passagemath-objects 10.6.47__cp311-cp311-macosx_13_0_x86_64.whl

sage/structure/category_object.pyx

@@ -0,0 +1,1087 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-objects
+# cython: old_style_globals=True
+r"""
+Base class for objects of a category
+
+CLASS HIERARCHY:
+
+- :class:`~sage.structure.sage_object.SageObject`
+
+  - **CategoryObject**
+
+    - :class:`~sage.structure.parent.Parent`
+
+Many category objects in Sage are equipped with generators, which are
+usually special elements of the object.  For example, the polynomial ring
+`\ZZ[x,y,z]` is generated by `x`, `y`, and `z`.  In Sage the ``i`` th
+generator of an object ``X`` is obtained using the notation
+``X.gen(i)``.  From the Sage interactive prompt, the shorthand
+notation ``X.i`` is also allowed.
+
+The following examples illustrate these functions in the context of
+multivariate polynomial rings and free modules.
+
+EXAMPLES::
+
+    sage: R = PolynomialRing(ZZ, 3, 'x')
+    sage: R.ngens()
+    3
+    sage: R.gen(0)
+    x0
+    sage: R.gens()
+    (x0, x1, x2)
+    sage: R.variable_names()
+    ('x0', 'x1', 'x2')
+
+This example illustrates generators for a free module over `\ZZ`.
+
+::
+
+    sage: # needs sage.modules
+    sage: M = FreeModule(ZZ, 4)
+    sage: M
+    Ambient free module of rank 4 over the principal ideal domain Integer Ring
+    sage: M.ngens()
+    4
+    sage: M.gen(0)
+    (1, 0, 0, 0)
+    sage: M.gens()
+    ((1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1))
+"""
+
+# ****************************************************************************
+# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation, either version 2 of the License, or
+# (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+from sage.cpython.getattr import dir_with_other_class
+from sage.cpython.getattr cimport getattr_from_other_class
+from sage.categories.category import Category
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from sage.structure.dynamic_class import DynamicMetaclass
+
+
+cpdef inline check_default_category(default_category, category):
+    """
+    The resulting category is guaranteed to be
+    a sub-category of the default.
+    """
+    if category is None:
+        return default_category
+    return default_category.join([default_category, category])
+
+
+cdef class CategoryObject(SageObject):
+    """
+    An object in some category.
+    """
+    def __init__(self, category=None, base=None):
+        """
+        Initialize an object in a category.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``category`` -- the category this object belongs to; if this object
+          belongs to multiple categories, those can be passed as a tuple
+        - ``base`` -- if this object has another object that should be
+          considered a base in its primary category, you can include that base
+          here
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.structure.category_object import CategoryObject
+            sage: A = CategoryObject()
+            sage: A.category()
+            Category of objects
+            sage: A.base()
+
+            sage: A = CategoryObject(category = Rings(), base = QQ)
+            sage: A.category()
+            Category of rings
+            sage: A.base()
+            Rational Field
+
+            sage: A = CategoryObject(category = (Semigroups(), CommutativeAdditiveSemigroups()))
+            sage: A.category()
+            Join of Category of semigroups and Category of commutative additive semigroups
+
+        FIXME: the base and generators attributes have nothing to do with categories, do they?
+        """
+        if base is not None:
+            self._base = base
+        if category is not None:
+            self._init_category_(category)
+
+    def __cinit__(self):
+        self._cached_methods = {}
+        self._hash_value = -1
+
+    def _init_category_(self, category):
+        """
+        Set the category or categories of this object.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``category`` -- a category, or list or tuple thereof
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: A = sage.structure.category_object.CategoryObject()
+            sage: A._init_category_(Rings())
+            sage: A.category()
+            Category of rings
+            sage: A._init_category_((Semigroups(), CommutativeAdditiveSemigroups()))
+            sage: A.category()
+            Join of Category of semigroups and Category of commutative additive semigroups
+            sage: P = Parent(category=None)
+            sage: P.category()
+            Category of sets
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: A = sage.structure.category_object.CategoryObject()
+            sage: A._init_category_(None)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: CategoryObject of type CategoryObject requires a Category, list or tuple, not NoneType
+        """
+        if isinstance(category, Category):
+            self._category = category
+        elif isinstance(category, (list, tuple)):
+            self._category = Category.join(category)
+        else:
+            raise TypeError(f"CategoryObject of type {type(self).__name__} requires a Category, list or tuple, not {type(category).__name__}")
+
+    def _refine_category_(self, category):
+        """
+        Change the category of ``self`` into a subcategory.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``category`` -- a category or list or tuple thereof
+
+        The new category is obtained by adjoining ``category`` to the
+        current one.
+
+        .. SEEALSO:: :function:`Category.join`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P = Parent()
+            sage: P.category()
+            Category of sets
+            sage: P._refine_category_(Magmas())
+            sage: P.category()
+            Category of magmas
+            sage: P._refine_category_(Magmas())
+            sage: P.category()
+            Category of magmas
+            sage: P._refine_category_(EnumeratedSets())
+            sage: P.category()
+            Category of enumerated magmas
+            sage: P._refine_category_([Semigroups(), CommutativeAdditiveSemigroups()])
+            sage: P.category()
+            Join of Category of semigroups and Category of commutative additive semigroups and Category of enumerated sets
+            sage: P._refine_category_((CommutativeAdditiveMonoids(), Monoids()))
+            sage: P.category()
+            Join of Category of monoids and Category of commutative additive monoids and Category of enumerated sets
+        """
+        if self._category is None:
+            self._init_category_(category)
+            return
+        if not isinstance(category, (tuple, list)):
+            category = [category]
+        self._category = self._category.join([self._category]+list(category))
+
+    def _is_category_initialized(self):
+        return self._category is not None
+
+    def category(self):
+        if self._category is None:
+            # COERCE TODO: we shouldn't need this
+            from sage.categories.objects import Objects
+            self._category = Objects()
+        return self._category
+
+    def categories(self):
+        """
+        Return the categories of ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: ZZ.categories()
+            [Join of Category of Dedekind domains
+                 and Category of euclidean domains
+                 and Category of noetherian rings
+                 and Category of infinite enumerated sets
+                 and Category of metric spaces,
+             Category of Dedekind domains,
+             Category of euclidean domains,
+             Category of principal ideal domains,
+             Category of unique factorization domains,
+             Category of gcd domains,
+             Category of integral domains,
+             Category of domains, ...
+             Category of commutative rings, ...
+             Category of monoids, ...,
+             Category of commutative additive groups, ...,
+             Category of sets, ...,
+             Category of objects]
+        """
+        return self.category().all_super_categories()
+
+    def _underlying_class(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the underlying class (class without the attached
+        categories) of the given object.
+
+        OUTPUT: a class
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: type(QQ)
+            <class 'sage.rings.rational_field.RationalField_with_category'>
+            sage: QQ._underlying_class()
+            <class 'sage.rings.rational_field.RationalField'>
+            sage: type(ZZ)
+            <... 'sage.rings.integer_ring.IntegerRing_class'>
+            sage: ZZ._underlying_class()
+            <... 'sage.rings.integer_ring.IntegerRing_class'>
+        """
+        cls = type(self)
+        if isinstance(cls, DynamicMetaclass):
+            return cls.__bases__[0]
+        else:
+            return cls
+
+    ##############################################################################
+    # Generators
+    ##############################################################################
+
+    @cached_method
+    def __gens_dict(self):
+        cdef dict v = {}
+        for x in self._defining_names():
+            v[str(x)] = x
+        return v
+
+    def gens_dict(self, *, copy=True):
+        r"""
+        Return a dictionary whose entries are ``{name:variable,...}``,
+        where ``name`` stands for the variable names of this
+        object (as strings) and ``variable`` stands for the
+        corresponding defining generators (as elements of this object).
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: B.<a,b,c,d> = BooleanPolynomialRing()                                 # needs sage.rings.polynomial.pbori
+            sage: B.gens_dict()                                                         # needs sage.rings.polynomial.pbori
+            {'a': a, 'b': b, 'c': c, 'd': d}
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: B.<a,b,c,d> = PolynomialRing(QQ)
+            sage: B.gens_dict(copy=False) is B.gens_dict(copy=False)
+            True
+            sage: B.gens_dict(copy=False) is B.gens_dict()
+            False
+        """
+        if copy:
+            return dict(self.__gens_dict())
+        else:
+            return self.__gens_dict()
+
+    def gens_dict_recursive(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the dictionary of generators of ``self`` and its base rings.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - a dictionary with string names of generators as keys and
+          generators of ``self`` and its base rings as values.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R = QQ['x,y']['z,w']
+            sage: sorted(R.gens_dict_recursive().items())
+            [('w', w), ('x', x), ('y', y), ('z', z)]
+        """
+        B = self.base_ring()
+        if B is self:
+            return {}
+        GDR = B.gens_dict_recursive()
+        GDR.update(self.gens_dict())
+        return GDR
+
+    def objgens(self):
+        """
+        Return the tuple ``(self, self.gens())``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R = PolynomialRing(QQ, 3, 'x'); R
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x0, x1, x2 over Rational Field
+            sage: R.objgens()
+            (Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x0, x1, x2 over Rational Field, (x0, x1, x2))
+        """
+        return self, self.gens()
+
+    def objgen(self):
+        """
+        Return the tuple ``(self, self.gen())``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R, x = PolynomialRing(QQ,'x').objgen()
+            sage: R
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            sage: x
+            x
+        """
+        return self, self.gen()
+
+    def _first_ngens(self, n):
+        """
+        Used by the preparser for ``R.<x> = ...``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x> = PolynomialRing(QQ)
+            sage: x
+            x
+            sage: parent(x)
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+        For orders, we correctly use the ring generator, see
+        :issue:`15348`::
+
+            sage: A.<i> = ZZ.extension(x^2 + 1)                                         # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: i                                                                     # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            i
+            sage: parent(i)                                                             # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            Gaussian Integers generated by i
+             in Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: B.<z> = EquationOrder(x^2 + 3)                                        # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: z.minpoly()                                                           # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            x^2 + 3
+        """
+        names = self._defining_names()
+        if isinstance(names, (list, tuple)):
+            return names[:n]
+        # case of Family
+        it = iter(names)
+        return tuple(next(it) for i in range(n))
+
+    @cached_method
+    def _defining_names(self):
+        """
+        The elements used to "define" this object.
+
+        What this means depends on the type of object: for rings, it
+        usually means generators as a ring. The result of this function
+        is not required to generate the object, but it should contain
+        all named elements if the object was constructed using a
+        ``names'' argument.
+
+        This function is used by the preparser to implement
+        ``R.<x> = ...`` and it is also used by :meth:`gens_dict`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x> = PolynomialRing(QQ)
+            sage: R._defining_names()
+            (x,)
+
+        For orders, we correctly use the ring generator, see
+        :issue:`15348`::
+
+            sage: B.<z> = EquationOrder(x^2 + 3)                                        # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: B._defining_names()                                                   # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            (z,)
+
+        For vector spaces and free modules, we get a basis (which can
+        be different from the given generators)::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: V = ZZ^3
+            sage: V._defining_names()
+            ((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1))
+            sage: W = V.span([(0, 1, 0), (1/2, 1, 0)])
+            sage: W._defining_names()
+            ((1/2, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0))
+        """
+        return self.gens()
+
+    #################################################################################################
+    # Names and Printers
+    #################################################################################################
+
+    def _assign_names(self, names=None, normalize=True, ngens=None):
+        """
+        Set the names of the generator of this object.
+
+        This can only be done once because objects with generators
+        are immutable, and is typically done during creation of the object.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+        When we create this polynomial ring, self._assign_names is called by the constructor::
+
+            sage: R = QQ['x,y,abc']; R
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, abc over Rational Field
+            sage: R.2
+            abc
+
+        We can't rename the variables::
+
+            sage: R._assign_names(['a','b','c'])
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: variable names cannot be changed after object creation.
+        """
+        # this will eventually all be handled by the printer
+        if names is None: return
+        if normalize:
+            if ngens is None:
+                ngens = -1  # unknown
+            names = normalize_names(ngens, names)
+        if self._names is not None and names != self._names:
+            raise ValueError('variable names cannot be changed after object creation.')
+        if isinstance(names, str):
+            names = (names, )  # make it a tuple
+        elif isinstance(names, list):
+            names = tuple(names)
+        elif not isinstance(names, tuple):
+            raise TypeError("names must be a tuple of strings")
+        self._names = names
+
+    def variable_names(self):
+        """
+        Return the list of variable names corresponding to the generators.
+
+        OUTPUT: a tuple of strings
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<z,y,a42> = QQ[]
+            sage: R.variable_names()
+            ('z', 'y', 'a42')
+            sage: S = R.quotient_ring(z+y)
+            sage: S.variable_names()
+            ('zbar', 'ybar', 'a42bar')
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: T.<x> = InfinitePolynomialRing(ZZ)
+            sage: T.variable_names()
+            ('x',)
+        """
+        if self._names is not None:
+            return self._names
+        raise ValueError("variable names have not yet been set using self._assign_names(...)")
+
+    def variable_name(self):
+        """
+        Return the first variable name.
+
+        OUTPUT: string
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<z,y,a42> = ZZ[]
+            sage: R.variable_name()
+            'z'
+            sage: R.<x> = InfinitePolynomialRing(ZZ)
+            sage: R.variable_name()
+            'x'
+        """
+        return self.variable_names()[0]
+
+    def _temporarily_change_names(self, names, latex_names):
+        """
+        This is used by the variable names context manager.
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        In an old version, it was impossible to temporarily change
+        the names if no names were previously assigned. But if one
+        wants to print elements of the quotient of such an "unnamed"
+        ring, an error resulted. That was fixed in :issue:`11068`::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: MS = MatrixSpace(GF(5), 2, 2)
+            sage: I = MS * [MS.0*MS.1, MS.2 + MS.3] * MS
+            sage: Q.<a,b,c,d> = MS.quo(I)
+            sage: a     #indirect doctest
+            [1 0]
+            [0 0]
+        """
+        # old = self._names, self._latex_names
+        # We cannot assume that self *has* _latex_variable_names.
+        # But there is a method that returns them and sets
+        # the attribute at the same time, if needed.
+        # Simon King: It is not necessarily the case that variable
+        # names are assigned. In that case, self._names is None,
+        # and self.variable_names() raises a ValueError
+        try:
+            old = self.variable_names(), self.latex_variable_names()
+        except ValueError:
+            old = None, None
+        self._names, self._latex_names = names, latex_names
+        return old
+
+    def inject_variables(self, scope=None, verbose=True):
+        """
+        Inject the generators of ``self`` with their names into the
+        namespace of the Python code from which this function is
+        called.
+
+        Thus, e.g., if the generators of ``self`` are labeled
+        'a', 'b', and 'c', then after calling this method the
+        variables a, b, and c in the current scope will be set
+        equal to the generators of ``self``.
+
+        NOTE: If Foo is a constructor for a Sage object with generators, and
+        Foo is defined in Cython, then it would typically call
+        ``inject_variables()`` on the object it creates.  E.g.,
+        ``PolynomialRing(QQ, 'y')`` does this so that the variable y is the
+        generator of the polynomial ring.
+        """
+        vs = self.variable_names()
+        gs = self.gens()
+        if scope is None:
+            scope = globals()
+        if verbose:
+            print("Defining %s" % (', '.join(vs)))
+        for v, g in zip(vs, gs):
+            scope[v] = g
+
+    #################################################################################################
+    # Bases
+    #################################################################################################
+
+    def base_ring(self):
+        """
+        Return the base ring of ``self``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- an object over a base ring; typically a module
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.modules.module import Module
+            sage: Module(ZZ).base_ring()
+            Integer Ring
+
+            sage: F = FreeModule(ZZ, 3)                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F.base_ring()                                                         # needs sage.modules
+            Integer Ring
+            sage: F.__class__.base_ring                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            <method 'base_ring' of 'sage.structure.category_object.CategoryObject' objects>
+
+        Note that the coordinates of the elements of a module can lie
+        in a bigger ring, the ``coordinate_ring``::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: M = (ZZ^2) * (1/2)
+            sage: v = M([1/2, 0])
+            sage: v.base_ring()
+            Integer Ring
+            sage: parent(v[0])
+            Rational Field
+            sage: v.coordinate_ring()
+            Rational Field
+
+        More examples::
+
+            sage: F = FreeAlgebra(QQ, 'x')                                              # needs sage.combinat sage.modules
+            sage: F.base_ring()                                                         # needs sage.combinat sage.modules
+            Rational Field
+            sage: F.__class__.base_ring                                                 # needs sage.combinat sage.modules
+            <method 'base_ring' of 'sage.structure.category_object.CategoryObject' objects>
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: E = CombinatorialFreeModule(ZZ, [1,2,3])
+            sage: F = CombinatorialFreeModule(ZZ, [2,3,4])
+            sage: H = Hom(E, F)
+            sage: H.base_ring()
+            Integer Ring
+            sage: H.__class__.base_ring
+            <method 'base_ring' of 'sage.structure.category_object.CategoryObject' objects>
+
+        .. TODO::
+
+            Move this method elsewhere (typically in the Modules
+            category) so as not to pollute the namespace of all
+            category objects.
+        """
+        return self._base
+
+    def base(self):
+        return self._base
+
+    ############################################################################
+    # Homomorphism --
+    ############################################################################
+    def Hom(self, codomain, cat=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the homspace ``Hom(self, codomain, cat)`` of all
+        homomorphisms from ``self`` to ``codomain`` in the category ``cat``.
+
+        The default category is determined by ``self.category()`` and
+        ``codomain.category()``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y> = PolynomialRing(QQ, 2)
+            sage: R.Hom(QQ)
+            Set of Homomorphisms
+             from Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field
+               to Rational Field
+
+        Homspaces are defined for very general Sage objects, even elements of familiar rings.
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: n = 5; Hom(n,7)
+            Set of Morphisms from 5 to 7 in Category of elements of Integer Ring
+            sage: z = 2/3; Hom(z, 8/1)
+            Set of Morphisms from 2/3 to 8 in Category of elements of Rational Field
+
+        This example illustrates the optional third argument::
+
+            sage: QQ.Hom(ZZ, Sets())
+            Set of Morphisms from Rational Field to Integer Ring in Category of sets
+        """
+        try:
+            return self._Hom_(codomain, cat)
+        except (AttributeError, TypeError):
+            pass
+        from sage.categories.homset import Hom
+        return Hom(self, codomain, cat)
+
+    def latex_variable_names(self):
+        """
+        Return the list of variable names suitable for latex output.
+
+        All ``_SOMETHING`` substrings are replaced by ``_{SOMETHING}``
+        recursively so that subscripts of subscripts work.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R, x = PolynomialRing(QQ, 'x', 12).objgens()
+            sage: x
+            (x0, x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, x7, x8, x9, x10, x11)
+            sage: R.latex_variable_names ()
+            ['x_{0}', 'x_{1}', 'x_{2}', 'x_{3}', 'x_{4}', 'x_{5}', 'x_{6}',
+             'x_{7}', 'x_{8}', 'x_{9}', 'x_{10}', 'x_{11}']
+            sage: f = x[0]^3 + 15/3 * x[1]^10
+            sage: print(latex(f))
+            5 x_{1}^{10} + x_{0}^{3}
+        """
+        from sage.misc.latex import latex_variable_name
+        try:
+            names = self._latex_names
+            if names is not None:
+                return names
+        except AttributeError:
+            pass
+        # Compute the latex versions of the variable names.
+        self._latex_names = [latex_variable_name(x)
+                             for x in self.variable_names()]
+        return self._latex_names
+
+    def latex_name(self):
+        return self.latex_variable_names()[0]
+
+    #################################################################################
+    # Give all objects with generators a dictionary, so that attribute setting
+    # works.   It would be nice if this functionality were standard in Cython,
+    # i.e., just define __dict__ as an attribute and all this code gets generated.
+    #################################################################################
+    def __getstate__(self):
+        try:
+            d = self.__dict__.copy()  # so we can add elements
+        except AttributeError:
+            d = {}
+        d['_category'] = self._category
+        d['_base'] = self._base
+        d['_names'] = self._names
+        ###########
+        # The _pickle_version ensures that the unpickling for objects created
+        # in different versions of sage works across versions.
+        # Update this integer if you change any of these attributes
+        ###########
+        d['_pickle_version'] = 1
+
+        return d
+
+    def __setstate__(self, d):
+        try:
+            version = d['_pickle_version']
+        except KeyError:
+            version = 0
+        try:
+            if version == 1:
+                if d['_category'] is not None:
+                    # We must not erase the category information of
+                    # self.  Otherwise, pickles break (e.g., QQ should
+                    # be a commutative ring, but when QQ._category is
+                    # None then it only knows that it is a ring!
+                    if self._category is None:
+                        self._category = d['_category']
+                    else:
+                        self._category = self._category.join([self._category,d['_category']])
+                self._base = d['_base']
+                self._names = d['_names']
+            elif version == 0:
+                # In the old code, this functionality was in parent_gens,
+                # but there were parents that didn't inherit from parent_gens.
+                # If we have such, then we only need to deal with the dictionary.
+                try:
+                    self._base = d['_base']
+                    self._names = d['_names']
+                    # We throw away d['_latex_names'] and d['_list']
+                except (AttributeError, KeyError):
+                    pass
+            try:
+                self.__dict__ = d
+            except AttributeError:
+                pass
+        except (AttributeError, KeyError):
+            raise
+            # raise RuntimeError("If you change the pickling code in parent or category_object, you need to update the _pickle_version field")
+
+    def __hash__(self):
+        """
+        A default hash based on the string representation of ``self``.
+
+        It is cached to remain consistent throughout a session, even
+        if the representation changes.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: bla = PolynomialRing(ZZ,"x")
+            sage: h1 = hash(bla)
+            sage: h1  # random
+            -5279516879544852222
+            sage: bla.rename('toto')
+            sage: h2 = hash(bla)
+            sage: h2  # random
+            -5279516879544852222
+            sage: h1 == h2
+            True
+        """
+        if self._hash_value == -1:
+            self._hash_value = hash(repr(self))
+        return self._hash_value
+
+    ##############################################################################
+    # Getting attributes from the category
+    ##############################################################################
+
+    def __getattr__(self, name):
+        """
+        Let cat be the category of ``self``. This method emulates
+        ``self`` being an instance of both ``CategoryObject`` and
+        ``cat.parent_class``, in that order, for attribute lookup.
+
+        This attribute lookup is cached for speed.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        We test that ZZ (an extension type) inherits the methods from
+        its categories, that is from ``EuclideanDomains().parent_class``::
+
+            sage: ZZ._test_associativity
+            <bound method Semigroups.ParentMethods._test_associativity of Integer Ring>
+            sage: ZZ._test_associativity(verbose = True)
+            sage: TestSuite(ZZ).run(verbose = True)
+            running ._test_additive_associativity() . . . pass
+            running ._test_an_element() . . . pass
+            running ._test_associativity() . . . pass
+            running ._test_cardinality() . . . pass
+            running ._test_category() . . . pass
+            running ._test_characteristic() . . . pass
+            running ._test_construction() . . . pass
+            running ._test_distributivity() . . . pass
+            running ._test_divides() . . . pass
+            running ._test_elements() . . .
+              Running the test suite of self.an_element()
+              running ._test_category() . . . pass
+              running ._test_eq() . . . pass
+              running ._test_new() . . . pass
+              running ._test_nonzero_equal() . . . pass
+              running ._test_not_implemented_methods() . . . pass
+              running ._test_pickling() . . . pass
+              pass
+            running ._test_elements_eq_reflexive() . . . pass
+            running ._test_elements_eq_symmetric() . . . pass
+            running ._test_elements_eq_transitive() . . . pass
+            running ._test_elements_neq() . . . pass
+            running ._test_enumerated_set_contains() . . . pass
+            running ._test_enumerated_set_iter_cardinality() . . . pass
+            running ._test_enumerated_set_iter_list() . . . pass
+            running ._test_eq() . . . pass
+            running ._test_euclidean_degree() . . . pass
+            running ._test_fraction_field() . . . pass
+            running ._test_gcd_vs_xgcd() . . . pass
+            running ._test_metric_function() . . . pass
+            running ._test_new() . . . pass
+            running ._test_not_implemented_methods() . . . pass
+            running ._test_one() . . . pass
+            running ._test_pickling() . . . pass
+            running ._test_prod() . . . pass
+            running ._test_quo_rem() . . . pass
+            running ._test_some_elements() . . . pass
+            running ._test_zero() . . . pass
+            running ._test_zero_divisors() . . . pass
+
+            sage: Sets().example().sadfasdf
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            AttributeError: 'PrimeNumbers_with_category' object has no attribute 'sadfasdf'...
+        """
+        return self.getattr_from_category(name)
+
+    cdef getattr_from_category(self, name):
+        # Lookup a method or attribute from the category abstract classes.
+        # See __getattr__ above for documentation.
+        try:
+            return self._cached_methods[name]
+        except KeyError:
+            if self._category is None:
+                # Usually, this will just raise AttributeError in
+                # getattr_from_other_class().
+                cls = type
+            else:
+                cls = self._category.parent_class
+
+            attr = getattr_from_other_class(self, cls, name)
+            self._cached_methods[name] = attr
+            return attr
+
+    def __dir__(self):
+        """
+        Let cat be the category of ``self``. This method emulates
+        ``self`` being an instance of both ``CategoryObject`` and
+        ``cat.parent_class``, in that order, for attribute directory.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: for s in dir(ZZ):
+            ....:     if s[:6] == "_test_": print(s)
+            _test_additive_associativity
+            _test_an_element
+            _test_associativity
+            _test_cardinality
+            _test_category
+            _test_characteristic
+            _test_construction
+            _test_distributivity
+            _test_divides
+            _test_elements
+            _test_elements_eq_reflexive
+            _test_elements_eq_symmetric
+            _test_elements_eq_transitive
+            _test_elements_neq
+            _test_enumerated_set_contains
+            _test_enumerated_set_iter_cardinality
+            _test_enumerated_set_iter_list
+            _test_eq
+            _test_euclidean_degree
+            _test_fraction_field
+            _test_gcd_vs_xgcd
+            _test_metric_function
+            _test_new
+            _test_not_implemented_methods
+            _test_one
+            _test_pickling
+            _test_prod
+            _test_quo_rem
+            _test_some_elements
+            _test_zero
+            _test_zero_divisors
+            sage: F = GF(9,'a')                                                         # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: dir(F)                                                                # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            [..., '__class__', ..., '_test_pickling', ..., 'extension', ...]
+        """
+        return dir_with_other_class(self, self.category().parent_class)
+
+cpdef normalize_names(Py_ssize_t ngens, names):
+    r"""
+    Return a tuple of strings of variable names of length ngens given
+    the input names.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``ngens`` -- integer; number of generators. The value ``ngens=-1``
+      means that the number of generators is unknown a priori.
+
+    - ``names`` -- any of the following:
+
+      - a tuple or list of strings, such as ``('x', 'y')``
+
+      - a comma-separated string, such as ``x,y``
+
+      - a string prefix, such as 'alpha'
+
+      - a string of single character names, such as 'xyz'
+
+    OUTPUT: a tuple of ``ngens`` strings to be used as variable names
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.category_object import normalize_names as nn
+        sage: nn(0, "")
+        ()
+        sage: nn(0, [])
+        ()
+        sage: nn(0, None)
+        ()
+        sage: nn(1, 'a')
+        ('a',)
+        sage: nn(2, 'z_z')
+        ('z_z0', 'z_z1')
+        sage: nn(3, 'x, y, z')
+        ('x', 'y', 'z')
+        sage: nn(2, 'ab')
+        ('a', 'b')
+        sage: nn(2, 'x0')
+        ('x00', 'x01')
+        sage: nn(3, (' a ', ' bb ', ' ccc '))
+        ('a', 'bb', 'ccc')
+        sage: nn(4, ['a1', 'a2', 'b1', 'b11'])
+        ('a1', 'a2', 'b1', 'b11')
+
+    Arguments are converted to strings::
+
+        sage: nn(1, u'a')
+        ('a',)
+        sage: var('alpha')                                                              # needs sage.symbolic
+        alpha
+        sage: nn(2, alpha)                                                              # needs sage.symbolic
+        ('alpha0', 'alpha1')
+        sage: nn(1, [alpha])                                                            # needs sage.symbolic
+        ('alpha',)
+
+    With an unknown number of generators::
+
+        sage: nn(-1, 'a')
+        ('a',)
+        sage: nn(-1, 'x, y, z')
+        ('x', 'y', 'z')
+
+    Test errors::
+
+        sage: nn(3, ["x", "y"])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        IndexError: the number of names must equal the number of generators
+        sage: nn(None, "a")
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        TypeError: 'NoneType' object cannot be interpreted as an integer
+        sage: nn(1, "")
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: variable name must be nonempty
+        sage: nn(1, "foo@")
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: variable name 'foo@' is not alphanumeric
+        sage: nn(2, "_foo")
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: variable name '_foo0' does not start with a letter
+        sage: nn(1, 3/2)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: variable name '3/2' is not alphanumeric
+    """
+    if isinstance(names, (tuple, list)):
+        # Convert names to strings and strip whitespace
+        names = [str(x).strip() for x in names]
+    else:
+        # Interpret names as string and convert to tuple of strings
+        names = str(names)
+
+        if ',' in names:
+            names = [x.strip() for x in names.split(',')]
+        elif ngens > 1 and len(names) == ngens:
+            # Split a name like "xyz" into ("x", "y", "z")
+            try:
+                certify_names(names)
+                names = tuple(names)
+            except ValueError:
+                pass
+        if isinstance(names, str):
+            if ngens < 0:
+                names = [names]
+            else:
+                import sage.misc.defaults
+                names = sage.misc.defaults.variable_names(ngens, names)
+
+    certify_names(names)
+    if ngens >= 0 and len(names) != ngens:
+        raise IndexError("the number of names must equal the number of generators")
+    return tuple(names)
+
+
+cpdef bint certify_names(names) except -1:
+    """
+    Check that ``names`` are valid variable names.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``names`` -- an iterable with strings representing variable names
+
+    OUTPUT: ``True`` (for efficiency of the Cython call)
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.category_object import certify_names as cn
+        sage: cn(["a", "b", "c"])
+        1
+        sage: cn("abc")
+        1
+        sage: cn([])
+        1
+        sage: cn([""])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: variable name must be nonempty
+        sage: cn(["_foo"])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: variable name '_foo' does not start with a letter
+        sage: cn(["x'"])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: variable name "x'" is not alphanumeric
+        sage: cn(["a", "b", "b"])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: variable name 'b' appears more than once
+    """
+    cdef set s = set()
+    for N in names:
+        if not isinstance(N, str):
+            raise TypeError("variable name {!r} must be a string, not {}".format(N, type(N)))
+        if not N:
+            raise ValueError("variable name must be nonempty")
+        if not N.replace("_", "").isalnum():
+            # We must be alphanumeric, but we make an exception for non-leading '_' characters.
+            raise ValueError("variable name {!r} is not alphanumeric".format(N))
+        if not N[0].isalpha():
+            raise ValueError("variable name {!r} does not start with a letter".format(N))
+        if N in s:
+            raise ValueError("variable name {!r} appears more than once".format(N))
+        s.add(N)
+    return True