pycontrails 0.54.0__cp312-cp312-macosx_10_13_x86_64.whl

pycontrails/core/aircraft_performance.py

@@ -0,0 +1,641 @@
+"""Abstract interfaces for aircraft performance models."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import abc
+import dataclasses
+import warnings
+from typing import Any, Generic, NoReturn, overload
+
+import numpy as np
+import numpy.typing as npt
+from overrides import overrides
+
+from pycontrails.core import flight, fuel
+from pycontrails.core.flight import Flight
+from pycontrails.core.met import MetDataset
+from pycontrails.core.models import Model, ModelParams, interpolate_met
+from pycontrails.core.vector import GeoVectorDataset
+from pycontrails.physics import jet
+from pycontrails.utils.types import ArrayOrFloat
+
+#: Default load factor for aircraft performance models.
+DEFAULT_LOAD_FACTOR = 0.7
+
+
+# --------------------------------------
+# Trajectory aircraft performance models
+# --------------------------------------
+
+
+@dataclasses.dataclass
+class AircraftPerformanceParams(ModelParams):
+    """Parameters for :class:`AircraftPerformance`."""
+
+    #: Whether to correct fuel flow to ensure it remains within
+    #: the operational limits of the aircraft type.
+    correct_fuel_flow: bool = True
+
+    #: The number of iterations used to calculate aircraft mass and fuel flow.
+    #: The default value of 3 is sufficient for most cases.
+    n_iter: int = 3
+
+    #: Experimental. If True, fill waypoints below the lowest altitude met
+    #: level with ISA temperature when interpolating "air_temperature" or "t".
+    #: If the ``met`` data is not provided, the entire air temperature array
+    #: is approximated with the ISA temperature. Enabling this does NOT
+    #: remove any NaN values in the ``met`` data itself.
+    fill_low_altitude_with_isa_temperature: bool = False
+
+    #: Experimental. If True, fill waypoints below the lowest altitude met
+    #: level with zero wind when computing true airspeed. In other words,
+    #: approximate low-altitude true airspeed with the ground speed. Enabling
+    #: this does NOT remove any NaN values in the ``met`` data itself.
+    fill_low_altitude_with_zero_wind: bool = False
+
+
+class AircraftPerformance(Model):
+    """
+    Support for standardizing aircraft performance methodologies.
+
+    This class provides a :meth:`simulate_fuel_and_performance` method for
+    iteratively calculating aircraft mass and fuel flow rate.
+
+    The implementing class must bring :meth:`eval` and
+    :meth:`calculate_aircraft_performance` methods. At runtime, these methods
+    are intended to be chained together as follows:
+
+    1. The :meth:`eval` method is called with a :class:`Flight`
+    2. The :meth:`simulate_fuel_and_performance` method is called inside :meth:`eval`
+       to iteratively calculate aircraft mass and fuel flow rate. If an aircraft
+       mass is provided, the fuel flow rate is calculated once directly with a single
+       call to :meth:`calculate_aircraft_performance`. If an aircraft mass is not
+       provided, the fuel flow rate is calculated iteratively with multiple calls to
+       :meth:`calculate_aircraft_performance`.
+    """
+
+    source: Flight
+
+    @abc.abstractmethod
+    @overload
+    def eval(self, source: Flight, **params: Any) -> Flight: ...
+
+    @abc.abstractmethod
+    @overload
+    def eval(self, source: None = ..., **params: Any) -> NoReturn: ...
+
+    @abc.abstractmethod
+    def eval(self, source: Flight | None = None, **params: Any) -> Flight:
+        """Evaluate the aircraft performance model.
+
+        The implementing model adds the following fields to the source flight:
+
+        - ``aircraft_mass``: aircraft mass at each waypoint, [:math:`kg`]
+        - ``fuel_flow``: fuel mass flow rate at each waypoint, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`]
+        - ``thrust``: thrust at each waypoint, [:math:`N`]
+        - ``engine_efficiency``: engine efficiency at each waypoint
+        - ``rocd``: rate of climb or descent at each waypoint, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`]
+        - ``fuel_burn``: fuel burn at each waypoint, [:math:`kg`]
+
+        In addition, the following attributes are added to the source flight:
+
+        - ``n_engine``: number of engines
+        - ``wingspan``: wingspan, [:math:`m`]
+        - ``max_mach``: maximum Mach number
+        - ``max_altitude``: maximum altitude, [:math:`m`]
+        - ``total_fuel_burn``: total fuel burn, [:math:`kg`]
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        source : Flight
+            Flight trajectory to evaluate.
+        params : Any
+            Override :attr:`params` with keyword arguments.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Flight
+            Flight trajectory with aircraft performance data.
+        """
+
+    @overrides
+    def set_source_met(self, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> None:
+        fill_with_isa = self.params["fill_low_altitude_with_isa_temperature"]
+        if fill_with_isa and (self.met is None or "air_temperature" not in self.met):
+            if "air_temperature" in self.source:
+                _fill_low_altitude_with_isa_temperature(self.source, 0.0)
+            else:
+                self.source["air_temperature"] = self.source.T_isa()
+            fill_with_isa = False  # we've just filled it
+
+        super().set_source_met(*args, **kwargs)
+        if not fill_with_isa:
+            return
+
+        met_level_0 = self.met.data["level"][-1].item()  # type: ignore[union-attr]
+        _fill_low_altitude_with_isa_temperature(self.source, met_level_0)
+
+    def simulate_fuel_and_performance(
+        self,
+        *,
+        aircraft_type: str,
+        altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64],
+        true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        aircraft_mass: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        thrust: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        engine_efficiency: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        q_fuel: float,
+        n_iter: int,
+        amass_oew: float,
+        amass_mtow: float,
+        amass_mpl: float,
+        load_factor: float,
+        takeoff_mass: float | None,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> AircraftPerformanceData:
+        r"""
+        Calculate aircraft mass, fuel mass flow rate, and overall propulsion efficiency.
+
+        This method performs ``n_iter`` iterations, each of
+        which calls :meth:`calculate_aircraft_performance`. Each successive
+        iteration generates a better estimate for mass fuel flow rate and aircraft
+        mass at each waypoint.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        aircraft_type: str
+            Aircraft type designator used to query the underlying model database.
+        altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Altitude at each waypoint, [:math:`ft`]
+        time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64]
+            Waypoint time in ``np.datetime64`` format.
+        true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            True airspeed for each waypoint, [:math:`m s^{-1}`]
+        air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Ambient temperature for each waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+        aircraft_mass : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None
+            Override the aircraft_mass at each waypoint, [:math:`kg`].
+        thrust : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None
+            Override the thrust setting at each waypoint, [:math: `N`].
+        engine_efficiency : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None
+            Override the engine efficiency at each waypoint.
+        fuel_flow : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None
+            Override the fuel flow at each waypoint, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`].
+        q_fuel : float
+            Lower calorific value (LCV) of fuel, [:math:`J \ kg_{fuel}^{-1}`].
+        amass_oew : float
+            Aircraft operating empty weight, [:math:`kg`]. Used to determine
+            the initial aircraft mass if ``takeoff_mass`` is not provided.
+            This quantity is constant for a given aircraft type.
+        amass_mtow : float
+            Aircraft maximum take-off weight, [:math:`kg`]. Used to determine
+            the initial aircraft mass if ``takeoff_mass`` is not provided.
+            This quantity is constant for a given aircraft type.
+        amass_mpl : float
+            Aircraft maximum payload, [:math:`kg`]. Used to determine
+            the initial aircraft mass if ``takeoff_mass`` is not provided.
+            This quantity is constant for a given aircraft type.
+        load_factor : float
+            Aircraft load factor assumption (between 0 and 1). If unknown,
+            a value of 0.7 is a reasonable default. Typically, this parameter
+            is between 0.6 and 0.8. During the height of the COVID-19 pandemic,
+            this parameter was often much lower.
+        takeoff_mass : float | None, optional
+            If known, the takeoff mass can be provided to skip the calculation
+            in :func:`jet.initial_aircraft_mass`. In this case, the parameters
+            ``load_factor``, ``amass_oew``, ``amass_mtow``, and ``amass_mpl`` are
+            ignored.
+        **kwargs : Any
+            Additional keyword arguments are passed to :meth:`calculate_aircraft_performance`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        AircraftPerformanceData
+            Results from the final iteration is returned.
+        """
+
+        # shortcut if aircraft mass is provided
+        if aircraft_mass is not None:
+            return self._simulate_fuel_and_performance_known_aircraft_mass(
+                aircraft_type=aircraft_type,
+                altitude_ft=altitude_ft,
+                time=time,
+                true_airspeed=true_airspeed,
+                air_temperature=air_temperature,
+                aircraft_mass=aircraft_mass,
+                thrust=thrust,
+                engine_efficiency=engine_efficiency,
+                fuel_flow=fuel_flow,
+                q_fuel=q_fuel,
+                **kwargs,
+            )
+
+        return self._simulate_fuel_and_performance_unknown_aircraft_mass(
+            aircraft_type=aircraft_type,
+            altitude_ft=altitude_ft,
+            time=time,
+            true_airspeed=true_airspeed,
+            air_temperature=air_temperature,
+            thrust=thrust,
+            engine_efficiency=engine_efficiency,
+            fuel_flow=fuel_flow,
+            q_fuel=q_fuel,
+            n_iter=n_iter,
+            amass_oew=amass_oew,
+            amass_mtow=amass_mtow,
+            amass_mpl=amass_mpl,
+            load_factor=load_factor,
+            takeoff_mass=takeoff_mass,
+            **kwargs,
+        )
+
+    def _simulate_fuel_and_performance_known_aircraft_mass(
+        self,
+        *,
+        aircraft_type: str,
+        altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64],
+        true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        aircraft_mass: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float,
+        thrust: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        engine_efficiency: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        q_fuel: float,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> AircraftPerformanceData:
+        # If fuel_flow is None and a non-constant aircraft_mass is provided
+        # at each waypoint, then assume that the derivative with respect to
+        # time is the fuel flow rate.
+        if fuel_flow is None and isinstance(aircraft_mass, np.ndarray):
+            d_aircraft_mass = np.diff(aircraft_mass)
+
+            if np.any(d_aircraft_mass > 0.0):
+                warnings.warn(
+                    "There are increases in aircraft mass between waypoints. This is not expected."
+                )
+
+            # Only proceed if aircraft mass is decreasing somewhere
+            # This excludes a constant aircraft mass
+            if np.any(d_aircraft_mass < 0.0):
+                if not np.all(d_aircraft_mass < 0.0):
+                    warnings.warn(
+                        "Aircraft mass is being used to compute fuel flow, but the "
+                        "aircraft mass is not monotonically decreasing. This may "
+                        "result in incorrect fuel flow calculations."
+                    )
+                segment_duration = flight.segment_duration(time, dtype=aircraft_mass.dtype)
+                fuel_flow = -np.append(d_aircraft_mass, np.float32(np.nan)) / segment_duration
+
+        return self.calculate_aircraft_performance(
+            aircraft_type=aircraft_type,
+            altitude_ft=altitude_ft,
+            air_temperature=air_temperature,
+            time=time,
+            true_airspeed=true_airspeed,
+            aircraft_mass=aircraft_mass,
+            engine_efficiency=engine_efficiency,
+            fuel_flow=fuel_flow,
+            thrust=thrust,
+            q_fuel=q_fuel,
+            **kwargs,
+        )
+
+    def _simulate_fuel_and_performance_unknown_aircraft_mass(
+        self,
+        *,
+        aircraft_type: str,
+        altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64],
+        true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        thrust: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        engine_efficiency: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        q_fuel: float,
+        n_iter: int,
+        amass_oew: float,
+        amass_mtow: float,
+        amass_mpl: float,
+        load_factor: float,
+        takeoff_mass: float | None,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> AircraftPerformanceData:
+        # Variable aircraft_mass will change dynamically after each iteration
+        # Set the initial aircraft mass depending on a possible load factor
+
+        aircraft_mass: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
+        if takeoff_mass is not None:
+            aircraft_mass = takeoff_mass
+        else:
+            # The initial aircraft mass gets updated at each iteration
+            # The exact value here is not important
+            aircraft_mass = amass_oew + load_factor * (amass_mtow - amass_oew)
+
+        for _ in range(n_iter):
+            aircraft_performance = self.calculate_aircraft_performance(
+                aircraft_type=aircraft_type,
+                altitude_ft=altitude_ft,
+                air_temperature=air_temperature,
+                time=time,
+                true_airspeed=true_airspeed,
+                aircraft_mass=aircraft_mass,
+                engine_efficiency=engine_efficiency,
+                fuel_flow=fuel_flow,
+                thrust=thrust,
+                q_fuel=q_fuel,
+                **kwargs,
+            )
+
+            # The max value in the BADA tables is 4.6 kg/s per engine.
+            # Multiplying this by 4 engines and giving a buffer.
+            if np.any(aircraft_performance.fuel_flow > 25.0):
+                raise RuntimeError(
+                    "Model failure: fuel mass flow rate is unrealistic and the "
+                    "built-in guardrails are not working."
+                )
+
+            tot_reserve_fuel = jet.reserve_fuel_requirements(
+                aircraft_performance.rocd,
+                altitude_ft,
+                aircraft_performance.fuel_flow,
+                aircraft_performance.fuel_burn,
+            )
+
+            aircraft_mass = jet.update_aircraft_mass(
+                operating_empty_weight=amass_oew,
+                max_takeoff_weight=amass_mtow,
+                max_payload=amass_mpl,
+                fuel_burn=aircraft_performance.fuel_burn,
+                total_reserve_fuel=tot_reserve_fuel,
+                load_factor=load_factor,
+                takeoff_mass=takeoff_mass,
+            )
+
+        # Update aircraft mass to the latest fuel consumption estimate
+        # As long as the for-loop is entered, the aircraft mass will be
+        # a numpy array.
+        aircraft_performance.aircraft_mass = aircraft_mass  # type: ignore[assignment]
+
+        return aircraft_performance
+
+    @abc.abstractmethod
+    def calculate_aircraft_performance(
+        self,
+        *,
+        aircraft_type: str,
+        altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64] | None,
+        true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        aircraft_mass: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float,
+        engine_efficiency: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        thrust: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        q_fuel: float,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> AircraftPerformanceData:
+        r"""
+        Calculate aircraft performance along a trajectory.
+
+        When ``time`` is not None, this method should be used for a single flight
+        trajectory. Waypoints are coupled via the ``time`` parameter.
+
+        This method computes the rate of climb and descent (ROCD) to determine
+        flight phases: "cruise", "climb", and "descent". Performance metrics
+        depend on this phase.
+
+        When ``time`` is None, this method can be used to simulate flight performance
+        over an arbitrary sequence of flight waypoints by assuming nominal flight
+        characteristics. In this case, each point is treated independently and
+        all points are assumed to be in a "cruise" phase of the flight.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        aircraft_type : str
+            Used to query the underlying model database for aircraft engine parameters.
+        altitude_ft : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Altitude at each waypoint, [:math:`ft`]
+        air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Ambient temperature for each waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+        time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64] | None
+            Waypoint time in ``np.datetime64`` format. If None, only drag force
+            will is used in thrust calculations (ie, no vertical change and constant
+            horizontal change). In addition, aircraft is assumed to be in cruise.
+        true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None
+            True airspeed for each waypoint, [:math:`m s^{-1}`].
+            If None, a nominal value is used.
+        aircraft_mass : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
+            Aircraft mass for each waypoint, [:math:`kg`].
+        engine_efficiency : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None
+            Override the engine efficiency at each waypoint.
+        fuel_flow : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None
+            Override the fuel flow at each waypoint, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`].
+        thrust : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None
+            Override the thrust setting at each waypoint, [:math: `N`].
+        q_fuel : float
+            Lower calorific value (LCV) of fuel, [:math:`J \ kg_{fuel}^{-1}`].
+        **kwargs : Any
+            Additional keyword arguments to pass to the model.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        AircraftPerformanceData
+            Derived performance metrics at each waypoint.
+        """
+
+    def ensure_true_airspeed_on_source(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        """Add ``true_airspeed`` field to :attr:`source` data if not already present.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            True airspeed, [:math:`m s^{-1}`]. If ``true_airspeed`` is already present
+            on :attr:`source`, this is returned directly. Otherwise, it is calculated
+            using :meth:`Flight.segment_true_airspeed`.
+        """
+        tas = self.source.get("true_airspeed")
+        fill_with_groundspeed = self.params["fill_low_altitude_with_zero_wind"]
+
+        if tas is not None:
+            if not fill_with_groundspeed:
+                return tas
+            cond = np.isnan(tas)
+            tas[cond] = self.source.segment_groundspeed()[cond]
+            return tas
+
+        met_incomplete = (
+            self.met is None or "eastward_wind" not in self.met or "northward_wind" not in self.met
+        )
+        if met_incomplete:
+            if fill_with_groundspeed:
+                tas = self.source.segment_groundspeed()
+                self.source["true_airspeed"] = tas
+                return tas
+            msg = (
+                "Cannot compute 'true_airspeed' without 'eastward_wind' and 'northward_wind' "
+                "met data. Either include met data in the model constructor, define "
+                "'true_airspeed' data on the flight, or set "
+                "'fill_low_altitude_with_zero_wind' to True."
+            )
+            raise ValueError(msg)
+
+        u = interpolate_met(self.met, self.source, "eastward_wind", **self.interp_kwargs)
+        v = interpolate_met(self.met, self.source, "northward_wind", **self.interp_kwargs)
+
+        if fill_with_groundspeed:
+            met_level_max = self.met.data["level"][-1].item()  # type: ignore[union-attr]
+            cond = self.source.level > met_level_max
+            # We DON'T overwrite the original u and v arrays already attached to the source
+            u = np.where(cond, 0.0, u)
+            v = np.where(cond, 0.0, v)
+
+        out = self.source.segment_true_airspeed(u, v)
+        self.source["true_airspeed"] = out
+        return out
+
+
+@dataclasses.dataclass
+class AircraftPerformanceData:
+    """Store the computed aircraft performance metrics.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    fuel_flow : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Fuel mass flow rate for each waypoint, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`]
+    aircraft_mass : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Aircraft mass for each waypoint, [:math:`kg`]
+    true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        True airspeed at each waypoint, [:math: `m s^{-1}`]
+    fuel_burn: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Fuel consumption for each waypoint, [:math:`kg`]. Set to an array of
+        all nan values if it cannot be computed (ie, working with gridpoints).
+    thrust: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Thrust force, [:math:`N`]
+    engine_efficiency: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Overall propulsion efficiency for each waypoint
+    rocd : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Rate of climb and descent, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`]
+    """
+
+    fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    aircraft_mass: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    fuel_burn: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    thrust: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    engine_efficiency: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    rocd: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+
+
+# --------------------------------
+# Grid aircraft performance models
+# --------------------------------
+
+
+@dataclasses.dataclass
+class AircraftPerformanceGridParams(ModelParams):
+    """Parameters for :class:`AircraftPerformanceGrid`."""
+
+    #: Fuel type
+    fuel: fuel.Fuel = dataclasses.field(default_factory=fuel.JetA)
+
+    #: ICAO code designating simulated aircraft type.
+    #: Can be overridden by including ``aircraft_type`` attribute in source data
+    aircraft_type: str = "B737"
+
+    #: Mach number, [:math:`Ma`]
+    #: If ``None``, a nominal cruise value is determined by the implementation.
+    #: Can be overridden by including a ``mach_number`` key in source data
+    mach_number: float | None = None
+
+    #: Aircraft mass, [:math:`kg`]
+    #: If ``None``, a nominal value is determined by the implementation.
+    #: Can be overridden by including an ``aircraft_mass`` key in source data
+    aircraft_mass: float | None = None
+
+
+class AircraftPerformanceGrid(Model):
+    """
+    Support for standardizing aircraft performance methodologies on a grid.
+
+    Currently just a container until additional models are implemented.
+    """
+
+    @overload
+    @abc.abstractmethod
+    def eval(self, source: GeoVectorDataset, **params: Any) -> GeoVectorDataset: ...
+
+    @overload
+    @abc.abstractmethod
+    def eval(self, source: MetDataset | None = ..., **params: Any) -> MetDataset: ...
+
+    @abc.abstractmethod
+    def eval(
+        self, source: GeoVectorDataset | MetDataset | None = None, **params: Any
+    ) -> GeoVectorDataset | MetDataset:
+        """Evaluate the aircraft performance model."""
+
+
+@dataclasses.dataclass
+class AircraftPerformanceGridData(Generic[ArrayOrFloat]):
+    """Store the computed aircraft performance metrics for nominal cruise conditions."""
+
+    #: Fuel mass flow rate, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`]
+    fuel_flow: ArrayOrFloat
+
+    #: Engine efficiency, [:math:`0-1`]
+    engine_efficiency: ArrayOrFloat
+
+
+def _fill_low_altitude_with_isa_temperature(vector: GeoVectorDataset, met_level_max: float) -> None:
+    """Fill low-altitude NaN values in ``air_temperature`` with ISA values.
+
+    The ``air_temperature`` param is assumed to have been computed by
+    interpolating against a gridded air temperature field that did not
+    necessarily extend to the surface. This function fills points below the
+    lowest altitude in the gridded data with ISA temperature values.
+
+    This function operates in-place and modifies the ``air_temperature`` field.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    vector : GeoVectorDataset
+        GeoVectorDataset instance associated with the ``air_temperature`` data.
+    met_level_max : float
+        The maximum level in the met data, [:math:`hPa`].
+    """
+    air_temperature = vector["air_temperature"]
+    is_nan = np.isnan(air_temperature)
+    low_alt = vector.level > met_level_max
+    cond = is_nan & low_alt
+
+    t_isa = vector.T_isa()
+    air_temperature[cond] = t_isa[cond]
+
+
+def _fill_low_altitude_tas_with_true_groundspeed(fl: Flight, met_level_max: float) -> None:
+    """Fill low-altitude NaN values in ``true_airspeed`` with ground speed.
+
+    The ``true_airspeed`` param is assumed to have been computed by
+    interpolating against a gridded wind field that did not necessarily
+    extend to the surface. This function fills points below the lowest
+    altitude in the gridded data with ground speed values.
+
+    This function operates in-place and modifies the ``true_airspeed`` field.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    fl : Flight
+        Flight instance associated with the ``true_airspeed`` data.
+    met_level_max : float
+        The maximum level in the met data, [:math:`hPa`].
+    """
+    tas = fl["true_airspeed"]
+    is_nan = np.isnan(tas)
+    low_alt = fl.level > met_level_max
+    cond = is_nan & low_alt
+
+    tas[cond] = fl.segment_groundspeed()[cond]