pycontrails 0.54.0__cp312-cp312-macosx_10_13_x86_64.whl

pycontrails/models/cocip/cocip.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2616 @@
+"""Top level CoCiP classes and methods."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import logging
+import warnings
+from collections.abc import Sequence
+from typing import Any, Literal, NoReturn, overload
+
+import numpy as np
+import numpy.typing as npt
+import pandas as pd
+import xarray as xr
+from overrides import overrides
+
+from pycontrails.core import met_var
+from pycontrails.core.aircraft_performance import AircraftPerformance
+from pycontrails.core.fleet import Fleet
+from pycontrails.core.flight import Flight
+from pycontrails.core.met import MetDataset
+from pycontrails.core.models import Model, interpolate_met
+from pycontrails.core.vector import GeoVectorDataset, VectorDataDict
+from pycontrails.datalib import ecmwf, gfs
+from pycontrails.models import sac, tau_cirrus
+from pycontrails.models.cocip import (
+    contrail_properties,
+    radiative_forcing,
+    radiative_heating,
+    unterstrasser_wake_vortex,
+    wake_vortex,
+    wind_shear,
+)
+from pycontrails.models.cocip.cocip_params import CocipFlightParams
+from pycontrails.models.emissions.emissions import Emissions
+from pycontrails.physics import constants, geo, thermo, units
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+
+class Cocip(Model):
+    r"""Contrail Cirrus Prediction Model (CoCiP).
+
+    Published by Ulrich Schumann *et. al.*
+    (`DLR Institute of Atmospheric Physics <https://www.dlr.de/pa/en/>`_)
+    in :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`, :cite:`schumannParametricRadiativeForcing2012`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    met : MetDataset
+        Pressure level dataset containing :attr:`met_variables` variables.
+        See *Notes* for variable names by data source.
+    rad : MetDataset
+        Single level dataset containing top of atmosphere radiation fluxes.
+        See *Notes* for variable names by data source.
+    params : dict[str, Any], optional
+        Override Cocip model parameters with dictionary.
+        See :class:`CocipFlightParams` for model parameters.
+    **params_kwargs : Any
+        Override Cocip model parameters with keyword arguments.
+        See :class:`CocipFlightParams` for model parameters.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    **Inputs**
+
+    The required meteorology variables depend on the data source (e.g. ECMWF, GFS).
+
+    See :attr:`met_variables` and :attr:`rad_variables` for the list of required variables
+    to the ``met`` and ``rad`` parameters, respectively.
+    When an item in one of these arrays is a :class:`tuple`, variable keys depend on data source.
+
+    The current list of required variables (labelled by ``"standard_name"``):
+
+    .. list-table:: Variable keys for pressure level data
+        :header-rows: 1
+
+        * - Parameter
+          - ECMWF
+          - GFS
+        * - Air Temperature
+          - ``air_temperature``
+          - ``air_temperature``
+        * - Specific Humidity
+          - ``specific_humidity``
+          - ``specific_humidity``
+        * - Eastward wind
+          - ``eastward_wind``
+          - ``eastward_wind``
+        * - Northward wind
+          - ``northward_wind``
+          - ``northward_wind``
+        * - Vertical velocity
+          - ``lagrangian_tendency_of_air_pressure``
+          - ``lagrangian_tendency_of_air_pressure``
+        * - Ice water content
+          - ``specific_cloud_ice_water_content``
+          - ``ice_water_mixing_ratio``
+
+    .. list-table:: Variable keys for single-level radiation data
+        :header-rows: 1
+
+        * - Parameter
+          - ECMWF
+          - GFS
+        * - Top solar radiation
+          - ``top_net_solar_radiation``
+          - ``toa_upward_shortwave_flux``
+        * - Top thermal radiation
+          - ``top_net_thermal_radiation``
+          - ``toa_upward_longwave_flux``
+
+    **Modifications**
+
+    This implementation differs from original CoCiP (Fortran) implementation in a few places:
+
+    - This model uses aircraft performance and emissions models to calculate nvPM, fuel flow,
+      and overall propulsion efficiency, if not already provided.
+    - As described in :cite:`teohAviationContrailClimate2022`, this implementation sets
+      the initial ice particle activation rate to be a function of
+      the difference between the ambient temperature and the critical SAC threshold temperature.
+      See :func:`pycontrails.models.sac.T_critical_sac`.
+    - Isobaric heat capacity calculation.
+      The original model uses a constant value of 1004 :math:`J \ kg^{-1} \ K^{-1}`,
+      whereas this model calculates isobaric heat capacity as a function of specific humidity.
+      See :func:`pycontrails.physics.thermo.c_pm`.
+    - Solar direct radiation.
+      The original algorithm uses ECMWF radiation variable `tisr` (top incident solar radiation)
+      as solar direct radiation value.
+      This implementation calculates the theoretical solar direct radiation at
+      any arbitrary point in the atmosphere.
+      See :func:`pycontrails.physics.geo.solar_direct_radiation`.
+    - Segment angle.
+      The segment angle calculations for flights and contrail segments have been updated
+      to use more precise spherical geometry instead of a triangular approximation.
+      As the triangle approaches zero, the two calculations agree.
+      See :func:`pycontrails.physics.geo.segment_angle`.
+    - Integration.
+      This implementation consistently uses left-Riemann sums
+      in the time integration of contrail segments.
+    - Segment length ratio.
+      Instead of taking a geometric mean between contrail segments before/after advection,
+      a simple ratio is computed.
+      See :func:`contrail_properties.segment_length_ratio`.
+    - Segment energy flux.
+      This implementation does not average spatially contiguous contrail segments when calculating
+      the mean energy flux for the segment of interest.
+      See :func:`contrail_properties.mean_energy_flux_per_m`.
+
+    This implementation is regression tested against
+    results from :cite:`teohAviationContrailClimate2022`.
+
+    **Outputs**
+
+    NaN values may appear in model output. Specifically, ``np.nan`` values are used to indicate:
+
+    - Flight waypoint or contrail waypoint is not contained with the :attr:`met` domain.
+    - The variable was NOT computed during the model evaluation. For example, at flight waypoints
+      not producing any persistent contrails, "radiative" variables (``rsr``, ``olr``, ``rf_sw``,
+      ``rf_lw``, ``rf_net``) are not computed. Consequently, the corresponding values in the output
+      of :meth:`eval` are NaN. One exception to this rule is found on ``ef`` (energy forcing)
+      `contrail_age` predictions. For these two "cumulative" variables, waypoints not producing
+      any persistent contrails are assigned 0 values.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`schumannDeterminationContrailsSatellite1990`
+    - :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2010`
+    - :cite:`voigtInsituObservationsYoung2010`
+    - :cite:`schumannPotentialReduceClimate2011`
+    - :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`
+    - :cite:`schumannParametricRadiativeForcing2012`
+    - :cite:`schumannContrailsVisibleAviation2012`
+    - :cite:`schumannEffectiveRadiusIce2011`
+    - :cite:`schumannDehydrationEffectsContrails2015`
+    - :cite:`teohMitigatingClimateForcing2020`
+    - :cite:`schumannAviationContrailCirrus2021`
+    - :cite:`schumannAirTrafficContrail2021`
+    - :cite:`teohAviationContrailClimate2022`
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    :class:`CocipFlightParams`
+    :mod:`wake_vortex`
+    :mod:`contrail_properties`
+    :mod:`radiative_forcing`
+    :mod:`humidity_scaling`
+    :class:`Emissions`
+    :mod:`sac`
+    :mod:`tau_cirrus`
+    """
+
+    __slots__ = (
+        "rad",
+        "contrail",
+        "contrail_dataset",
+        "contrail_list",
+        "timesteps",
+        "_sac_flight",
+        "_downwash_flight",
+        "_downwash_contrail",
+    )
+
+    name = "cocip"
+    long_name = "Contrail Cirrus Prediction Model"
+    default_params = CocipFlightParams
+    met_variables = (
+        met_var.AirTemperature,
+        met_var.SpecificHumidity,
+        met_var.EastwardWind,
+        met_var.NorthwardWind,
+        met_var.VerticalVelocity,
+        (ecmwf.SpecificCloudIceWaterContent, gfs.CloudIceWaterMixingRatio),
+    )
+
+    #: Required single-level top of atmosphere radiation variables.
+    #: Variable keys depend on data source (e.g. ECMWF, GFS).
+    rad_variables = (
+        (ecmwf.TopNetSolarRadiation, gfs.TOAUpwardShortwaveRadiation),
+        (ecmwf.TopNetThermalRadiation, gfs.TOAUpwardLongwaveRadiation),
+    )
+
+    #: Minimal set of met variables needed to run the model after pre-processing.
+    #: The intention here is that ``ciwc`` is unnecessary after
+    #: ``tau_cirrus`` has already been calculated.
+    processed_met_variables = (
+        met_var.AirTemperature,
+        met_var.SpecificHumidity,
+        met_var.EastwardWind,
+        met_var.NorthwardWind,
+        met_var.VerticalVelocity,
+        tau_cirrus.TauCirrus,
+    )
+
+    #: Additional met variables used to support outputs
+    #:
+    #: .. versionchanged:: 0.48.0
+    #:   Moved Geopotential from :attr:`met_variables` to :attr:`optional_met_variables`
+    optional_met_variables = (
+        (met_var.Geopotential, met_var.GeopotentialHeight),
+        (ecmwf.CloudAreaFractionInLayer, gfs.TotalCloudCoverIsobaric),
+    )
+
+    #: Met data is not optional
+    met: MetDataset
+    met_required = True
+
+    #: Radiation data formatted as a :class:`MetDataset` at a single pressure level [-1]
+    rad: MetDataset
+
+    #: Last Flight modeled in :meth:`eval`
+    source: Flight | Fleet
+
+    #: List of :class:`GeoVectorDataset` contrail objects - one for each timestep
+    contrail_list: list[GeoVectorDataset]
+
+    #: Contrail evolution output from model.
+    #:
+    #: Set to None when no contrails are formed.
+    #: Otherwise, this is a :class:`pandas.DataFrame` describing the evolution of the contrail.
+    #: Columns include:
+    #:
+    #: - ``waypoint``: The index of the waypoint in the original flight creating
+    #:   the contrail. This can be used to join the contrail DataFrame to the :attr:`source`.
+    #: - ``formation_time``: Time of contrail formation. Agrees with the ``time`` column
+    #:   in :attr:`source`.
+    #: - ``continuous``: Boolean indicating whether the contrail is continuous or not.
+    #: - ``persistent``: Boolean indicating whether the contrail is persistent or not.
+    #:   A contrail segment is considered continuous if both the current and the next
+    #:   contrail waypoint at the same time step persist.
+    #: - ``segment_length``: Length of the contrail segment, [:math:`m`].
+    #: - ``sin_a``, ``cos_a``: Sine and cosine of the segment angle.
+    #: - ``width``, ``depth``: Contrail width and depth, [:math:`m`].
+    #: - ``sigma_yz``: The ``yz`` component of the covariance matrix, [:math:`m^{2}`].
+    #:   See :func:`contrail_properties.plume_temporal_evolution`.
+    #: - ``q_sat``: Saturation specific humidity over ice, [:math:`kg \ kg^{-1}`].
+    #: - ``n_ice_per_m``: Number of ice particles per distance, [:math:`m^{-1}`].
+    #: - ``iwc``: Ice water content, [:math:`kg_{ice} kg_{air}^{-1}`].
+    #: - ``tau_contrail``: Optical depth of the contrail. See
+    #:   :func:`contrail_properties.contrail_optical_depth`.
+    #: - ``rf_sw``, ``rf_lw``, ``rf_net``: Shortwave, longwave, and net instantaneous
+    #:   radiative forcing, [:math:`W \ m^{-2}`] at the contrail waypoint.
+    #: - ``ef``: Energy forcing, [:math:`J`] at the contrail waypoint. See
+    #:   :func:`contrail_properties.energy_forcing`.
+    contrail: pd.DataFrame | None
+
+    #: :class:`xr.Dataset` representation of contrail evolution.
+    contrail_dataset: xr.Dataset | None
+
+    #: Array of :class:`numpy.datetime64` time steps for contrail evolution
+    timesteps: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64]
+
+    #: Parallel copy of flight waypoints after SAC filter applied
+    _sac_flight: Flight
+
+    #: Parallel copy of flight waypoints after wake vortex downwash applied
+    _downwash_flight: Flight
+
+    #: GeoVectorDataset representation of :attr:`downwash_flight`
+    _downwash_contrail: GeoVectorDataset
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        met: MetDataset,
+        rad: MetDataset,
+        params: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        **params_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> None:
+        # call Model init
+        super().__init__(met, params=params, **params_kwargs)
+
+        compute_tau_cirrus = self.params["compute_tau_cirrus_in_model_init"]
+        self.met, self.rad = process_met_datasets(met, rad, compute_tau_cirrus)
+
+        # initialize outputs to None
+        self.contrail = None
+        self.contrail_dataset = None
+
+    # ----------
+    # Public API
+    # ----------
+
+    @overload
+    def eval(self, source: Fleet, **params: Any) -> Fleet: ...
+
+    @overload
+    def eval(self, source: Flight, **params: Any) -> Flight: ...
+
+    @overload
+    def eval(self, source: Sequence[Flight], **params: Any) -> list[Flight]: ...
+
+    @overload
+    def eval(self, source: None = ..., **params: Any) -> NoReturn: ...
+
+    def eval(
+        self,
+        source: Flight | Sequence[Flight] | None = None,
+        **params: Any,
+    ) -> Flight | list[Flight]:
+        """Run CoCiP simulation on flight.
+
+        Simulates the formation and evolution of contrails from a Flight
+        using the contrail cirrus prediction model (CoCiP) from Schumann (2012)
+        :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 0.25.11
+
+            Previously, any waypoint not surviving the wake vortex downwash phase of CoCiP
+            was assigned a nan-value in the ``ef`` array within the model
+            output. This is no longer the case. Instead, energy forcing is set to 0.0
+            for all waypoints which fail to produce persistent contrails. In particular,
+            nan values in the ``ef`` array are only used to indicate an
+            out-of-met-domain waypoint. The same convention is now used for output variables
+            ``contrail_age`` and ``cocip`` as well.
+
+        .. versionchanged::0.26.0
+
+            :attr:`met` and :attr:`rad` down-selection is now handled automatically.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        source : Flight | Sequence[Flight] | None
+            Input Flight(s) to model.
+        **params : Any
+            Overwrite model parameters before eval.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Flight | list[Flight] | NoReturn
+            Flight(s) with updated Contrail data. The model parameter "verbose_outputs"
+            determines the variables on the return flight object.
+
+        References
+        ----------
+        - :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`
+        """
+
+        self.update_params(params)
+        self.set_source(source)
+        self.source = self.require_source_type(Flight)
+        return_flight_list = isinstance(self.source, Fleet) and isinstance(source, Sequence)
+
+        self._set_timesteps()
+
+        # Downselect met for CoCiP initialization
+        # We only need to buffer in the negative vertical direction,
+        # which is the positive direction for level
+        logger.debug("Downselect met for Cocip initialization")
+        level_buffer = 0, self.params["met_level_buffer"][1]
+        met = self.source.downselect_met(self.met, level_buffer=level_buffer, copy=False)
+        met = add_tau_cirrus(met)
+
+        # Prepare flight for model
+        self._process_flight(met)
+
+        # Save humidity scaling type to output attrs
+        # NOTE: Do this after _process_flight because that method automatically
+        # broadcasts all numeric source params.
+        humidity_scaling = self.params["humidity_scaling"]
+        if humidity_scaling is not None:
+            for k, v in humidity_scaling.description.items():
+                self.source.attrs[f"humidity_scaling_{k}"] = v
+
+        if isinstance(self.source, Fleet):
+            label = f"fleet of {self.source.n_flights} flights"
+        else:
+            label = f"flight {self.source['flight_id'][0]}"
+
+        logger.debug("Finding initial linear contrails with SAC")
+        self._find_initial_contrail_regions()
+
+        if not self._sac_flight:
+            logger.debug("No linear contrails formed by %s", label)
+            return self._fill_empty_flight_results(return_flight_list)
+
+        self._simulate_wake_vortex_downwash(met)
+
+        self._find_initial_persistent_contrails(met)
+
+        if not self._downwash_flight:
+            logger.debug("No persistent contrails formed by flight %s", label)
+            return self._fill_empty_flight_results(return_flight_list)
+
+        self.contrail_list = []
+        self._simulate_contrail_evolution()
+
+        if not self.contrail_list:
+            logger.debug("No contrails formed by %s", label)
+            return self._fill_empty_flight_results(return_flight_list)
+
+        logger.debug("Complete contrail simulation for %s", label)
+
+        self._cleanup_indices()
+        self._bundle_results()
+
+        if return_flight_list:
+            return self.source.to_flight_list()  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
+
+        return self.source
+
+    def _set_timesteps(self) -> None:
+        """Set the :attr:`timesteps` based on the ``source`` time range.
+
+        This method is called in :meth:`eval` before the flight is processed.
+        """
+        if isinstance(self.source, Fleet):
+            # time not sorted in Fleet instance
+            tmin = self.source["time"].min()
+            tmax = self.source["time"].max()
+        else:
+            tmin = self.source["time"][0]
+            tmax = self.source["time"][-1]
+
+        tmin = pd.to_datetime(tmin)
+        tmax = pd.to_datetime(tmax)
+        dt = pd.to_timedelta(self.params["dt_integration"])
+
+        t_start = tmin.ceil(dt)
+        t_end = tmax.floor(dt) + self.params["max_age"] + dt
+        self.timesteps = np.arange(t_start, t_end, dt)
+
+    # -------------
+    # Model Methods
+    # -------------
+
+    def _process_flight(self, met: MetDataset) -> None:
+        """Prepare :attr:`self.source` for use in model eval.
+
+        Missing flight values should be prefilled before calling this method.
+        This method modifies :attr:`self.source`.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 0.35.2
+
+            No longer broadcast all numeric source params. Instead, numeric
+            source params can be accessed with :meth:`Flight.get_data_or_attr`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        met : MetDataset
+            Meteorology data
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        ValueError
+            If non-sequential waypoints are found in ``self.source["waypoint"]``
+            If there is no intersection between met domain and :attr:`source`.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :method:`Flight.resample_and_fill`
+        """
+        logger.debug("Pre-processing flight parameters")
+
+        # STEP 1: Check for core columns
+        # Attach level and altitude to avoid some redundancy
+        self.source.setdefault("altitude", self.source.altitude)
+        self.source.setdefault("level", self.source.level)
+        self.source.setdefault("air_pressure", self.source.air_pressure)
+
+        core_columns = ("longitude", "latitude", "altitude", "time")
+        for col in core_columns:
+            if np.isnan(self.source[col]).any():
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f"Parameter `flight` must not contain NaN values in {col} field."
+                    "Call method `resample_and_fill` to clean up flight trajectory."
+                )
+
+        # STEP 2: Check for waypoints
+        # Note: Fleet instances always have a waypoint column
+        if "waypoint" not in self.source:
+            # Give flight a range index
+            self.source["waypoint"] = np.arange(self.source.size)
+        elif not isinstance(self.source, Fleet) and not np.all(
+            np.diff(self.source["waypoint"]) == 1
+        ):
+            # If self.source is a usual Flight (not the subclass Fleet)
+            # and has "waypoint" data, we want to give a warning if the waypoint
+            # data has an usual index. CoCiP uses the waypoint for its continuity
+            # convention, so the waypoint data is critical.
+            msg = (
+                "Found non-sequential waypoints in flight key 'waypoint'. "
+                "The CoCiP algorithm requires flight data key 'waypoint' "
+                "to contain sequential waypoints if defined."
+            )
+            raise ValueError(msg)
+
+        # STEP 3: Test met domain for some overlap
+        # We attach the intersection to the source.
+        # This is used in the function _fill_empty_flight_results
+        intersection = self.source.coords_intersect_met(met)
+        self.source["_met_intersection"] = intersection
+        logger.debug(
+            "Fraction of flight waypoints intersecting met domain: %s / %s",
+            intersection.sum(),
+            self.source.size,
+        )
+        if not intersection.any():
+            msg = (
+                "No intersection between flight waypoints and met domain. "
+                "Rerun Cocip with met overlapping flight."
+            )
+            raise ValueError(msg)
+
+        # STEP 4: Begin met interpolation
+        # Unfortunately we use both "u_wind" and "eastward_wind" to refer to the
+        # same variable, so the logic gets a bit more complex.
+        humidity_scaling = self.params["humidity_scaling"]
+        scale_humidity = humidity_scaling is not None and "specific_humidity" not in self.source
+        verbose_outputs = self.params["verbose_outputs"]
+
+        interp_kwargs = self.interp_kwargs
+        if self.params["preprocess_lowmem"]:
+            interp_kwargs["lowmem"] = True
+        interpolate_met(met, self.source, "air_temperature", **interp_kwargs)
+        interpolate_met(met, self.source, "specific_humidity", **interp_kwargs)
+        interpolate_met(met, self.source, "eastward_wind", "u_wind", **interp_kwargs)
+        interpolate_met(met, self.source, "northward_wind", "v_wind", **interp_kwargs)
+
+        if scale_humidity:
+            humidity_scaling.eval(self.source, copy_source=False)
+
+        # if humidity_scaling isn't defined, add rhi to source for verbose_outputs
+        elif verbose_outputs:
+            self.source["rhi"] = thermo.rhi(
+                self.source["specific_humidity"],
+                self.source["air_temperature"],
+                self.source.air_pressure,
+            )
+
+        # Cache extra met properties for post-analysis
+        if verbose_outputs:
+            interpolate_met(met, self.source, "tau_cirrus", **interp_kwargs)
+
+            # handle ECMWF/GFS ciwc variables
+            if (key := "specific_cloud_ice_water_content") in met:  # noqa: SIM114
+                interpolate_met(met, self.source, key, **interp_kwargs)
+            elif (key := "ice_water_mixing_ratio") in met:
+                interpolate_met(met, self.source, key, **interp_kwargs)
+
+            self.source["rho_air"] = thermo.rho_d(
+                self.source["air_temperature"], self.source.air_pressure
+            )
+            self.source["sdr"] = geo.solar_direct_radiation(
+                self.source["longitude"], self.source["latitude"], self.source["time"]
+            )
+
+        # STEP 5: Calculate segment-specific properties if they are not already attached
+        if "true_airspeed" not in self.source:
+            self.source["true_airspeed"] = self.source.segment_true_airspeed(
+                u_wind=self.source["u_wind"],
+                v_wind=self.source["v_wind"],
+                smooth=self.params["smooth_true_airspeed"],
+                window_length=self.params["smooth_true_airspeed_window_length"],
+            )
+        if "segment_length" not in self.source:
+            self.source["segment_length"] = self.source.segment_length()
+
+        max_ = self.source.max_distance_gap
+        lim_ = self.params["max_seg_length_m"]
+        if max_ > 0.9 * lim_:
+            warnings.warn(
+                "Flight trajectory has segment lengths close to or exceeding the "
+                "'max_seg_length_m' parameter. Evolved contrail segments may reach "
+                "their end of life artificially early. Either resample the flight "
+                "with the 'resample_and_fill' method (recommended), or use a larger "
+                "'max_seg_length_m' parameter. Current values: "
+                f"max_seg_length_m={lim_}, max_seg_length_on_trajectory={max_}"
+            )
+
+        # if either angle is not provided, re-calculate both
+        # this is the one case where we will overwrite a flight data key
+        if "sin_a" not in self.source or "cos_a" not in self.source:
+            self.source["sin_a"], self.source["cos_a"] = self.source.segment_angle()
+
+        # STEP 6: Calculate emissions if requested, or if keys don't exist in Flight
+        if self.params["process_emissions"]:
+            self._process_emissions()
+
+        # STEP 7: Ensure that flight has the required variables defined as attrs or columns
+        self.source.ensure_vars(_emissions_variables())
+
+    def _process_emissions(self) -> None:
+        """Process flight emissions.
+
+        See :class:`Emissions`.
+
+        We should consider supporting OpenAP (https://github.com/TUDelft-CNS-ATM/openap)
+        and alternate performance models in the future.
+        """
+        logger.debug("Processing flight emissions")
+
+        # Call aircraft performance and Emissions models as needed
+        # NOTE: None of these sub-models actually do any met interpolation -- self.source already
+        # has all of the required met variables attached. Therefore, we don't need to worry about
+        # being consistent with passing in Cocip's interp_kwargs and humidity_scaling into
+        # the sub-models.
+        emissions = Emissions()
+        ap_model = self.params["aircraft_performance"]
+
+        # Run against a list of flights (Fleet)
+        if isinstance(self.source, Fleet):
+            # Rip the Fleet apart, run BADA on each, then reassemble
+            logger.debug("Separately running aircraft performance on each flight in fleet")
+            fls = self.source.to_flight_list(copy=False)
+            fls = [_eval_aircraft_performance(ap_model, fl) for fl in fls]
+
+            # In Fleet-mode, always call emissions
+            logger.debug("Separately running emissions on each flight in fleet")
+            fls = [_eval_emissions(emissions, fl) for fl in fls]
+
+            # Broadcast numeric AP and emissions variables back to Fleet.data
+            for fl in fls:
+                fl.broadcast_attrs(_emissions_variables(), raise_error=False)
+
+            # Convert back to fleet
+            attrs = self.source.attrs
+            attrs.pop("fl_attrs", None)
+            attrs.pop("data_keys", None)
+            self.source = Fleet.from_seq(fls, broadcast_numeric=False, copy=False, attrs=attrs)
+
+        # Single flight
+        else:
+            self.source = _eval_aircraft_performance(ap_model, self.source)
+            self.source = _eval_emissions(emissions, self.source)
+
+        # Scale nvPM with parameter (fleet / flight)
+        factor = self.params["nvpm_ei_n_enhancement_factor"]
+        try:
+            self.source["nvpm_ei_n"] *= factor
+        except KeyError:
+            self.source.attrs.update({"nvpm_ei_n": self.source.attrs["nvpm_ei_n"] * factor})
+
+    def _find_initial_contrail_regions(self) -> None:
+        """Apply Schmidt-Appleman criteria to determine regions of persistent contrail formation.
+
+        This method:
+            - Modifies :attr:`flight` in place by assigning additional columns arising from SAC
+            - Creates :attr:`_sac_flight` needed for :meth:`_simulate_wave_vortex_downwash`.
+        """
+        # calculate the SAC for each waypoint
+        sac_model = sac.SAC(
+            met=None,  # self.source is already interpolated against met, so we don't need it
+            copy_source=False,
+        )
+        self.source = sac_model.eval(source=self.source)
+
+        # Estimate SAC threshold temperature along initial contrail
+        # This variable is not involved in calculating the SAC,
+        # but it is required by `contrail_properties.ice_particle_number`.
+        # The three variables used below are all computed in sac_model.eval
+        self.source["T_critical_sac"] = sac.T_critical_sac(
+            self.source["T_sat_liquid"],
+            self.source["rh"],
+            self.source["G"],
+        )
+
+        # create a new Flight only at points where "sac" == 1
+        filt = self.source["sac"] == 1.0
+        if self.params["filter_sac"]:
+            self._sac_flight = self.source.filter(filt)
+            logger.debug(
+                "Fraction of waypoints satisfying the SAC: %s / %s",
+                len(self._sac_flight),
+                len(self.source),
+            )
+            return
+
+        warnings.warn("Manually overriding SAC filter")
+        logger.info("Manually overriding SAC filter")
+        self._sac_flight = self.source.copy()
+        logger.debug(
+            "Fraction of waypoints satisfying the SAC: %s / %s",
+            np.sum(filt),
+            self._sac_flight.size,
+        )
+        logger.debug("None are filtered out!")
+
+    def _simulate_wake_vortex_downwash(self, met: MetDataset) -> None:
+        """Apply wake vortex model to calculate initial contrail geometry.
+
+        The calculation uses a parametric wake vortex transport and decay model to simulate the
+        wake vortex phase and obtain the initial contrail width, depth and downward displacement.
+
+        This method assigns additional columns "width" and "depth" to :attr:`_sac_flight`
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        met : MetDataset
+            Meteorology data
+
+        References
+        ----------
+        - :cite:`holzapfelProbabilisticTwoPhaseWake2003`
+        """
+        air_temperature = self._sac_flight["air_temperature"]
+        u_wind = self._sac_flight["u_wind"]
+        v_wind = self._sac_flight["v_wind"]
+        air_pressure = self._sac_flight.air_pressure
+
+        # flight parameters
+        aircraft_mass = self._sac_flight.get_data_or_attr("aircraft_mass")
+        true_airspeed = self._sac_flight["true_airspeed"]
+
+        # In Fleet-mode, wingspan resides on `data`, and in Flight-mode,
+        # wingspan resides on `attrs`.
+        wingspan = self._sac_flight.get_data_or_attr("wingspan")
+
+        # get the pressure level `dz_m` lower than element pressure
+        dz_m = self.params["dz_m"]
+        air_pressure_lower = thermo.pressure_dz(air_temperature, air_pressure, dz_m)
+        level_lower = air_pressure_lower / 100.0
+
+        # get full met grid or flight data interpolated to the pressure level `p_dz`
+        interp_kwargs = self.interp_kwargs
+        if self.params["preprocess_lowmem"]:
+            interp_kwargs["lowmem"] = True
+        air_temperature_lower = interpolate_met(
+            met,
+            self._sac_flight,
+            "air_temperature",
+            "air_temperature_lower",
+            level=level_lower,
+            **interp_kwargs,
+        )
+        u_wind_lower = interpolate_met(
+            met,
+            self._sac_flight,
+            "eastward_wind",
+            "u_wind_lower",
+            level=level_lower,
+            **interp_kwargs,
+        )
+        v_wind_lower = interpolate_met(
+            met,
+            self._sac_flight,
+            "northward_wind",
+            "v_wind_lower",
+            level=level_lower,
+            **interp_kwargs,
+        )
+
+        # Temperature gradient
+        dT_dz = self._sac_flight["dT_dz"] = thermo.T_potential_gradient(
+            air_temperature,
+            air_pressure,
+            air_temperature_lower,
+            air_pressure_lower,
+            dz_m,
+        )
+
+        # wind shear
+        ds_dz = self._sac_flight["ds_dz"] = wind_shear.wind_shear(
+            u_wind, u_wind_lower, v_wind, v_wind_lower, dz_m
+        )
+
+        # Initial contrail width, depth and downward displacement
+        dz_max = self._sac_flight["dz_max"] = wake_vortex.max_downward_displacement(
+            wingspan,
+            true_airspeed,
+            aircraft_mass,
+            air_temperature,
+            dT_dz,
+            ds_dz,
+            air_pressure,
+            effective_vertical_resolution=self.params["effective_vertical_resolution"],
+            wind_shear_enhancement_exponent=self.params["wind_shear_enhancement_exponent"],
+        )
+
+        # derive downwash values and save to data model
+        self._sac_flight["width"] = wake_vortex.initial_contrail_width(wingspan, dz_max)
+        initial_wake_vortex_depth = self.params["initial_wake_vortex_depth"]
+        self._sac_flight["depth"] = wake_vortex.initial_contrail_depth(
+            dz_max, initial_wake_vortex_depth
+        )
+        # Initially, sigma_yz is set to 0
+        # See bottom left paragraph p. 552 Schumann 2012 beginning with:
+        # >>> "The contrail model starts from initial values ..."
+        self._sac_flight["sigma_yz"] = np.zeros_like(dz_max)
+
+    def _find_initial_persistent_contrails(self, met: MetDataset) -> None:
+        """Calculate the initial contrail properties after the wake vortex phase.
+
+        Determine points with initial persistent contrails.
+
+        This method first calculates ice water content (``iwc``) and number of ice particles per
+        distance (``n_ice_per_m_1``).
+
+        It then tests each contrail waypoint for initial persistence and calculates
+        parameters for the first iteration of the time integration.
+
+        Note that the subscript "_1" represents the conditions after the wake vortex phase.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        met : MetDataset
+            Meteorology data
+        """
+
+        # met parameters along Flight path
+        air_pressure = self._sac_flight.air_pressure
+        air_temperature = self._sac_flight["air_temperature"]
+        specific_humidity = self._sac_flight["specific_humidity"]
+        T_critical_sac = self._sac_flight["T_critical_sac"]
+
+        # Flight performance parameters
+        fuel_flow = self._sac_flight.get_data_or_attr("fuel_flow")
+        true_airspeed = self._sac_flight["true_airspeed"]
+        fuel_dist = fuel_flow / true_airspeed
+
+        nvpm_ei_n = self._sac_flight.get_data_or_attr("nvpm_ei_n")
+        ei_h2o = self._sac_flight.fuel.ei_h2o
+
+        # get initial contrail parameters from wake vortex simulation
+        width = self._sac_flight["width"]
+        depth = self._sac_flight["depth"]
+
+        # initial contrail altitude set to 0.5 * depth
+        contrail_1 = GeoVectorDataset(
+            longitude=self._sac_flight["longitude"],
+            latitude=self._sac_flight["latitude"],
+            altitude=self._sac_flight.altitude - 0.5 * depth,
+            time=self._sac_flight["time"],
+            copy=False,
+        )
+
+        # get met post wake vortex along initial contrail
+        interp_kwargs = self.interp_kwargs
+        if self.params["preprocess_lowmem"]:
+            interp_kwargs["lowmem"] = True
+        air_temperature_1 = interpolate_met(met, contrail_1, "air_temperature", **interp_kwargs)
+        interpolate_met(met, contrail_1, "specific_humidity", **interp_kwargs)
+
+        humidity_scaling = self.params["humidity_scaling"]
+        if humidity_scaling is not None:
+            humidity_scaling.eval(contrail_1, copy_source=False)
+        else:
+            contrail_1["air_pressure"] = contrail_1.air_pressure
+            contrail_1["rhi"] = thermo.rhi(
+                contrail_1["specific_humidity"], air_temperature_1, contrail_1["air_pressure"]
+            )
+
+        air_pressure_1 = contrail_1["air_pressure"]
+        specific_humidity_1 = contrail_1["specific_humidity"]
+        rhi_1 = contrail_1["rhi"]
+        level_1 = contrail_1.level
+        altitude_1 = contrail_1.altitude
+
+        # calculate thermo properties post wake vortex
+        q_sat_1 = thermo.q_sat_ice(air_temperature_1, air_pressure_1)
+        rho_air_1 = thermo.rho_d(air_temperature_1, air_pressure_1)
+
+        # Initialize initial contrail properties
+        iwc = contrail_properties.initial_iwc(
+            air_temperature, specific_humidity, air_pressure, fuel_dist, width, depth, ei_h2o
+        )
+        iwc_ad = contrail_properties.iwc_adiabatic_heating(
+            air_temperature, air_pressure, air_pressure_1
+        )
+        iwc_1 = contrail_properties.iwc_post_wake_vortex(iwc, iwc_ad)
+
+        if self.params["unterstrasser_ice_survival_fraction"]:
+            wingspan = self._sac_flight.get_data_or_attr("wingspan")
+            rhi_0 = thermo.rhi(specific_humidity, air_temperature, air_pressure)
+            f_surv = unterstrasser_wake_vortex.ice_particle_number_survival_fraction(
+                air_temperature,
+                rhi_0,
+                ei_h2o,
+                wingspan,
+                true_airspeed,
+                fuel_flow,
+                nvpm_ei_n,
+                0.5 * depth,  # Taking the mid-point of the contrail plume
+            )
+        else:
+            f_surv = contrail_properties.ice_particle_survival_fraction(iwc, iwc_1)
+
+        n_ice_per_m_1 = contrail_properties.ice_particle_number(
+            nvpm_ei_n=nvpm_ei_n,
+            fuel_dist=fuel_dist,
+            f_surv=f_surv,
+            air_temperature=air_temperature,
+            T_crit_sac=T_critical_sac,
+            min_ice_particle_number_nvpm_ei_n=self.params["min_ice_particle_number_nvpm_ei_n"],
+        )
+
+        # Check for persistent initial_contrails
+        persistent_1 = contrail_properties.initial_persistent(iwc_1, rhi_1)
+
+        self._sac_flight["altitude_1"] = altitude_1
+        self._sac_flight["level_1"] = level_1
+        self._sac_flight["air_temperature_1"] = air_temperature_1
+        self._sac_flight["specific_humidity_1"] = specific_humidity_1
+        self._sac_flight["q_sat_1"] = q_sat_1
+        self._sac_flight["air_pressure_1"] = air_pressure_1
+        self._sac_flight["rho_air_1"] = rho_air_1
+        self._sac_flight["rhi_1"] = rhi_1
+        self._sac_flight["iwc_1"] = iwc_1
+        self._sac_flight["n_ice_per_m_1"] = n_ice_per_m_1
+        self._sac_flight["persistent_1"] = persistent_1
+
+        # Create new Flight only at persistent points
+        if self.params["filter_initially_persistent"]:
+            self._downwash_flight = self._sac_flight.filter(persistent_1.astype(bool))
+            logger.debug(
+                "Fraction of waypoints with initially persistent contrails: %s / %s",
+                len(self._downwash_flight),
+                len(self._sac_flight),
+            )
+
+        else:
+            warnings.warn("Manually overriding initially persistent filter")
+            logger.info("Manually overriding initially persistent filter")
+            self._downwash_flight = self._sac_flight.copy()
+            logger.debug(
+                "Fraction of waypoints with initially persistent contrails: %s / %s",
+                persistent_1.sum(),
+                persistent_1.size,
+            )
+            logger.debug("None are filtered out!")
+
+    def _process_downwash_flight(self) -> tuple[MetDataset | None, MetDataset | None]:
+        """Create and calculate properties of contrails created by downwash vortex.
+
+        ``_downwash_contrail`` is a contrail representation of the waypoints of
+        ``_downwash_flight``, which has already been filtered for initial persistent waypoints.
+
+        Returns MetDatasets for subsequent use if ``preprocess_lowmem=False``.
+        """
+        self._downwash_contrail = self._create_downwash_contrail()
+        buffers = {
+            f"{coord}_buffer": self.params[f"met_{coord}_buffer"]
+            for coord in ("longitude", "latitude", "level")
+        }
+        logger.debug("Downselect met for start of Cocip evolution")
+        met = self._downwash_contrail.downselect_met(self.met, **buffers, copy=False)
+        met = add_tau_cirrus(met)
+        rad = self._downwash_contrail.downselect_met(self.rad, **buffers, copy=False)
+
+        calc_continuous(self._downwash_contrail)
+        calc_timestep_geometry(self._downwash_contrail)
+
+        interp_kwargs = self.interp_kwargs
+        if self.params["preprocess_lowmem"]:
+            interp_kwargs["lowmem"] = True
+        calc_timestep_meteorology(self._downwash_contrail, met, self.params, **interp_kwargs)
+        calc_shortwave_radiation(rad, self._downwash_contrail, **interp_kwargs)
+        calc_outgoing_longwave_radiation(rad, self._downwash_contrail, **interp_kwargs)
+        calc_contrail_properties(
+            self._downwash_contrail,
+            self.params["effective_vertical_resolution"],
+            self.params["wind_shear_enhancement_exponent"],
+            self.params["sedimentation_impact_factor"],
+            self.params["radiative_heating_effects"],
+        )
+
+        # Intersect with rad dataset
+        calc_radiative_properties(self._downwash_contrail, self.params)
+
+        if self.params["preprocess_lowmem"]:
+            return None, None
+        return met, rad
+
+    def _simulate_contrail_evolution(self) -> None:
+        """Simulate contrail evolution."""
+
+        met, rad = self._process_downwash_flight()
+        interp_kwargs = self.interp_kwargs
+
+        contrail_contrail_overlapping = self.params["contrail_contrail_overlapping"]
+        if contrail_contrail_overlapping and not isinstance(self.source, Fleet):
+            warnings.warn("Contrail-Contrail Overlapping is only valid for Fleet mode.")
+
+        # Complete iteration at time_idx - 2
+        for time_idx, time_end in enumerate(self.timesteps[:-1]):
+            logger.debug("Start time integration step %s ending at time %s", time_idx, time_end)
+
+            # get the last evolution step of contrail waypoints, if it exists
+            latest_contrail = self.contrail_list[-1] if self.contrail_list else GeoVectorDataset()
+
+            # load new contrail segments from downwash_flight
+            contrail_2_segments = self._get_contrail_2_segments(time_idx)
+            if contrail_2_segments:
+                logger.debug(
+                    "Discover %s new contrail waypoints formed by downwash_flight waypoints.",
+                    contrail_2_segments.size,
+                )
+                logger.debug("Previously persistent contrail size: %s", latest_contrail.size)
+
+                # Append new waypoints to latest contrail, or set as first contrail waypoints
+                latest_contrail = latest_contrail + contrail_2_segments
+
+                # CRITICAL: When running in "Fleet" mode, the latest_contrail is no longer
+                # sorted by flight_id. Fixing that below.
+                if isinstance(self.source, Fleet):
+                    latest_contrail = latest_contrail.sort(["flight_id", "time"])
+
+            # Check for an empty contrail
+            if not latest_contrail:
+                logger.debug("Empty latest_contrail at timestep %s", time_end)
+                if np.all(time_end > self._downwash_contrail["time"]):
+                    logger.debug("No remaining downwash_contrail waypoints. Break.")
+                    break
+                continue
+
+            # Update met, rad slices as needed
+            met, rad = self._maybe_downselect_met_rad(met, rad, latest_contrail, time_end)
+
+            # Recalculate latest_contrail with new values
+            # NOTE: We are doing a substantial amount of redundant computation here
+            # At waypoints for which the continuity hasn't changed, there is nothing
+            # new going on, and so we are overwriting variables in latest_contrail
+            # with the same values
+            # NOTE: Both latest_contrail and contrail_2_segments contain all
+            # 54 variables. The only difference is the change in continuity.
+            # The change in continuity impacts:
+            # - sin_a, cos_a, segment_length (in calc_timestep_geometry)
+            # - dsn_dz (in calc_timestep_meteorology, then enhanced in contrail_properties)
+            # And there is huge room to optimize this
+            calc_continuous(latest_contrail)
+            calc_timestep_geometry(latest_contrail)
+            calc_timestep_meteorology(latest_contrail, met, self.params, **interp_kwargs)
+            calc_contrail_properties(
+                latest_contrail,
+                self.params["effective_vertical_resolution"],
+                self.params["wind_shear_enhancement_exponent"],
+                self.params["sedimentation_impact_factor"],
+                self.params["radiative_heating_effects"],
+            )
+
+            final_contrail = calc_timestep_contrail_evolution(
+                met=met,
+                rad=rad,
+                contrail_1=latest_contrail,
+                time_2=time_end,
+                params=self.params,
+                **interp_kwargs,
+            )
+
+            if contrail_contrail_overlapping:
+                final_contrail = _contrail_contrail_overlapping(final_contrail, self.params)
+
+            self.contrail_list.append(final_contrail)
+
+    def _maybe_downselect_met_rad(
+        self,
+        met: MetDataset | None,
+        rad: MetDataset | None,
+        latest_contrail: GeoVectorDataset,
+        time_end: np.datetime64,
+    ) -> tuple[MetDataset, MetDataset]:
+        """Downselect ``self.met`` and ``self.rad`` if necessary to cover ``time_end``.
+
+        If current ``met`` and ``rad`` slices to not include ``time_end``, new slices are selected
+        from ``self.met`` and ``self.rad``. Downselection in space will cover
+        - locations of current contrails (``latest_contrail``),
+        - locations of additional contrails that will be loaded from ``self._downwash_flight``
+          before the new slices expire,
+        plus a user-defined buffer.
+        """
+        if met is None or time_end > met.indexes["time"].to_numpy()[-1]:
+            logger.debug("Downselect met at time_end %s within Cocip evolution", time_end)
+            met = self._definitely_downselect_met_or_rad(self.met, latest_contrail, time_end)
+            met = add_tau_cirrus(met)
+
+        if rad is None or time_end > rad.indexes["time"].to_numpy()[-1]:
+            logger.debug("Downselect rad at time_end %s within Cocip evolution", time_end)
+            rad = self._definitely_downselect_met_or_rad(self.rad, latest_contrail, time_end)
+
+        return met, rad
+
+    def _definitely_downselect_met_or_rad(
+        self, met: MetDataset, latest_contrail: GeoVectorDataset, time_end: np.datetime64
+    ) -> MetDataset:
+        """Perform downselection when required by :meth:`_maybe_downselect_met_rad`.
+
+        Downselects ``met`` (which should be one of ``self.met`` or ``self.rad``)
+        to cover ``time_end``. Downselection in space covers
+        - locations of current contrails (``latest_contrail``),
+        - locations of additional contrails that will be loaded from ``self._downwash_flight``
+          before the new slices expire,
+        plus a user-defined buffer, as described in :meth:`_maybe_downselect_met_rad`.
+        """
+        # compute lookahead for future contrails from downwash_flight
+        met_time = met.indexes["time"].to_numpy()
+        mask = met_time >= time_end
+        lookahead = np.min(met_time[mask]) if np.any(mask) else time_end
+
+        # create vector for downselection based on current + future contrails
+        future_contrails = self._downwash_flight.filter(
+            (self._downwash_flight["time"] >= time_end)
+            & (self._downwash_flight["time"] <= lookahead),
+            copy=False,
+        )
+        vector = GeoVectorDataset(
+            {
+                key: np.concatenate((latest_contrail[key], future_contrails[key]))
+                for key in ("longitude", "latitude", "level", "time")
+            }
+        )
+
+        # compute time buffer to ensure downselection extends to time_end
+        buffers = {
+            f"{coord}_buffer": self.params[f"met_{coord}_buffer"]
+            for coord in ("longitude", "latitude", "level")
+        }
+        buffers["time_buffer"] = (
+            np.timedelta64(0, "ns"),
+            max(np.timedelta64(0, "ns"), time_end - vector["time"].max()),
+        )
+
+        return vector.downselect_met(met, **buffers, copy=False)
+
+    def _create_downwash_contrail(self) -> GeoVectorDataset:
+        """Get Contrail representation of downwash flight."""
+
+        downwash_contrail_data = {
+            "waypoint": self._downwash_flight["waypoint"],
+            "flight_id": self._downwash_flight["flight_id"],
+            "time": self._downwash_flight["time"],
+            "longitude": self._downwash_flight["longitude"],
+            "latitude": self._downwash_flight["latitude"],
+            # intentionally specify altitude and level to avoid pressure level calculations
+            "altitude": self._downwash_flight["altitude_1"],
+            "level": self._downwash_flight["level_1"],
+            "air_pressure": self._downwash_flight["air_pressure_1"],
+            "width": self._downwash_flight["width"],
+            "depth": self._downwash_flight["depth"],
+            "sigma_yz": self._downwash_flight["sigma_yz"],
+            "air_temperature": self._downwash_flight["air_temperature_1"],
+            "specific_humidity": self._downwash_flight["specific_humidity_1"],
+            "q_sat": self._downwash_flight["q_sat_1"],
+            "rho_air": self._downwash_flight["rho_air_1"],
+            "rhi": self._downwash_flight["rhi_1"],
+            "iwc": self._downwash_flight["iwc_1"],
+            "n_ice_per_m": self._downwash_flight["n_ice_per_m_1"],
+            "persistent": self._downwash_flight["persistent_1"],
+        }
+
+        contrail = GeoVectorDataset(downwash_contrail_data, copy=True)
+        contrail["formation_time"] = contrail["time"].copy()
+        contrail["age"] = contrail["formation_time"] - contrail["time"]
+
+        # Heating rate, differential heating rate and
+        # cumulative heat energy absorbed by the contrail
+        if self.params["radiative_heating_effects"]:
+            contrail["heat_rate"] = np.zeros_like(contrail["n_ice_per_m"])
+            contrail["d_heat_rate"] = np.zeros_like(contrail["n_ice_per_m"])
+
+            # Increase in temperature averaged over the contrail plume
+            contrail["cumul_heat"] = np.zeros_like(contrail["n_ice_per_m"])
+
+            # Temperature difference between the upper and lower half of the contrail plume
+            contrail["cumul_differential_heat"] = np.zeros_like(contrail["n_ice_per_m"])
+
+        # Initially set energy forcing to 0 because the contrail just formed (age = 0)
+        contrail["ef"] = np.zeros_like(contrail["n_ice_per_m"])
+        if self.params["compute_atr20"]:
+            contrail["global_yearly_mean_rf"] = np.zeros_like(contrail["n_ice_per_m"])
+            contrail["atr20"] = np.zeros_like(contrail["n_ice_per_m"])
+
+        if not self.params["filter_sac"]:
+            contrail["sac"] = self._downwash_flight["sac"]
+        if not self.params["filter_initially_persistent"]:
+            contrail["initially_persistent"] = self._downwash_flight["persistent_1"]
+        if self.params["persistent_buffer"] is not None:
+            contrail["end_of_life"] = np.full(contrail.size, np.datetime64("NaT", "ns"))
+
+        return contrail
+
+    def _get_contrail_2_segments(self, time_idx: int) -> GeoVectorDataset:
+        """Get batch of newly formed contrail segments."""
+        time = self._downwash_contrail["time"]
+        t_cur = self.timesteps[time_idx]
+        if time_idx == 0:
+            filt = time < t_cur
+        else:
+            t_prev = self.timesteps[time_idx - 1]
+            filt = (time < t_cur) & (time >= t_prev)
+
+        return self._downwash_contrail.filter(filt)
+
+    @overrides
+    def _cleanup_indices(self) -> None:
+        """Cleanup interpolation artifacts."""
+
+        if not self.params["interpolation_use_indices"]:
+            return
+
+        if hasattr(self, "contrail_list"):
+            for contrail in self.contrail_list:
+                contrail._invalidate_indices()
+
+        self.source._invalidate_indices()
+        self._sac_flight._invalidate_indices()
+        if hasattr(self, "_downwash_flight"):
+            self._downwash_flight._invalidate_indices()
+        if hasattr(self, "_downwash_contrail"):
+            self._downwash_contrail._invalidate_indices()
+
+    def _bundle_results(self) -> None:
+        # ---
+        # Create contrail dataframe (self.contrail)
+        # ---
+        self.contrail = GeoVectorDataset.sum(self.contrail_list).dataframe
+        self.contrail["timestep"] = np.concatenate(
+            [np.full(c.size, i) for i, c in enumerate(self.contrail_list)]
+        )
+
+        # add age in hours to the contrail waypoint outputs
+        age_hours = np.empty_like(self.contrail["ef"])
+        np.divide(self.contrail["age"], np.timedelta64(1, "h"), out=age_hours)
+        self.contrail["age_hours"] = age_hours
+
+        verbose_outputs = self.params["verbose_outputs"]
+        if verbose_outputs:
+            # Compute dt_integration -- logic is somewhat complicated, but
+            # we're simply addressing that the first dt_integration
+            # is different from the rest
+
+            # We call reset_index to introduces an `index` RangeIndex column,
+            # Which we use in the `groupby` to identify the
+            # index of the first evolution step at each waypoint.
+            tmp = self.contrail.reset_index()
+            cols = ["formation_time", "time", "index"]
+            first_form_time = tmp.groupby("waypoint")[cols].first()
+            first_dt = first_form_time["time"] - first_form_time["formation_time"]
+            first_dt = first_dt.set_axis(first_form_time["index"])
+
+            self.contrail = tmp.set_index("index")
+            self.contrail["dt_integration"] = first_dt
+            self.contrail.fillna({"dt_integration": self.params["dt_integration"]}, inplace=True)
+
+            # ---
+            # Create contrail xr.Dataset (self.contrail_dataset)
+            # ---
+            if isinstance(self.source, Fleet):
+                keys = ["flight_id", "timestep", "waypoint"]
+            else:
+                keys = ["timestep", "waypoint"]
+            self.contrail_dataset = xr.Dataset.from_dataframe(self.contrail.set_index(keys))
+
+        # ---
+        # Create output Flight / Fleet (self.source)
+        # ---
+
+        col_idx = ["flight_id", "waypoint"] if isinstance(self.source, Fleet) else ["waypoint"]
+        del self.source["_met_intersection"]
+
+        # Attach intermediate calculations from `sac_flight` and `downwash_flight` to flight
+        sac_cols = [
+            "width",
+            "depth",
+            "rhi_1",
+            "air_temperature_1",
+            "specific_humidity_1",
+            "altitude_1",
+            "persistent_1",
+        ]
+
+        # add additional columns
+        if verbose_outputs:
+            sac_cols += ["dT_dz", "ds_dz", "dz_max"]
+
+        downwash_cols = ["rho_air_1", "iwc_1", "n_ice_per_m_1"]
+        df = pd.concat(
+            [
+                self.source.dataframe.set_index(col_idx),
+                self._sac_flight.dataframe.set_index(col_idx)[sac_cols],
+                self._downwash_flight.dataframe.set_index(col_idx)[downwash_cols],
+            ],
+            axis=1,
+        )
+
+        # Aggregate contrail data back to flight
+        grouped = self.contrail.groupby(col_idx)
+
+        # Perform all aggregations
+        agg_dict = {"ef": ["sum"], "age": ["max"]}
+        if self.params["compute_atr20"]:
+            agg_dict["global_yearly_mean_rf"] = ["sum"]
+            agg_dict["atr20"] = ["sum"]
+
+        rad_keys = ["sdr", "rsr", "olr", "rf_sw", "rf_lw", "rf_net"]
+        for key in rad_keys:
+            if verbose_outputs:
+                agg_dict[key] = ["mean", "min", "max"]
+            else:
+                agg_dict[key] = ["mean"]
+
+        aggregated = grouped.agg(agg_dict)
+        aggregated.columns = [f"{k1}_{k2}" for k1, k2 in aggregated.columns]
+        aggregated = aggregated.rename(columns={"ef_sum": "ef", "age_max": "contrail_age"})
+        if self.params["compute_atr20"]:
+            aggregated = aggregated.rename(
+                columns={"global_yearly_mean_rf_sum": "global_yearly_mean_rf", "atr20_sum": "atr20"}
+            )
+
+        # Join the two
+        df = df.join(aggregated)
+
+        # Fill missing values for ef and contrail_age per conventions
+        # Mean, max, and min radiative values are *not* filled with 0
+        df.fillna({"ef": 0.0, "contrail_age": np.timedelta64(0, "ns")}, inplace=True)
+
+        # cocip flag for each waypoint
+        # -1 if negative EF, 0 if no EF, 1 if positive EF,
+        # or NaN for outside of domain of flight waypoints that don't persist
+        df["cocip"] = np.sign(df["ef"])
+        logger.debug("Total number of waypoints with nonzero EF: %s", df["cocip"].ne(0.0).sum())
+
+        # reset the index
+        df = df.reset_index()
+
+        # Reassign to source
+        self.source.data = VectorDataDict({k: v.to_numpy() for k, v in df.items()})
+
+    def _fill_empty_flight_results(self, return_list_flight: bool) -> Flight | list[Flight]:
+        """Fill empty results into flight / fleet and return.
+
+        This method attaches an all nan array to each of the variables:
+            - sdr
+            - rsr
+            - olr
+            - rf_sw
+            - rf_lw
+            - rf_net
+
+        This method also attaches zeros (for trajectory points contained within met grid)
+        or nans (for trajectory points outside of the met grid) to the following variables.
+            - ef
+            - cocip
+            - contrail_age
+            - persistent_1
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        return_list_flight : bool
+            If True, a list of :class:`Flight` is returned. In this case, :attr:`source`
+            is assumed to be a :class:`Fleet`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Flight | list[Flight]
+            Flight or list of Flight objects with empty variables.
+        """
+        self._cleanup_indices()
+
+        intersection = self.source.data.pop("_met_intersection")
+        zeros_and_nans = np.zeros(intersection.shape, dtype=np.float32)
+        zeros_and_nans[~intersection] = np.nan
+        self.source["ef"] = zeros_and_nans.copy()
+        self.source["persistent_1"] = zeros_and_nans.copy()
+        self.source["cocip"] = np.sign(zeros_and_nans)
+        self.source["contrail_age"] = zeros_and_nans.astype("timedelta64[ns]")
+
+        if return_list_flight:
+            return self.source.to_flight_list()  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
+
+        return self.source
+
+
+# ----------------------------------------
+# Functions used in Cocip and CocipGrid
+# ----------------------------------------
+
+
+def process_met_datasets(
+    met: MetDataset,
+    rad: MetDataset,
+    compute_tau_cirrus: bool | Literal["auto"] = "auto",
+) -> tuple[MetDataset, MetDataset]:
+    """Process and verify ERA5 data for :class:`Cocip` and :class:`CocipGrid`.
+
+    The implementation uses :class:`Cocip` for the source of truth in determining
+    which met variables are required.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 0.25.0
+
+        This method is called in the :class:`CocipGrid` constructor regardless
+        of the ``process_met`` parameter. The same approach is also taken
+        in :class:`Cocip` in version 0.27.0.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 0.48.0
+
+        Remove the ``shift_radiation_time`` parameter. This parameter is now
+        inferred from the metadata on the `rad` instance.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    met : MetDataset
+        Met pressure-level data
+    rad : MetDataset
+        Rad single-level data
+    compute_tau_cirrus : bool | Literal["auto"]
+        Whether to add ``"tau_cirrus"`` variable to pressure-level met data. If set to
+        ``"auto"``, ``"tau_cirrus"`` will be computed iff the met data is dask-backed.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    met : MetDataset
+        Met data, possibly with "tau_cirrus" variable attached.
+    rad : MetDataset
+        Rad data with time shifted to account for accumulated values.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    If a previous version of pycontrails has already scaled the gridded humidity
+    data.
+    """
+    # Check for remnants of previous scaling.
+    if "_pycontrails_modified" in met["specific_humidity"].attrs:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Specific humidity enhancement of the raw specific humidity values in "
+            "the underlying met data is deprecated."
+        )
+
+    if compute_tau_cirrus == "auto":
+        # If met data is dask-backed, compute tau_cirrus
+        compute_tau_cirrus = met.data["air_temperature"].chunks is not None
+
+    if "tau_cirrus" not in met.data:
+        met.ensure_vars(Cocip.met_variables)
+        if compute_tau_cirrus:
+            met = add_tau_cirrus(met)
+    else:
+        met.ensure_vars(Cocip.processed_met_variables)
+
+    rad.ensure_vars(Cocip.rad_variables)
+    rad = _process_rad(rad)
+
+    return met, rad
+
+
+def add_tau_cirrus(met: MetDataset) -> MetDataset:
+    """Add "tau_cirrus" variable to weather data if it does not exist already.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    met : MetDataset
+        Met pressure-level data.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    met : MetDataset
+        Met data with "tau_cirrus" variable attached.
+    """
+    if "tau_cirrus" not in met.data:
+        met.data["tau_cirrus"] = tau_cirrus.tau_cirrus(met)
+    return met
+
+
+def _process_rad(rad: MetDataset) -> MetDataset:
+    """Process radiation specific variables for model.
+
+    These variables are used to calculate the reflected solar radiation (RSR),
+    and outgoing longwave radiation (OLR).
+
+    The time stamp is adjusted by ``shift_radiation_time`` to account for
+    accumulated values being averaged over the time period.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rad : MetDataset
+        Rad single-level data
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    MetDataset
+        Rad data with time shifted.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If a "radiation_accumulated" field is not found on ``rad.attrs``.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    - https://www.ecmwf.int/sites/default/files/elibrary/2015/18490-radiation-quantities-ecmwf-model-and-mars.pdf
+    - https://confluence.ecmwf.int/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=155337784
+    """
+    # If the time coordinate has already been shifted, early return
+    if "shift_radiation_time" in rad["time"].attrs:
+        return rad
+
+    provider = rad.provider_attr
+
+    # Only shift ECMWF data -- exit for anything else
+    # A warning is emitted upstream if the provider is not ECMWF or NCEP
+    if provider != "ECMWF":
+        return rad
+
+    dataset = rad.dataset_attr
+    product = rad.product_attr
+
+    if dataset == "HRES":
+        try:
+            radiation_accumulated = rad.attrs["radiation_accumulated"]
+        except KeyError as exc:
+            msg = (
+                "HRES data must have a boolean 'radiation_accumulated' attribute. "
+                "This attribute is used to determine whether the radiation data "
+                "has been accumulated over the time period. This is the case for "
+                "HRES data taken from a common time of forecast with multiple "
+                "forecast steps. If this is not the case, set the "
+                "'radiation_accumulated' attribute to False."
+            )
+            raise ValueError(msg) from exc
+        if radiation_accumulated:
+            # Don't assume that radiation data is uniformly spaced in time
+            # Instead, infer the appropriate time shift
+            time_diff = rad.data["time"].diff("time", label="upper")
+            time_shift = -time_diff / 2
+
+            # Keep the original attrs -- we need these later on
+            old_attrs = {k: v.attrs for k, v in rad.data.items()}
+
+            # Also need to keep dataset-level attrs, which are lost
+            # when dividing a Dataset by a DataArray
+            old_rad_attrs = rad.data.attrs
+
+            # NOTE: Taking the diff will remove the first time step
+            # This is typically what we want (forecast step 0 is all zeros)
+            # But, if the data has been downselected for a particular Flight / Fleet,
+            # we lose the first time step of the data.
+            #
+            # Other portions of the code convert HRES accumulated fluxes (J/m2)
+            # to averaged fluxes (W/m2) assuming that accumulations are over
+            # one hour. For those conversions to work correctly, must normalize
+            # accumulations by number of hours between steps
+            time_diff_h = time_diff / np.timedelta64(1, "h")
+            rad.data = rad.data.diff("time", label="upper") / time_diff_h
+            rad.data.attrs = old_rad_attrs
+
+            # Add back the original attrs
+            for k, v in rad.data.items():
+                v.attrs = old_attrs[k]
+
+            # Short-circuit to avoid idiot check
+            rad.data = rad.data.assign_coords({"time": rad.data["time"] + time_shift})
+            if np.unique(time_shift).size == 1:
+                rad.data["time"].attrs["shift_radiation_time"] = str(time_shift.values[0])
+            else:
+                rad.data["time"].attrs["shift_radiation_time"] = "variable"
+            return rad
+
+        else:
+            shift_radiation_time = -np.timedelta64(30, "m")
+
+    elif dataset == "ERA5" and product == "ensemble":
+        shift_radiation_time = -np.timedelta64(90, "m")
+    else:
+        shift_radiation_time = -np.timedelta64(30, "m")
+
+    # Do a final idiot check -- most likely, the time resolution of the data will
+    # agree with the shift_radiation_time. If not, emit a warning. There could be
+    # a false positive here if the data has been downsampled in time.
+    logger.debug("Shifting rad time by %s", shift_radiation_time)
+    rad_time_diff = np.diff(rad.data["time"])
+    if not np.all(rad_time_diff / 2 == -shift_radiation_time):
+        warnings.warn(
+            f"Shifting radiation time dimension by unexpected interval {shift_radiation_time}. "
+            f"The rad data has metadata indicating it is {product} ECMWF data. "
+            f"This dataset should have time steps of {-2 * shift_radiation_time}."
+        )
+
+    rad.data = rad.data.assign_coords({"time": rad.data["time"] + shift_radiation_time})
+    rad.data["time"].attrs["shift_radiation_time"] = str(shift_radiation_time)
+
+    return rad
+
+
+def _eval_aircraft_performance(
+    aircraft_performance: AircraftPerformance | None, flight: Flight
+) -> Flight:
+    """Evaluate the :class:`AircraftPerformance` model.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    aircraft_performance : AircraftPerformance | None
+        Input aircraft performance model
+    flight : Flight
+        Flight to evaluate
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    Flight
+        Output from aircraft performance model
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If ``aircraft_performance`` is None
+    """
+
+    ap_vars = {"wingspan", "engine_efficiency", "fuel_flow", "aircraft_mass"}
+    missing = ap_vars.difference(flight).difference(flight.attrs)
+    if not missing:
+        return flight
+
+    if aircraft_performance is None:
+        msg = (
+            f"An AircraftPerformance model parameter is required if the flight does not contain "
+            f"the following variables: {ap_vars}. This flight is missing: {missing}. "
+            "Instantiate the Cocip model with an AircraftPerformance model. "
+            "For example, 'Cocip(..., aircraft_performance=PSFlight(...))'."
+        )
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    return aircraft_performance.eval(source=flight, copy_source=False)
+
+
+def _eval_emissions(emissions: Emissions, flight: Flight) -> Flight:
+    """Evaluate the :class:`Emissions` model.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    emissions : Emissions
+        Emissions model
+    flight : Flight
+        Flight to evaluate
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    Flight
+        Output from emissions model
+    """
+
+    emissions_outputs = "nvpm_ei_n"
+    if flight.ensure_vars(emissions_outputs, False):
+        return flight
+    return emissions.eval(source=flight, copy_source=False)
+
+
+def calc_continuous(contrail: GeoVectorDataset) -> None:
+    """Calculate the continuous segments of this timestep.
+
+    Mutates parameter ``contrail`` in place by setting or updating the
+    "continuous" variable.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    contrail : GeoVectorDataset
+        GeoVectorDataset instance onto which "continuous" is set.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If ``contrail`` is empty.
+    """
+    if not contrail:
+        raise ValueError("Cannot calculate continuous on an empty contrail")
+    same_flight = contrail["flight_id"][:-1] == contrail["flight_id"][1:]
+    consecutive_waypoint = np.diff(contrail["waypoint"]) == 1
+    continuous = np.empty(contrail.size, dtype=bool)
+    continuous[:-1] = same_flight & consecutive_waypoint
+    continuous[-1] = False  # This fails if contrail is empty
+    contrail.update(continuous=continuous)  # overwrite continuous
+
+
+def calc_timestep_geometry(contrail: GeoVectorDataset) -> None:
+    """Calculate contrail segment-specific properties.
+
+    Mutates parameter ``contrail`` in place by setting or updating the variables
+    - "sin_a"
+    - "cos_a"
+    - "segment_length"
+
+    Any nan values in these variables are set to 0. This ensures any segment-based property
+    derived from the segment geometry does not contribute to contrail energy forcing.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    - :func:`wind_shear.wind_shear_normal` to see how "sin_a" and "cos_a"
+    are used to compute wind shear terms.
+    - :func:`calc_timestep_contrail_evolution` to see how "segment_length" is used.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    contrail : GeoVectorDataset
+        GeoVectorDataset instance onto which variables are set.
+    """
+    # get contrail waypoints
+    longitude = contrail["longitude"]
+    latitude = contrail["latitude"]
+    altitude = contrail.altitude
+    continuous = contrail["continuous"]
+
+    # calculate segment properties
+    segment_length = geo.segment_length(longitude, latitude, altitude)
+    sin_a, cos_a = geo.segment_angle(longitude, latitude)
+
+    # NOTE: Set all nan and discontinuous values to 0. With our current implementation, this
+    # ensures degenerate or discontinuous segments do not contribute to contrail impact.
+    # At the same time, this prevents nan values from propagating through evolving contrails.
+    #
+    # If we want to change this, take note of the following consequences.
+    # nan values flow from one variable to another as follows:
+    # segment_length
+    # seg_ratio
+    # sigma_yz
+    # area_eff_2
+    # iwc, n_ice_per_m, r_vol_ice
+    # terminal_fall_speed
+    # level                 [level advection]
+    # u_wind, v_wind        [interp]
+    # longitude, latitude   [advection]
+    # Finally, at the next evolution step, the previous waypoint will accrue
+    # a nan value after segment_length is recalculated
+
+    segment_length[~continuous] = 0.0
+    sin_a[~continuous] = 0.0
+    cos_a[~continuous] = 0.0
+
+    np.nan_to_num(segment_length, copy=False)
+    np.nan_to_num(sin_a, copy=False)
+    np.nan_to_num(cos_a, copy=False)
+
+    # override values on model
+    contrail.update(segment_length=segment_length)
+    contrail.update(sin_a=sin_a)
+    contrail.update(cos_a=cos_a)
+
+
+def calc_timestep_meteorology(
+    contrail: GeoVectorDataset,
+    met: MetDataset,
+    params: dict[str, Any],
+    **interp_kwargs: Any,
+) -> None:
+    """Get and store meteorology parameters.
+
+    Mutates parameter ``contrail`` in place by setting or updating the variables
+    - "sin_a"
+    - "cos_a"
+    - "segment_length"
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    contrail : GeoVectorDataset
+        GeoVectorDataset object onto which meterology variables are attached.
+    met : MetDataset
+        MetDataset with meteorology data variables.
+    params : dict[str, Any]
+        Cocip model ``params``.
+    **interp_kwargs : Any
+        Cocip model ``interp_kwargs``.
+    """
+    # get contrail geometry
+    sin_a = contrail["sin_a"]
+    cos_a = contrail["cos_a"]
+
+    # get standard met parameters for timestep
+    air_pressure = contrail.air_pressure
+    air_temperature = contrail["air_temperature"]
+    u_wind = interpolate_met(met, contrail, "eastward_wind", "u_wind", **interp_kwargs)
+    v_wind = interpolate_met(met, contrail, "northward_wind", "v_wind", **interp_kwargs)
+    interpolate_met(
+        met,
+        contrail,
+        "lagrangian_tendency_of_air_pressure",
+        "vertical_velocity",
+        **interp_kwargs,
+    )
+    interpolate_met(met, contrail, "tau_cirrus", **interp_kwargs)
+
+    # get the pressure level `dz_m` lower than element pressure
+    air_pressure_lower = thermo.pressure_dz(air_temperature, air_pressure, params["dz_m"])
+
+    # get meteorology at contrail waypoints interpolated at the pressure level `air_pressure_lower`
+    level_lower = air_pressure_lower / 100.0  # Pa -> hPa
+
+    # if met is already interpolated, this will automatically skip interpolation
+    air_temperature_lower = interpolate_met(
+        met,
+        contrail,
+        "air_temperature",
+        "air_temperature_lower",
+        level=level_lower,
+        **interp_kwargs,
+    )
+    u_wind_lower = interpolate_met(
+        met,
+        contrail,
+        "eastward_wind",
+        "u_wind_lower",
+        level=level_lower,
+        **interp_kwargs,
+    )
+    v_wind_lower = interpolate_met(
+        met,
+        contrail,
+        "northward_wind",
+        "v_wind_lower",
+        level=level_lower,
+        **interp_kwargs,
+    )
+
+    # Temperature gradient
+    dT_dz = thermo.T_potential_gradient(
+        air_temperature,
+        air_pressure,
+        air_temperature_lower,
+        air_pressure_lower,
+        params["dz_m"],
+    )
+
+    # wind shear
+    ds_dz = wind_shear.wind_shear(u_wind, u_wind_lower, v_wind, v_wind_lower, params["dz_m"])
+
+    # wind shear normal
+    dsn_dz = wind_shear.wind_shear_normal(
+        u_wind_top=u_wind,
+        u_wind_btm=u_wind_lower,
+        v_wind_top=v_wind,
+        v_wind_btm=v_wind_lower,
+        cos_a=cos_a,
+        sin_a=sin_a,
+        dz=params["dz_m"],
+    )
+
+    # store values on contrail model
+    contrail.update(dT_dz=dT_dz)
+    contrail.update(ds_dz=ds_dz)
+    contrail.update(dsn_dz=dsn_dz)
+
+
+def calc_shortwave_radiation(
+    rad: MetDataset,
+    vector: GeoVectorDataset,
+    **interp_kwargs: Any,
+) -> None:
+    """Calculate shortwave radiation variables.
+
+    Calculates theoretical incident (``sdr``) and
+    reflected shortwave radiation (``rsr``) from the radiation data provided.
+
+    Mutates input ``vector`` to include ``"sdr"`` and ``"rsr"``
+    keys with calculated SDR, RSR values, respectively.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rad : MetDataset
+       Radiation data
+    vector : GeoVectorDataset
+        Flight or GeoVectorDataset instance
+    **interp_kwargs : Any
+        Interpolation keyword arguments
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If ``rad`` does not contain ``"toa_upward_shortwave_flux"`` or
+        ``"top_net_solar_radiation"`` variable.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    In accordance with the original CoCiP Fortran algorithm,
+    the SDR is set to 0 when the cosine of the solar zenith angle is below 0.01.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    :func:`geo.solar_direct_radiation`
+    """
+    if "sdr" in vector and "rsr" in vector:
+        return
+
+    try:
+        sdr = vector["sdr"]
+    except KeyError:
+        # calculate instantaneous theoretical solar direct radiation based on geo position and time
+        longitude = vector["longitude"]
+        latitude = vector["latitude"]
+        time = vector["time"]
+        sdr = geo.solar_direct_radiation(longitude, latitude, time, threshold_cos_sza=0.01)
+        vector["sdr"] = sdr
+
+    # GFS contains RSR (toa_upward_shortwave_flux) variable directly
+    gfs_key = "toa_upward_shortwave_flux"
+    if gfs_key in rad:
+        interpolate_met(rad, vector, gfs_key, "rsr", **interp_kwargs)
+        return
+
+    ecmwf_key = "top_net_solar_radiation"
+    if ecmwf_key not in rad:
+        msg = f"'rad' data must contain either '{gfs_key}' or '{ecmwf_key}' (ECMWF) variable."
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    # ECMWF contains "top_net_solar_radiation" which is SDR - RSR
+    tnsr = interpolate_met(rad, vector, ecmwf_key, **interp_kwargs)
+    tnsr = _rad_accumulation_to_average_instantaneous(rad, ecmwf_key, tnsr)
+    vector.update({ecmwf_key: tnsr})
+
+    vector["rsr"] = np.maximum(sdr - tnsr, 0.0)
+
+
+def calc_outgoing_longwave_radiation(
+    rad: MetDataset,
+    vector: GeoVectorDataset,
+    **interp_kwargs: Any,
+) -> None:
+    """Calculate outgoing longwave radiation (``olr``) from the radiation data provided.
+
+    Mutates input ``vector`` to include ``"olr"`` key with calculated OLR values.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rad : MetDataset
+       Radiation data
+    vector : GeoVectorDataset
+        Flight or GeoVectorDataset instance
+    **interp_kwargs : Any
+        Interpolation keyword arguments
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If ``rad`` does not contain a ``"toa_upward_longwave_flux"``
+        or ``"top_net_thermal_radiation"`` variable.
+    """
+
+    if "olr" in vector:
+        return None
+
+    # GFS contains OLR (toa_upward_longwave_flux) variable directly
+    gfs_key = "toa_upward_longwave_flux"
+    if gfs_key in rad:
+        interpolate_met(rad, vector, gfs_key, "olr", **interp_kwargs)
+        return
+
+    # ECMWF contains "top_net_thermal_radiation" which is -1 * OLR
+    ecmwf_key = "top_net_thermal_radiation"
+    if ecmwf_key not in rad:
+        msg = f"'rad' data must contain either '{gfs_key}' or '{ecmwf_key}' (ECMWF) variable."
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    tntr = interpolate_met(rad, vector, ecmwf_key, **interp_kwargs)
+    tntr = _rad_accumulation_to_average_instantaneous(rad, ecmwf_key, tntr)
+    vector.update({ecmwf_key: tntr})
+
+    vector["olr"] = np.maximum(-tntr, 0.0)
+
+
+def calc_radiative_properties(contrail: GeoVectorDataset, params: dict[str, Any]) -> None:
+    """Calculate radiative properties for contrail.
+
+    This function is used by both :class:`Cocip` and :class`CocipGrid`.
+
+    Mutates original `contrail` parameter with additional keys:
+        - "rf_sw"
+        - "rf_lw"
+        - "rf_net"
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    contrail : GeoVectorDataset
+        Grid points already interpolated against met and rad data. In particular,
+        the variables
+            - "air_temperature"
+            - "r_ice_vol"
+            - "tau_contrail"
+            - "tau_cirrus"
+            - "olr"
+            - "rsr"
+            - "sdr"
+
+        are required on the parameter `contrail`.
+    params : dict[str, Any]
+        Model parameters
+    """
+    time = contrail["time"]
+    air_temperature = contrail["air_temperature"]
+
+    if params["radiative_heating_effects"]:
+        air_temperature += contrail["cumul_heat"]
+
+    r_ice_vol = contrail["r_ice_vol"]
+    tau_contrail = contrail["tau_contrail"]
+    tau_cirrus_ = contrail["tau_cirrus"]
+
+    # calculate solar constant
+    theta_rad = geo.orbital_position(time)
+    sd0 = geo.solar_constant(theta_rad)
+
+    # radiation dataset with contrail waypoints at timestep
+    sdr = contrail["sdr"]
+    rsr = contrail["rsr"]
+    olr = contrail["olr"]
+
+    # radiation calculations
+    r_vol_um = r_ice_vol * 1e6
+    habit_weights = radiative_forcing.habit_weights(
+        r_vol_um, params["habit_distributions"], params["radius_threshold_um"]
+    )
+    rf_lw = radiative_forcing.longwave_radiative_forcing(
+        r_vol_um, olr, air_temperature, tau_contrail, tau_cirrus_, habit_weights
+    )
+    rf_sw = radiative_forcing.shortwave_radiative_forcing(
+        r_vol_um, sdr, rsr, sd0, tau_contrail, tau_cirrus_, habit_weights
+    )
+
+    # scale RF by enhancement factors
+    rf_lw_scaled = rf_lw * params["rf_lw_enhancement_factor"]
+    rf_sw_scaled = rf_sw * params["rf_sw_enhancement_factor"]
+    rf_net = radiative_forcing.net_radiative_forcing(rf_lw_scaled, rf_sw_scaled)
+
+    # store values on contrail
+    contrail["rf_sw"] = rf_sw
+    contrail["rf_lw"] = rf_lw
+    contrail["rf_net"] = rf_net
+
+
+def calc_contrail_properties(
+    contrail: GeoVectorDataset,
+    effective_vertical_resolution: float | npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    wind_shear_enhancement_exponent: float | npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    sedimentation_impact_factor: float | npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    radiative_heating_effects: bool,
+) -> None:
+    """Calculate geometric and ice-related properties of contrail.
+
+    This function is used by both :class:`Cocip` and :class`CocipGrid`.
+
+    This function modifies parameter `contrail` in place:
+        - Mutates contrail data variables:
+            - "ds_dz"
+            - "dsn_dz"
+        - Attaches additional variables:
+            - "area_eff"
+            - "plume_mass_per_m"
+            - "r_ice_vol"
+            - "terminal_fall_speed"
+            - "diffuse_h"
+            - "diffuse_v"
+            - "n_ice_per_vol"
+            - "tau_contrail"
+            - "dn_dt_agg"
+            - "dn_dt_turb"
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    contrail : GeoVectorDataset
+        Grid points with many precomputed keys.
+    effective_vertical_resolution : float | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Passed into :func:`wind_shear.wind_shear_enhancement_factor`.
+    wind_shear_enhancement_exponent : float | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Passed into :func:`wind_shear.wind_shear_enhancement_factor`.
+    sedimentation_impact_factor: float | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Passed into `contrail_properties.vertical_diffusivity`.
+    radiative_heating_effects: bool
+        Include radiative heating effects on contrail cirrus properties.
+    """
+    time = contrail["time"]
+    iwc = contrail["iwc"]
+    depth = contrail["depth"]
+    width = contrail["width"]
+    n_ice_per_m = contrail["n_ice_per_m"]
+    t_cirrus_ = contrail["tau_cirrus"]
+
+    # get required meteorology
+    air_temperature = contrail["air_temperature"]
+    air_pressure = contrail.air_pressure
+    rhi = contrail["rhi"]
+    rho_air = contrail["rho_air"]
+    dT_dz = contrail["dT_dz"]
+    ds_dz = contrail["ds_dz"]
+    dsn_dz = contrail["dsn_dz"]
+    sigma_yz = contrail["sigma_yz"]
+
+    if radiative_heating_effects:
+        air_temperature += contrail["cumul_heat"]
+
+    # get required radiation
+    theta_rad = geo.orbital_position(time)
+    sd0 = geo.solar_constant(theta_rad)
+    sdr = contrail["sdr"]
+    rsr = contrail["rsr"]
+    olr = contrail["olr"]
+
+    # shear enhancements
+    shear_enhancement = wind_shear.wind_shear_enhancement_factor(
+        contrail_depth=depth,
+        effective_vertical_resolution=effective_vertical_resolution,
+        wind_shear_enhancement_exponent=wind_shear_enhancement_exponent,
+    )
+    ds_dz = ds_dz * shear_enhancement
+    dsn_dz = dsn_dz * shear_enhancement
+
+    # effective area
+    area_eff = contrail_properties.plume_effective_cross_sectional_area(width, depth, sigma_yz)
+    depth_eff = contrail_properties.plume_effective_depth(width, area_eff)
+
+    # ice particles
+    n_ice_per_vol = contrail_properties.ice_particle_number_per_volume_of_plume(
+        n_ice_per_m, area_eff
+    )
+    n_ice_per_kg_air = contrail_properties.ice_particle_number_per_mass_of_air(
+        n_ice_per_vol, rho_air
+    )
+    plume_mass_per_m = contrail_properties.plume_mass_per_distance(area_eff, rho_air)
+    r_ice_vol = contrail_properties.ice_particle_volume_mean_radius(iwc, n_ice_per_kg_air)
+    tau_contrail = contrail_properties.contrail_optical_depth(r_ice_vol, n_ice_per_m, width)
+
+    terminal_fall_speed = contrail_properties.ice_particle_terminal_fall_speed(
+        air_pressure, air_temperature, r_ice_vol
+    )
+    diffuse_h = contrail_properties.horizontal_diffusivity(ds_dz, depth)
+
+    if radiative_heating_effects:
+        heat_rate = radiative_heating.heating_rate(
+            air_temperature=air_temperature,
+            rhi=rhi,
+            rho_air=rho_air,
+            r_ice_vol=r_ice_vol,
+            depth_eff=depth_eff,
+            tau_contrail=tau_contrail,
+            tau_cirrus=t_cirrus_,
+            sd0=sd0,
+            sdr=sdr,
+            rsr=rsr,
+            olr=olr,
+        )
+
+        cumul_differential_heat = contrail["cumul_differential_heat"]
+        d_heat_rate = radiative_heating.differential_heating_rate(
+            air_temperature=air_temperature,
+            rhi=rhi,
+            rho_air=rho_air,
+            r_ice_vol=r_ice_vol,
+            depth_eff=depth_eff,
+            tau_contrail=tau_contrail,
+            tau_cirrus=t_cirrus_,
+            sd0=sd0,
+            sdr=sdr,
+            rsr=rsr,
+            olr=olr,
+        )
+
+        eff_heat_rate = radiative_heating.effective_heating_rate(
+            d_heat_rate, cumul_differential_heat, dT_dz, depth
+        )
+    else:
+        eff_heat_rate = None
+
+    diffuse_v = contrail_properties.vertical_diffusivity(
+        air_pressure=air_pressure,
+        air_temperature=air_temperature,
+        dT_dz=dT_dz,
+        depth_eff=depth_eff,
+        terminal_fall_speed=terminal_fall_speed,
+        sedimentation_impact_factor=sedimentation_impact_factor,
+        eff_heat_rate=eff_heat_rate,
+    )
+
+    dn_dt_agg = contrail_properties.particle_losses_aggregation(
+        r_ice_vol, terminal_fall_speed, area_eff
+    )
+    dn_dt_turb = contrail_properties.particle_losses_turbulence(
+        width, depth, depth_eff, diffuse_h, diffuse_v
+    )
+
+    # Set properties to model
+    contrail.update(ds_dz=ds_dz)
+    contrail.update(dsn_dz=dsn_dz)
+    contrail.update(area_eff=area_eff)
+    contrail.update(plume_mass_per_m=plume_mass_per_m)
+    contrail.update(r_ice_vol=r_ice_vol)
+    contrail.update(terminal_fall_speed=terminal_fall_speed)
+    contrail.update(diffuse_h=diffuse_h)
+    contrail.update(diffuse_v=diffuse_v)
+    contrail.update(n_ice_per_vol=n_ice_per_vol)
+    contrail.update(tau_contrail=tau_contrail)
+    contrail.update(dn_dt_agg=dn_dt_agg)
+    contrail.update(dn_dt_turb=dn_dt_turb)
+    if radiative_heating_effects:
+        contrail.update(heat_rate=heat_rate, d_heat_rate=d_heat_rate)
+
+
+def calc_timestep_contrail_evolution(
+    met: MetDataset,
+    rad: MetDataset,
+    contrail_1: GeoVectorDataset,
+    time_2: np.datetime64,
+    params: dict[str, Any],
+    **interp_kwargs: Any,
+) -> GeoVectorDataset:
+    """Calculate the contrail evolution across timestep (t1 -> t2).
+
+    Note the variable suffix "_1" is used to reference the current time
+    and the suffix "_2" is used to refer to the time at the next timestep.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    met : MetDataset
+       Meteorology data
+    rad : MetDataset
+        Radiation data
+    contrail_1 : GeoVectorDataset
+        Contrail waypoints at current timestep (1)
+    time_2 : np.datetime64
+        Time at the end of the evolution step (2)
+    params : dict[str, Any]
+        Model parameters
+    **interp_kwargs : Any
+        Interpolation keyword arguments
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    GeoVectorDataset
+        The contrail evolved to ``time_2``.
+    """
+
+    # get lat/lon for current timestep (t1)
+    longitude_1 = contrail_1["longitude"]
+    latitude_1 = contrail_1["latitude"]
+    level_1 = contrail_1.level
+    time_1 = contrail_1["time"]
+
+    # get contrail_1 geometry
+    segment_length_1 = contrail_1["segment_length"]
+    width_1 = contrail_1["width"]
+    depth_1 = contrail_1["depth"]
+
+    # get required met values for evolution calculations
+    q_sat_1 = contrail_1["q_sat"]
+    rho_air_1 = contrail_1["rho_air"]
+    u_wind_1 = contrail_1["u_wind"]
+    v_wind_1 = contrail_1["v_wind"]
+
+    specific_humidity_1 = contrail_1["specific_humidity"]
+    vertical_velocity_1 = contrail_1["vertical_velocity"]
+    iwc_1 = contrail_1["iwc"]
+
+    # get required contrail_1 properties
+    sigma_yz_1 = contrail_1["sigma_yz"]
+    dsn_dz_1 = contrail_1["dsn_dz"]
+    terminal_fall_speed_1 = contrail_1["terminal_fall_speed"]
+    diffuse_h_1 = contrail_1["diffuse_h"]
+    diffuse_v_1 = contrail_1["diffuse_v"]
+    plume_mass_per_m_1 = contrail_1["plume_mass_per_m"]
+    dn_dt_agg_1 = contrail_1["dn_dt_agg"]
+    dn_dt_turb_1 = contrail_1["dn_dt_turb"]
+    n_ice_per_m_1 = contrail_1["n_ice_per_m"]
+
+    # get contrail_1 radiative properties
+    rf_net_1 = contrail_1["rf_net"]
+
+    # initialize new timestep with evolved coordinates
+    # assume waypoints are the same to start
+    waypoint_2 = contrail_1["waypoint"]
+    formation_time_2 = contrail_1["formation_time"]
+    time_2_array = np.full_like(time_1, time_2)
+    dt = time_2_array - time_1
+
+    # get new contrail location & segment properties after t_step
+    longitude_2 = geo.advect_longitude(longitude_1, latitude_1, u_wind_1, dt)
+    latitude_2 = geo.advect_latitude(latitude_1, v_wind_1, dt)
+    level_2 = geo.advect_level(level_1, vertical_velocity_1, rho_air_1, terminal_fall_speed_1, dt)
+    altitude_2 = units.pl_to_m(level_2)
+
+    contrail_2 = GeoVectorDataset(
+        {
+            "waypoint": waypoint_2,
+            "flight_id": contrail_1["flight_id"],
+            "formation_time": formation_time_2,
+            "time": time_2_array,
+            "age": time_2_array - formation_time_2,
+            "longitude": longitude_2,
+            "latitude": latitude_2,
+            "altitude": altitude_2,
+            "level": level_2,
+        },
+        copy=False,
+    )
+    intersection = contrail_2.coords_intersect_met(met)
+    if not np.any(intersection):
+        warnings.warn(
+            f"At time {time_2}, the contrail has no intersection with the met data. "
+            "This is likely due to the contrail being advected outside the met domain."
+        )
+
+    # Update cumulative radiative heating energy absorbed by the contrail
+    # This will always be zero if radiative_heating_effects is not activated in cocip_params
+    if params["radiative_heating_effects"]:
+        dt_sec = dt / np.timedelta64(1, "s")
+        heat_rate_1 = contrail_1["heat_rate"]
+        cumul_heat = contrail_1["cumul_heat"]
+        cumul_heat += heat_rate_1 * dt_sec
+        cumul_heat.clip(max=1.5, out=cumul_heat)  # Constrain additional heat to 1.5 K as precaution
+        contrail_2["cumul_heat"] = cumul_heat
+
+        d_heat_rate_1 = contrail_1["d_heat_rate"]
+        cumul_differential_heat = contrail_1["cumul_differential_heat"]
+        cumul_differential_heat += -d_heat_rate_1 * dt_sec
+        contrail_2["cumul_differential_heat"] = cumul_differential_heat
+
+    # Attach a few more artifacts for disabled filtering
+    if not params["filter_sac"]:
+        contrail_2["sac"] = contrail_1["sac"]
+    if not params["filter_initially_persistent"]:
+        contrail_2["initially_persistent"] = contrail_1["initially_persistent"]
+    if params["persistent_buffer"] is not None:
+        contrail_2["end_of_life"] = contrail_1["end_of_life"]
+
+    # calculate initial contrail properties for the next timestep
+    calc_continuous(contrail_2)
+    calc_timestep_geometry(contrail_2)
+
+    # get next segment lengths
+    segment_length_2 = contrail_2["segment_length"]
+
+    # new contrail dimensions
+    seg_ratio_2 = contrail_properties.segment_length_ratio(segment_length_1, segment_length_2)
+    sigma_yy_2, sigma_zz_2, sigma_yz_2 = contrail_properties.plume_temporal_evolution(
+        width_1,
+        depth_1,
+        sigma_yz_1,
+        dsn_dz_1,
+        diffuse_h_1,
+        diffuse_v_1,
+        seg_ratio_2,
+        dt,
+        max_depth=params["max_depth"],
+    )
+    width_2, depth_2 = contrail_properties.new_contrail_dimensions(sigma_yy_2, sigma_zz_2)
+
+    # store data back in model to support next time step calculations
+    contrail_2["width"] = width_2
+    contrail_2["depth"] = depth_2
+    contrail_2["sigma_yz"] = sigma_yz_2
+
+    # new contrail meteorology parameters
+    air_temperature_2 = interpolate_met(met, contrail_2, "air_temperature", **interp_kwargs)
+
+    if params["radiative_heating_effects"]:
+        air_temperature_2 += contrail_2["cumul_heat"]
+
+    interpolate_met(met, contrail_2, "specific_humidity", **interp_kwargs)
+
+    humidity_scaling = params["humidity_scaling"]
+    if humidity_scaling is not None:
+        humidity_scaling.eval(contrail_2, copy_source=False)
+    else:
+        contrail_2["air_pressure"] = contrail_2.air_pressure
+        contrail_2["rhi"] = thermo.rhi(
+            contrail_2["specific_humidity"], air_temperature_2, contrail_2["air_pressure"]
+        )
+
+    air_pressure_2 = contrail_2["air_pressure"]
+    specific_humidity_2 = contrail_2["specific_humidity"]
+    rho_air_2 = thermo.rho_d(air_temperature_2, air_pressure_2)
+    q_sat_2 = thermo.q_sat_ice(air_temperature_2, air_pressure_2)
+
+    # store data back in model to support next ``calc_timestep_meteorology``
+    contrail_2["rho_air"] = rho_air_2
+    contrail_2["q_sat"] = q_sat_2
+
+    # New contrail ice particle mass and number
+    area_eff_2 = contrail_properties.new_effective_area_from_sigma(
+        sigma_yy_2, sigma_zz_2, sigma_yz_2
+    )
+    plume_mass_per_m_2 = contrail_properties.plume_mass_per_distance(area_eff_2, rho_air_2)
+    iwc_2 = contrail_properties.new_ice_water_content(
+        iwc_1,
+        specific_humidity_1,
+        specific_humidity_2,
+        q_sat_1,
+        q_sat_2,
+        plume_mass_per_m_1,
+        plume_mass_per_m_2,
+    )
+    n_ice_per_m_2 = contrail_properties.new_ice_particle_number(
+        n_ice_per_m_1, dn_dt_agg_1, dn_dt_turb_1, seg_ratio_2, dt
+    )
+
+    contrail_2["n_ice_per_m"] = n_ice_per_m_2
+    contrail_2["iwc"] = iwc_2
+
+    # calculate next timestep meteorology, contrail, and radiative properties
+    calc_timestep_meteorology(contrail_2, met, params, **interp_kwargs)
+
+    # Intersect with rad dataset
+    calc_shortwave_radiation(rad, contrail_2, **interp_kwargs)
+    calc_outgoing_longwave_radiation(rad, contrail_2, **interp_kwargs)
+    calc_contrail_properties(
+        contrail_2,
+        params["effective_vertical_resolution"],
+        params["wind_shear_enhancement_exponent"],
+        params["sedimentation_impact_factor"],
+        params["radiative_heating_effects"],
+    )
+    calc_radiative_properties(contrail_2, params)
+
+    # get properties to measure persistence
+    latitude_2 = contrail_2["latitude"]
+    altitude_2 = contrail_2.altitude
+    age_2 = contrail_2["age"]
+    tau_contrail_2 = contrail_2["tau_contrail"]
+    n_ice_per_vol_2 = contrail_2["n_ice_per_vol"]
+
+    # calculate next persistent
+    persistent_2 = contrail_2["persistent"] = contrail_properties.contrail_persistent(
+        latitude=latitude_2,
+        altitude=altitude_2,
+        segment_length=segment_length_2,
+        age=age_2,
+        tau_contrail=tau_contrail_2,
+        n_ice_per_m3=n_ice_per_vol_2,
+        params=params,
+    )
+
+    # Get energy forcing by looking forward to the next time step radiative forcing
+    rf_net_2 = contrail_2["rf_net"]
+    energy_forcing_2 = contrail_properties.energy_forcing(
+        rf_net_t1=rf_net_1,
+        rf_net_t2=rf_net_2,
+        width_t1=width_1,
+        width_t2=width_2,
+        seg_length_t2=segment_length_2,
+        dt=dt,
+    )
+
+    # NOTE: Because of our geometry-continuity conventions, any waypoint without
+    # continuity automatically has 0 EF. This is because calc_timestep_geometry
+    # sets the segment_length entries to 0, thereby eliminating EF.
+    # If we change conventions in calc_timestep_geometry, we may want to
+    # explicitly set the discontinuous entries here to 0. We do this for age
+    # here as well. It's somewhat of a hack, but it ensures nonzero contrail_age
+    # is consistent with nonzero EF.
+    contrail_2["ef"] = energy_forcing_2
+    contrail_2["age"][energy_forcing_2 == 0.0] = np.timedelta64(0, "ns")
+
+    if params["compute_atr20"]:
+        contrail_2["global_yearly_mean_rf"] = (
+            contrail_2["ef"] / constants.surface_area_earth / constants.seconds_per_year
+        )
+        contrail_2["atr20"] = (
+            params["global_rf_to_atr20_factor"] * contrail_2["global_yearly_mean_rf"]
+        )
+
+    # filter contrail_2 by persistent waypoints, if any continuous segments are left
+    logger.debug(
+        "Fraction of waypoints surviving: %s / %s",
+        persistent_2.sum(),
+        persistent_2.size,
+    )
+
+    if (buff := params["persistent_buffer"]) is not None:
+        # Here mask gets waypoints that are just now losing persistence
+        mask = (~persistent_2) & np.isnat(contrail_2["end_of_life"])
+        contrail_2["end_of_life"][mask] = time_2
+
+        # Keep waypoints that are still persistent, which is determined by filt2
+        # And waypoints within the persistent buffer, which is determined by filt1
+        # So we only drop waypoints that are outside of the persistent buffer
+        filt1 = contrail_2["time"] - contrail_2["end_of_life"] < buff
+        filt2 = np.isnat(contrail_2["end_of_life"])
+        filt = filt1 | filt2
+        logger.debug(
+            "Fraction of waypoints surviving with buffer %s: %s / %s",
+            buff,
+            filt.sum(),
+            filt.size,
+        )
+        return contrail_2.filter(filt)
+
+    # filter persistent contrails
+    final_contrail = contrail_2.filter(persistent_2)
+
+    # recalculate continuous contrail segments
+    # and set EF, age for any newly discontinuous segments to 0
+    if final_contrail:
+        calc_continuous(final_contrail)
+        continuous = final_contrail["continuous"]
+        final_contrail["ef"][~continuous] = 0.0
+        final_contrail["age"][~continuous] = np.timedelta64(0, "ns")
+        if params["compute_atr20"]:
+            final_contrail["global_yearly_mean_rf"][~continuous] = 0.0
+            final_contrail["atr20"][~continuous] = 0.0
+    return final_contrail
+
+
+def _rad_accumulation_to_average_instantaneous(
+    rad: MetDataset,
+    name: str,
+    arr: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    """Convert from radiation accumulation to average instantaneous values.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 0.48.0
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rad : MetDataset
+        Radiation data
+    name : str
+        Variable name
+    arr : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Array of values already interpolated from ``rad``
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Array of values converted from accumulation to average instantaneous values
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    KeyError
+        If units are not provided on ``rad``.
+    ValueError
+        If unknown units are provided on ``rad``.
+    """
+    mda = rad[name]
+    try:
+        unit = mda.attrs["units"]
+    except KeyError as e:
+        msg = (
+            f"Radiation data contains '{name}' variable "
+            "but units are not specified. Provide units in the "
+            f"rad['{name}'].attrs passed into Cocip."
+        )
+        raise KeyError(msg) from e
+
+    # The unit is already instantaneous
+    if unit == "W m**-2":
+        return arr
+
+    if unit != "J m**-2":
+        msg = f"Unexpected units '{unit}' for '{name}' variable. Expected 'J m**-2' or 'W m**-2'."
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    # Convert from J m**-2 to W m**-2
+    if rad.dataset_attr == "ERA5" and rad.product_attr == "ensemble":
+        n_seconds = 3.0 * 3600.0  # 3 hour interval
+    else:
+        n_seconds = 3600.0  # 1 hour interval
+
+    return arr / n_seconds
+
+
+def _emissions_variables() -> tuple[str, ...]:
+    """Return variables required for emissions calculation."""
+    return (
+        "engine_efficiency",
+        "fuel_flow",
+        "aircraft_mass",
+        "nvpm_ei_n",
+        "wingspan",
+    )
+
+
+def _contrail_contrail_overlapping(
+    contrail: GeoVectorDataset, params: dict[str, Any]
+) -> GeoVectorDataset:
+    """Mutate ``contrail`` to account for contrail-contrail overlapping effects."""
+
+    if not contrail:
+        return contrail
+
+    contrail = radiative_forcing.contrail_contrail_overlap_radiative_effects(
+        contrail,
+        habit_distributions=params["habit_distributions"],
+        radius_threshold_um=params["radius_threshold_um"],
+        min_altitude_m=params["min_altitude_m"],
+        max_altitude_m=params["max_altitude_m"],
+        dz_overlap_m=params["dz_overlap_m"],
+    )
+
+    contrail.update(
+        rsr=contrail.data.pop("rsr_overlap"),
+        olr=contrail.data.pop("olr_overlap"),
+        tau_cirrus=contrail.data.pop("tau_cirrus_overlap"),
+        rf_sw=contrail.data.pop("rf_sw_overlap"),
+        rf_lw=contrail.data.pop("rf_lw_overlap"),
+        rf_net=contrail.data.pop("rf_net_overlap"),
+    )
+
+    return contrail