist.
+            False otherwise.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        KeyError
+            Raises when dataset does not contain variable in ``vars``
+        """
+        if isinstance(vars, str):
+            vars = (vars,)
+
+        for v in vars:
+            if v in self or v in self.attrs:
+                continue
+            if raise_error:
+                msg = f"{type(self).__name__} instance does not contain data or attr '{v}'"
+                raise KeyError(msg)
+            return False
+
+        return True
+
+    def broadcast_attrs(
+        self,
+        keys: str | Iterable[str],
+        overwrite: bool = False,
+        raise_error: bool = True,
+    ) -> None:
+        """Attach values from ``keys`` in :attr:`attrs` onto :attr:`data`.
+
+        If possible, use ``dtype = np.float32`` when broadcasting. If not possible,
+        use whatever ``dtype`` is inferred from the data by :func:`numpy.full`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        keys : str | Iterable[str]
+            Keys to broadcast
+        overwrite : bool, optional
+            If True, overwrite existing values in :attr:`data`. By default False.
+        raise_error : bool, optional
+            Raise KeyError if :attr:`self.attrs` does not contain some of ``keys``.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        KeyError
+            Not all ``keys`` found in :attr:`attrs`.
+        """
+        if isinstance(keys, str):
+            keys = (keys,)
+
+        # Validate everything up front to avoid partial broadcasting
+        for key in keys:
+            try:
+                scalar = self.attrs[key]
+            except KeyError as exc:
+                if raise_error:
+                    raise KeyError(f"{type(self)} does not contain attr `{key}`") from exc
+                continue
+
+            if key in self.data and not overwrite:
+                warnings.warn(
+                    f"Found duplicate key {key} in attrs and data. "
+                    "Set `overwrite=True` parameter to force overwrite."
+                )
+                continue
+
+            min_dtype = np.min_scalar_type(scalar)
+            dtype = np.float32 if np.can_cast(min_dtype, np.float32) else None
+            self.data.update({key: np.full(self.size, scalar, dtype=dtype)})
+
+    def broadcast_numeric_attrs(
+        self, ignore_keys: str | Iterable[str] | None = None, overwrite: bool = False
+    ) -> None:
+        """Attach numeric values in :attr:`attrs` onto :attr:`data`.
+
+        Iterate through values in :attr:`attrs` and attach :class:`float` and
+        :class:`int` values to ``data``.
+
+        This method modifies object in place.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        ignore_keys: str | Iterable[str] | None, optional
+            Do not broadcast selected keys.
+            Defaults to None.
+        overwrite : bool, optional
+            If True, overwrite existing values in :attr:`data`. By default False.
+        """
+        if ignore_keys is None:
+            ignore_keys = ()
+        elif isinstance(ignore_keys, str):
+            ignore_keys = (ignore_keys,)
+
+        # Somewhat brittle: Only checking for int or float type
+        numeric_attrs = (
+            attr
+            for attr, val in self.attrs.items()
+            if (isinstance(val, int | float | np.number) and attr not in ignore_keys)
+        )
+        self.broadcast_attrs(numeric_attrs, overwrite)
+
+    def get_constant(self, key: str, default: Any = __marker) -> Any:
+        """Get a constant value from :attr:`attrs` or :attr:`data`.
+
+        - If ``key`` is found in :attr:`attrs`, the value is returned.
+        - If ``key`` is found in :attr:`data`, the common value is returned if all
+          values are equal.
+        - If ``key`` is not found in :attr:`attrs` or :attr:`data` and a ``default`` is provided,
+          the ``default`` is returned.
+        - Otherwise, a KeyError is raised.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Key to look for.
+        default : Any, optional
+            Default value to return if ``key`` is not found in :attr:`attrs` or :attr:`data`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Any
+            The constant value for ``key``.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        KeyError
+            If ``key`` is not found in :attr:`attrs` or the values in :attr:`data` are not equal
+            and ``default`` is not provided.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> vector = VectorDataset({"a": [1, 1, 1], "b": [2, 2, 3]})
+        >>> vector.get_constant("a")
+        np.int64(1)
+        >>> vector.get_constant("b")
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        KeyError: "A constant key 'b' not found in attrs or data"
+        >>> vector.get_constant("b", 3)
+        3
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        get_data_or_attr
+        GeoVectorDataset.constants
+        """
+        marker = self.__marker
+
+        out = self.attrs.get(key, marker)
+        if out is not marker:
+            return out
+
+        arr: np.ndarray = self.data.get(key, marker)  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+        if arr is not marker:
+            try:
+                vals = np.unique(arr)
+            except TypeError:
+                # A TypeError can occur if the arr has object dtype and contains None
+                # Handle this case by returning None
+                if arr.dtype == object and np.all(arr == None):  # noqa: E711
+                    return None
+                raise
+
+            if len(vals) == 1:
+                return vals[0]
+
+        if default is not marker:
+            return default
+
+        msg = f"A constant key '{key}' not found in attrs or data"
+        raise KeyError(msg)
+
+    # ------------
+    # I / O
+    # ------------
+
+    def to_dataframe(self, copy: bool = True) -> pd.DataFrame:
+        """Create :class:`pd.DataFrame` in which each key-value pair in :attr:`data` is a column.
+
+        DataFrame does **not** copy data by default.
+        Use the ``copy`` parameter to copy data values on creation.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        copy : bool, optional
+            Copy data on DataFrame creation.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pd.DataFrame
+            DataFrame holding key-values as columns.
+        """
+        df = pd.DataFrame(self.data, copy=copy)
+        df.attrs = self.attrs
+        return df
+
+    def to_dict(self) -> dict[str, Any]:
+        """Create dictionary with :attr:`data` and :attr:`attrs`.
+
+        If geo-spatial coordinates (e.g. ``"latitude"``, ``"longitude"``, ``"altitude"``)
+        are present, round to a reasonable precision. If a ``"time"`` variable is present,
+        round to unix seconds. When the instance is a :class:`GeoVectorDataset`,
+        disregard any ``"altitude"`` or ``"level"`` coordinate and only include
+        ``"altitude_ft"`` in the output.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict[str, Any]
+            Dictionary with :attr:`data` and :attr:`attrs`.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :meth:`from_dict`
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> import pprint
+        >>> from pycontrails import Flight
+        >>> fl = Flight(
+        ...     longitude=[-100, -110],
+        ...     latitude=[40, 50],
+        ...     level=[200, 200],
+        ...     time=[np.datetime64("2020-01-01T09"), np.datetime64("2020-01-01T09:30")],
+        ...     aircraft_type="B737",
+        ... )
+        >>> fl = fl.resample_and_fill("5min")
+        >>> pprint.pprint(fl.to_dict())
+        {'aircraft_type': 'B737',
+         'altitude_ft': [38661.0, 38661.0, 38661.0, 38661.0, 38661.0, 38661.0, 38661.0],
+         'latitude': [40.0, 41.724, 43.428, 45.111, 46.769, 48.399, 50.0],
+         'longitude': [-100.0,
+                       -101.441,
+                       -102.959,
+                       -104.563,
+                       -106.267,
+                       -108.076,
+                       -110.0],
+         'time': [1577869200,
+                  1577869500,
+                  1577869800,
+                  1577870100,
+                  1577870400,
+                  1577870700,
+                  1577871000]}
+        """
+        np_encoder = json_utils.NumpyEncoder()
+
+        # round latitude, longitude, and altitude
+        precision = {"longitude": 3, "latitude": 3, "altitude_ft": 0}
+
+        def encode(key: str, obj: Any) -> Any:
+            # Try to handle some pandas objects
+            if hasattr(obj, "to_numpy"):
+                obj = obj.to_numpy()
+
+            # Convert numpy objects to python objects
+            if isinstance(obj, np.ndarray | np.generic):
+                # round time to unix seconds
+                if key == "time":
+                    return np_encoder.default(obj.astype("datetime64[s]").astype(int))
+
+                # round specific keys in precision
+                try:
+                    d = precision[key]
+                except KeyError:
+                    return np_encoder.default(obj)
+
+                return np_encoder.default(obj.astype(float).round(d))
+
+            # Pass through everything else
+            return obj
+
+        data = {k: encode(k, v) for k, v in self.data.items()}
+        attrs = {k: encode(k, v) for k, v in self.attrs.items()}
+
+        # Only include one of the vertical coordinate keys
+        if isinstance(self, GeoVectorDataset):
+            data.pop("altitude", None)
+            data.pop("level", None)
+            if "altitude_ft" not in data:
+                data["altitude_ft"] = self.altitude_ft.round(precision["altitude_ft"]).tolist()
+
+        # Issue warning if any keys are duplicated
+        common_keys = data.keys() & attrs.keys()
+        if common_keys:
+            warnings.warn(
+                f"Found duplicate keys in data and attrs: {common_keys}. "
+                "Data keys will overwrite attrs keys in returned dictionary."
+            )
+
+        return {**attrs, **data}
+
+    @classmethod
+    def create_empty(
+        cls,
+        keys: Iterable[str],
+        attrs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Self:
+        """Create instance with variables defined by ``keys`` and size 0.
+
+        If instance requires additional variables to be defined, these keys will automatically
+        be attached to returned instance.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        keys : Iterable[str]
+            Keys to include in empty VectorDataset instance.
+        attrs : dict[str, Any] | None, optional
+            Attributes to attach instance.
+        **kwargs : Any
+            Additional keyword arguments passed into the constructor of the returned class.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Self
+            Empty VectorDataset instance.
+        """
+        data = _empty_vector_dict(keys)
+        return cls._from_fastpath(data, attrs, **kwargs)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def from_dict(cls, obj: dict[str, Any], copy: bool = True, **obj_kwargs: Any) -> Self:
+        """Create instance from dict representation containing data and attrs.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        obj : dict[str, Any]
+            Dict representation of VectorDataset (e.g. :meth:`to_dict`)
+        copy : bool, optional
+            Passed to :class:`VectorDataset` constructor.
+            Defaults to True.
+        **obj_kwargs : Any
+            Additional properties passed as keyword arguments.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Self
+            VectorDataset instance.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :meth:`to_dict`
+        """
+        data = {}
+        attrs = {}
+
+        for k, v in {**obj, **obj_kwargs}.items():
+            if isinstance(v, list | np.ndarray):
+                data[k] = v
+            else:
+                attrs[k] = v
+
+        return cls(data=data, attrs=attrs, copy=copy)
+
+    def generate_splits(self, n_splits: int, copy: bool = True) -> Generator[Self, None, None]:
+        """Split instance into ``n_split`` sub-vectors.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        n_splits : int
+            Number of splits.
+        copy : bool, optional
+            Passed into :meth:`filter`. Defaults to True. Recommend to keep as True
+            based on `numpy best practices <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#slicing-and-striding>`_.
+
+        Yields
+        ------
+        Self
+            Generator of split vectors.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :func:`numpy.array_split`
+        """
+        full_index = np.arange(self.size)
+        index_splits = np.array_split(full_index, n_splits)
+        for index in index_splits:
+            filt = np.zeros(self.size, dtype=bool)
+            filt[index] = True
+            yield self.filter(filt, copy=copy)
+
+
+class GeoVectorDataset(VectorDataset):
+    """Base class to hold 1D geospatial arrays of consistent size.
+
+    GeoVectorDataset is required to have geospatial coordinate keys defined
+    in :attr:`required_keys`.
+
+    Expect latitude-longitude CRS in WGS 84.
+    Expect altitude in [:math:`m`].
+    Expect level in [:math:`hPa`].
+
+    Each spatial variable is expected to have "float32" or "float64" ``dtype``.
+    The time variable is expected to have "datetime64[ns]" ``dtype``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | pd.DataFrame | VectorDataset | None, optional
+        Data dictionary or :class:`pandas.DataFrame` .
+        Must include keys/columns ``time``, ``latitude``, ``longitude``, ``altitude`` or ``level``.
+        Keyword arguments for ``time``, ``latitude``, ``longitude``, ``altitude`` or ``level``
+        override ``data`` inputs. Expects ``altitude`` in meters and ``time``
+        as a DatetimeLike (or array that can processed with :meth:`pd.to_datetime`).
+        Additional waypoint-specific data can be included as additional keys/columns.
+    longitude : npt.ArrayLike | None, optional
+        Longitude data.
+        Defaults to None.
+    latitude : npt.ArrayLike | None, optional
+        Latitude data.
+        Defaults to None.
+    altitude : npt.ArrayLike | None, optional
+        Altitude data, [:math:`m`].
+        Defaults to None.
+    altitude_ft : npt.ArrayLike | None, optional
+        Altitude data, [:math:`ft`].
+        Defaults to None.
+    level : npt.ArrayLike | None, optional
+        Level data, [:math:`hPa`].
+        Defaults to None.
+    time : npt.ArrayLike | None, optional
+        Time data.
+        Expects an array of DatetimeLike values,
+        or array that can processed with :meth:`pd.to_datetime`.
+        Defaults to None.
+    attrs : dict[str, Any] | None, optional
+        Additional properties as a dictionary.
+        Defaults to {}.
+    copy : bool, optional
+        Copy data on class creation.
+        Defaults to True.
+    **attrs_kwargs : Any
+        Additional properties passed as keyword arguments.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    KeyError
+        Raises if ``data`` input does not contain at least ``time``, ``latitude``, ``longitude``,
+        (``altitude`` or ``level``).
+    """
+
+    __slots__ = ()
+
+    #: Required keys for creating GeoVectorDataset
+    required_keys = "longitude", "latitude", "time"
+
+    #: At least one of these vertical-coordinate keys must also be included
+    vertical_keys = "altitude", "level", "altitude_ft"
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        data: dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | pd.DataFrame | VectorDataset | None = None,
+        *,
+        longitude: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        latitude: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        altitude: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        altitude_ft: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        level: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        time: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        attrs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        copy: bool = True,
+        **attrs_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> None:
+        # shortcut to `GeoVectorDataset.create_empty` by just using `GeoVectorDataset()`
+        if (
+            data is None
+            and longitude is None
+            and latitude is None
+            and altitude is None
+            and level is None
+            and time is None
+        ):
+            keys = *self.required_keys, "altitude"
+            self.data = VectorDataDict(_empty_vector_dict(keys))
+            self.attrs = AttrDict(attrs or {})
+            self.attrs.update(attrs_kwargs)
+            return
+
+        super().__init__(data=data, attrs=attrs, copy=copy, **attrs_kwargs)
+
+        # using the self[key] syntax specifically to run qc on assignment
+        if longitude is not None:
+            self["longitude"] = np.array(longitude, copy=copy)
+
+        if latitude is not None:
+            self["latitude"] = np.array(latitude, copy=copy)
+
+        if time is not None:
+            self["time"] = np.array(time, copy=copy)
+
+        if altitude is not None:
+            self["altitude"] = np.array(altitude, copy=copy)
+            if altitude_ft is not None or level is not None:
+                warnings.warn(
+                    "Altitude data provided. Ignoring altitude_ft and level inputs.",
+                )
+        elif altitude_ft is not None:
+            self["altitude_ft"] = np.array(altitude_ft, copy=copy)
+            if level is not None:
+                warnings.warn(
+                    "Altitude_ft data provided. Ignoring level input.",
+                )
+        elif level is not None:
+            self["level"] = np.array(level, copy=copy)
+
+        # Confirm that input has required keys
+        if not all(key in self for key in self.required_keys):
+            raise KeyError(
+                f"{self.__class__.__name__} requires all of the following keys: "
+                f"{', '.join(self.required_keys)}"
+            )
+
+        # Confirm that input has at least one vertical key
+        if not any(key in self for key in self.vertical_keys):
+            raise KeyError(
+                f"{self.__class__.__name__} requires at least one of the following keys: "
+                f"{', '.join(self.vertical_keys)}"
+            )
+
+        # Parse time: If time is not np.datetime64, we try to coerce it to be
+        # by pumping it through pd.to_datetime.
+        time = self["time"]
+        if not np.issubdtype(time.dtype, np.datetime64):
+            warnings.warn("Time data is not np.datetime64. Attempting to coerce.")
+            try:
+                pd_time = _handle_time_column(pd.Series(self["time"]))
+            except ValueError as e:
+                raise ValueError("Could not coerce time data to datetime64.") from e
+            np_time = pd_time.to_numpy(dtype="datetime64[ns]")
+            self.update(time=np_time)
+        elif time.dtype != "datetime64[ns]":
+            self.update(time=time.astype("datetime64[ns]"))
+
+        # Ensure spatial coordinates are float32 or float64
+        float_dtype = (np.float32, np.float64)
+        for coord in ("longitude", "latitude", "altitude", "level", "altitude_ft"):
+            try:
+                arr = self[coord]
+            except KeyError:
+                continue
+            if arr.dtype not in float_dtype:
+                self.update({coord: arr.astype(np.float64)})
+
+        longitude = self["longitude"]
+        if np.any(longitude > 180.0) or np.any(longitude < -180.0):
+            raise ValueError("EPSG:4326 longitude coordinates should lie between [-180, 180).")
+        latitude = self["latitude"]
+        if np.any(latitude > 90.0) or np.any(latitude < -90.0):
+            raise ValueError("EPSG:4326 latitude coordinates should lie between [-90, 90].")
+
+    @override
+    def _display_attrs(self) -> dict[str, str]:
+        try:
+            time0 = pd.Timestamp(np.nanmin(self["time"]))
+            time1 = pd.Timestamp(np.nanmax(self["time"]))
+            lon0 = round(np.nanmin(self["longitude"]), 3)
+            lon1 = round(np.nanmax(self["longitude"]), 3)
+            lat0 = round(np.nanmin(self["latitude"]), 3)
+            lat1 = round(np.nanmax(self["latitude"]), 3)
+            alt0 = round(np.nanmin(self.altitude), 1)
+            alt1 = round(np.nanmax(self.altitude), 1)
+
+            attrs = {
+                "time": f"[{time0}, {time1}]",
+                "longitude": f"[{lon0}, {lon1}]",
+                "latitude": f"[{lat0}, {lat1}]",
+                "altitude": f"[{alt0}, {alt1}]",
+            }
+        except Exception:
+            attrs = {}
+
+        attrs.update(super()._display_attrs())
+        return attrs
+
+    @property
+    def level(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+        """Get pressure ``level`` values for points.
+
+        Automatically calculates pressure level using :func:`units.m_to_pl` using ``altitude`` key.
+
+        Note that if ``level`` key exists in :attr:`data`, the data at the ``level``
+        key will be returned. This allows an override of the default calculation
+        of pressure level from altitude.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+            Point pressure level values, [:math:`hPa`]
+        """
+        try:
+            return self["level"]
+        except KeyError:
+            return units.m_to_pl(self.altitude)
+
+    @property
+    def altitude(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+        """Get altitude.
+
+        Automatically calculates altitude using :func:`units.pl_to_m` using ``level`` key.
+
+        Note that if ``altitude`` key exists in :attr:`data`, the data at the ``altitude``
+        key will be returned. This allows an override of the default calculation of altitude
+        from pressure level.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+            Altitude, [:math:`m`]
+        """
+        try:
+            return self["altitude"]
+        except KeyError:
+            # Implementation note: explicitly look for "level" or "altitude_ft" key
+            # here to avoid getting stuck in an infinite loop when .level or .altitude_ft
+            # are called.
+            if (level := self.get("level")) is not None:
+                return units.pl_to_m(level)
+            return units.ft_to_m(self["altitude_ft"])
+
+    @property
+    def air_pressure(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+        """Get ``air_pressure`` values for points.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+            Point air pressure values, [:math:`Pa`]
+        """
+        try:
+            return self["air_pressure"]
+        except KeyError:
+            return 100.0 * self.level
+
+    @property
+    def altitude_ft(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+        """Get altitude in feet.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+            Altitude, [:math:`ft`]
+        """
+        try:
+            return self["altitude_ft"]
+        except KeyError:
+            return units.m_to_ft(self.altitude)
+
+    @property
+    def constants(self) -> dict[str, Any]:
+        """Return a dictionary of constant attributes and data values.
+
+        Includes :attr:`attrs` and values from columns in :attr:`data` with a unique
+        value.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict[str, Any]
+            Properties and their constant values
+        """
+        constants = {}
+
+        # get constant data values that are not nan
+        for key in set(self).difference(self.required_keys):
+            unique = np.unique(self[key])
+            if len(unique) == 1 and (isinstance(unique[0], str) or ~np.isnan(unique[0])):
+                constants[key] = unique[0]
+
+        # add attributes
+        constants.update(self.attrs)
+
+        # clean strings values by removing whitespace
+        # convert any numpy items to python objects
+        def _cleanup(v: Any) -> Any:
+            if isinstance(v, str):
+                return v.strip()
+            if isinstance(v, np.integer):
+                return int(v)
+            if isinstance(v, np.floating):
+                return float(v)
+            if isinstance(v, np.bool_):
+                return bool(v)
+            return v
+
+        return {k: _cleanup(v) for k, v in constants.items()}
+
+    @property
+    def coords(self) -> dict[str, np.ndarray]:
+        """Get geospatial coordinates for compatibility with MetDataArray.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict[str, np.ndarray]
+            A dictionary with fields `longitude`, `latitude`, `level`, and `time`.
+        """
+        return {
+            "longitude": self["longitude"],
+            "latitude": self["latitude"],
+            "level": self.level,
+            "time": self["time"],
+        }
+
+    # ------------
+    # Utilities
+    # ------------
+
+    def transform_crs(self, crs: str) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]]:
+        """Transform trajectory data from one coordinate reference system (CRS) to another.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        crs : str
+            Target CRS. Passed into to :class:`pyproj.Transformer`. The source CRS
+            is assumed to be EPSG:4326.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        tuple[npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]]
+            New x and y coordinates in the target CRS.
+        """
+        try:
+            import pyproj
+        except ModuleNotFoundError as exc:
+            dependencies.raise_module_not_found_error(
+                name="GeoVectorDataset.transform_crs method",
+                package_name="pyproj",
+                module_not_found_error=exc,
+                pycontrails_optional_package="pyproj",
+            )
+
+        crs_from = "EPSG:4326"
+        transformer = pyproj.Transformer.from_crs(crs_from, crs, always_xy=True)
+        return transformer.transform(self["longitude"], self["latitude"])
+
+    def T_isa(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+        """Calculate the ICAO standard atmosphere temperature at each point.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+            ISA temperature, [:math:`K`]
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :func:`pycontrails.physics.units.m_to_T_isa`
+        """
+        return units.m_to_T_isa(self.altitude)
+
+    # ------------
+    # Met
+    # ------------
+
+    def coords_intersect_met(
+        self, met: met_module.MetDataset | met_module.MetDataArray
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.bool_]:
+        """Return boolean mask of data inside the bounding box defined by ``met``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        met : met_module.MetDataset | met_module.MetDataArray
+            MetDataset or MetDataArray to compare.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.bool_]
+            True if point is inside the bounding box defined by ``met``.
+        """
+        indexes = met.indexes
+
+        lat_intersect = coordinates.intersect_domain(
+            indexes["latitude"].to_numpy(),
+            self["latitude"],
+        )
+        lon_intersect = coordinates.intersect_domain(
+            indexes["longitude"].to_numpy(),
+            self["longitude"],
+        )
+        level_intersect = coordinates.intersect_domain(
+            indexes["level"].to_numpy(),
+            self.level,
+        )
+        time_intersect = coordinates.intersect_domain(
+            indexes["time"].to_numpy(),
+            self["time"],
+        )
+
+        return lat_intersect & lon_intersect & level_intersect & time_intersect
+
+    def intersect_met(
+        self,
+        mda: met_module.MetDataArray,
+        *,
+        longitude: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None = None,
+        latitude: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None = None,
+        level: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None = None,
+        time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64] | None = None,
+        use_indices: bool = False,
+        **interp_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+        """Intersect waypoints with MetDataArray.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        mda : met_module.MetDataArray
+            MetDataArray containing a meteorological variable at spatio-temporal coordinates.
+        longitude : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None, optional
+            Override existing coordinates for met interpolation
+        latitude : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None, optional
+            Override existing coordinates for met interpolation
+        level : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None, optional
+            Override existing coordinates for met interpolation
+        time : npt.NDArray[np.datetime64] | None, optional
+            Override existing coordinates for met interpolation
+        use_indices : bool, optional
+            Experimental.
+        **interp_kwargs : Any
+            Additional keyword arguments to pass to :meth:`MetDataArray.intersect_met`.
+            Examples include ``method``, ``bounds_error``, and ``fill_value``. If an error such as
+
+            .. code-block:: python
+
+                ValueError: One of the requested xi is out of bounds in dimension 2
+
+            occurs, try calling this function with ``bounds_error=False``. In addition,
+            setting ``fill_value=0.0`` will replace NaN values with 0.0.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+            Interpolated values
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> from datetime import datetime
+        >>> import pandas as pd
+        >>> import numpy as np
+        >>> from pycontrails.datalib.ecmwf import ERA5
+        >>> from pycontrails import Flight
+
+        >>> # Get met data
+        >>> times = (datetime(2022, 3, 1, 0),  datetime(2022, 3, 1, 3))
+        >>> variables = ["air_temperature", "specific_humidity"]
+        >>> levels = [300, 250, 200]
+        >>> era5 = ERA5(time=times, variables=variables, pressure_levels=levels)
+        >>> met = era5.open_metdataset()
+
+        >>> # Example flight
+        >>> df = pd.DataFrame()
+        >>> df['longitude'] = np.linspace(0, 50, 10)
+        >>> df['latitude'] = np.linspace(0, 10, 10)
+        >>> df['altitude'] = 11000
+        >>> df['time'] = pd.date_range("2022-03-01T00", "2022-03-01T02", periods=10)
+        >>> fl = Flight(df)
+
+        >>> # Intersect
+        >>> fl.intersect_met(met['air_temperature'], method='nearest')
+        array([231.62969892, 230.72604651, 232.24318771, 231.88338483,
+               231.06429438, 231.59073409, 231.65125393, 231.93064004,
+               232.03344087, 231.65954432])
+
+        >>> fl.intersect_met(met['air_temperature'], method='linear')
+        array([225.77794552, 225.13908414, 226.231218  , 226.31831528,
+               225.56102321, 225.81192149, 226.03192642, 226.22056121,
+               226.03770174, 225.63226188])
+
+        >>> # Interpolate and attach to `Flight` instance
+        >>> for key in met:
+        ...     fl[key] = fl.intersect_met(met[key])
+
+        >>> # Show the final three columns of the dataframe
+        >>> fl.dataframe.iloc[:, -3:].head()
+                         time  air_temperature  specific_humidity
+        0 2022-03-01 00:00:00       225.777946           0.000132
+        1 2022-03-01 00:13:20       225.139084           0.000132
+        2 2022-03-01 00:26:40       226.231218           0.000107
+        3 2022-03-01 00:40:00       226.318315           0.000171
+        4 2022-03-01 00:53:20       225.561022           0.000109
+
+        """
+        # Override use_indices in certain situations
+        if use_indices:
+            # Often the single_level data we use has time shifted
+            # Don't allow it for now. We could do something smarter here!
+            if mda.is_single_level:
+                use_indices = False
+
+            # Cannot both override some coordinate AND pass indices.
+            elif any(c is not None for c in (longitude, latitude, level, time)):
+                # Should we warn?! Or is this "convenience"?
+                use_indices = False
+
+        longitude = longitude if longitude is not None else self["longitude"]
+        latitude = latitude if latitude is not None else self["latitude"]
+        level = level if level is not None else self.level
+        time = time if time is not None else self["time"]
+
+        if not use_indices:
+            return mda.interpolate(longitude, latitude, level, time, **interp_kwargs)
+
+        indices = self._get_indices()
+        already_has_indices = indices is not None
+        out, indices = mda.interpolate(
+            longitude,
+            latitude,
+            level,
+            time,
+            indices=indices,
+            return_indices=True,
+            **interp_kwargs,
+        )
+        if not already_has_indices:
+            self._put_indices(indices)
+        return out
+
+    def _put_indices(self, indices: interpolation.RGIArtifacts) -> None:
+        """Set entries of ``indices`` onto underlying :attr:`data.
+
+        Each entry of ``indices`` are unpacked assuming certain conventions
+        for its structure. A ValueError is raise if these conventions are not
+        satisfied.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 0.26.0
+
+            Experimental
+
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        indices : interpolation.RGIArtifacts
+            The indices to store.
+        """
+        indices_x, indices_y, indices_z, indices_t = indices.xi_indices
+        distances_x, distances_y, distances_z, distances_t = indices.norm_distances
+        out_of_bounds = indices.out_of_bounds
+
+        self["_indices_x"] = indices_x
+        self["_indices_y"] = indices_y
+        self["_indices_z"] = indices_z
+        self["_indices_t"] = indices_t
+        self["_distances_x"] = distances_x
+        self["_distances_y"] = distances_y
+        self["_distances_z"] = distances_z
+        self["_distances_t"] = distances_t
+        self["_out_of_bounds"] = out_of_bounds
+
+    def _get_indices(self) -> interpolation.RGIArtifacts | None:
+        """Get entries from call to :meth:`_put_indices`.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 0.26.0
+
+            Experimental
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        interpolation.RGIArtifacts | None
+            Previously cached output of
+            :meth:`scipy.interpolate.RegularGridInterpolator._find_indices`,
+            or None if cached output is not present on instance.
+        """
+        try:
+            indices_x = self["_indices_x"]
+            indices_y = self["_indices_y"]
+            indices_z = self["_indices_z"]
+            indices_t = self["_indices_t"]
+            distances_x = self["_distances_x"]
+            distances_y = self["_distances_y"]
+            distances_z = self["_distances_z"]
+            distances_t = self["_distances_t"]
+            out_of_bounds = self["_out_of_bounds"]
+        except KeyError:
+            return None
+
+        indices = np.asarray([indices_x, indices_y, indices_z, indices_t])
+        distances = np.asarray([distances_x, distances_y, distances_z, distances_t])
+
+        return interpolation.RGIArtifacts(indices, distances, out_of_bounds)
+
+    def _invalidate_indices(self) -> None:
+        """Remove any cached indices from :attr:`data."""
+        for key in (
+            "_indices_x",
+            "_indices_y",
+            "_indices_z",
+            "_indices_t",
+            "_distances_x",
+            "_distances_y",
+            "_distances_z",
+            "_distances_t",
+            "_out_of_bounds",
+        ):
+            self.data.pop(key, None)
+
+    @overload
+    def downselect_met(
+        self,
+        met: met_module.MetDataset,
+        *,
+        longitude_buffer: tuple[float, float] = ...,
+        latitude_buffer: tuple[float, float] = ...,
+        level_buffer: tuple[float, float] = ...,
+        time_buffer: tuple[np.timedelta64, np.timedelta64] = ...,
+    ) -> met_module.MetDataset: ...
+
+    @overload
+    def downselect_met(
+        self,
+        met: met_module.MetDataArray,
+        *,
+        longitude_buffer: tuple[float, float] = ...,
+        latitude_buffer: tuple[float, float] = ...,
+        level_buffer: tuple[float, float] = ...,
+        time_buffer: tuple[np.timedelta64, np.timedelta64] = ...,
+    ) -> met_module.MetDataArray: ...
+
+    def downselect_met(
+        self,
+        met: met_module.MetDataType,
+        *,
+        longitude_buffer: tuple[float, float] = (0.0, 0.0),
+        latitude_buffer: tuple[float, float] = (0.0, 0.0),
+        level_buffer: tuple[float, float] = (0.0, 0.0),
+        time_buffer: tuple[np.timedelta64, np.timedelta64] = (
+            np.timedelta64(0, "h"),
+            np.timedelta64(0, "h"),
+        ),
+    ) -> met_module.MetDataType:
+        """Downselect ``met`` to encompass a spatiotemporal region of the data.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 0.54.5
+
+            Returned object is no longer copied.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        met : met_module.MetDataType
+            MetDataset or MetDataArray to downselect.
+        longitude_buffer : tuple[float, float], optional
+            Extend longitude domain past by ``longitude_buffer[0]`` on the low side
+            and ``longitude_buffer[1]`` on the high side.
+            Units must be the same as class coordinates.
+            Defaults to ``(0, 0)`` degrees.
+        latitude_buffer : tuple[float, float], optional
+            Extend latitude domain past by ``latitude_buffer[0]`` on the low side
+            and ``latitude_buffer[1]`` on the high side.
+            Units must be the same as class coordinates.
+            Defaults to ``(0, 0)`` degrees.
+        level_buffer : tuple[float, float], optional
+            Extend level domain past by ``level_buffer[0]`` on the low side
+            and ``level_buffer[1]`` on the high side.
+            Units must be the same as class coordinates.
+            Defaults to ``(0, 0)`` [:math:`hPa`].
+        time_buffer : tuple[np.timedelta64, np.timedelta64], optional
+            Extend time domain past by ``time_buffer[0]`` on the low side
+            and ``time_buffer[1]`` on the high side.
+            Units must be the same as class coordinates.
+            Defaults to ``(np.timedelta64(0, "h"), np.timedelta64(0, "h"))``.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        met_module.MetDataType
+            Copy of downselected MetDataset or MetDataArray.
+        """
+        indexes = met.indexes
+        lon_slice = coordinates.slice_domain(
+            indexes["longitude"].to_numpy(),
+            self["longitude"],
+            buffer=longitude_buffer,
+        )
+        lat_slice = coordinates.slice_domain(
+            indexes["latitude"].to_numpy(),
+            self["latitude"],
+            buffer=latitude_buffer,
+        )
+        time_slice = coordinates.slice_domain(
+            indexes["time"].to_numpy(),
+            self["time"],
+            buffer=time_buffer,
+        )
+
+        # single level data have "level" == [-1]
+        if met.is_single_level:
+            level_slice = slice(None)
+        else:
+            level_slice = coordinates.slice_domain(
+                indexes["level"].to_numpy(),
+                self.level,
+                buffer=level_buffer,
+            )
+        logger.debug("Downselect met at %s %s %s %s", lon_slice, lat_slice, level_slice, time_slice)
+
+        data = met.data.isel(
+            longitude=lon_slice,
+            latitude=lat_slice,
+            level=level_slice,
+            time=time_slice,
+        )
+        return type(met)._from_fastpath(data)
+
+    # ------------
+    # I / O
+    # ------------
+
+    @classmethod
+    @override
+    def create_empty(
+        cls,
+        keys: Iterable[str] | None = None,
+        attrs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        **attrs_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Self:
+        keys = *cls.required_keys, "altitude", *(keys or ())
+        return super().create_empty(keys, attrs, **attrs_kwargs)
+
+    def to_geojson_points(self) -> dict[str, Any]:
+        """Return dataset as GeoJSON FeatureCollection of Points.
+
+        Each Feature has a properties attribute that includes ``time`` and
+        other data besides ``latitude``, ``longitude``, and ``altitude`` in :attr:`data`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict[str, Any]
+            Python representation of GeoJSON FeatureCollection
+        """
+        return json_utils.dataframe_to_geojson_points(self.dataframe)
+
+    # ------------
+    # Vector to grid
+    # ------------
+    def to_lon_lat_grid(
+        self,
+        agg: dict[str, str],
+        *,
+        spatial_bbox: tuple[float, float, float, float] = (-180.0, -90.0, 180.0, 90.0),
+        spatial_grid_res: float = 0.5,
+    ) -> xr.Dataset:
+        """
+        Convert vectors to a longitude-latitude grid.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        vector_to_lon_lat_grid
+        """
+        return vector_to_lon_lat_grid(
+            self, agg=agg, spatial_bbox=spatial_bbox, spatial_grid_res=spatial_grid_res
+        )
+
+
+def vector_to_lon_lat_grid(
+    vector: GeoVectorDataset,
+    agg: dict[str, str],
+    *,
+    spatial_bbox: tuple[float, float, float, float] = (-180.0, -90.0, 180.0, 90.0),
+    spatial_grid_res: float = 0.5,
+) -> xr.Dataset:
+    r"""
+    Convert vectors to a longitude-latitude grid.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    vector: GeoVectorDataset
+        Contains the longitude, latitude and variables for aggregation.
+    agg: dict[str, str]
+        Variable name and the function selected for aggregation,
+        i.e. ``{"segment_length": "sum"}``.
+    spatial_bbox: tuple[float, float, float, float]
+        Spatial bounding box, ``(lon_min, lat_min, lon_max, lat_max)``, [:math:`\deg`].
+        By default, the entire globe is used.
+    spatial_grid_res: float
+        Spatial grid resolution, [:math:`\deg`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    xr.Dataset
+        Aggregated variables in a longitude-latitude grid.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> rng = np.random.default_rng(234)
+    >>> vector = GeoVectorDataset(
+    ...     longitude=rng.uniform(-10, 10, 10000),
+    ...     latitude=rng.uniform(-10, 10, 10000),
+    ...     altitude=np.zeros(10000),
+    ...     time=np.zeros(10000).astype("datetime64[ns]"),
+    ... )
+    >>> vector["foo"] = rng.uniform(0, 1, 10000)
+    >>> ds = vector.to_lon_lat_grid({"foo": "sum"}, spatial_bbox=(-10, -10, 9.5, 9.5))
+    >>> da = ds["foo"]
+    >>> da.coords
+    Coordinates:
+      * longitude  (longitude) float64 320B -10.0 -9.5 -9.0 -8.5 ... 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5
+      * latitude   (latitude) float64 320B -10.0 -9.5 -9.0 -8.5 ... 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5
+
+    >>> da.values.round(2)
+    array([[2.23, 0.67, 1.29, ..., 4.66, 3.91, 1.93],
+           [4.1 , 3.84, 1.34, ..., 3.24, 1.71, 4.55],
+           [0.78, 3.25, 2.33, ..., 3.78, 2.93, 2.33],
+           ...,
+           [1.97, 3.02, 1.84, ..., 2.37, 3.87, 2.09],
+           [3.74, 1.6 , 4.01, ..., 4.6 , 4.27, 3.4 ],
+           [2.97, 0.12, 1.33, ..., 3.54, 0.74, 2.59]], shape=(40, 40))
+
+    >>> da.sum().item() == vector["foo"].sum()
+    np.True_
+
+    """
+    df = vector.select(("longitude", "latitude", *agg), copy=False).dataframe
+
+    # Create longitude and latitude coordinates
+    assert spatial_grid_res > 0.01, "spatial_grid_res must be greater than 0.01"
+    west, south, east, north = spatial_bbox
+    lon_coords = np.arange(west, east + 0.01, spatial_grid_res)
+    lat_coords = np.arange(south, north + 0.01, spatial_grid_res)
+    shape = lon_coords.size, lat_coords.size
+
+    # Convert vector to lon-lat grid
+    idx_lon = np.searchsorted(lon_coords, df["longitude"]) - 1
+    idx_lat = np.searchsorted(lat_coords, df["latitude"]) - 1
+
+    df_agg = df.groupby([idx_lon, idx_lat]).agg(agg)
+    index = df_agg.index.get_level_values(0), df_agg.index.get_level_values(1)
+
+    out = xr.Dataset(coords={"longitude": lon_coords, "latitude": lat_coords})
+    for name, col in df_agg.items():
+        arr = np.zeros(shape, dtype=col.dtype)
+        arr[index] = col
+        out[name] = (("longitude", "latitude"), arr)
+
+    return out
+
+
+def _handle_time_column(time: pd.Series) -> pd.Series:
+    """Ensure that pd.Series has compatible Timestamps.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    time : pd.Series
+        Pandas dataframe column labeled "time".
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.Series
+        Parsed pandas time series.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        When time series can't be parsed, or is not timezone naive.
+    """
+    if not hasattr(time, "dt"):
+        time = _parse_pandas_time(time)
+
+    # Translate all times to UTC and then remove timezone.
+    # If the time column contains a timezone, the call to `to_numpy`
+    # will convert it to an array of object.
+    # Note `.tz_convert(None)` automatically converts to UTC first.
+    if time.dt.tz is not None:
+        time = time.dt.tz_convert(None)
+
+    return time
+
+
+def _parse_pandas_time(time: pd.Series) -> pd.Series:
+    """Parse pandas dataframe column labelled "time".
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    time : pd.Series
+        Time series
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.Series
+        Parsed time series
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        When series values can't be inferred.
+    """
+    try:
+        # If the time series is a string, try to convert it to a datetime
+        if time.dtype == "O":
+            return pd.to_datetime(time)
+
+        # If the time is an int, try to parse it as unix time
+        if np.issubdtype(time.dtype, np.integer):
+            return _parse_unix_time(time)
+
+    except ValueError as exc:
+        msg = (
+            "The 'time' field must hold datetime-like values. "
+            'Try data["time"] = pd.to_datetime(data["time"], unit=...) '
+            "with the appropriate unit."
+        )
+        raise ValueError(msg) from exc
+
+    raise ValueError("Unsupported time format")
+
+
+def _parse_unix_time(time: list[int] | npt.NDArray[np.int_] | pd.Series) -> pd.Series:
+    """Parse array of int times as unix epoch timestamps.
+
+    Attempts to parse the time in "s", "ms", "us", "ns"
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    time : list[int] | npt.NDArray[np.int_] | pd.Series
+        Sequence of unix timestamps
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.Series
+        Series of timezone naive pandas Timestamps
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        When unable to parse time as unix epoch timestamp
+    """
+    units = "s", "ms", "us", "ns"
+    for unit in units:
+        try:
+            out = pd.to_datetime(time, unit=unit, utc=True)
+        except ValueError:
+            continue
+
+        # make timezone naive
+        out = out.dt.tz_convert(None)
+
+        # make sure time is reasonable
+        if (pd.Timestamp("1980-01-01") <= out).all() and (out <= pd.Timestamp("2030-01-01")).all():
+            return out
+
+    raise ValueError(
+        f"Unable to parse time parameter '{time}' as unix epoch timestamp between "
+        "1980-01-01 and 2030-01-01"
+    )