passagemath-symbolics 10.6.40__cp314-cp314t-macosx_13_0_x86_64.whl

sage/manifolds/differentiable/affine_connection.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2475 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-symbolics
+r"""
+Affine Connections
+
+The class :class:`AffineConnection` implements affine connections on
+smooth manifolds.
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- Eric Gourgoulhon, Michal Bejger (2013-2015) : initial version
+- Marco Mancini (2015) : parallelization of some computations
+- Florentin Jaffredo (2018) : series expansion with respect to a given
+  parameter
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+- [Lee1997]_
+- [KN1963]_
+- [ONe1983]_
+"""
+# *****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2015 Eric Gourgoulhon <eric.gourgoulhon@obspm.fr>
+#       Copyright (C) 2015 Michal Bejger <bejger@camk.edu.pl>
+#       Copyright (C) 2015 Marco Mancini <marco.mancini@obspm.fr>
+#
+#  Distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL)
+#  as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of
+#  the License, or (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# *****************************************************************************
+
+from sage.manifolds.differentiable.manifold import DifferentiableManifold
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from sage.parallel.decorate import parallel
+from sage.parallel.parallelism import Parallelism
+from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+from sage.structure.sage_object import SageObject
+
+
+class AffineConnection(SageObject):
+    r"""
+    Affine connection on a smooth manifold.
+
+    Let `M` be a differentiable manifold of class `C^\infty` (smooth manifold)
+    over a non-discrete topological field `K` (in most applications `K=\RR`
+    or `K=\CC`), let `C^\infty(M)` be the algebra of smooth functions
+    `M\rightarrow K` (cf.
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.scalarfield_algebra.DiffScalarFieldAlgebra`)
+    and let `\mathfrak{X}(M)` be the `C^\infty(M)`-module of vector fields on
+    `M` (cf.
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.vectorfield_module.VectorFieldModule`).
+    An *affine connection* on `M` is an operator
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \begin{array}{cccc}
+        \nabla: & \mathfrak{X}(M)\times \mathfrak{X}(M) & \longrightarrow &
+                 \mathfrak{X}(M) \\
+                & (u,v) & \longmapsto & \nabla_u v
+        \end{array}
+
+    that
+
+    - is `K`-bilinear, i.e. is bilinear when considering `\mathfrak{X}(M)` as a
+      vector space over `K`
+    - is `C^\infty(M)`-linear w.r.t. the first argument:
+      `\forall f\in C^\infty(M),\ \nabla_{fu} v = f\nabla_u v`
+    - obeys Leibniz rule w.r.t. the second argument:
+      `\forall f\in C^\infty(M),\ \nabla_u (f v) = \mathrm{d}f(u)\, v + f  \nabla_u v`
+
+    The affine connection `\nabla` gives birth to the *covariant derivative
+    operator* acting on tensor fields, denoted by the same symbol:
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \begin{array}{cccc}
+        \nabla: &  T^{(k,l)}(M) & \longrightarrow & T^{(k,l+1)}(M)\\
+                & t & \longmapsto & \nabla t
+        \end{array}
+
+    where `T^{(k,l)}(M)` stands for the `C^\infty(M)`-module of tensor fields
+    of type `(k,l)` on `M` (cf.
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.tensorfield_module.TensorFieldModule`),
+    with the convention `T^{(0,0)}(M):=C^\infty(M)`.
+    For a vector field `v`,  the covariant derivative `\nabla v` is a
+    type-(1,1) tensor field such that
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \forall u \in\mathfrak{X}(M), \   \nabla_u v = \nabla v(., u)
+
+    More generally for any tensor field `t\in T^{(k,l)}(M)`, we have
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \forall u \in\mathfrak{X}(M), \   \nabla_u t = \nabla t(\ldots, u)
+
+
+    .. NOTE::
+
+        The above convention means that, in terms of index notation,
+        the "derivation index" in `\nabla t` is the *last* one:
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \nabla_c t^{a_1\ldots a_k}_{\quad\quad b_1\ldots b_l} =
+                (\nabla t)^{a_1\ldots a_k}_{\quad\quad b_1\ldots b_l c}
+
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``domain`` -- the manifold on which the connection is defined
+      (must be an instance of class
+      :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.manifold.DifferentiableManifold`)
+    - ``name`` -- name given to the affine connection
+    - ``latex_name`` -- (default: ``None``) LaTeX symbol to denote the affine
+      connection; if ``None``, it is set to ``name``
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    Affine connection on a 3-dimensional manifold::
+
+        sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+        sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+        sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla') ; nab
+        Affine connection nabla on the 3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+
+    A just-created connection has no connection coefficients::
+
+        sage: nab._coefficients
+        {}
+
+    The connection coefficients relative to the manifold's default frame
+    [here `(\partial/\partial x, \partial/\partial y, \partial/\partial z)`],
+    are created by providing the relevant indices inside square brackets::
+
+        sage: nab[1,1,2], nab[3,2,3] = x^2, y*z  # Gamma^1_{12} = x^2, Gamma^3_{23} = yz
+        sage: nab._coefficients
+        {Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z)): 3-indices components w.r.t.
+         Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z))}
+
+    If not the default one, the vector frame w.r.t. which the connection
+    coefficients are defined can be specified as the first argument inside the
+    square brackets; hence the above definition is equivalent to::
+
+        sage: nab[c_xyz.frame(), 1,1,2], nab[c_xyz.frame(),3,2,3] = x^2, y*z
+        sage: nab._coefficients
+        {Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z)): 3-indices components w.r.t.
+         Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z))}
+
+    Unset components are initialized to zero::
+
+        sage: nab[:]  # list of coefficients relative to the manifold's default vector frame
+        [[[0, x^2, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+         [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+         [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, y*z], [0, 0, 0]]]
+
+    The treatment of connection coefficients in a given vector frame is similar
+    to that of tensor components; see therefore the class
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.tensorfield.TensorField` for the
+    documentation. In particular, the square brackets return the connection
+    coefficients as instances of
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction`,
+    while the double square brackets return a scalar field::
+
+        sage: nab[1,1,2]
+        x^2
+        sage: nab[1,1,2].display()
+        (x, y, z) ↦ x^2
+        sage: type(nab[1,1,2])
+        <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+        sage: nab[[1,1,2]]
+        Scalar field on the 3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+        sage: nab[[1,1,2]].display()
+        M → ℝ
+        (x, y, z) ↦ x^2
+        sage: nab[[1,1,2]].coord_function() is nab[1,1,2]
+        True
+
+    Action on a scalar field::
+
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field(x^2 - y^2, name='f')
+        sage: Df = nab(f) ; Df
+        1-form df on the 3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+        sage: Df[:]
+        [2*x, -2*y, 0]
+
+    The action of an affine connection on a scalar field must
+    coincide with the differential::
+
+        sage: Df == f.differential()
+        True
+
+    A generic affine connection has some torsion::
+
+        sage: DDf = nab(Df) ; DDf
+        Tensor field nabla(df) of type (0,2) on the 3-dimensional
+         differentiable manifold M
+        sage: DDf.antisymmetrize()[:] # nabla does not commute on scalar fields:
+        [   0 -x^3    0]
+        [ x^3    0    0]
+        [   0    0    0]
+
+    Let us check the standard formula
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \nabla_j \nabla_i \, f - \nabla_i \nabla_j \, f =
+            T^k_{\ \, ij} \nabla_k \, f ,
+
+    where the `T^k_{\ \, ij}`'s are the components of the connection's
+    torsion tensor::
+
+        sage: 2*DDf.antisymmetrize() == nab.torsion().contract(0,Df)
+        True
+
+    The connection acting on a vector field::
+
+        sage: v = M.vector_field(y*z, x*z, x*y, name='v')
+        sage: Dv = nab(v) ; Dv
+        Tensor field nabla(v) of type (1,1) on the 3-dimensional differentiable
+         manifold M
+        sage: Dv[:]
+        [            0 (x^2*y + 1)*z             y]
+        [            z             0             x]
+        [            y             x       x*y*z^2]
+
+    Another example: connection on a non-parallelizable 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+        sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M')
+        sage: U = M.open_subset('U') ; V = M.open_subset('V')
+        sage: M.declare_union(U,V)   # M is the union of U and V
+        sage: c_xy.<x,y> = U.chart() ; c_uv.<u,v> = V.chart()
+        sage: transf = c_xy.transition_map(c_uv, (x+y, x-y), intersection_name='W',
+        ....:                              restrictions1= x>0, restrictions2= u+v>0)
+        sage: inv = transf.inverse()
+        sage: W = U.intersection(V)
+        sage: eU = c_xy.frame() ; eV = c_uv.frame()
+        sage: c_xyW = c_xy.restrict(W) ; c_uvW = c_uv.restrict(W)
+        sage: eUW = c_xyW.frame() ; eVW = c_uvW.frame()
+        sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+
+    The connection is first defined on the open subset U by means of its
+    coefficients w.r.t. the frame eU (the manifold's default frame)::
+
+        sage: nab[0,0,0], nab[1,0,1] = x, x*y
+
+    The coefficients w.r.t the frame eV are deduced by continuation of the
+    coefficients w.r.t. the frame eVW on the open subset `W=U\cap V`::
+
+        sage: for i in M.irange():
+        ....:     for j in M.irange():
+        ....:         for k in M.irange():
+        ....:             nab.add_coef(eV)[i,j,k] = nab.coef(eVW)[i,j,k,c_uvW].expr()
+
+    At this stage, the connection is fully defined on all the manifold::
+
+        sage: nab.coef(eU)[:]
+        [[[x, 0], [0, 0]], [[0, x*y], [0, 0]]]
+        sage: nab.coef(eV)[:]
+        [[[1/16*u^2 - 1/16*v^2 + 1/8*u + 1/8*v, -1/16*u^2 + 1/16*v^2 + 1/8*u + 1/8*v],
+          [1/16*u^2 - 1/16*v^2 + 1/8*u + 1/8*v, -1/16*u^2 + 1/16*v^2 + 1/8*u + 1/8*v]],
+         [[-1/16*u^2 + 1/16*v^2 + 1/8*u + 1/8*v, 1/16*u^2 - 1/16*v^2 + 1/8*u + 1/8*v],
+          [-1/16*u^2 + 1/16*v^2 + 1/8*u + 1/8*v, 1/16*u^2 - 1/16*v^2 + 1/8*u + 1/8*v]]]
+
+    We may let it act on a vector field defined globally on `M`::
+
+        sage: a = M.vector_field({eU: [-y,x]}, name='a')
+        sage: a.add_comp_by_continuation(eV, W, c_uv)
+        sage: a.display(eU)
+        a = -y ∂/∂x + x ∂/∂y
+        sage: a.display(eV)
+        a = v ∂/∂u - u ∂/∂v
+        sage: da = nab(a) ; da
+        Tensor field nabla(a) of type (1,1) on the 2-dimensional differentiable
+         manifold M
+        sage: da.display(eU)
+        nabla(a) = -x*y ∂/∂x⊗dx - ∂/∂x⊗dy + ∂/∂y⊗dx - x*y^2 ∂/∂y⊗dy
+        sage: da.display(eV)
+        nabla(a) = (-1/16*u^3 + 1/16*u^2*v + 1/16*(u + 2)*v^2 - 1/16*v^3 - 1/8*u^2) ∂/∂u⊗du
+         + (1/16*u^3 - 1/16*u^2*v - 1/16*(u - 2)*v^2 + 1/16*v^3 - 1/8*u^2 + 1) ∂/∂u⊗dv
+         + (1/16*u^3 - 1/16*u^2*v - 1/16*(u - 2)*v^2 + 1/16*v^3 - 1/8*u^2 - 1) ∂/∂v⊗du
+         + (-1/16*u^3 + 1/16*u^2*v + 1/16*(u + 2)*v^2 - 1/16*v^3 - 1/8*u^2) ∂/∂v⊗dv
+
+    A few tests::
+
+        sage: nab(a.restrict(V)) == da.restrict(V)
+        True
+        sage: nab.restrict(V)(a) == da.restrict(V)
+        True
+        sage: nab.restrict(V)(a.restrict(U)) == da.restrict(W)
+        True
+        sage: nab.restrict(U)(a.restrict(V)) == da.restrict(W)  # long time
+        True
+
+    Same examples with SymPy as the engine for symbolic calculus::
+
+        sage: M.set_calculus_method('sympy')
+        sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+        sage: nab[0,0,0], nab[1,0,1] = x, x*y
+        sage: for i in M.irange():
+        ....:     for j in M.irange():
+        ....:         for k in M.irange():
+        ....:             nab.add_coef(eV)[i,j,k] = nab.coef(eVW)[i,j,k,c_uvW].expr()
+
+    At this stage, the connection is fully defined on all the manifold::
+
+        sage: nab.coef(eU)[:]
+        [[[x, 0], [0, 0]], [[0, x*y], [0, 0]]]
+        sage: nab.coef(eV)[:]
+        [[[u**2/16 + u/8 - v**2/16 + v/8, -u**2/16 + u/8 + v**2/16 + v/8],
+         [u**2/16 + u/8 - v**2/16 + v/8, -u**2/16 + u/8 + v**2/16 + v/8]],
+        [[-u**2/16 + u/8 + v**2/16 + v/8, u**2/16 + u/8 - v**2/16 + v/8],
+         [-u**2/16 + u/8 + v**2/16 + v/8, u**2/16 + u/8 - v**2/16 + v/8]]]
+
+    We may let it act on a vector field defined globally on `M`::
+
+        sage: a = M.vector_field({eU: [-y,x]}, name='a')
+        sage: a.add_comp_by_continuation(eV, W, c_uv)
+        sage: a.display(eU)
+        a = -y ∂/∂x + x ∂/∂y
+        sage: a.display(eV)
+        a = v ∂/∂u - u ∂/∂v
+        sage: da = nab(a) ; da
+        Tensor field nabla(a) of type (1,1) on the 2-dimensional differentiable
+         manifold M
+        sage: da.display(eU)
+        nabla(a) = -x*y ∂/∂x⊗dx - ∂/∂x⊗dy + ∂/∂y⊗dx - x*y**2 ∂/∂y⊗dy
+        sage: da.display(eV)
+        nabla(a) = (-u**3/16 + u**2*v/16 - u**2/8 + u*v**2/16 - v**3/16 + v**2/8) ∂/∂u⊗du
+         + (u**3/16 - u**2*v/16 - u**2/8 - u*v**2/16 + v**3/16 + v**2/8 + 1) ∂/∂u⊗dv
+         + (u**3/16 - u**2*v/16 - u**2/8 - u*v**2/16 + v**3/16 + v**2/8 - 1) ∂/∂v⊗du
+         + (-u**3/16 + u**2*v/16 - u**2/8 + u*v**2/16 - v**3/16 + v**2/8) ∂/∂v⊗dv
+
+    To make affine connections hashable, they have to be set immutable before::
+
+        sage: nab.is_immutable()
+        False
+        sage: nab.set_immutable()
+        sage: nab.is_immutable()
+        True
+
+    Immutable connections cannot be changed anymore::
+
+        sage: nab.set_coef(eU)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: the coefficients of an immutable element cannot be
+         changed
+
+    However, they can now be used as keys for dictionaries::
+
+        sage: {nab: 1}[nab]
+        1
+
+    The immutability process cannot be made undone. If a connection is
+    needed to be changed again, a copy has to be created::
+
+        sage: nab_copy = nab.copy('nablo'); nab_copy
+        Affine connection nablo on the 2-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+        sage: nab_copy is nab
+        False
+        sage: nab_copy == nab
+        True
+        sage: nab_copy.is_immutable()
+        False
+    """
+    def __init__(self, domain, name, latex_name=None):
+        r"""
+        Construct an affine connection.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M')
+            sage: from sage.manifolds.differentiable.affine_connection import \
+            ....:                                               AffineConnection
+            sage: nab = AffineConnection(M, 'nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab
+            Affine connection nabla on the 3-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: X.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab[0,1,0] = x*y*z
+            sage: TestSuite(nab).run()
+        """
+        if not isinstance(domain, DifferentiableManifold):
+            raise TypeError("the first argument must be a differentiable " +
+                            "manifold")
+        self._is_immutable = False
+        self._domain = domain
+        self._name = name
+        if latex_name is None:
+            self._latex_name = self._name
+        else:
+            self._latex_name = latex_name
+        self._coefficients = {}  # dict. of connection coefficients, with the
+                                 # vector frames as keys
+        # Initialization of derived quantities:
+        self._init_derived()
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        r"""
+        String representation of the object.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(5, 'M')
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab._repr_()
+            'Affine connection nabla on the 5-dimensional differentiable manifold M'
+            sage: repr(nab)  # indirect doctest
+            'Affine connection nabla on the 5-dimensional differentiable manifold M'
+        """
+        description = "Affine connection"
+        if self._name is not None:
+            description += " " + self._name
+        description += " on the {}".format(self._domain)
+        return description
+
+    def _latex_(self):
+        r"""
+        LaTeX representation of the object.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(5, 'M')
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab._latex_()
+            '\\nabla'
+            sage: latex(nab)  # indirect doctest
+            \nabla
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('D')
+            sage: nab._latex_()
+            'D'
+            sage: latex(nab)  # indirect doctest
+            D
+        """
+        return self._latex_name
+
+    def _init_derived(self):
+        r"""
+        Initialize the derived quantities.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(4, 'M')
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab._init_derived()
+        """
+        self._restrictions = {} # dict. of restrictions of ``self`` on some
+                                # subdomains, with the subdomains as keys
+        self._torsion = None
+        self._riemann = None
+        self._ricci = None
+        self._connection_forms = {}  # dict. of dict. of connection 1-forms
+                                     # (key: vector frame)
+        self._torsion_forms = {}  # dict. of dict. of torsion 1-forms
+                                  # (key: vector frame)
+        self._curvature_forms = {}  # dict. of dict. of curvature 2-forms
+                                    # (key: vector frame)
+
+    def _del_derived(self):
+        r"""
+        Delete the derived quantities.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(4, 'M')
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab._del_derived()
+        """
+        self._restrictions.clear()
+        self._torsion = None
+        self._riemann = None
+        self._ricci = None
+        self._connection_forms.clear()
+        self._torsion_forms.clear()
+        self._curvature_forms.clear()
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Comparison (equality) operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- an affine connection
+
+        OUTPUT: ``True`` if ``self`` is equal to ``other`` and ``False`` otherwise
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[0,1,0], nab[0,1,1] = 1+x, x*y
+            sage: nab.display()
+            Gam^x_yx = x + 1
+            Gam^x_yy = x*y
+            sage: nab1 = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: (nab1 == nab) or (nab == nab1)
+            False
+            sage: nab1[0,1,0], nab1[0,1,1] = 2, 3-y
+            sage: (nab1 == nab) or (nab == nab1)
+            False
+            sage: nab1[0,1,0], nab1[0,1,1] = 1+x, x*y
+            sage: (nab1 == nab) and (nab == nab1)
+            True
+            sage: nab2 = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: a = M.automorphism_field()
+            sage: a[:] = [[0,1], [1,0]]
+            sage: e = X.frame().new_frame(a, 'e')
+            sage: nab2.set_coef(e)[1,0,1] = 1+x
+            sage: nab2.set_coef(e)[1,0,0] = x*y
+            sage: (nab2 == nab) and (nab == nab2)
+            True
+            sage: f = M.vector_frame('f')
+            sage: nab2.set_coef(f)[1,0,1] = x-y
+            sage: (nab2 == nab) or (nab == nab2)
+            False
+        """
+        if other is self:
+            return True
+        if not isinstance(other, AffineConnection):
+            return False
+        if other._domain != self._domain:
+            return False
+        if self._coefficients == {}:
+            return False
+        for frame, coef in self._coefficients.items():
+            try:
+                if other.coef(frame) != coef:
+                    return False
+            except ValueError:
+                return False
+        return True
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Inequality operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- an affine connection
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - ``True`` if ``self`` is different from ``other`` and ``False``
+          otherwise
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[0,1,0], nab[0,1,1] = 1+x, x*y
+            sage: nab1 = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: (nab1 != nab) and (nab != nab1)
+            True
+            sage: nab1[0,1,0], nab1[0,1,1] = 2, 3-y
+            sage: (nab1 != nab) and (nab != nab1)
+            True
+            sage: nab1[0,1,0], nab1[0,1,1] = 1+x, x*y
+            sage: (nab1 != nab) or (nab != nab1)
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    def domain(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the manifold subset on which the affine connection is defined.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - instance of class
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.manifold.DifferentiableManifold`
+          representing the manifold on which ``self`` is defined.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab.domain()
+            3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U', coord_def={c_xyz: x>0})
+            sage: nabU = U.affine_connection('D')
+            sage: nabU.domain()
+            Open subset U of the 3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+        """
+        return self._domain
+
+    def _new_coef(self, frame):
+        r"""
+        Create the connection coefficients w.r.t. the given frame.
+
+        This method, to be called by :meth:`coef`, must be redefined by derived
+        classes to adapt the output to the relevant subclass of
+        :class:`~sage.tensor.modules.comp.Components`.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab._new_coef(X.frame())
+            3-indices components w.r.t. Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y))
+        """
+        from sage.manifolds.differentiable.scalarfield import DiffScalarField
+        from sage.tensor.modules.comp import Components
+        return Components(frame._domain.scalar_field_algebra(), frame, 3,
+                          start_index=self._domain._sindex,
+                          output_formatter=DiffScalarField.coord_function)
+
+    def coef(self, frame=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the connection coefficients relative to the given frame.
+
+        `n` being the manifold's dimension, the connection coefficients
+        relative to the vector frame `(e_i)` are the `n^3` scalar fields
+        `\Gamma^k_{\ \, ij}` defined by
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \nabla_{e_j} e_i = \Gamma^k_{\ \, ij} e_k
+
+
+        If the connection coefficients are not known already, they are computed
+        from the above formula.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``frame`` -- (default: ``None``) vector frame relative to which the
+          connection coefficients are required; if none is provided, the
+          domain's default frame is assumed
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - connection coefficients relative to the frame ``frame``, as an
+          instance of the class :class:`~sage.tensor.modules.comp.Components`
+          with 3 indices ordered as `(k,i,j)`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Connection coefficient of an affine connection on a 3-dimensional
+        manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,1,2], nab[3,2,3] = x^2, y*z  # Gamma^1_{12} = x^2, Gamma^3_{23} = yz
+            sage: nab.coef()
+            3-indices components w.r.t. Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z))
+            sage: type(nab.coef())
+            <class 'sage.tensor.modules.comp.Components'>
+            sage: M.default_frame()
+            Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z))
+            sage: nab.coef() is nab.coef(c_xyz.frame())
+            True
+            sage: nab.coef()[:]  # full list of coefficients:
+            [[[0, x^2, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, y*z], [0, 0, 0]]]
+        """
+        if frame is None:
+            frame = self._domain.default_frame()
+        if frame not in self._coefficients:
+            # the coefficients must be computed
+            #
+            # Check whether frame is a subframe of a frame in which the
+            # coefficients are already known:
+            for oframe in self._coefficients:
+                if frame in oframe._subframes:
+                    self._coefficients[frame] = self._new_coef(frame)
+                    comp_store = self._coefficients[frame]._comp
+                    ocomp_store = self._coefficients[oframe]._comp
+                    for ind, value in ocomp_store.items():
+                        comp_store[ind] = value.restrict(frame._domain)
+                    break
+            else:
+                # If not, the coefficients must be computed from scratch:
+                manif = self._domain
+                ev = frame        # the vector frame
+                ef = ev.coframe() # the dual frame
+                gam = self._new_coef(ev)
+                for i in manif.irange():
+                    nab_evi = self(ev[i])
+                    for k in manif.irange():
+                        for j in manif.irange():
+                            gam[[k,i,j]] = nab_evi(ef[k],ev[j])
+                self._coefficients[frame] = gam
+        return self._coefficients[frame]
+
+    def set_coef(self, frame=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the connection coefficients in a given frame for assignment.
+
+        See method :meth:`coef` for details about the definition of the
+        connection coefficients.
+
+        The connection coefficients with respect to other frames are deleted,
+        in order to avoid any inconsistency. To keep them, use the method
+        :meth:`add_coef` instead.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``frame`` -- (default: ``None``) vector frame in which the connection
+          coefficients are defined; if ``None``, the default frame of the
+          connection's domain is assumed.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - connection coefficients in the given frame, as an instance of the
+          class :class:`~sage.tensor.modules.comp.Components`; if such
+          connection coefficients did not exist previously, they are created.
+          See method :meth:`coef` for the storage convention of the connection
+          coefficients.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Setting the coefficients of an affine connection w.r.t. some coordinate
+        frame::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: eX = X.frame(); eX
+            Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y))
+            sage: nab.set_coef(eX)
+            3-indices components w.r.t. Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y))
+            sage: nab.set_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.display(eX)
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+
+        Since ``eX`` is the manifold's default vector frame, its mention may
+        be omitted::
+
+            sage: nab.set_coef()[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.set_coef()
+            3-indices components w.r.t. Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y))
+            sage: nab.set_coef()[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.display()
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+
+        To set the coefficients in the default frame, one can even bypass the
+        method ``set_coef()`` and call directly the operator ``[]`` on the
+        connection object::
+
+            sage: nab[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.display()
+                Gam^x_yx = x*y
+
+        Setting the connection coefficients w.r.t. to another vector frame::
+
+            sage: e = M.vector_frame('e')
+            sage: nab.set_coef(e)
+            3-indices components w.r.t. Vector frame (M, (e_1,e_2))
+            sage: nab.set_coef(e)[2,1,1] = x+y
+            sage: nab.set_coef(e)[2,1,2] = x-y
+            sage: nab.display(e)
+            Gam^2_11 = x + y
+            Gam^2_12 = x - y
+
+        The coefficients w.r.t. the frame ``eX`` have been deleted::
+
+            sage: nab.display(eX)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: no common frame found for the computation
+
+        To keep them, use the method :meth:`add_coef` instead.
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError("the coefficients of an immutable element "
+                             "cannot be changed")
+        if frame is None:
+            frame = self._domain._def_frame
+        if frame not in self._coefficients:
+            if frame not in self._domain._frames:
+                raise ValueError("the {} is not".format(frame) +
+                                 " a frame on the {}".format(self._domain))
+            self._coefficients[frame] = self._new_coef(frame)
+        self._del_derived() # deletes the derived quantities
+        self.del_other_coef(frame)
+        return self._coefficients[frame]
+
+    def add_coef(self, frame=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the connection coefficients in a given frame for assignment,
+        keeping the coefficients in other frames.
+
+        See method :meth:`coef` for details about the definition of the
+        connection coefficients.
+
+        To delete the connection coefficients in other frames, use the method
+        :meth:`set_coef` instead.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``frame`` -- (default: ``None``) vector frame in which the connection
+          coefficients are defined; if ``None``, the default frame of the
+          connection's domain is assumed.
+
+        .. WARNING::
+
+            If the connection has already coefficients in other frames, it
+            is the user's responsibility to make sure that the coefficients
+            to be added are consistent with them.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - connection coefficients in the given frame, as an instance of the
+          class :class:`~sage.tensor.modules.comp.Components`; if such
+          connection coefficients did not exist previously, they are created.
+          See method :meth:`coef` for the storage convention of the connection
+          coefficients.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Setting the coefficients of an affine connection w.r.t. some coordinate
+        frame::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: eX = X.frame(); eX
+            Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y))
+            sage: nab.add_coef(eX)
+            3-indices components w.r.t. Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y))
+            sage: nab.add_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.display(eX)
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+
+        Since ``eX`` is the manifold's default vector frame, its mention may
+        be omitted::
+
+            sage: nab.add_coef()[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.add_coef()
+            3-indices components w.r.t. Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y))
+            sage: nab.add_coef()[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.display()
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+
+        Adding connection coefficients w.r.t. to another vector frame::
+
+            sage: e = M.vector_frame('e')
+            sage: nab.add_coef(e)
+            3-indices components w.r.t. Vector frame (M, (e_1,e_2))
+            sage: nab.add_coef(e)[2,1,1] = x+y
+            sage: nab.add_coef(e)[2,1,2] = x-y
+            sage: nab.display(e)
+            Gam^2_11 = x + y
+            Gam^2_12 = x - y
+
+        The coefficients w.r.t. the frame ``eX`` have been kept::
+
+            sage: nab.display(eX)
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+
+        To delete them, use the method :meth:`set_coef` instead.
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError("the coefficients of an immutable element "
+                             "cannot be changed")
+        if frame is None:
+            frame = self._domain._def_frame
+        if frame not in self._coefficients:
+            if frame not in self._domain._frames:
+                raise ValueError("the {} is not".format(frame) +
+                                 " a frame on the {}".format(self._domain))
+            self._coefficients[frame] = self._new_coef(frame)
+        self._del_derived() # deletes the derived quantities
+        return self._coefficients[frame]
+
+    def del_other_coef(self, frame=None):
+        r"""
+        Delete all the coefficients but those corresponding to ``frame``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``frame`` -- (default: ``None``) vector frame, the connection
+          coefficients w.r.t. which are to be kept; if ``None``, the default
+          frame of the connection's domain is assumed.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        We first create two sets of connection coefficients::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: eX = X.frame()
+            sage: nab.set_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: e = M.vector_frame('e')
+            sage: nab.add_coef(e)[2,1,1] = x+y
+            sage: nab.display(eX)
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+            sage: nab.display(e)
+            Gam^2_11 = x + y
+
+        Let us delete the connection coefficients w.r.t. all frames except for
+        frame ``eX``::
+
+            sage: nab.del_other_coef(eX)
+            sage: nab.display(eX)
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+
+        The connection coefficients w.r.t. frame ``e`` have indeed been
+        deleted::
+
+            sage: nab.display(e)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: no common frame found for the computation
+        """
+        if frame is None:
+            frame = self._domain._def_frame
+        if frame not in self._coefficients:
+            raise ValueError("the coefficients w.r.t. {}".format(frame) +
+                             " have not been defined")
+        to_be_deleted = []
+        for other_frame in self._coefficients:
+            if other_frame != frame:
+                to_be_deleted.append(other_frame)
+        for other_frame in to_be_deleted:
+            del self._coefficients[other_frame]
+
+    def set_immutable(self):
+        r"""
+        Set ``self`` and all restrictions of ``self`` immutable.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        An affine connection can be set immutable::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U', coord_def={X: x^2+y^2<1})
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: eX = X.frame()
+            sage: nab.set_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.is_immutable()
+            False
+            sage: nab.set_immutable()
+            sage: nab.is_immutable()
+            True
+
+        The coefficients of immutable elements cannot be changed::
+
+            sage: nab.add_coef(eX)[2,1,1] = x+y
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the coefficients of an immutable element cannot
+             be changed
+
+        The restriction are set immutable as well::
+
+            sage: nabU = nab.restrict(U)
+            sage: nabU.is_immutable()
+            True
+        """
+        for rst in self._restrictions.values():
+            rst.set_immutable()
+        self._is_immutable = True
+
+    def is_immutable(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if this object is immutable, i.e. its coefficients
+        cannot be chanced, and ``False`` if it is not.
+
+        To set an affine connection immutable, use :meth:`set_immutable`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab.is_immutable()
+            False
+            sage: nab.set_immutable()
+            sage: nab.is_immutable()
+            True
+        """
+        return self._is_immutable
+
+    def is_mutable(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if this object is mutable, i.e. its coefficients can
+        be changed, and ``False`` if it is not.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab.is_mutable()
+            True
+            sage: nab.set_immutable()
+            sage: nab.is_mutable()
+            False
+        """
+        return not self._is_immutable
+
+    def copy(self, name, latex_name=None):
+        r"""
+        Return an exact copy of ``self``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``name`` -- name given to the copy
+        - ``latex_name`` -- (default: ``None``) LaTeX symbol to denote the
+          copy; if none is provided, the LaTeX symbol is set to ``name``
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The name and the derived quantities are not copied.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: eX = X.frame()
+            sage: nab.set_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.set_coef(eX)[1,2,2] = x+y
+            sage: nab.display()
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+            Gam^x_yy = x + y
+            sage: nab_copy = nab.copy(name='nabla_1', latex_name=r'\nabla_1')
+            sage: nab is nab_copy
+            False
+            sage: nab == nab_copy
+            True
+            sage: nab_copy.display()
+            Gam^x_yx = x*y
+            Gam^x_yy = x + y
+        """
+        copy = type(self)(self._domain, name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for dom, rst in self._restrictions.items():
+            copy._restrictions[dom] = rst.copy(name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for frame, coef in self._coefficients.items():
+            copy._coefficients[frame] = coef.copy()
+        return copy
+
+    def __getitem__(self, args):
+        r"""
+        Return the connection coefficient w.r.t. some frame corresponding to
+        the given indices.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``args`` -- list of indices defining the coefficient; if ``[:]`` is
+          provided, all the coefficients are returned. The frame can be passed
+          as the first item of ``args``; if not, the default frame of the
+          connection's domain is assumed
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the connection coefficient corresponding to the specified frame and
+          indices, as an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction`
+          (or the list of all connection coefficients if ``args==[:]`` or
+          ``args=[frame,:]``).
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab.set_coef(X.frame())[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab.__getitem__((1,2,1))
+            x*y
+            sage: nab[1,2,1]  # equivalent to above
+            x*y
+            sage: type(nab.__getitem__((1,2,1)))
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: nab.__getitem__((X.frame(),1,2,1))
+            x*y
+            sage: nab[X.frame(),1,2,1]  # equivalent to above
+            x*y
+
+        Returning the full set of coefficients::
+
+            sage: nab.__getitem__(slice(None))
+            [[[0, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, 0], [0, 0]]]
+            sage: nab[:]  # equivalent to above
+            [[[0, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, 0], [0, 0]]]
+            sage: nab.__getitem__((X.frame(), slice(None)))
+            [[[0, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, 0], [0, 0]]]
+            sage: nab[X.frame(), :]  # equivalent to above
+            [[[0, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, 0], [0, 0]]]
+
+        Returning a scalar field::
+
+            sage: nab.__getitem__(([1,2,1]))
+            Scalar field on the 2-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nab[[1,2,1]]  # equivalent to above
+            Scalar field on the 2-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nab.__getitem__(([X.frame(),1,2,1])).coord_function() is nab[1,2,1]
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(args, list):  # case of [[...]] syntax
+            if isinstance(args[0], (int, Integer, slice)):
+                frame = self._domain._def_frame
+            else:
+                frame = args[0]
+                args = args[1:]
+        else:
+            if isinstance(args, (int, Integer, slice)):
+                frame = self._domain._def_frame
+            elif not isinstance(args[0], (int, Integer, slice)):
+                frame = args[0]
+                args = args[1:]
+                if len(args) == 1:
+                    args = args[0]  # to accommodate for [e,:] syntax
+            else:
+                frame = self._domain._def_frame
+        return self.coef(frame)[args]
+
+    def __setitem__(self, args, value):
+        r"""
+        Set the connection coefficient w.r.t. some frame corresponding to the
+        given indices.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``args`` -- list of indices defining the coefficient; if ``[:]`` is
+          provided, all the coefficients are set. The frame can be passed
+          as the first item of ``args``; if not, the default frame of the
+          connection's domain is assumed
+        - ``value`` -- the value to be set or a list of values if
+          ``args = [:]``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab.__setitem__((1,2,1), x*y)
+            sage: nab[:]
+            [[[0, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, 0], [0, 0]]]
+            sage: nab[1,2,1] = x*y  # equivalent to __setitem__ above
+            sage: nab[:]
+            [[[0, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, 0], [0, 0]]]
+            sage: nab.__setitem__((X.frame(),1,2,1), -x^2)
+            sage: nab[1,2,1]
+            -x^2
+            sage: nab[X.frame(), 1,2,1] = -x^2  # equivalent to __setitem__ above
+            sage: nab[1,2,1]
+            -x^2
+
+        Setting all the coefficients at once::
+
+            sage: nab.__setitem__(slice(None),
+            ....:                 [[[-x^2, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, 1+y], [0, 0]]])
+            sage: nab[:]
+            [[[-x^2, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, y + 1], [0, 0]]]
+            sage: nab[:] = [[[-x^2, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, 1+y], [0, 0]]]  # equivalent to above
+            sage: nab[:]
+            [[[-x^2, 0], [x*y, 0]], [[0, y + 1], [0, 0]]]
+
+        Providing a scalar field as value::
+
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y})
+            sage: nab.__setitem__((1,2,1), f)
+            sage: nab[1,2,1]
+            x*y
+        """
+        if isinstance(args, list):  # case of [[...]] syntax
+            if isinstance(args[0], (int, Integer, slice)):
+                frame = self._domain._def_frame
+            else:
+                frame = args[0]
+                args = args[1:]
+        else:
+            if isinstance(args, (int, Integer, slice)):
+                frame = self._domain._def_frame
+            elif not isinstance(args[0], (int, Integer, slice)):
+                frame = args[0]
+                args = args[1:]
+                if len(args) == 1:
+                    args = args[0]  # to accommodate for [e,:] syntax
+            else:
+                frame = self._domain._def_frame
+        self.set_coef(frame)[args] = value
+
+    def display(self, frame=None, chart=None, symbol=None, latex_symbol=None,
+                index_labels=None, index_latex_labels=None,
+                coordinate_labels=True, only_nonzero=True,
+                only_nonredundant=False):
+        r"""
+        Display all the connection coefficients w.r.t. to a given frame, one
+        per line.
+
+        The output is either text-formatted (console mode) or LaTeX-formatted
+        (notebook mode).
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``frame`` -- (default: ``None``) vector frame relative to which the
+          connection coefficients are defined; if ``None``, the
+          default frame of the connection's domain is used
+        - ``chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart specifying the coordinate
+          expression of the connection coefficients; if ``None``,
+          the default chart of the domain of ``frame`` is used
+        - ``symbol`` -- (default: ``None``) string specifying the
+          symbol of the connection coefficients; if ``None``, 'Gam' is used
+        - ``latex_symbol`` -- (default: ``None``) string specifying the LaTeX
+          symbol for the components; if ``None``, '\\Gamma' is used
+        - ``index_labels`` -- (default: ``None``) list of strings representing
+          the labels of each index; if ``None``, integer labels are used,
+          except if ``frame`` is a coordinate frame and ``coordinate_symbols``
+          is set to ``True``, in which case the coordinate symbols are used
+        - ``index_latex_labels`` -- (default: ``None``) list of strings
+          representing the LaTeX labels of each index; if ``None``, integer
+          labels are used, except if ``frame`` is a coordinate frame and
+          ``coordinate_symbols`` is set to ``True``, in which case the
+          coordinate LaTeX symbols are used
+        - ``coordinate_labels`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); if ``True``,
+          coordinate symbols are used by default (instead of integers) as
+          index labels whenever ``frame`` is a coordinate frame
+        - ``only_nonzero`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); if ``True``, only
+          nonzero connection coefficients are displayed
+        - ``only_nonredundant`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); if ``True``,
+          only nonredundant connection coefficients are displayed in case of
+          symmetries
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Coefficients of a connection on a 3-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,1,2], nab[3,2,3] = x^2, y*z
+
+        By default, only the nonzero connection coefficients are displayed::
+
+            sage: nab.display()
+            Gam^x_xy = x^2
+            Gam^z_yz = y*z
+            sage: latex(nab.display())
+            \begin{array}{lcl} \Gamma_{ \phantom{\, x} \, x \, y }^{ \, x \phantom{\, x} \phantom{\, y} }
+            & = & x^{2} \\
+            \Gamma_{ \phantom{\, z} \, y \, z }^{ \, z \phantom{\, y} \phantom{\, z} }
+            & = & y z \end{array}
+
+        By default, the displayed connection coefficients are those w.r.t.
+        to the default frame of the connection's domain, so the above is
+        equivalent to::
+
+            sage: nab.display(frame=M.default_frame())
+            Gam^x_xy = x^2
+            Gam^z_yz = y*z
+
+        Since the default frame is a coordinate frame, coordinate symbols are
+        used to label the indices, but one may ask for integers instead::
+
+            sage: M.default_frame() is c_xyz.frame()
+            True
+            sage: nab.display(coordinate_labels=False)
+            Gam^1_12 = x^2
+            Gam^3_23 = y*z
+
+        The index labels can also be customized::
+
+            sage: nab.display(index_labels=['(1)', '(2)', '(3)'])
+            Gam^(1)_(1),(2) = x^2
+            Gam^(3)_(2),(3) = y*z
+
+        The symbol 'Gam' can be changed::
+
+            sage: nab.display(symbol='C', latex_symbol='C')
+            C^x_xy = x^2
+            C^z_yz = y*z
+            sage: latex(nab.display(symbol='C', latex_symbol='C'))
+            \begin{array}{lcl} C_{ \phantom{\, x} \, x \, y }^{ \, x \phantom{\, x} \phantom{\, y} }
+            & = & x^{2} \\
+            C_{ \phantom{\, z} \, y \, z }^{ \, z \phantom{\, y} \phantom{\, z} }
+            & = & y z \end{array}
+
+        Display of Christoffel symbols, skipping the redundancy associated
+        with the symmetry of the last two indices::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'R^3', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_spher.<r,th,ph> = M.chart(r'r:(0,+oo) th:(0,pi):\theta ph:(0,2*pi):\phi')
+            sage: g = M.metric('g')
+            sage: g[1,1], g[2,2], g[3,3] = 1, r^2 , (r*sin(th))^2
+            sage: g.display()
+            g = dr⊗dr + r^2 dth⊗dth + r^2*sin(th)^2 dph⊗dph
+            sage: g.connection().display(only_nonredundant=True)
+            Gam^r_th,th = -r
+            Gam^r_ph,ph = -r*sin(th)^2
+            Gam^th_r,th = 1/r
+            Gam^th_ph,ph = -cos(th)*sin(th)
+            Gam^ph_r,ph = 1/r
+            Gam^ph_th,ph = cos(th)/sin(th)
+
+        By default, the parameter ``only_nonredundant`` is set to ``False``::
+
+            sage: g.connection().display()
+            Gam^r_th,th = -r
+            Gam^r_ph,ph = -r*sin(th)^2
+            Gam^th_r,th = 1/r
+            Gam^th_th,r = 1/r
+            Gam^th_ph,ph = -cos(th)*sin(th)
+            Gam^ph_r,ph = 1/r
+            Gam^ph_th,ph = cos(th)/sin(th)
+            Gam^ph_ph,r = 1/r
+            Gam^ph_ph,th = cos(th)/sin(th)
+        """
+        from sage.manifolds.differentiable.vectorframe import CoordFrame
+        from sage.misc.latex import latex
+        if frame is None:
+            frame = self._domain.default_frame()
+        if chart is None:
+            chart = frame.domain().default_chart()
+        if symbol is None:
+            symbol = 'Gam'
+        if latex_symbol is None:
+            latex_symbol = r'\Gamma'
+        if index_labels is None and isinstance(frame, CoordFrame) and \
+          coordinate_labels:
+            ch = frame.chart()
+            index_labels = [str(z) for z in ch[:]]
+            index_latex_labels = [latex(z) for z in ch[:]]
+        return self.coef(frame=frame).display(symbol,
+              latex_symbol=latex_symbol, index_positions='udd',
+              index_labels=index_labels, index_latex_labels=index_latex_labels,
+              format_spec=chart, only_nonzero=only_nonzero,
+              only_nonredundant=only_nonredundant)
+
+    def restrict(self, subdomain):
+        r"""
+        Return the restriction of the connection to some subdomain.
+
+        If such restriction has not been defined yet, it is constructed here.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``subdomain`` -- open subset `U` of the connection's domain (must be
+          an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.manifold.DifferentiableManifold`)
+
+        OUTPUT: instance of :class:`AffineConnection` representing the restriction
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Restriction of a connection on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,1,2], nab[2,1,1] = x^2, x+y
+            sage: nab[:]
+            [[[0, x^2], [0, 0]], [[x + y, 0], [0, 0]]]
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U', coord_def={c_xy: x>0})
+            sage: nabU = nab.restrict(U) ; nabU
+            Affine connection nabla on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional
+             differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nabU.domain()
+            Open subset U of the 2-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nabU[:]
+            [[[0, x^2], [0, 0]], [[x + y, 0], [0, 0]]]
+
+        The result is cached::
+
+            sage: nab.restrict(U) is nabU
+            True
+
+        until the connection is modified::
+
+            sage: nab[1,2,2] = -y
+            sage: nab.restrict(U) is nabU
+            False
+            sage: nab.restrict(U)[:]
+            [[[0, x^2], [0, -y]], [[x + y, 0], [0, 0]]]
+        """
+        if subdomain == self._domain:
+            return self
+        if subdomain not in self._restrictions:
+            if not subdomain.is_subset(self._domain):
+                raise ValueError("The provided domains is not a subset of " +
+                                 "the connection's domain.")
+            resu = AffineConnection(subdomain, name=self._name,
+                                    latex_name=self._latex_name)
+            for frame in self._coefficients:
+                for sframe in subdomain._top_frames:
+                    if sframe in frame._subframes:
+                        comp_store = self._coefficients[frame]._comp
+                        scoef = resu._new_coef(sframe)
+                        scomp_store = scoef._comp
+                        # the coefficients of the restriction are evaluated
+                        # index by index:
+                        for ind, value in comp_store.items():
+                            scomp_store[ind] = value.restrict(sframe._domain)
+                        resu._coefficients[sframe] = scoef
+            if self._torsion is not None:
+                resu._torsion = self._torsion.restrict(subdomain)
+            if self._riemann is not None:
+                resu._riemann = self._riemann.restrict(subdomain)
+            if self._ricci is not None:
+                resu._ricci = self._ricci.restrict(subdomain)
+            resu.set_immutable()  # restrictions must be immutable, too
+            self._restrictions[subdomain] = resu
+        return self._restrictions[subdomain]
+
+    def _common_frame(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Find a common vector frame for the coefficients of ``self`` and
+        the components of  ``other``.
+
+        In case of multiple common frames, the default frame of ``self``'s
+        domain is privileged.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a tensor field on parallelizable domain, as an
+          instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.tensorfield_paral.TensorFieldParal`
+
+        OUTPUT: common frame; if no common frame is found, ``None`` is returned
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: v = M.vector_field()
+            sage: v[:] = [-y, x]
+            sage: nab._common_frame(v)
+            Coordinate frame (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y))
+            sage: e = M.vector_frame('e')
+            sage: u = M.vector_field()
+            sage: u[e,:] = [-3, 2]
+            sage: nab._common_frame(u)  # no common frame is found
+        """
+        # The domain of search is restricted to other._domain:
+        dom = other._domain
+        # 1/ Does each object have components on the domain's default frame ?
+        def_frame = dom._def_frame
+        if def_frame in self._coefficients and def_frame in other._components:
+            return def_frame
+        # 2/ Search for a common frame among the existing components, i.e.
+        #    without performing any component transformation.
+        #    -------------------------------------------------------------
+        for frame in self._coefficients:
+            if frame in other._components:
+                return frame
+        # 3/ Search for a common frame among the subframes of self's frames:
+        #    --------------------------------------------------------------
+        for frame in self._coefficients:
+            for oframe in other._components:
+                if oframe in frame._subframes:
+                    self.coef(oframe) # update the coefficients of self in oframe
+                    return oframe
+        #
+        # 4/ Search for a common frame via one component transformation
+        #    ----------------------------------------------------------
+        # If this point is reached, it is necessary to perform at least
+        # one component transformation to get a common frame
+        for frame in self._coefficients:
+            for oframe in other._components:
+                if (oframe, frame) in dom._frame_changes:
+                    other.comp(frame, from_basis=oframe)
+                    return frame
+        # 5/ Search for a common frame via one component transformation to
+        #    a subframe of self's frames:
+        #    -------------------------------------------------------------
+        for frame in self._coefficients:
+            for oframe in other._components:
+                for sframe in frame._subframes:
+                    if (oframe, sframe) in dom._frame_changes:
+                        self.coef(sframe)
+                        other.comp(sframe, from_basis=oframe)
+                        return sframe
+        #
+        # If this point is reached, no common frame could be found, even at
+        # the price of a component transformation:
+        return None
+
+    def __call__(self, tensor):
+        r"""
+        Action of the connection on a tensor field.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``tensor`` -- a tensor field `T`, of type `(k,\ell)`
+
+        OUTPUT: tensor field `\nabla T`
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: v = M.vector_field()
+            sage: v[:] = [-y, x]
+            sage: nab.__call__(v)
+            Tensor field of type (1,1) on the 2-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+
+        See documentation of
+        :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.affine_connection.AffineConnection`
+        for more examples.
+        """
+        from sage.manifolds.differentiable.tensorfield_paral import TensorFieldParal
+        from sage.tensor.modules.format_utilities import format_unop_latex
+        dom_resu = self._domain.intersection(tensor._domain)
+        tensor_r = tensor.restrict(dom_resu)
+        if tensor_r._tensor_type == (0,0):  # scalar field case
+            return tensor_r.differential()
+        if isinstance(tensor_r, TensorFieldParal):
+            return self._derive_paral(tensor_r)
+        resu_rst = []
+        for dom, rst in tensor_r._restrictions.items():
+            # the computation is performed only if dom is not a subdomain
+            # of another restriction:
+            for odom in tensor_r._restrictions:
+                if dom in odom._subsets and dom is not odom:
+                    break
+            else:
+                # dom is a not a subdomain and the computation is performed:
+                resu_rst.append(self.__call__(rst))
+        tensor_type_resu = (tensor_r._tensor_type[0],
+                            tensor_r._tensor_type[1]+1)
+        if tensor_r._name is None:
+            name_resu = None
+        else:
+            name_resu = self._name + '(' + tensor_r._name + ')'
+        if tensor_r._latex_name is None:
+            latex_name_resu = None
+        else:
+            latex_name_resu = format_unop_latex(self._latex_name + ' ',
+                                                          tensor_r._latex_name)
+        vmodule = dom_resu.vector_field_module()
+        resu = vmodule.tensor(tensor_type_resu, name=name_resu,
+                              latex_name=latex_name_resu,
+                              sym=resu_rst[0]._sym,
+                              antisym=resu_rst[0]._antisym)
+        for rst in resu_rst:
+            resu._restrictions[rst._domain] = rst
+        return resu
+
+    def _derive_paral(self, tensor):
+        r"""
+        Action of the connection on a tensor field on a parallelizable domain.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``tensor`` -- a tensor field `T`, of type `(k,\ell)`
+
+        OUTPUT: tensor field `\nabla T`
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', latex_name=r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: v = M.vector_field()
+            sage: v[:] = [-y, x]
+            sage: nab._derive_paral(v)
+            Tensor field of type (1,1) on the 2-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+        """
+        from sage.manifolds.differentiable.scalarfield import DiffScalarField
+        from sage.tensor.modules.comp import Components, CompWithSym
+        from sage.tensor.modules.format_utilities import format_unop_latex
+        manif = self._domain
+        tdom = tensor._domain
+        frame = self._common_frame(tensor)
+        if frame is None:
+            raise ValueError("no common frame found for the computation")
+        # Component computation in the common frame:
+        tc = tensor._components[frame]
+        gam = self._coefficients[frame]
+        if not tensor._sym and not tensor._antisym:
+            resc = Components(tdom.scalar_field_algebra(), frame,
+                              tensor._tensor_rank+1,
+                              start_index=self._domain._sindex,
+                              output_formatter=DiffScalarField.coord_function)
+        else:
+            resc = CompWithSym(tdom.scalar_field_algebra(), frame,
+                              tensor._tensor_rank+1,
+                              start_index=self._domain._sindex,
+                              output_formatter=DiffScalarField.coord_function,
+                              sym=tensor._sym, antisym=tensor._antisym)
+        n_con = tensor._tensor_type[0]
+        n_cov = tensor._tensor_type[1]
+
+        if Parallelism().get('tensor') != 1:
+            # parallel computation
+            # !!!!! Seems to work only when a frame is chosen !!!!!!
+
+            nproc = Parallelism().get('tensor')
+            lol = lambda lst, sz: [lst[i:i+sz] for i in range(0, len(lst), sz)]
+
+            ind_list = list(resc.non_redundant_index_generator())
+            ind_step = max(1,int(len(ind_list)/nproc/2))
+            local_list = lol(ind_list,ind_step)
+
+            # definition of the list of input parameters
+            listParalInput = []
+            for ind_part in local_list:
+                listParalInput.append((ind_part,tc,gam,frame,n_con,
+                                       tensor._tensor_rank,manif))
+
+            # definition of the parallel function
+            @parallel(p_iter='multiprocessing',ncpus=nproc)
+            def make_CovDerivative(ind_part, tc, gam, frame, n_con, rank, manif):
+                partial = []
+                for ind in ind_part:
+                    p = ind[-1]  # derivation index
+                    ind0 = ind[:-1]
+                    rsum = frame[p](tc[[ind0]])
+                    # loop on contravariant indices:
+                    for k in range(n_con):
+                        for i in manif.irange():
+                            indk = list(ind0)
+                            indk[k] = i
+                            rsum += gam[[ind0[k], i, p]] * tc[[indk]]
+                    # loop on covariant indices:
+                    for k in range(n_con, rank):
+                        for i in manif.irange():
+                            indk = list(ind0)
+                            indk[k] = i
+                            rsum -= gam[[i, ind0[k], p]] * tc[[indk]]
+                    partial.append([ind,rsum])
+                return partial
+
+            # Computation and Assignation of values
+            for ii,val in make_CovDerivative(listParalInput):
+                for jj in val:
+                    resc[[jj[0]]] = jj[1]
+
+        else:
+            # sequential
+            for ind in resc.non_redundant_index_generator():
+                p = ind[-1]  # derivation index
+                ind0 = ind[:-1]
+                rsum = frame[p](tc[[ind0]])
+                # loop on contravariant indices:
+                for k in range(n_con):
+                    for i in manif.irange():
+                        indk = list(ind0)
+                        indk[k] = i
+                        rsum += gam[[ind0[k], i, p]] * tc[[indk]]
+                # loop on covariant indices:
+                for k in range(n_con, tensor._tensor_rank):
+                    for i in manif.irange():
+                        indk = list(ind0)
+                        indk[k] = i
+                        rsum -= gam[[i, ind0[k], p]] * tc[[indk]]
+                resc[[ind]] = rsum
+
+        # Resulting tensor field
+        if tensor._name is None:
+            name_resu = None
+        else:
+            name_resu = self._name + '(' + tensor._name + ')'
+        if tensor._latex_name is None:
+            latex_name_resu = None
+        else:
+            latex_name_resu = format_unop_latex(self._latex_name + ' ',
+                                                            tensor._latex_name)
+        return tdom.vector_field_module().tensor_from_comp((n_con, n_cov+1),
+                              resc, name=name_resu, latex_name=latex_name_resu)
+
+    def torsion(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the connection's torsion tensor.
+
+        The torsion tensor is the tensor field `T` of type (1,2) defined by
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            T(\omega, u, v) = \left\langle \omega, \nabla_u v - \nabla_v u
+                - [u, v] \right\rangle
+
+        for any 1-form  `\omega`  and any vector fields `u` and `v`.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the torsion tensor `T`, as an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.tensorfield.TensorField`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Torsion of an affine connection on a 3-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,1,2], nab[3,2,3] = x^2, y*z  # Gamma^1_{12} = x^2, Gamma^3_{23} = yz
+            sage: t = nab.torsion() ; t
+            Tensor field of type (1,2) on the 3-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: t.symmetries()
+            no symmetry;  antisymmetry: (1, 2)
+            sage: t[:]
+            [[[0, -x^2, 0], [x^2, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, -y*z], [0, y*z, 0]]]
+
+        The torsion expresses the lack of commutativity of two successive
+        derivatives of a scalar field::
+
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x*z^2 + y^2 - z^2, name='f')
+            sage: DDf = nab(nab(f)) ; DDf
+            Tensor field nabla(df) of type (0,2) on the 3-dimensional
+             differentiable manifold M
+            sage: DDf.antisymmetrize()[:]  # two successive derivatives do not commute:
+            [             0   -1/2*x^2*z^2              0]
+            [   1/2*x^2*z^2              0 -(x - 1)*y*z^2]
+            [             0  (x - 1)*y*z^2              0]
+            sage: 2*DDf.antisymmetrize() == nab.torsion().contract(0,nab(f))
+            True
+
+        The above identity is the standard formula
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \nabla_j \nabla_i \, f - \nabla_i \nabla_j \, f = T^k_{\ \, ij} \nabla_k \, f ,
+
+        where the `T^k_{\ \, ij}`'s are the components of the torsion tensor.
+
+        The result is cached::
+
+            sage: nab.torsion() is t
+            True
+
+        as long as the connection remains unchanged::
+
+            sage: nab[2,1,3] = 1+x    # changing the connection
+            sage: nab.torsion() is t  # a new computation of the torsion has been made
+            False
+            sage: (nab.torsion() - t).display()
+            (-x - 1) ∂/∂y⊗dx⊗dz + (x + 1) ∂/∂y⊗dz⊗dx
+
+        Another example: torsion of some connection on a non-parallelizable
+        2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M')
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U') ; V = M.open_subset('V')
+            sage: M.declare_union(U,V)   # M is the union of U and V
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = U.chart() ; c_uv.<u,v> = V.chart()
+            sage: transf = c_xy.transition_map(c_uv, (x+y, x-y), intersection_name='W',
+            ....:                              restrictions1= x>0, restrictions2= u+v>0)
+            sage: inv = transf.inverse()
+            sage: W = U.intersection(V)
+            sage: eU = c_xy.frame() ; eV = c_uv.frame()
+            sage: c_xyW = c_xy.restrict(W) ; c_uvW = c_uv.restrict(W)
+            sage: eUW = c_xyW.frame() ; eVW = c_uvW.frame()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[0,0,0], nab[0,1,0], nab[1,0,1] = x, x-y, x*y
+            sage: for i in M.irange():
+            ....:     for j in M.irange():
+            ....:         for k in M.irange():
+            ....:             nab.add_coef(eV)[i,j,k] = nab.coef(eVW)[i,j,k,c_uvW].expr()
+            sage: t = nab.torsion() ; t
+            Tensor field of type (1,2) on the 2-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: t.parent()
+            Module T^(1,2)(M) of type-(1,2) tensors fields on the 2-dimensional
+             differentiable manifold M
+            sage: t[eU,:]
+            [[[0, x - y], [-x + y, 0]], [[0, -x*y], [x*y, 0]]]
+            sage: t[eV,:]
+            [[[0, 1/8*u^2 - 1/8*v^2 - 1/2*v], [-1/8*u^2 + 1/8*v^2 + 1/2*v, 0]],
+             [[0, -1/8*u^2 + 1/8*v^2 - 1/2*v], [1/8*u^2 - 1/8*v^2 + 1/2*v, 0]]]
+
+        Check of the torsion formula::
+
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({c_xy: (x+y)^2, c_uv: u^2}, name='f')
+            sage: DDf = nab(nab(f)) ; DDf
+            Tensor field nabla(df) of type (0,2) on the 2-dimensional
+             differentiable manifold M
+            sage: DDf.antisymmetrize().display(eU)
+            (-x^2*y - (x + 1)*y^2 + x^2) dx∧dy
+            sage: DDf.antisymmetrize().display(eV)
+            (1/8*u^3 - 1/8*u*v^2 - 1/2*u*v) du∧dv
+            sage: 2*DDf.antisymmetrize() == nab(f).contract(nab.torsion())
+            True
+        """
+        if self._torsion is None:
+            manif = self._domain
+            resu = self._domain.tensor_field(1, 2, antisym=(1, 2))
+            for frame, gam in self._coefficients.items():
+                sc = frame.structure_coeff()
+                res = resu.add_comp(frame)
+                for k in manif.irange():
+                    for i in manif.irange():
+                        for j in manif.irange(start=i + 1):
+                            res[[k,i,j]] = gam[[k,j,i]] - gam[[k,i,j]] - \
+                                sc[[k,i,j]]
+            self._torsion = resu
+        return self._torsion
+
+    def riemann(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the connection's Riemann curvature tensor.
+
+        The *Riemann curvature tensor* is the tensor field `R` of type (1,3)
+        defined by
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            R(\omega, w, u, v) = \left\langle \omega, \nabla_u \nabla_v w
+                - \nabla_v \nabla_u w - \nabla_{[u, v]} w \right\rangle
+
+        for any 1-form  `\omega`  and any vector fields `u`, `v` and `w`.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the Riemann curvature tensor `R`, as an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.tensorfield.TensorField`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Curvature of an affine connection on a 3-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla') ; nab
+            Affine connection nabla on the 3-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: nab[1,1,2], nab[3,2,3] = x^2, y*z  # Gamma^1_{12} = x^2, Gamma^3_{23} = yz
+            sage: r = nab.riemann() ; r
+            Tensor field of type (1,3) on the 3-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: r.parent()
+            Free module T^(1,3)(M) of type-(1,3) tensors fields on the
+             3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+
+        By construction, the Riemann tensor is antisymmetric with respect to
+        its last two arguments (denoted `u` and `v` in the definition above),
+        which are at positions 2 and 3 (the first argument being at position
+        0)::
+
+            sage: r.symmetries()
+            no symmetry;  antisymmetry: (2, 3)
+
+        The components::
+
+            sage: r[:]
+            [[[[0, 2*x, 0], [-2*x, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]],
+            [[[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]],
+            [[[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, z], [0, -z, 0]],
+            [[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]]]
+
+        The result is cached (until the connection is modified via
+        :meth:`set_coef` or :meth:`add_coef`)::
+
+            sage: nab.riemann() is r
+            True
+
+        Another example: Riemann curvature tensor of some connection on a
+        non-parallelizable 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M')
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U') ; V = M.open_subset('V')
+            sage: M.declare_union(U,V)   # M is the union of U and V
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = U.chart() ; c_uv.<u,v> = V.chart()
+            sage: transf = c_xy.transition_map(c_uv, (x+y, x-y), intersection_name='W',
+            ....:                              restrictions1= x>0, restrictions2= u+v>0)
+            sage: inv = transf.inverse()
+            sage: W = U.intersection(V)
+            sage: eU = c_xy.frame() ; eV = c_uv.frame()
+            sage: c_xyW = c_xy.restrict(W) ; c_uvW = c_uv.restrict(W)
+            sage: eUW = c_xyW.frame() ; eVW = c_uvW.frame()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[0,0,0], nab[0,1,0], nab[1,0,1] = x, x-y, x*y
+            sage: for i in M.irange():
+            ....:     for j in M.irange():
+            ....:         for k in M.irange():
+            ....:             nab.add_coef(eV)[i,j,k] = nab.coef(eVW)[i,j,k,c_uvW].expr()
+            sage: r = nab.riemann() ; r     # long time
+            Tensor field of type (1,3) on the 2-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: r.parent()                # long time
+            Module T^(1,3)(M) of type-(1,3) tensors fields on the 2-dimensional
+             differentiable manifold M
+            sage: r.display(eU)             # long time
+            (x^2*y - x*y^2) ∂/∂x⊗dx⊗dx⊗dy + (-x^2*y + x*y^2) ∂/∂x⊗dx⊗dy⊗dx + ∂/∂x⊗dy⊗dx⊗dy
+             - ∂/∂x⊗dy⊗dy⊗dx - (x^2 - 1)*y ∂/∂y⊗dx⊗dx⊗dy + (x^2 - 1)*y ∂/∂y⊗dx⊗dy⊗dx
+             + (-x^2*y + x*y^2) ∂/∂y⊗dy⊗dx⊗dy + (x^2*y - x*y^2) ∂/∂y⊗dy⊗dy⊗dx
+            sage: r.display(eV)             # long time
+            (1/32*u^3 - 1/32*u*v^2 - 1/32*v^3 + 1/32*(u^2 + 4)*v - 1/8*u - 1/4) ∂/∂u⊗du⊗du⊗dv
+             + (-1/32*u^3 + 1/32*u*v^2 + 1/32*v^3 - 1/32*(u^2 + 4)*v + 1/8*u + 1/4) ∂/∂u⊗du⊗dv⊗du
+             + (1/32*u^3 - 1/32*u*v^2 + 3/32*v^3 - 1/32*(3*u^2 - 4)*v - 1/8*u + 1/4) ∂/∂u⊗dv⊗du⊗dv
+             + (-1/32*u^3 + 1/32*u*v^2 - 3/32*v^3 + 1/32*(3*u^2 - 4)*v + 1/8*u - 1/4) ∂/∂u⊗dv⊗dv⊗du
+             + (-1/32*u^3 + 1/32*u*v^2 + 5/32*v^3 - 1/32*(5*u^2 + 4)*v + 1/8*u - 1/4) ∂/∂v⊗du⊗du⊗dv
+             + (1/32*u^3 - 1/32*u*v^2 - 5/32*v^3 + 1/32*(5*u^2 + 4)*v - 1/8*u + 1/4) ∂/∂v⊗du⊗dv⊗du
+             + (-1/32*u^3 + 1/32*u*v^2 + 1/32*v^3 - 1/32*(u^2 + 4)*v + 1/8*u + 1/4) ∂/∂v⊗dv⊗du⊗dv
+             + (1/32*u^3 - 1/32*u*v^2 - 1/32*v^3 + 1/32*(u^2 + 4)*v - 1/8*u - 1/4) ∂/∂v⊗dv⊗dv⊗du
+
+        The same computation parallelized on 2 cores::
+
+            sage: Parallelism().set(nproc=2)
+            sage: r_backup = r              # long time
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[0,0,0], nab[0,1,0], nab[1,0,1] = x, x-y, x*y
+            sage: for i in M.irange():
+            ....:     for j in M.irange():
+            ....:         for k in M.irange():
+            ....:             nab.add_coef(eV)[i,j,k] = nab.coef(eVW)[i,j,k,c_uvW].expr()
+            sage: r = nab.riemann() ; r     # long time
+            Tensor field of type (1,3) on the 2-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: r.parent()                # long time
+            Module T^(1,3)(M) of type-(1,3) tensors fields on the 2-dimensional
+             differentiable manifold M
+            sage: r == r_backup             # long time
+            True
+            sage: Parallelism().set(nproc=1)  # switch off parallelization
+        """
+        if self._riemann is None:
+            manif = self._domain
+            resu = manif.tensor_field(1, 3, antisym=(2,3))
+            for frame, gam in self._coefficients.items():
+                # The computation is performed only on the top frames:
+                for oframe in self._coefficients:
+                    if frame in oframe._subframes and frame is not oframe:
+                        break
+                else:
+                    # frame in not a subframe and the computation is performed:
+                    sc = frame.structure_coeff()
+                    gam_gam = gam.contract(1, gam, 0)
+                    gam_sc = gam.contract(2, sc, 0)
+                    res = resu.add_comp(frame)
+                    if Parallelism().get('tensor') != 1:
+                        # parallel computation
+                        nproc = Parallelism().get('tensor')
+                        lol = lambda lst, sz: [lst[i:i+sz] for i in range(0,
+                                                                 len(lst), sz)]
+                        ind_list = []
+                        for i in manif.irange():
+                            for j in manif.irange():
+                                for k in manif.irange():
+                                    for l in manif.irange(start=k+1):
+                                        ind_list.append((i,j,k,l))
+                        ind_step = max(1, int(len(ind_list)/nproc/2))
+                        local_list = lol(ind_list, ind_step)
+                        # definition of the list of input parameters
+                        listParalInput = []
+                        for ind_part in local_list:
+                            listParalInput.append((frame, gam, gam_gam, gam_sc,
+                                                   ind_part))
+
+                        # definition of the parallel function
+                        @parallel(p_iter='multiprocessing', ncpus=nproc)
+                        def make_Riem(frame, gam, gam_gam, gam_sc, local_list_ijkl):
+                            partial = []
+                            for i, j, k, l in local_list_ijkl:
+                                partial.append([i, j, k, l,
+                                                frame[k](gam[[i, j, l]]) -
+                                                frame[l](gam[[i, j, k]]) +
+                                                gam_gam[[i, k, j, l]] -
+                                                gam_gam[[i, l, j, k]] -
+                                                gam_sc[[i, j, k, l]]])
+                            return partial
+                        # Computation and assignation of values
+                        for ii, val in make_Riem(listParalInput):
+                            for jj in val:
+                                res[jj[0], jj[1], jj[2], jj[3]] = jj[4]
+
+                    else:
+                        # sequential
+                        for i in manif.irange():
+                            for j in manif.irange():
+                                for k in manif.irange():
+                                    # antisymmetry of the Riemann tensor taken
+                                    # into account by l>k:
+                                    for l in manif.irange(start=k+1):
+                                        res[i,j,k,l] = frame[k](gam[[i,j,l]]) - \
+                                                       frame[l](gam[[i,j,k]]) + \
+                                                       gam_gam[[i,k,j,l]] - \
+                                                       gam_gam[[i,l,j,k]] - \
+                                                       gam_sc[[i,j,k,l]]
+            self._riemann = resu
+        return self._riemann
+
+    def ricci(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the connection's Ricci tensor.
+
+        The *Ricci tensor* is the tensor field `Ric` of type (0,2)
+        defined from the Riemann curvature tensor `R` by
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            Ric(u, v) = R(e^i, u, e_i, v)
+
+        for any vector fields `u` and `v`, `(e_i)` being any vector frame and
+        `(e^i)` the dual coframe.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the Ricci  tensor `Ric`, as an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.tensorfield.TensorField`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Ricci tensor of an affine connection on a 3-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla') ; nab
+            Affine connection nabla on the 3-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: nab[1,1,2], nab[3,2,3] = x^2, y*z  # Gamma^1_{12} = x^2, Gamma^3_{23} = yz
+            sage: r = nab.ricci() ; r
+            Tensor field of type (0,2) on the 3-dimensional differentiable
+             manifold M
+            sage: r[:]
+            [  0 2*x   0]
+            [  0  -z   0]
+            [  0   0   0]
+
+        The result is cached (until the connection is modified via
+        :meth:`set_coef` or :meth:`add_coef`)::
+
+            sage: nab.ricci() is r
+            True
+        """
+        if self._ricci is None:
+            self._ricci = self.riemann().trace(0,2)
+        return self._ricci
+
+    def connection_form(self, i, j, frame=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the connection 1-form corresponding to the given index and
+        vector frame.
+
+        The *connection 1-forms* with respect to the frame `(e_i)` are the
+        `n^2` 1-forms `\omega^i_{\ \, j}` defined by
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \nabla_v e_j = \langle \omega^i_{\ \, j}, v \rangle
+                \, e_i
+
+        for any vector `v`.
+
+        The components of `\omega^i_{\ \, j}` in the coframe `(e^i)` dual to
+        `(e_i)` are nothing but the connection coefficients `\Gamma^i_{\ \, jk}`
+        relative to the frame `(e_i)`:
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \omega^i_{\ \, j} = \Gamma^i_{\ \, jk} e^k
+
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``i``, ``j`` -- indices identifying the 1-form `\omega^i_{\ \, j}`
+        - ``frame`` -- (default: ``None``) vector frame relative to which the
+          connection 1-forms are defined; if ``None``, the default frame of the
+          connection's domain is assumed.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the 1-form `\omega^i_{\ \, j}`, as an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.diff_form.DiffForm`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Connection 1-forms on a 3-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,1,1], nab[1,1,2], nab[1,1,3] = x*y*z, x^2, -y*z
+            sage: nab[1,2,3], nab[1,3,1], nab[1,3,2] = -x^3, y^2*z, y^2-x^2
+            sage: nab[2,1,1], nab[2,1,2], nab[2,2,1] = z^2, x*y*z^2, -x^2
+            sage: nab[2,3,1], nab[2,3,3], nab[3,1,2] = x^2+y^2+z^2, y^2-z^2, x*y+z^2
+            sage: nab[3,2,1], nab[3,2,2], nab[3,3,3] = x*y+z, z^3 -y^2, x*z^2 - z*y^2
+            sage: nab.connection_form(1,1)  # connection 1-form (i,j)=(1,1) w.r.t. M's default frame
+            1-form nabla connection 1-form (1,1) on the 3-dimensional
+             differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nab.connection_form(1,1)[:]
+            [x*y*z, x^2, -y*z]
+
+        The result is cached (until the connection is modified via
+        :meth:`set_coef` or :meth:`add_coef`)::
+
+            sage: nab.connection_form(1,1) is nab.connection_form(1,1)
+            True
+
+        Connection 1-forms w.r.t. a non-holonomic frame::
+
+            sage: ch_basis = M.automorphism_field()
+            sage: ch_basis[1,1], ch_basis[2,2], ch_basis[3,3] = y, z, x
+            sage: e = M.default_frame().new_frame(ch_basis, 'e')
+            sage: e[1][:], e[2][:], e[3][:]
+            ([y, 0, 0], [0, z, 0], [0, 0, x])
+            sage: nab.connection_form(1,1,e)
+            1-form nabla connection 1-form (1,1) on the 3-dimensional
+             differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nab.connection_form(1,1,e).comp(e)[:]
+            [x*y^2*z, (x^2*y + 1)*z/y, -x*y*z]
+
+        Check of the formula `\omega^i_{\ \, j} = \Gamma^i_{\ \, jk} e^k`:
+
+        First on the manifold's default frame (∂/∂x, ∂/∂y, d:dz)::
+
+            sage: dx = M.default_frame().coframe() ; dx
+            Coordinate coframe (M, (dx,dy,dz))
+            sage: check = []
+            sage: for i in M.irange():
+            ....:     for j in M.irange():
+            ....:         check.append( nab.connection_form(i,j) == \
+            ....:               sum( nab[[i,j,k]]*dx[k] for k in M.irange() ) )
+            sage: check
+            [True, True, True, True, True, True, True, True, True]
+
+        Then on the frame e::
+
+            sage: ef = e.coframe() ; ef
+            Coframe (M, (e^1,e^2,e^3))
+            sage: check = []
+            sage: for i in M.irange():
+            ....:     for j in M.irange():
+            ....:         s = nab.connection_form(i,j,e).comp(c_xyz.frame(), from_basis=e)
+            ....:         check.append( nab.connection_form(i,j,e) == sum( nab.coef(e)[[i,j,k]]*ef[k] for k in M.irange() ) )
+            sage: check
+            [True, True, True, True, True, True, True, True, True]
+
+        Check of the formula
+        `\nabla_v e_j = \langle \omega^i_{\ \, j}, v \rangle e_i`::
+
+            sage: v = M.vector_field()
+            sage: v[:] = (x*y, z^2-3*x, z+2*y)
+            sage: b = M.default_frame()
+            sage: for j in M.irange():  # check on M's default frame  # long time
+            ....:     nab(b[j]).contract(v) == \
+            ....:      sum( nab.connection_form(i,j)(v)*b[i] for i in M.irange())
+            True
+            True
+            True
+            sage: for j in M.irange():  # check on frame e  # long time
+            ....:     nab(e[j]).contract(v) == \
+            ....:      sum( nab.connection_form(i,j,e)(v)*e[i] for i in M.irange())
+            True
+            True
+            True
+        """
+        if frame is None:
+            frame = self._domain._def_frame
+        if frame not in self._connection_forms:
+            forms = {}
+            frame_dom = frame.domain()
+            coef_frame = self.coef(frame)
+            for i1 in self._domain.irange():
+                for j1 in self._domain.irange():
+                    name = self._name + " connection 1-form (" + str(i1) + \
+                           "," + str(j1) + ")"
+                    latex_name = r"\omega^" + str(i1) + r"_{\ \, " + \
+                                 str(j1) + "}"
+                    omega = frame_dom.one_form(name=name,
+                                               latex_name=latex_name)
+                    comega = omega.set_comp(frame)
+                    for k in self._domain.irange():
+                        comega[k] = coef_frame[[i1,j1,k]]
+                    forms[(i1,j1)] = omega
+            self._connection_forms[frame] = forms
+        return self._connection_forms[frame][(i,j)]
+
+    def torsion_form(self, i, frame=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the torsion 2-form corresponding to the given index and
+        vector frame.
+
+        The *torsion 2-forms* with respect to the frame `(e_i)` are the
+        `n` 2-forms `\theta^i` defined by
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \theta^i(u,v) = T(e^i, u, v)
+
+        where `T` is the connection's torsion tensor (cf. :meth:`torsion`),
+        `(e^i)` is the coframe dual to `(e_i)` and `(u,v)` is a generic pair of
+        vectors.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``i`` -- index identifying the 2-form `\theta^i`
+        - ``frame`` -- (default: ``None``) vector frame relative to which the
+          torsion 2-forms are defined; if ``None``, the default frame of the
+          connection's domain is assumed.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the 2-form `\theta^i`, as an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.diff_form.DiffForm`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Torsion 2-forms on a 3-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,1,1], nab[1,1,2], nab[1,1,3] = x*y*z, x^2, -y*z
+            sage: nab[1,2,3], nab[1,3,1], nab[1,3,2] = -x^3, y^2*z, y^2-x^2
+            sage: nab[2,1,1], nab[2,1,2], nab[2,2,1] = z^2, x*y*z^2, -x^2
+            sage: nab[2,3,1], nab[2,3,3], nab[3,1,2] = x^2+y^2+z^2, y^2-z^2, x*y+z^2
+            sage: nab[3,2,1], nab[3,2,2], nab[3,3,3] = x*y+z, z^3 -y^2, x*z^2 - z*y^2
+            sage: nab.torsion_form(1)
+            2-form torsion (1) of connection nabla w.r.t. Coordinate frame
+             (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z)) on the 3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nab.torsion_form(1)[:]
+            [               0             -x^2      (y^2 + y)*z]
+            [             x^2                0  x^3 - x^2 + y^2]
+            [    -(y^2 + y)*z -x^3 + x^2 - y^2                0]
+
+        Torsion 2-forms w.r.t. a non-holonomic frame::
+
+            sage: ch_basis = M.automorphism_field()
+            sage: ch_basis[1,1], ch_basis[2,2], ch_basis[3,3] = y, z, x
+            sage: e = M.default_frame().new_frame(ch_basis, 'e')
+            sage: e[1][:], e[2][:], e[3][:]
+            ([y, 0, 0], [0, z, 0], [0, 0, x])
+            sage: ef = e.coframe()
+            sage: ef[1][:], ef[2][:], ef[3][:]
+            ([1/y, 0, 0], [0, 1/z, 0], [0, 0, 1/x])
+            sage: nab.torsion_form(1, e)  # long time
+            2-form torsion (1) of connection nabla w.r.t. Vector frame
+             (M, (e_1,e_2,e_3)) on the 3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nab.torsion_form(1, e).comp(e)[:]  # long time
+            [                       0                   -x^2*z          (x*y^2 + x*y)*z]
+            [                   x^2*z                        0  (x^4 - x^3 + x*y^2)*z/y]
+            [        -(x*y^2 + x*y)*z -(x^4 - x^3 + x*y^2)*z/y                        0]
+
+        Cartan's first structure equation is
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \theta^i = \mathrm{d} e^i + \omega^i_{\ \, j} \wedge e^j
+
+        where the `\omega^i_{\ \, j}`'s are the connection 1-forms (cf.
+        :meth:`connection_form`). Let us check it on the frame e::
+
+            sage: for i in M.irange():  # long time
+            ....:     nab.torsion_form(i, e) == ef[i].exterior_derivative() + \
+            ....:      sum(nab.connection_form(i,j,e).wedge(ef[j]) for j in M.irange())
+            True
+            True
+            True
+        """
+        if frame is None:
+            frame = self._domain._def_frame
+        if frame not in self._torsion_forms:
+            forms = {}
+            frame_dom = frame.domain()
+            torsion_comp = self.torsion().comp(frame)
+            for i1 in self._domain.irange():
+                name = "torsion ({}) of connection ".format(i1) + \
+                       self._name + " w.r.t. {}".format(frame)
+                latex_name = r"\theta^" + str(i1)
+                theta = frame_dom.diff_form(2, name=name,
+                                            latex_name=latex_name)
+                ctheta = theta.set_comp(frame)
+                for k in self._domain.irange():
+                    for l in self._domain.irange(start=k+1):
+                        ctheta[k,l] = torsion_comp[[i1,k,l]]
+                forms[i1] = theta
+            self._torsion_forms[frame] = forms
+        return self._torsion_forms[frame][i]
+
+    def curvature_form(self, i, j, frame=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the curvature 2-form corresponding to the given index and
+        vector frame.
+
+        The *curvature 2-forms* with respect to the frame `(e_i)` are the
+        `n^2` 2-forms `\Omega^i_{\ \, j}` defined by
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \Omega^i_{\ \, j}(u,v) = R(e^i, e_j, u, v)
+
+        where `R` is the connection's Riemann curvature tensor (cf.
+        :meth:`riemann`), `(e^i)` is the coframe dual to `(e_i)` and `(u,v)` is
+        a generic pair of vectors.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``i``, ``j`` -- indices identifying the 2-form `\Omega^i_{\ \, j}`
+        - ``frame`` -- (default: ``None``) vector frame relative to which the
+          curvature 2-forms are defined; if ``None``, the default frame
+          of the connection's domain is assumed.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the 2-form `\Omega^i_{\ \, j}`, as an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.differentiable.diff_form.DiffForm`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Curvature 2-forms on a 3-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: c_xyz.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: nab = M.affine_connection('nabla', r'\nabla')
+            sage: nab[1,1,1], nab[1,1,2], nab[1,1,3] = x*y*z, x^2, -y*z
+            sage: nab[1,2,3], nab[1,3,1], nab[1,3,2] = -x^3, y^2*z, y^2-x^2
+            sage: nab[2,1,1], nab[2,1,2], nab[2,2,1] = z^2, x*y*z^2, -x^2
+            sage: nab[2,3,1], nab[2,3,3], nab[3,1,2] = x^2+y^2+z^2, y^2-z^2, x*y+z^2
+            sage: nab[3,2,1], nab[3,2,2], nab[3,3,3] = x*y+z, z^3 -y^2, x*z^2 - z*y^2
+            sage: nab.curvature_form(1,1)  # long time
+            2-form curvature (1,1) of connection nabla w.r.t. Coordinate frame
+             (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z)) on the 3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nab.curvature_form(1,1).display()  # long time (if above is skipped)
+            curvature (1,1) of connection nabla w.r.t. Coordinate frame
+             (M, (∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z)) = (y^2*z^3 + (x*y^3 - x)*z + 2*x) dx∧dy
+              + (x^3*z^2 - x*y) dx∧dz + (x^4*y*z^2 - z) dy∧dz
+
+        Curvature 2-forms w.r.t. a non-holonomic frame::
+
+            sage: ch_basis = M.automorphism_field()
+            sage: ch_basis[1,1], ch_basis[2,2], ch_basis[3,3] = y, z, x
+            sage: e = M.default_frame().new_frame(ch_basis, 'e')
+            sage: e[1].display(), e[2].display(), e[3].display()
+            (e_1 = y ∂/∂x, e_2 = z ∂/∂y, e_3 = x ∂/∂z)
+            sage: ef = e.coframe()
+            sage: ef[1].display(), ef[2].display(), ef[3].display()
+            (e^1 = 1/y dx, e^2 = 1/z dy, e^3 = 1/x dz)
+            sage: nab.curvature_form(1,1,e)  # long time
+            2-form curvature (1,1) of connection nabla w.r.t. Vector frame
+             (M, (e_1,e_2,e_3)) on the 3-dimensional differentiable manifold M
+            sage: nab.curvature_form(1,1,e).display(e)  # long time (if above is skipped)
+            curvature (1,1) of connection nabla w.r.t. Vector frame
+             (M, (e_1,e_2,e_3)) =
+              (y^3*z^4 + 2*x*y*z + (x*y^4 - x*y)*z^2) e^1∧e^2
+              + (x^4*y*z^2 - x^2*y^2) e^1∧e^3 + (x^5*y*z^3 - x*z^2) e^2∧e^3
+
+        Cartan's second structure equation is
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \Omega^i_{\ \, j} = \mathrm{d} \omega^i_{\ \, j}
+                                + \omega^i_{\ \, k} \wedge \omega^k_{\ \, j}
+
+        where the `\omega^i_{\ \, j}`'s are the connection 1-forms (cf.
+        :meth:`connection_form`). Let us check it on the frame e::
+
+            sage: omega = nab.connection_form
+            sage: check = []
+            sage: for i in M.irange():  # long time
+            ....:     for j in M.irange():
+            ....:         check.append( nab.curvature_form(i,j,e) == \
+            ....:                       omega(i,j,e).exterior_derivative() + \
+            ....:         sum( omega(i,k,e).wedge(omega(k,j,e)) for k in M.irange()) )
+            sage: check  # long time
+            [True, True, True, True, True, True, True, True, True]
+        """
+        if frame is None:
+            frame = self._domain._def_frame
+        if frame not in self._curvature_forms:
+            forms = {}
+            frame_dom = frame.domain()
+            riemann_comp = self.riemann().comp(frame)
+            for i1 in self._domain.irange():
+                for j1 in self._domain.irange():
+                    name = "curvature ({},{}) of connection ".format(i1,j1) + \
+                           self._name + " w.r.t. {}".format(frame)
+                    latex_name = r"\Omega^" + str(i1) + r"_{\ \, " + \
+                                str(j1) + "}"
+                    omega = frame_dom.diff_form(2, name=name,
+                                                latex_name=latex_name)
+                    comega = omega.set_comp(frame)
+                    for k in self._domain.irange():
+                        for l in self._domain.irange(start=k+1):
+                            comega[k,l] = riemann_comp[[i1,j1,k,l]]
+                    forms[(i1,j1)] = omega
+            self._curvature_forms[frame] = forms
+        return self._curvature_forms[frame][(i, j)]
+
+    def set_calc_order(self, symbol, order, truncate=False):
+        r"""
+        Trigger a series expansion with respect to a small parameter in
+        computations involving ``self``.
+
+        This property is propagated by usual operations. The internal
+        representation must be ``SR`` for this to take effect.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``symbol`` -- symbolic variable (the "small parameter" `\epsilon`)
+          with respect to which the connection coefficients are expanded in
+          power series
+        - ``order`` -- integer; the order `n` of the expansion, defined as the
+          degree of the polynomial representing the truncated power series in
+          ``symbol``
+        - ``truncate`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); determines whether the
+          connection coefficients are replaced by their expansions to the
+          given order
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(4, 'M', structure='Lorentzian')
+            sage: C.<t,x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: e = var('e')
+            sage: g = M.metric()
+            sage: h = M.tensor_field(0, 2, sym=(0,1))
+            sage: g[0, 0], g[1, 1], g[2, 2], g[3, 3] = -1, 1, 1, 1
+            sage: h[0, 1] = x
+            sage: g.set(g + e*h)
+            sage: g[:]
+            [ -1 e*x   0   0]
+            [e*x   1   0   0]
+            [  0   0   1   0]
+            [  0   0   0   1]
+            sage: nab = g.connection()
+            sage: nab[0, 1, 1]
+            -e/(e^2*x^2 + 1)
+            sage: nab.set_calc_order(e, 1, truncate=True)
+            sage: nab[0, 1, 1]
+            -e
+        """
+        for coef in self._coefficients.values():
+            for ind in coef.non_redundant_index_generator():
+                coef[ind]._expansion_symbol = symbol
+                coef[ind]._order = order
+                if truncate:
+                    coef[ind].simplify()
+        self._del_derived()
+
+    @cached_method
+    def __hash__(self):
+        r"""
+        Hash function.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: eX = X.frame()
+            sage: nab1 = M.affine_connection('nabla1', latex_name=r'\nabla_1')
+            sage: nab1.set_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab2 = M.affine_connection('nabla2', latex_name=r'\nabla_2')
+            sage: nab2.set_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab1.set_immutable(); nab2.set_immutable()
+            sage: nab1 == nab2
+            True
+            sage: hash(nab1) == hash(nab2)
+            True
+
+        Let us check that affine connections can be used as dictionary keys::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: eX = X.frame()
+            sage: nab1 = M.affine_connection('nabla1', latex_name=r'\nabla_1')
+            sage: nab1.set_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x*y
+            sage: nab2 = M.affine_connection('nabla2', latex_name=r'\nabla_2')
+            sage: nab2.set_coef(eX)[1,2,1] = x^2
+            sage: nab1.set_immutable(); nab2.set_immutable()
+            sage: d = {nab1: 1, nab2: 2}
+            sage: d[nab1]
+            1
+            sage: d[nab2]
+            2
+        """
+        if self.is_mutable():
+            raise ValueError('element must be immutable in order to be '
+                             'hashable')
+        return hash((type(self).__name__, self._domain))