passagemath-flint 10.6.1rc10__cp311-cp311-manylinux_2_27_x86_64.manylinux_2_28_x86_64.whl

sage/rings/number_field/order.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2981 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-flint
+# sage.doctest: needs sage.libs.linbox
+"""
+Orders in number fields
+
+EXAMPLES:
+
+We define an absolute order::
+
+    sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+    sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 1); O = K.order(2*a)
+    sage: O.basis()
+    [1, 2*a]
+
+We compute a basis for an order in a relative extension
+that is generated by 2 elements::
+
+    sage: K.<a,b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 - 3])
+    sage: O = K.order([3*a, 2*b])
+    sage: O.basis()
+    [1, 3*a - 2*b, -6*b*a + 6, 3*a]
+
+We compute a maximal order of a degree 10 field::
+
+    sage: K.<a> = NumberField((x+1)^10 + 17)
+    sage: K.maximal_order()
+    Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial
+     x^10 + 10*x^9 + 45*x^8 + 120*x^7 + 210*x^6 + 252*x^5 + 210*x^4 + 120*x^3 + 45*x^2 + 10*x + 18
+
+We compute a suborder, which has index a power of 17 in the maximal order::
+
+    sage: O = K.order(17*a); O
+    Order generated by 17*a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial
+     x^10 + 10*x^9 + 45*x^8 + 120*x^7 + 210*x^6 + 252*x^5 + 210*x^4 + 120*x^3 + 45*x^2 + 10*x + 18
+    sage: m = O.index_in(K.maximal_order()); m
+    23453165165327788911665591944416226304630809183732482257
+    sage: factor(m)
+    17^45
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- William Stein and Robert Bradshaw (2007-09): initial version
+"""
+# ****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C)      2007 Robert Bradshaw <robertwb@gmail.com>
+#                     2007-2009 William Stein <wstein@gmail.com>
+#                     2007-2017 David Roe <roed.math@gmail.com>
+#                          2008 Craig Citro <craigcitro@gmail.com>
+#                          2008 Alexandru Ghitza <aghitza@alum.mit.edu>
+#                          2008 Gary Furnish <bill@indirectproof.net>
+#                     2008-2009 Francis Clarke <F.Clarke@Swansea.ac.uk>
+#                     2008-2017 John Cremona <john.cremona@gmail.com>
+#                          2008 Mike Hansen <mhansen@gmail.com>
+#                     2008-2011 David Loeffler <D.Loeffler@dpmms.cam.ac.uk>
+#                          2009 Sebastian Pancratz <sage@pancratz.org>
+#                     2010-2016 Jeroen Demeyer <jdemeyer@cage.ugent.be>
+#                          2011 Martin Albrecht <martinralbrecht@googlemail.com>
+#                          2012 Vincent Delecroix <vincent.delecroix@u-bordeaux.fr>
+#                     2013-2020 Marc Mezzarobba <marc@mezzarobba.net>
+#                          2014 Wilfried Luebbe <wluebbe@gmail.com>
+#                     2014-2016 Peter Bruin <P.J.Bruin@math.leidenuniv.nl>
+#                          2014 Gonzalo Tornaría <tornaria@cmat.edu.uy>
+#                     2014-2018 Frédéric Chapoton <chapoton@unistra.fr>
+#                          2016 Marc Masdeu <marc.masdeu@gmail.com>
+#                          2017 Édouard Rousseau <edouard.rousseau@u-psud.fr>
+#                     2017-2022 Julian Rüth <julian.rueth@fsfe.org>
+#                          2018 Erik M. Bray <erik.bray@lri.fr>
+#                     2019-2021 Matthias Koeppe <mkoeppe@math.ucdavis.edu>
+#                          2019 Tuomas Tajakka <tuomas.tajakka@gmail.com>
+#                          2020 John H. Palmieri <jhpalmieri64@gmail.com>
+#                          2020 Thierry Monteil <sage@lma.metelu.net>
+#                          2021 Antonio Rojas <arojas@archlinux.org>
+#                          2021 Jonathan Kliem <jonathan.kliem@gmail.com>
+#
+#  Distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL)
+#  as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of
+#  the License, or (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+from sage.categories.integral_domains import IntegralDomains
+from sage.categories.noetherian_rings import NoetherianRings
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from sage.structure.parent import Parent
+from sage.structure.sequence import Sequence
+from sage.rings.integer_ring import ZZ
+import sage.rings.abc
+from sage.structure.element import Element
+from sage.structure.factory import UniqueFactory
+from .number_field_element import OrderElement_absolute, OrderElement_relative
+
+from .number_field_element_quadratic import OrderElement_quadratic
+
+from sage.rings.monomials import monomials
+
+
+def quadratic_order_class_number(disc):
+    r"""
+    Return the class number of the quadratic order of given discriminant.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.rings.number_field.order import quadratic_order_class_number
+        sage: quadratic_order_class_number(-419)
+        9
+        sage: quadratic_order_class_number(60)
+        2
+
+    ALGORITHM: Either :pari:`qfbclassno` or :pari:`quadclassunit`,
+    depending on the size of the discriminant.
+    """
+    from sage.libs.pari import pari
+
+    # cutoffs from PARI documentation
+    if disc < -10**25 or disc > 10**10:
+        h = pari.quadclassunit(disc)[0]
+    else:
+        h = pari.qfbclassno(disc)
+    return ZZ(h)
+
+
+class OrderFactory(UniqueFactory):
+    r"""
+    Abstract base class for factories creating orders, such as
+    :class:`AbsoluteOrderFactory` and :class:`RelativeOrderFactory`.
+
+    TESTS::
+
+        sage: from sage.rings.number_field.order import AbsoluteOrder, OrderFactory
+        sage: isinstance(AbsoluteOrder, OrderFactory)
+        True
+    """
+
+    def get_object(self, version, key, extra_args):
+        r"""
+        Create the order identified by ``key``.
+
+        This overrides the default implementation to update the maximality of
+        the order if it was explicitly specified.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Even though orders are unique parents, this lets us update their
+        internal state when they are recreated with more additional
+        information available about them::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: L.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 - 1000003, x^2 - 5*1000099^2])
+            sage: O = L.maximal_order([2], assume_maximal=None)
+
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(2)
+            True
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(3) is None
+            True
+
+            sage: N = L.maximal_order([3], assume_maximal=None)
+            sage: N is O
+            True
+            sage: N._is_maximal_at(2)
+            True
+            sage: N._is_maximal_at(3)
+            True
+        """
+        is_maximal = extra_args.pop("is_maximal", None)
+        is_maximal_at = extra_args.pop("is_maximal_at", {})
+
+        order = super().get_object(version, key, extra_args)
+
+        # Add assumptions about maximality to the order (potentially creating
+        # an independent non-unique clone to support legacy use cases.)
+        order = order._assume_maximal(is_maximal)
+        for p, v in is_maximal_at.items():
+            order = order._assume_maximal(p=p, is_maximal=v)
+
+        return order
+
+
+class AbsoluteOrderFactory(OrderFactory):
+    r"""
+    An order in an (absolute) number field.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+        sage: K.order(i)
+        Gaussian Integers generated by i in Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1
+    """
+
+    def create_key_and_extra_args(self, K, module_rep, is_maximal=None, check=True, is_maximal_at=()):
+        r"""
+        Return normalized arguments to create an absolute order.
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        In particular, this normalizes the data that is used when pickling orders::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: OK = K.order(i)
+            sage: OK._factory_data
+            (<sage.rings.number_field.order.AbsoluteOrderFactory object at 0x...>,
+             (...),
+             (Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1,
+              Free module of degree 2 and rank 2 over Integer Ring
+              Echelon basis matrix:
+              [1 0]
+              [0 1]),
+             {})
+
+        Note how the above is lacking the ``is_maximal`` and ``is_maximal_at``
+        keywords. These are stripped by :meth:`OrderFactory.get_object` and
+        then put back in by :meth:`reduce_data`.
+        """
+        if check:
+            if not K.is_absolute():
+                raise ValueError("AbsoluteOrder must be called with an absolute number field")
+
+            _, _, to_v = K.vector_space()
+            if to_v(1) not in module_rep:
+                raise ValueError("1 is not in the span of the module, hence not an order")
+
+            if module_rep.rank() != K.degree():
+                raise ValueError("the module defining an absolute order must have full rank")
+
+        return (K, module_rep), {"is_maximal": is_maximal, "is_maximal_at": {p: True for p in is_maximal_at}}
+
+    def create_object(self, version, key, is_maximal=None, is_maximal_at=()):
+        r"""
+        Create an absolute order.
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        This method is also used during unpickling::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: OK = K.order(i)
+            sage: loads(dumps(OK)) is OK
+            True
+        """
+        K, module_rep = key
+
+        # We intentionally ignore is_maximal and is_maximal_at.
+        # OrderFactory.get_object() sets these for us.
+        return Order_absolute(K, module_rep)
+
+    def reduce_data(self, order):
+        r"""
+        Return the data that can be used to pickle an order created by this factory.
+
+        This overrides the default implementation to update the latest
+        knowledge about primes at which the order is maximal.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        This also works for relative orders since they are wrapping absolute
+        orders::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: L.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 - 1000003, x^2 - 5*1000099^2])
+            sage: O = L.maximal_order([5], assume_maximal=None)
+
+            sage: s = dumps(O)
+            sage: loads(s) is O
+            True
+
+            sage: N = L.maximal_order([7], assume_maximal=None)
+            sage: dumps(N) == s
+            False
+
+            sage: loads(dumps(N)) is O
+            True
+        """
+        reduction = super().reduce_data(order)
+        reduction[1][3]["is_maximal"] = order._is_maximal()
+        reduction[1][3]["is_maximal_at"] = order._is_maximal_at()
+        return reduction
+
+
+AbsoluteOrder = AbsoluteOrderFactory("sage.rings.number_field.order.AbsoluteOrder")
+
+
+class RelativeOrderFactory(OrderFactory):
+    r"""
+    An order in a relative number field extension.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+        sage: R.<j> = K[]
+        sage: L.<j> = K.extension(j^2 - 2)
+        sage: L.order([i, j])
+        Relative Order generated by [-i*j + 1, -i] in
+         Number Field in j with defining polynomial j^2 - 2 over its base field
+    """
+
+    def create_key_and_extra_args(self, K, absolute_order, is_maximal=None, check=True, is_maximal_at=()):
+        r"""
+        Return normalized arguments to create a relative order.
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        In particular, this normalizes the data that is used when pickling orders::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: R.<j> = K[]
+            sage: L.<j> = K.extension(j^2 - 2)
+            sage: OK = L.order([i, j])
+            sage: OK._factory_data
+            (<sage.rings.number_field.order.RelativeOrderFactory object at 0x...>,
+             (...),
+             (Number Field in j with defining polynomial j^2 - 2 over its base field,
+              Order generated by [1/2*z^2 + 1/2, 1/6*z^3 + 1/6*z] in Number Field in z with defining polynomial x^4 - 2*x^2 + 9),
+             {})
+
+        Note how the above is lacking the ``is_maximal`` and ``is_maximal_at``
+        keywords. These are stripped by :meth:`OrderFactory.get_object`. Since
+        they are applied to the underlying absolute order, they then get
+        pickled when the underlying order is pickled.
+        """
+        return (K, absolute_order), {"is_maximal": is_maximal, "is_maximal_at": {p: True for p in is_maximal_at}}
+
+    def create_object(self, version, key, is_maximal=None, is_maximal_at=()):
+        r"""
+        Create a relative order.
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        This method is also used during unpickling::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: R.<j> = K[]
+            sage: L.<j> = K.extension(j^2 - 2)
+            sage: OK = L.order([i, j])
+            sage: loads(dumps(OK)) is OK
+            True
+        """
+        K, absolute_order = key
+
+        # We intentionally ignore is_maximal and is_maximal_at.
+        # OrderFactory.get_object() sets these for us.
+        return Order_relative(K, absolute_order)
+
+
+RelativeOrder = RelativeOrderFactory("sage.rings.number_field.order.RelativeOrder")
+
+
+def is_NumberFieldOrder(R):
+    r"""
+    Return ``True`` if `R` is either an order in a number field or is the ring `\ZZ` of integers.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.rings.number_field.order import is_NumberFieldOrder
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: is_NumberFieldOrder(NumberField(x^2 + 1, 'a').maximal_order())
+        doctest:warning...
+        DeprecationWarning: The function is_NumberFieldOrder is deprecated;
+        use 'isinstance(..., sage.rings.abc.Order) or ... == ZZ' instead.
+        See https://github.com/sagemath/sage/issues/38124 for details.
+        True
+        sage: is_NumberFieldOrder(ZZ)
+        True
+        sage: is_NumberFieldOrder(QQ)
+        False
+        sage: is_NumberFieldOrder(45)
+        False
+    """
+    from sage.misc.superseded import deprecation
+    deprecation(38124,
+                "The function is_NumberFieldOrder is deprecated; "
+                "use 'isinstance(..., sage.rings.abc.Order) or ... == ZZ' instead.")
+    return isinstance(R, Order) or R == ZZ
+
+
+def EquationOrder(f, names, **kwds):
+    r"""
+    Return the equation order generated by a root of the irreducible
+    polynomial `f` or list ``f`` of polynomials (to construct a relative
+    equation order).
+
+    IMPORTANT: Note that the generators of the returned order need
+    *not* be roots of `f`, since the generators of an order are -- in
+    Sage -- module generators.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: O.<a,b> = EquationOrder([x^2 + 1, x^2 + 2])
+        sage: O
+        Relative Order generated by [-b*a - 1, -3*a + 2*b] in
+         Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 over its base field
+        sage: O.0
+        -b*a - 1
+        sage: O.1
+        -3*a + 2*b
+
+    Of course the input polynomial must be integral::
+
+        sage: R = EquationOrder(x^3 + x + 1/3, 'alpha'); R
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: each generator must be integral
+
+        sage: R = EquationOrder([x^3 + x + 1, x^2 + 1/2], 'alpha'); R
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: each generator must be integral
+    """
+    from .number_field import NumberField
+    R = ZZ['x']
+    if isinstance(f, (list, tuple)):
+        for g in f:
+            try:
+                R(g)
+            except TypeError:
+                raise ValueError('each generator must be integral')
+    else:
+        try:
+            R(f)
+        except TypeError:
+            raise ValueError('each generator must be integral')
+
+    K = NumberField(f, names=names, **kwds)
+    return K.order(K.gens())
+
+
+class Order(Parent, sage.rings.abc.Order):
+    r"""
+    An order in a number field.
+
+    An order is a subring of the number field that has `\ZZ`-rank equal
+    to the degree of the number field over `\QQ`.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: K.<theta> = NumberField(x^4 + x + 17)
+        sage: K.maximal_order()
+        Maximal Order generated by theta in Number Field in theta with defining polynomial x^4 + x + 17
+        sage: R = K.order(17*theta); R
+        Order generated by 17*theta in Number Field in theta with defining polynomial x^4 + x + 17
+        sage: R.basis()
+        [1, 17*theta, 289*theta^2, 4913*theta^3]
+        sage: R = K.order(17*theta, 13*theta); R
+        Maximal Order generated by theta in Number Field in theta with defining polynomial x^4 + x + 17
+        sage: R.basis()
+        [1, theta, theta^2, theta^3]
+        sage: R = K.order([34*theta, 17*theta + 17]); R
+        Order generated by 17*theta in Number Field in theta with defining polynomial x^4 + x + 17
+        sage: K.<b> = NumberField(x^4 + x^2 + 2)
+        sage: (b^2).charpoly().factor()
+        (x^2 + x + 2)^2
+        sage: K.order(b^2)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: the rank of the span of gens is wrong
+
+    Orders are always Noetherian::
+
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: L.<alpha> = NumberField(x**4 - x**2 + 7)
+        sage: O = L.maximal_order() ; O.is_noetherian()
+        True
+        sage: E.<w> = NumberField(x^2 - x + 2)
+        sage: OE = E.ring_of_integers(); OE.is_noetherian()
+        True
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, K):
+        """
+        This is called when creating an order to set the ambient field.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: k = CyclotomicField(5)
+            sage: k.maximal_order()
+            Maximal Order generated by zeta5 in Cyclotomic Field of order 5 and degree 4
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<alg> = NumberField(x^7 + 3*x + 1, embedding=CC(0,1))
+            sage: O = k.order(alg)
+            sage: ordelt = O(alg)
+            sage: CC(ordelt)
+            0.0535229072603327 + 1.20934552493846*I
+        """
+        self._K = K
+        cat = IntegralDomains() & NoetherianRings()
+        Parent.__init__(self, base=ZZ, names=K.variable_names(),
+                        normalize=False, category=cat)
+        self._populate_coercion_lists_(embedding=self.number_field())
+        if self.absolute_degree() == 2:
+            self.is_maximal()       # cache
+
+    def fractional_ideal(self, *args, **kwds):
+        """
+        Return the fractional ideal of the maximal order with given
+        generators.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 2)
+            sage: R = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: R.fractional_ideal(2/3 + 7*a, a)
+            Fractional ideal (1/3*a)
+        """
+        return self.number_field().fractional_ideal(*args, **kwds)
+
+    def ideal(self, *args, **kwds):
+        """
+        Return the integral ideal with given generators.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            This method constructs an ideal of this (not necessarily maximal) order.
+            To construct a fractional ideal in the ambient number field, use
+            :meth:`~sage.rings.number_field.number_field.NumberField_generic.fractional_ideal`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 7)
+            sage: R = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: R.ideal([7*a, 77 + 28*a])
+            Ideal (7/2*a + 7/2, 7*a) of Maximal Order generated by 1/2*a + 1/2 in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 7
+            sage: R = K.order(4*a)
+            sage: R.ideal(8)
+            Ideal (8, 32*a) of Order of conductor 8 generated by 4*a
+             in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 7
+
+        This function is called implicitly below::
+
+            sage: R = EquationOrder(x^2 + 2, 'a'); R
+            Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 2
+            sage: (3,15)*R
+            Ideal (3, 3*a) of Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 2
+
+        The zero ideal is handled properly::
+
+            sage: R.ideal(0)
+            Ideal (0) of Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 2
+        """
+        # these keyword arguments are ignored since there used to be optional
+        # arguments with these names for controlling deprecated/future behavior;
+        # see #34806 and #35762
+        if 'warn' in kwds:
+            del kwds['warn']
+        if 'future' in kwds:
+            del kwds['future']
+        from sage.rings.number_field.order_ideal import NumberFieldOrderIdeal
+        return NumberFieldOrderIdeal(self, *args, **kwds)
+
+    def _coerce_map_from_(self, R):
+        """
+        Orders currently only have coerce maps from the integers.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 5077)
+            sage: Ok = k.maximal_order()
+            sage: Ok.has_coerce_map_from(k) #indirect doctest
+            False
+            sage: Ok.has_coerce_map_from(ZZ)
+            True
+        """
+        return R is ZZ or R is int
+
+    def __mul__(self, right):
+        """
+        Create an ideal in this order using the syntax ``O * gens``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 5077); G = k.class_group(); G
+            Class group of order 22 with structure C22 of Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 5077
+            sage: G.0 ^ -9
+            Fractional ideal class (43, a + 13)
+            sage: Ok = k.maximal_order(); Ok
+            Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 5077
+            sage: Ok * (11, a + 7)
+            Ideal (8*a + 1, 11*a) of Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 5077
+            sage: (11, a + 7) * Ok
+            Ideal (8*a + 1, 11*a) of Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 5077
+        """
+        return self.ideal(right)
+
+    def __rmul__(self, left):
+        """
+        Create an ideal in this order using the syntax ``gens * O``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 431); G = k.class_group(); G
+            Class group of order 21 with structure C21 of Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 431
+            sage: G.0   # random output
+            Fractional ideal class (6, 1/2*a + 11/2)
+            sage: Ok = k.maximal_order(); Ok
+            Maximal Order generated by 1/2*a + 1/2 in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 431
+            sage: (6, 1/2*a + 11/2)*Ok    # random output
+            Fractional ideal (6, 1/2*a + 11/2)
+            sage: 17*Ok
+            Ideal (17/2*a + 17/2, 17*a) of Maximal Order generated by 1/2*a + 1/2 in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 431
+        """
+        return self.ideal(left)
+
+    def is_field(self, proof=True):
+        r"""
+        Return ``False`` (because an order is never a field).
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: L.<alpha> = NumberField(x**4 - x**2 + 7)
+            sage: O = L.maximal_order() ; O.is_field()
+            False
+            sage: CyclotomicField(12).ring_of_integers().is_field()
+            False
+        """
+        return False
+
+    def is_integrally_closed(self) -> bool:
+        r"""
+        Return whether this ring is integrally closed.
+
+        This is true if and only if it is equal
+        to the maximal order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 189*x + 394)
+            sage: R = K.order(2*a)
+            sage: R.is_integrally_closed()
+            False
+            sage: R
+            Order of conductor 2 generated by 2*a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 189*x + 394
+            sage: S = K.maximal_order(); S
+            Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 189*x + 394
+            sage: S.is_integrally_closed()
+            True
+        """
+        return self.is_maximal()
+
+    def krull_dimension(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the Krull dimension of this order, which is 1.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: K.<a> = QuadraticField(5)
+            sage: OK = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: OK.krull_dimension()
+            1
+            sage: O2 = K.order(2*a)
+            sage: O2.krull_dimension()
+            1
+        """
+        return ZZ.one()
+
+    def integral_closure(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the integral closure of this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: K.<a> = QuadraticField(5)
+            sage: O2 = K.order(2*a); O2
+            Order of conductor 4 generated by 2*a in Number Field in a
+             with defining polynomial x^2 - 5 with a = 2.236067977499790?
+            sage: O2.integral_closure()
+            Maximal Order generated by 1/2*a + 1/2 in Number Field in a
+             with defining polynomial x^2 - 5 with a = 2.236067977499790?
+            sage: OK = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: OK is OK.integral_closure()
+            True
+        """
+        if self.is_maximal():
+            return self
+        else:
+            return self.number_field().maximal_order()
+
+    def gen(self, i):
+        r"""
+        Return `i`-th module generator of this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<c> = NumberField(x^3 + 2*x + 17)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order(); O
+            Maximal Order generated by c in Number Field in c with defining polynomial x^3 + 2*x + 17
+            sage: O.basis()
+            [1, c, c^2]
+            sage: O.gen(1)
+            c
+            sage: O.gen(2)
+            c^2
+            sage: O.gen(5)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            IndexError: no 5th generator
+            sage: O.gen(-1)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            IndexError: no -1th generator
+        """
+        b = self.basis()
+        if i < 0 or i >= len(b):
+            raise IndexError("no %sth generator" % i)
+        return self.basis()[i]
+
+    def ngens(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the number of module generators of this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 - 2*x + 8)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: O.ngens()
+            3
+        """
+        return self.absolute_degree()
+
+    def gens(self) -> tuple:
+        """
+        Return the generators as a tuple.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 - 2*x + 8)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: O.gens()
+            (1, 1/2*a^2 + 1/2*a, a^2)
+        """
+        return tuple(self.gen(i) for i in range(self.absolute_degree()))
+
+    def basis(self):  # this must be defined in derived class
+        r"""
+        Return a basis over `\ZZ` of this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 - 16*x + 16)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order(); O
+            Maximal Order generated by 1/4*a^2 + 1/4*a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + x^2 - 16*x + 16
+            sage: O.basis()
+            [1, 1/4*a^2 + 1/4*a, a^2]
+        """
+        raise NotImplementedError('child classes must implement')
+
+    def coordinates(self, x):
+        r"""
+        Return the coordinate vector of `x` with respect to this order.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``x`` -- an element of the number field of this order
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A vector of length `n` (the degree of the field) giving
+        the coordinates of `x` with respect to the integral basis
+        of the order.  In general this will be a vector of
+        rationals; it will consist of integers if and only if `x`
+        is in the order.
+
+        AUTHOR: John Cremona  2008-11-15
+
+        ALGORITHM:
+
+        Uses linear algebra.  The change-of-basis matrix is
+        cached.  Provides simpler implementations for
+        :meth:`_contains_`, :meth:`is_integral` and :meth:`smallest_integer`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: K.<i> = QuadraticField(-1)
+            sage: OK = K.ring_of_integers()
+            sage: OK_basis = OK.basis(); OK_basis
+            [1, i]
+            sage: a = 23-14*i
+            sage: acoords = OK.coordinates(a); acoords
+            (23, -14)
+            sage: sum([OK_basis[j]*acoords[j] for j in range(2)]) == a
+            True
+            sage: OK.coordinates((120+340*i)/8)
+            (15, 85/2)
+
+            sage: O = K.order(3*i)
+            sage: O.is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: O.index_in(OK)
+            3
+            sage: acoords = O.coordinates(a); acoords
+            (23, -14/3)
+            sage: sum([O.basis()[j]*acoords[j] for j in range(2)]) == a
+            True
+        """
+        K = self.number_field()
+        V, from_V, to_V = K.absolute_vector_space()
+
+        try:
+            M = self.__basis_matrix_inverse
+        except AttributeError:
+            from sage.matrix.constructor import Matrix
+            self.__basis_matrix_inverse = Matrix([to_V(b) for b in self.basis()]).inverse()
+            M = self.__basis_matrix_inverse
+        return to_V(K(x)) * M
+
+    def free_module(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the free `\ZZ`-module contained in the vector space
+        associated to the ambient number field, that corresponds
+        to this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 - 2*x + 8)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order(); O.basis()
+            [1, 1/2*a^2 + 1/2*a, a^2]
+            sage: O.free_module()
+            Free module of degree 3 and rank 3 over Integer Ring
+            User basis matrix:
+            [  1   0   0]
+            [  0 1/2 1/2]
+            [  0   0   1]
+
+        An example in a relative extension.  Notice that the module is
+        a `\ZZ`-module in the absolute field associated to the relative
+        field::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a,b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 + 2])
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order(); O.basis()
+            [(-3/2*b - 5)*a + 7/2*b - 2, -3*a + 2*b, -2*b*a - 3, -7*a + 5*b]
+            sage: O.free_module()
+            Free module of degree 4 and rank 4 over Integer Ring
+            User basis matrix:
+            [1/4 1/4 3/4 3/4]
+            [  0 1/2   0 1/2]
+            [  0   0   1   0]
+            [  0   0   0   1]
+        """
+        try:
+            return self.__free_module
+        except AttributeError:
+            pass
+        from .number_field_ideal import basis_to_module
+        M = basis_to_module(self.basis(), self.number_field())
+        self.__free_module = M
+        return M
+
+    @cached_method
+    def ring_generators(self):
+        """
+        Return generators for ``self`` as a ring.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order(); O
+            Gaussian Integers generated by i in Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1
+            sage: O.ring_generators()
+            [i]
+
+        This is an example where 2 generators are required (because 2 is an essential
+        discriminant divisor).::
+
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 - 2*x + 8)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order(); O.basis()
+            [1, 1/2*a^2 + 1/2*a, a^2]
+            sage: O.ring_generators()
+            [1/2*a^2 + 1/2*a, a^2]
+
+        An example in a relative number field::
+
+            sage: K.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 + x + 1, x^3 - 3])
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: O.ring_generators()
+            [(-5/3*b^2 + 3*b - 2)*a - 7/3*b^2 + b + 3,
+             (-5*b^2 - 9)*a - 5*b^2 - b,
+             (-6*b^2 - 11)*a - 6*b^2 - b]
+        """
+        K = self._K
+        n = []
+        V, from_V, to_V = self._K.absolute_vector_space()
+        A = ZZ**K.absolute_degree()
+        remaining = [x for x in self.basis() if x != 1]
+        gens = []
+        while remaining:
+            g = remaining.pop(0)
+            gens.append(g)
+            n.append(g.absolute_minpoly().degree())
+            W = A.span([to_V(x) for x in monomials(gens, n)])
+            remaining = [x for x in remaining if to_V(x) not in W]
+        return Sequence(gens, immutable=True)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def _defining_names(self):
+        """
+        Return the generators of the ambient number field, but with
+        this order as parent.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: B.<z> = EquationOrder(x^2 + 3)
+            sage: B._defining_names()
+            (z,)
+
+        For relative extensions::
+
+            sage: O.<a,b> = EquationOrder([x^2 + 1, x^2 + 2])
+            sage: O._defining_names()
+            (a, b)
+        """
+        gens = self.number_field().gens()
+        return tuple(self(g) for g in gens)
+
+    def zeta(self, n=2, all=False):
+        r"""
+        Return a primitive `n`-th root of unity in this order, if it
+        contains one. If ``all`` is ``True``, return all of them.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: F.<alpha> = NumberField(x**2 + 3)
+            sage: F.ring_of_integers().zeta(6)
+            -1/2*alpha + 1/2
+            sage: O = F.order([3*alpha])
+            sage: O.zeta(3)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ArithmeticError: there are no 3rd roots of unity in self
+        """
+        roots_in_field = self.number_field().zeta(n, True)
+        roots_in_self = [self(x) for x in roots_in_field if x in self]
+        if not roots_in_self:
+            if all:
+                return []
+            else:
+                raise ArithmeticError("there are no %s roots of unity in self" % n.ordinal_str())
+        if all:
+            return roots_in_self
+        else:
+            return roots_in_self[0]
+
+    def number_field(self):
+        """
+        Return the number field of this order, which is the ambient
+        number field that this order is embedded in.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<b> = NumberField(x^4 + x^2 + 2)
+            sage: O = K.order(2*b); O
+            Order generated by 2*b in Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^4 + x^2 + 2
+            sage: O.basis()
+            [1, 2*b, 4*b^2, 8*b^3]
+            sage: O.number_field()
+            Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^4 + x^2 + 2
+            sage: O.number_field() is K
+            True
+        """
+        return self._K
+
+    def ambient(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the ambient number field that contains ``self``.
+
+        This is the same as :meth:`number_field` and
+        :meth:`fraction_field`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<z> = NumberField(x^2 - 389)
+            sage: o = k.order(389*z + 1)
+            sage: o
+            Order of conductor 778 generated by 389*z in Number Field in z with defining polynomial x^2 - 389
+            sage: o.basis()
+            [1, 389*z]
+            sage: o.ambient()
+            Number Field in z with defining polynomial x^2 - 389
+        """
+        return self._K
+
+    def residue_field(self, prime, names=None, check=False):
+        """
+        Return the residue field of this order at a given prime, i.e., `O/pO`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``prime`` -- a prime ideal of the maximal order in this number field
+        - ``names`` -- the name of the variable in the residue field
+        - ``check`` -- whether or not to check the primality of prime
+
+        OUTPUT: the residue field at this prime
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^4 + 3*x^2 - 17)
+            sage: P = K.ideal(61).factor()[0][0]
+            sage: OK = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: OK.residue_field(P)
+            Residue field in abar of Fractional ideal (61, a^2 + 30)
+            sage: Fp.<b> = OK.residue_field(P)
+            sage: Fp
+            Residue field in b of Fractional ideal (61, a^2 + 30)
+        """
+        if self.is_maximal():
+            return self.number_field().residue_field(prime, names, check=check)
+
+        raise NotImplementedError("residue fields of non-maximal orders "
+                                  "are not yet supported")
+
+    def fraction_field(self):
+        """
+        Return the fraction field of this order, which is the
+        ambient number field.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<b> = NumberField(x^4 + 17*x^2 + 17)
+            sage: O = K.order(17*b); O
+            Order generated by 17*b in Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^4 + 17*x^2 + 17
+            sage: O.fraction_field()
+            Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^4 + 17*x^2 + 17
+        """
+        return self._K
+
+    def degree(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the degree of this order, which is the rank of this order as a
+        `\ZZ`-module.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<c> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 - 2*x+8)
+            sage: o = k.maximal_order()
+            sage: o.degree()
+            3
+            sage: o.rank()
+            3
+        """
+        return self._K.degree()
+
+    def rank(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the rank of this order, which is the rank of the underlying
+        `\ZZ`-module, or the degree of the ambient number field that contains
+        this order.
+
+        This is a synonym for :meth:`degree`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<c> = NumberField(x^5 + x^2 + 1)
+            sage: o = k.maximal_order(); o
+            Maximal Order generated by c in Number Field in c with defining polynomial x^5 + x^2 + 1
+            sage: o.rank()
+            5
+        """
+        return self.degree()
+
+    def class_number(self, proof=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the class number of this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: ZZ[2^(1/3)].class_number()                                            # needs fpylll sage.symbolic
+            1
+            sage: QQ[sqrt(-23)].maximal_order().class_number()                          # needs fpylll sage.symbolic
+            3
+            sage: ZZ[120*sqrt(-23)].class_number()                                      # needs fpylll sage.symbolic
+            288
+
+        Note that non-maximal orders are only supported in quadratic fields::
+
+            sage: ZZ[120*sqrt(-23)].class_number()                                      # needs fpylll sage.symbolic
+            288
+            sage: ZZ[100*sqrt(3)].class_number()                                        # needs fpylll sage.symbolic
+            4
+            sage: ZZ[11*2^(1/3)].class_number()                                         # needs fpylll sage.symbolic
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: computation of class numbers of non-maximal orders
+            not in quadratic fields is not implemented
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Test for PARI bug #2466::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ)
+            sage: R.<t> = EquationOrder(x^2 - 8461)
+            sage: R.class_number()
+            3
+        """
+        if not self.is_maximal():
+            K = self.number_field()
+            if K.degree() != 2:
+                raise NotImplementedError("computation of class numbers of non-maximal orders not in quadratic fields is not implemented")
+            return quadratic_order_class_number(self.discriminant())
+        return self.number_field().class_number(proof=proof)
+
+    def class_group(self, proof=None, names='c'):
+        r"""
+        Return the class group of this order.
+
+        (Currently only implemented for the maximal order.)
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 5077)
+            sage: O = k.maximal_order(); O
+            Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 5077
+            sage: O.class_group()
+            Class group of order 22 with structure C22 of
+             Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 5077
+        """
+        if self.is_maximal():
+            return self.number_field().class_group(proof=proof, names=names)
+        else:
+            raise NotImplementedError('non-maximal orders are not yet supported')
+
+    def is_suborder(self, other):
+        """
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` and ``other`` are both orders in the
+        same ambient number field and ``self`` is a subset of ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: W.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: O5 = W.order(5*i)
+            sage: O10 = W.order(10*i)
+            sage: O15 = W.order(15*i)
+            sage: O15.is_suborder(O5)
+            True
+            sage: O5.is_suborder(O15)
+            False
+            sage: O10.is_suborder(O15)
+            False
+
+        We create another isomorphic but different field::
+
+            sage: W2.<j> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: P5 = W2.order(5*j)
+
+        This is ``False`` because the ambient number fields are not equal.::
+
+            sage: O5.is_suborder(P5)
+            False
+
+        We create a field that contains (in no natural way!) `W`,
+        and of course again :meth:`is_suborder` returns False::
+
+            sage: K.<z> = NumberField(x^4 + 1)
+            sage: M = K.order(5*z)
+            sage: O5.is_suborder(M)
+            False
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, Order):
+            return False
+        if other.number_field() != self.number_field():
+            return False
+        return self.module().is_submodule(other.module())
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Check whether the order ``self`` is equal to ``other``.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            This method is just for equality. If you want to check if
+            ``self`` is contained in ``other``, use instead
+            ``self.is_suborder(other)`` to determine inclusion.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + 2)
+            sage: O1 = K.order(a); O1
+            Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + 2
+            sage: O2 = K.order(a^2); O2
+            Order generated by [2*a, a^2] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + 2
+            sage: O1 == O2
+            False
+
+            sage: O1 == K
+            False
+            sage: K == O1
+            False
+
+        Here is how to check for inclusion::
+
+            sage: O2.is_suborder(O1)
+            True
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, Order):
+            return False
+        if self._K != other._K:
+            return False
+        if self is other:
+            return True
+        return self._module_rep == other._module_rep
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether the order ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + 2)
+            sage: O1 = K.order(a); O1
+            Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + 2
+            sage: O2 = K.order(a^2); O2
+            Order generated by [2*a, a^2] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + 2
+            sage: O1 != O2
+            True
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    def __hash__(self):
+        """
+        Compute the hash of ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + 2)
+            sage: L.<b> = NumberField(x^3 + 3)
+            sage: O1 = K.order(a)
+            sage: hash(O1) == hash(K.order(a))
+            True
+            sage: hash(O1) == hash(K.order(a^2))
+            False
+            sage: hash(O1) == hash(L.order(b))
+            False
+        """
+        return hash((self._K, self._module_rep))
+
+    def conductor(self):
+        r"""
+        For orders in *quadratic* number fields, return the conductor
+        of this order.
+
+        The conductor is the unique positive integer `f` such that
+        the discriminant of this order is `f^2` times the discriminant
+        of the containing quadratic field.
+
+        Not implemented for orders in number fields of degree `\neq 2`.
+
+        .. SEEALSO ::
+
+            :meth:`sage.rings.number_field.number_field.NumberField_quadratic.order_of_conductor`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: K.<t> = QuadraticField(-101)
+            sage: K.maximal_order().conductor()
+            1
+            sage: K.order(5*t).conductor()
+            5
+            sage: K.discriminant().factor()
+            -1 * 2^2 * 101
+            sage: K.order(5*t).discriminant().factor()
+            -1 * 2^2 * 5^2 * 101
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: type(K.order(5*t).conductor())
+            <class 'sage.rings.integer.Integer'>
+        """
+        if not isinstance(self._K, sage.rings.abc.NumberField_quadratic):
+            raise NotImplementedError('not implemented for number fields of degree != 2')
+        D = self.discriminant()
+        D0 = self._K.discriminant()
+        return (D // D0).sqrt()
+
+    def random_element(self, *args, **kwds):
+        r"""
+        Return a random element of this order.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``args``, ``kwds`` -- parameters passed to the random
+          integer function.  See the documentation for
+          ``ZZ.random_element()`` for details.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A random element of this order, computed as a random
+        `\ZZ`-linear combination of the basis.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + 2)
+            sage: OK = K.ring_of_integers()
+            sage: OK.random_element() # random output
+            -2*a^2 - a - 2
+            sage: OK.random_element(distribution='uniform') # random output
+            -a^2 - 1
+            sage: OK.random_element(-10,10) # random output
+            -10*a^2 - 9*a - 2
+            sage: K.order(a).random_element() # random output
+            a^2 - a - 3
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: K.<z> = CyclotomicField(17)
+            sage: OK = K.ring_of_integers()
+            sage: OK.random_element() # random output
+            z^15 - z^11 - z^10 - 4*z^9 + z^8 + 2*z^7 + z^6
+             - 2*z^5 - z^4 - 445*z^3 - 2*z^2 - 15*z - 2
+            sage: OK.random_element().is_integral()
+            True
+            sage: OK.random_element().parent() is OK
+            True
+
+        A relative example::
+
+            sage: K.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 + 2, x^2 + 1000*x + 1])
+            sage: OK = K.ring_of_integers()
+            sage: OK.random_element() # random output
+            (42221/2*b + 61/2)*a + 7037384*b + 7041
+            sage: OK.random_element().is_integral() # random output
+            True
+            sage: OK.random_element().parent() is OK # random output
+            True
+
+        An example in a non-maximal order::
+
+            sage: K.<a> = QuadraticField(-3)
+            sage: R = K.ring_of_integers()
+            sage: A = K.order(a)
+            sage: A.index_in(R)
+            2
+            sage: R.random_element() # random output
+            -39/2*a - 1/2
+            sage: A.random_element() # random output
+            2*a - 1
+            sage: A.random_element().is_integral()
+            True
+            sage: A.random_element().parent() is A
+            True
+        """
+        return sum([ZZ.random_element(*args, **kwds) * a
+                    for a in self.basis()])
+
+    def absolute_degree(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the absolute degree of this order, i.e., the degree of this order over `\ZZ`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + 2)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: O.absolute_degree()
+            3
+        """
+        return self.number_field().absolute_degree()
+
+    def valuation(self, p):
+        r"""
+        Return the `p`-adic valuation on this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        The valuation can be specified with an integer prime `p` that is
+        completely ramified or unramified::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: O = K.order(2*a)
+            sage: valuations.pAdicValuation(O, 2)                                       # needs sage.geometry.polyhedron
+            2-adic valuation
+
+            sage: GaussianIntegers().valuation(2)                                       # needs sage.geometry.polyhedron
+            2-adic valuation
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: GaussianIntegers().valuation(3)                                       # needs sage.geometry.polyhedron
+            3-adic valuation
+
+        A prime `p` that factors into pairwise distinct factors, results in an error::
+
+            sage: GaussianIntegers().valuation(5)                                       # needs sage.geometry.polyhedron
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: The valuation Gauss valuation induced by 5-adic valuation does not
+            approximate a unique extension of 5-adic valuation with respect to x^2 + 1
+
+        The valuation can also be selected by giving a valuation on the base
+        ring that extends uniquely::
+
+            sage: CyclotomicField(5).ring_of_integers().valuation(ZZ.valuation(5))      # needs sage.geometry.polyhedron
+            5-adic valuation
+
+        When the extension is not unique, this does not work::
+
+            sage: GaussianIntegers().valuation(ZZ.valuation(5))                         # needs sage.geometry.polyhedron
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: The valuation Gauss valuation induced by 5-adic valuation does not
+            approximate a unique extension of 5-adic valuation with respect to x^2 + 1
+
+        If the fraction field is of the form `K[x]/(G)`, you can specify a
+        valuation by providing a discrete pseudo-valuation on `K[x]` which
+        sends `G` to infinity::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.geometry.polyhedron
+            sage: R.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: GV5 = GaussValuation(R, QQ.valuation(5))
+            sage: v = GaussianIntegers().valuation(GV5.augmentation(x + 2, infinity))
+            sage: w = GaussianIntegers().valuation(GV5.augmentation(x + 1/2, infinity))
+            sage: v == w
+            False
+
+        .. SEEALSO::
+
+            :meth:`NumberField_generic.valuation() <sage.rings.number_field.number_field.NumberField_generic.valuation>`,
+            :meth:`pAdicGeneric.valuation() <sage.rings.padics.padic_generic.pAdicGeneric.valuation>`
+        """
+        from sage.rings.padics.padic_valuation import pAdicValuation
+        return pAdicValuation(self, p)
+
+    def some_elements(self):
+        """
+        Return a list of elements of the given order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: G = GaussianIntegers(); G
+            Gaussian Integers generated by I in Number Field in I with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 with I = 1*I
+            sage: G.some_elements()
+            [1, I, 2*I, -1, 0, -I, 2, 4*I, -2, -2*I, -4]
+
+            sage: R.<t> = QQ[]
+            sage: K.<a> = QQ.extension(t^3 - 2); K
+            Number Field in a with defining polynomial t^3 - 2
+            sage: Z = K.ring_of_integers(); Z
+            Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial t^3 - 2
+            sage: Z.some_elements()
+            [1, a, a^2, 2*a, 0, 2, a^2 + 2*a + 1, ..., a^2 + 1, 2*a^2 + 2, a^2 + 2*a, 4*a^2 + 4]
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        This also works for trivial extensions::
+
+            sage: R.<t> = QQ[]
+            sage: K.<a> = QQ.extension(t); K
+            Number Field in a with defining polynomial t
+            sage: Z = K.ring_of_integers(); Z
+            Maximal Order generated by [] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial t
+            sage: Z.some_elements()
+            [1, 0, 2, -1, -2, 4]
+        """
+        elements = list(self.basis())
+        for a in self.fraction_field().some_elements():
+            if a in self and a not in elements:
+                elements.append(self(a))
+        return elements
+
+#     def absolute_polynomial(self):
+#         """
+#         Return the absolute polynomial of this order, which is just the absolute polynomial of the number field.
+
+#         EXAMPLES::
+
+#         sage: K.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^3 + x + 1]); OK = K.maximal_order()
+#         Traceback (most recent call last):
+#         ...
+#         NotImplementedError
+
+#         #sage: OK.absolute_polynomial()
+#         #x^6 + 5*x^4 - 2*x^3 + 4*x^2 + 4*x + 1
+#         """
+#         return self.number_field().absolute_polynomial()
+
+#     def polynomial(self):
+#         """
+#         Return the polynomial defining the number field that contains self.
+#         """
+#         return self.number_field().polynomial()
+
+#     def polynomial_ntl(self):
+#         """
+#         Return defining polynomial of the parent number field as a
+#         pair, an ntl polynomial and a denominator.
+
+#         This is used mainly to implement some internal arithmetic.
+
+#         EXAMPLES::
+
+#             sage: NumberField(x^2 + 1,'a').maximal_order().polynomial_ntl()
+#             ([1 0 1], 1)
+#         """
+#         return self.number_field().polynomial_ntl()
+
+
+class Order_absolute(Order):
+    def __init__(self, K, module_rep):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.rings.number_field.order import *
+            sage: x = polygen(QQ)
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + 2)
+            sage: V, from_v, to_v = K.vector_space()
+            sage: M = span([to_v(a^2), to_v(a), to_v(1)],ZZ)
+            sage: O = AbsoluteOrder(K, M); O
+            Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + 2
+
+            sage: M = span([to_v(a^2), to_v(a), to_v(2)],ZZ)
+            sage: O = AbsoluteOrder(K, M); O
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: 1 is not in the span of the module, hence not an order
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: loads(dumps(O)) is O
+            True
+            sage: TestSuite(O).run()
+        """
+        if K.degree() == 2:
+            self._element_type = OrderElement_quadratic
+            # adding the following attribute makes the comparison of elements
+            # faster.
+            self._standard_embedding = K._standard_embedding
+        else:
+            self._element_type = OrderElement_absolute
+
+        # Whether this order is the maximal order, or None if we have not found out yet.
+        self.__is_maximal = None
+        # Maps each prime to whether this order is maximal at that prime.
+        self.__is_maximal_at = {}
+
+        self._module_rep = module_rep
+        Order.__init__(self, K)
+
+        if self.absolute_degree() == 2:
+            self.discriminant()     # cache
+
+    def _element_constructor_(self, x):
+        r"""
+        Coerce ``x`` into this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(QQ)
+            sage: k.<z> = NumberField(x^2 - 389)
+            sage: m = k.order(3*z); m
+            Order of conductor 6 generated by 3*z in Number Field in z with defining polynomial x^2 - 389
+            sage: m(6*z)
+            6*z
+            sage: k(m(6*z))
+            6*z
+
+        If ``x`` is a list or tuple the element constructed is the
+        linear combination of the generators with these coefficients
+        (see :issue:`10017`)::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(QQ)
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 - 10)
+            sage: ZK = K.ring_of_integers()
+            sage: ZK.basis()
+            [1/3*a^2 + 1/3*a + 1/3, a, a^2]
+            sage: ZK([1,2,3])
+            10/3*a^2 + 7/3*a + 1/3
+            sage: K([1,2,3])
+            3*a^2 + 2*a + 1
+        """
+        if isinstance(x, (tuple, list)):
+            x = sum(xi * gi for xi, gi in zip(x, self.gens()))
+        if not isinstance(x, Element) or x.parent() is not self._K:
+            x = self._K(x)
+        V, _, embedding = self._K.vector_space()
+        if embedding(x) not in self._module_rep:
+            raise TypeError("Not an element of the order.")
+        return self._element_type(self, x)
+
+    def __add__(left, right):
+        """
+        Add two orders.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(polygen(QQ,'z')^3 - 2)
+            sage: O6 = K.order(6*a); O6
+            Order generated by 6*a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial z^3 - 2
+            sage: O6.basis()
+            [1, 6*a, 36*a^2]
+            sage: O15 = K.order(15*a^2); O15.basis()
+            [1, 450*a, 15*a^2]
+            sage: R = O6 + O15; R
+            Order generated by [6*a, 3*a^2] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial z^3 - 2
+            sage: R.basis()
+            [1, 6*a, 3*a^2]
+        """
+        if not isinstance(right, Order_absolute):
+            raise NotImplementedError("cannot add these orders yet")
+
+        if left.number_field() != right.number_field():
+            raise TypeError("number fields do not match")
+
+        if left._is_maximal():
+            return left
+
+        elif right._is_maximal():
+            return right
+
+        return AbsoluteOrder(left._K, left._module_rep + right._module_rep)
+
+    def __and__(left, right):
+        """
+        Intersect orders.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: K.<i> = QuadraticField(-1)
+            sage: O3 = K.order(3*i); O5 = K.order(5*i)
+            sage: R = O3 & O5; R
+            Order of conductor 15 generated by 15*i in Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 with i = 1*I
+            sage: R.basis()
+            [1, 15*i]
+            sage: O3.intersection(O5).basis()
+            [1, 15*i]
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Verify that :issue:`33386` has been resolved::
+
+            sage: (K.maximal_order() & K.maximal_order()).is_maximal()
+            True
+
+        Verify that an absolute order can be intersected with a relative order::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: L.<a> = K.extension(x^2 - 2)
+            sage: L.absolute_field('z').maximal_order() & L.maximal_order()
+            Maximal Order generated by [7/12*z^3 + 3/4*z^2 + 1/12*z + 1/4, 1/6*z^3 + 1/6*z, z^2] in Number Field in z with defining polynomial x^4 - 2*x^2 + 9
+            sage: L.maximal_order() & L.absolute_field('z').maximal_order()
+            Maximal Order generated by [7/12*z^3 + 3/4*z^2 + 1/12*z + 1/4, 1/6*z^3 + 1/6*z, z^2] in Number Field in z with defining polynomial x^4 - 2*x^2 + 9
+        """
+        if isinstance(right, Order_relative):
+            return right & left
+
+        if left.number_field() != right.number_field():
+            raise TypeError("number fields do not match")
+
+        is_maximal = None
+
+        # Note that this is not correct while orders created with
+        # non-maximal-non-unique are still around. Once that deprecation has
+        # been removed, these simple rules can be enabled.
+        # if left._is_maximal() is True and right._is_maximal() is True:
+        #     is_maximal = True
+        # if left._is_maximal() is False or right._is_maximal() is False:
+        #     is_maximal = False
+
+        return AbsoluteOrder(left._K, left._module_rep.intersection(right._module_rep), is_maximal=is_maximal)
+
+    def _magma_init_(self, magma):
+        """
+        Return Magma version of this absolute order.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``magma`` -- a magma interpreter
+
+        OUTPUT: a :class:`MagmaElement`, the magma version of this absolute order
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + 2) # optional - magma
+            sage: magma(K.maximal_order())  # optional - magma
+            Equation Order with defining polynomial x^3 + 2 over its ground order
+
+        _magma_init_ was called implicitly by the above call::
+
+            sage: K.maximal_order()._magma_init_(magma) # optional - magma
+            'Order([(_sage_[...]![1, 0, 0]),(_sage_[...]![0, 1, 0]),(_sage_[...]![0, 0, 1])])'
+        """
+        K = self.number_field()
+        v = (K(a)._magma_init_(magma) for a in self.basis())
+        return 'Order([{}])'.format(','.join(v))
+
+    def discriminant(self):
+        """
+        Return the discriminant of this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^8 + x^3 - 13*x + 26)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order()
+            sage: factor(O.discriminant())
+            3 * 11 * 13^2 * 613 * 1575917857
+            sage: L = K.order(13*a^2)
+            sage: factor(L.discriminant())
+            3^3 * 5^2 * 11 * 13^60 * 613 * 733^2 * 1575917857
+            sage: factor(L.index_in(O))
+            3 * 5 * 13^29 * 733
+            sage: L.discriminant() / O.discriminant() == L.index_in(O)^2
+            True
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: type(K.order(5*a).discriminant())
+            <class 'sage.rings.integer.Integer'>
+        """
+        try:
+            return self.__discriminant
+        except AttributeError:
+            if self._is_maximal():
+                D = self._K.discriminant()
+            else:
+                D = ZZ(self._K.discriminant(self.basis()))
+            self.__discriminant = D
+            return D
+
+    absolute_discriminant = discriminant
+
+    def is_maximal(self, p=None):
+        """
+        Return whether this is the maximal order.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``p`` -- integer prime or ``None`` (default: ``None``); if
+          set, return whether this order is maximal at the prime `p`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+
+            sage: K.order(3*i).is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: K.order(5*i).is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: (K.order(3*i) + K.order(5*i)).is_maximal()
+            True
+            sage: K.maximal_order().is_maximal()
+            True
+
+        Maximality can be checked at primes when the order is maximal at that
+        prime by construction::
+
+            sage: K.maximal_order().is_maximal(p=3)
+            True
+
+        And also at other primes::
+
+            sage: K.order(3*i).is_maximal(p=3)
+            False
+
+         An example involving a relative order::
+
+            sage: K.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 - 3])
+            sage: O = K.order([3*a, 2*b])
+            sage: O.is_maximal()
+            False
+        """
+        if self._is_maximal() is True:
+            return True
+
+        if p is None:
+            if self._is_maximal() is None:
+                self._assume_maximal(self.absolute_discriminant() == self._K.absolute_discriminant())
+            return self._is_maximal()
+        else:
+            p = ZZ(p).abs()
+
+            if self._is_maximal_at(p) is None:
+                is_maximal = self._K.maximal_order(p, assume_maximal=None).absolute_discriminant().valuation(p) == self.absolute_discriminant().valuation(p)
+                self._assume_maximal(is_maximal, p=p)
+
+            return self._is_maximal_at(p)
+
+    def _is_maximal(self):
+        r"""
+        Return whether this order is already known to be maximal.
+
+        Used by :meth:`is_maximal`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<t> = NumberField(x^3 + x + 1)
+            sage: K.order(1337*t)._is_maximal() is None
+            True
+            sage: K.order(1337*t).is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: K.order(1337*t)._is_maximal()
+            False
+        """
+        return self.__is_maximal
+
+    def _is_maximal_at(self, p=None):
+        r"""
+        Return whether this order is already known to be maximal at ``p``.
+
+        When no ``p`` is specified, returns a dictionary of primes for which
+        maximality is known.
+
+        Used by :meth:`is_maximal`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^13 - 2)
+
+            sage: O = K.order(a)
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(p=1361) is None
+            True
+            sage: O._assume_maximal(p=1361) is O
+            True
+            sage: K.order(a).is_maximal(p=1361)
+            True
+            sage: K.order(a)._is_maximal_at(p=1361)
+            True
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: L.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 - 1000005, x^2 - 5*1000099^2])
+            sage: K = L.absolute_field('c')
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order([13], assume_maximal=None)
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at()
+            {13: True}
+        """
+        if p is None:
+            return dict(self.__is_maximal_at)
+
+        p = ZZ(p).abs()
+        return self.__is_maximal_at.get(p, None)
+
+    def _assume_maximal(self, is_maximal=True, p=None):
+        r"""
+        Record that this order ``is_maximal`` at the integer prime ``p``.
+
+        To support the deprecated behavior for
+        ``is_maximal="non-maximal-non-unique"``, this returns an order.
+        Typically, the order itself.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^4 - 10001822082820*x^2 + 25009091240356266913960000)
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order([13], assume_maximal=None)
+
+        We can store information about more primes::
+
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(p=7) is None
+            True
+            sage: 7.divides(K.absolute_discriminant())
+            False
+            sage: O._assume_maximal(p=7) is O
+            True
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(p=7)
+            True
+
+        We cannot store contradicting information at a prime::
+
+            sage: O._assume_maximal(p=7, is_maximal=False)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: cannot assume this order to be non-maximal at 7 because we already found it to be maximal at that prime
+
+        We can safely store information that we know to be wrong to support
+        legacy behavior of orders that are assumed to be only maximal at some
+        primes::
+
+            sage: K.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: O = K.order(1+i)
+            sage: O.is_maximal()
+            True
+            sage: N = O._assume_maximal(is_maximal='non-maximal-non-unique')
+            sage: N._assume_maximal(p=2) is N
+            True
+            sage: N is O
+            False
+            sage: N == O
+            True
+            sage: N.is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: N.is_maximal(p=2)
+            True
+        """
+        if is_maximal is None:
+            # No assumption made, return the object unchanged.
+            return self
+
+        if p is None:
+            if is_maximal == "non-maximal-non-unique":
+                # We force this order to be non-maximal to support legacy code that
+                # could create such orders.
+                self = type(self)(self._K, self._module_rep)
+                self.__is_maximal = False
+            elif is_maximal:
+                if self._is_maximal() is False:
+                    raise ValueError("cannot assume this order to be maximal because we already found it to be a non-maximal order")
+                self.__is_maximal = True
+                # No need to keep information at specific primes anymore.
+                self.__is_maximal_at = {}
+            else:
+                if self._is_maximal() is True:
+                    raise ValueError("cannot assume this order to be non-maximal because we already found it to be a maximal order")
+                self.__is_maximal = False
+        else:
+            p = ZZ(p).abs()
+
+            if is_maximal == "non-maximal-non-unique":
+                raise NotImplementedError("legacy support for explicitly non-maximal orders only possible at all primes")
+            elif is_maximal:
+                if self._is_maximal_at(p) is False:
+                    raise ValueError(f"cannot assume this order to be maximal at {p} because we already found it to be non-maximal at that prime")
+                self.__is_maximal_at[p] = True
+            else:
+                if self._is_maximal_at(p) is True:
+                    raise ValueError(f"cannot assume this order to be non-maximal at {p} because we already found it to be maximal at that prime")
+
+                self._assume_maximal(False)
+                self.__is_maximal_at[p] = False
+
+        return self
+
+    def change_names(self, names):
+        """
+        Return a new order isomorphic to this one in the number field with
+        given variable names.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: R = EquationOrder(x^3 + x + 1, 'alpha'); R
+            Order generated by alpha in Number Field in alpha with defining polynomial x^3 + x + 1
+            sage: R.basis()
+            [1, alpha, alpha^2]
+            sage: S = R.change_names('gamma'); S
+            Order generated by gamma in Number Field in gamma with defining polynomial x^3 + x + 1
+            sage: S.basis()
+            [1, gamma, gamma^2]
+        """
+        K = self.number_field().change_names(names)
+        _, to_K = K.structure()
+        B = [to_K(a) for a in self.basis()]
+        return K.order(B, check_is_integral=False, check_rank=False, allow_subfield=True)
+
+    def index_in(self, other):
+        """
+        Return the index of ``self`` in ``other``.
+
+        This is a lattice index,
+        so it is a rational number if ``self`` is not contained in ``other``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- another absolute order with the same ambient number field
+
+        OUTPUT: a rational number
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: O1 = k.order(i)
+            sage: O5 = k.order(5*i)
+            sage: O5.index_in(O1)
+            5
+
+            sage: k.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 - 2*x+8)
+            sage: o = k.maximal_order()
+            sage: o
+            Maximal Order generated by [1/2*a^2 + 1/2*a, a^2] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + x^2 - 2*x + 8
+            sage: O1 = k.order(a); O1
+            Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + x^2 - 2*x + 8
+            sage: O1.index_in(o)
+            2
+            sage: O2 = k.order(1+2*a); O2
+            Order generated by 2*a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + x^2 - 2*x + 8
+            sage: O1.basis()
+            [1, a, a^2]
+            sage: O2.basis()
+            [1, 2*a, 4*a^2]
+            sage: o.index_in(O2)
+            1/16
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, Order_absolute):
+            raise TypeError("other must be an absolute order.")
+        if other.ambient() != self.ambient():
+            raise ValueError("other must have the same ambient number field as self.")
+        return self._module_rep.index_in(other._module_rep)
+
+    def module(self):
+        """
+        Return the underlying free module corresponding to this
+        order, embedded in the vector space corresponding to the
+        ambient number field.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x + 3)
+            sage: m = k.order(3*a); m
+            Order generated by 3*a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + x + 3
+            sage: m.module()
+            Free module of degree 3 and rank 3 over Integer Ring
+            Echelon basis matrix:
+            [1 0 0]
+            [0 3 0]
+            [0 0 9]
+        """
+        return self._module_rep
+
+    def intersection(self, other):
+        """
+        Return the intersection of this order with another order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: O6 = k.order(6*i)
+            sage: O9 = k.order(9*i)
+            sage: O6.basis()
+            [1, 6*i]
+            sage: O9.basis()
+            [1, 9*i]
+            sage: O6.intersection(O9).basis()
+            [1, 18*i]
+            sage: (O6 & O9).basis()
+            [1, 18*i]
+            sage: (O6 + O9).basis()
+            [1, 3*i]
+        """
+        return self & other
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        Return print representation of this absolute order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^4 - 5)
+            sage: K.maximal_order()._repr_()
+            'Maximal Order generated by [1/2*a^2 + 1/2, 1/2*a^3 + 1/2*a] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5'
+            sage: K.order(a)._repr_()
+            'Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5'
+
+        We have special cases for Gaussian and Eisenstein integers::
+
+            sage: K = CyclotomicField(4)
+            sage: K.ring_of_integers()
+            Gaussian Integers generated by zeta4 in Cyclotomic Field of order 4 and degree 2
+            sage: K = QuadraticField(-3)
+            sage: K.ring_of_integers()
+            Eisenstein Integers generated by 1/2*a + 1/2 in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 3 with a = 1.732050807568878?*I
+        """
+        if self._is_maximal():
+            s = "Maximal Order"
+            if self.degree() == 2:
+                D = self.discriminant()
+                if D == -3:
+                    s = "Eisenstein Integers"
+                if D == -4:
+                    s = "Gaussian Integers"
+        else:
+            s = "Order"
+            if self.number_field().absolute_degree() == 2:
+                f = self.conductor()
+                s += f' of conductor {f}'
+        try:
+            gens = self.ring_generators()
+        except TypeError:
+            gens = self.gens()
+        s += f' generated by {gens[0] if len(gens) == 1 else "[" + ", ".join(map(str, gens)) + "]"}'
+        s += f' in {self._K}'
+        return s
+
+    def basis(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the basis over `\ZZ` for this order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<c> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 + 1)
+            sage: O = k.maximal_order(); O
+            Maximal Order generated by c in Number Field in c with defining polynomial x^3 + x^2 + 1
+            sage: O.basis()
+            [1, c, c^2]
+
+        The basis is an immutable sequence::
+
+            sage: type(O.basis())
+            <class 'sage.structure.sequence.Sequence_generic'>
+
+        The generator functionality uses the basis method::
+
+            sage: O.0
+            1
+            sage: O.1
+            c
+            sage: O.basis()
+            [1, c, c^2]
+            sage: O.ngens()
+            3
+        """
+        try:
+            return self.__basis
+        except AttributeError:
+            V, from_V, to_V = self._K.vector_space()
+            B = Sequence([self(from_V(b)) for b in self._module_rep.basis()], immutable=True)
+            self.__basis = B
+        return B
+
+    def absolute_order(self):
+        """
+        Return the absolute order associated to this order, which is
+        just this order again since this is an absolute order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + 2)
+            sage: O1 = K.order(a); O1
+            Maximal Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + 2
+            sage: O1.absolute_order() is O1
+            True
+        """
+        return self
+
+
+class Order_relative(Order):
+    """
+    A relative order in a number field.
+
+    A relative order is an order in some relative number field.
+
+    Invariants of this order may be computed with respect to the
+    contained order.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, K, absolute_order):
+        """
+        Create the relative order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: k.<a,b> = NumberFieldTower([x^2 - 3, x^2 + 1])
+            sage: O = k.maximal_order(); O # indirect doctest
+            Maximal Relative Order generated by 1/2*a - 1/2*b in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 - 3 over its base field
+
+            sage: _ = O.basis()
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: loads(dumps(O)) is O
+            True
+            sage: TestSuite(O).run()
+        """
+        self._absolute_order = absolute_order
+        self._module_rep = absolute_order._module_rep
+
+        Order.__init__(self, K)
+
+    def _element_constructor_(self, x):
+        """
+        Coerce an element into this relative order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 + 2, x^2 + 1000*x + 1])
+            sage: OK = K.ring_of_integers()
+            sage: OK(a)
+            a
+            sage: OK([3, 4])
+            4*a + 3
+
+        The following used to fail; see :issue:`5276`::
+
+            sage: S.<y> = OK[]; S
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Maximal Relative Order generated by [(-5787/2*b - 9/2)*a - 964565*b - 965, (-1500*b - 2)*a - 499997*b - 500] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 2 over its base field
+
+        We test that :issue:`4193` is also fixed::
+
+            sage: K1.<a> = NumberField(x^3 - 2)
+            sage: R.<y> = PolynomialRing(K1)
+            sage: K2.<b> = K1.extension(y^2 - a)
+            sage: R = K2.order(b)
+            sage: b in R
+            True
+            sage: bb = R.basis()[1]  # b by any other name
+            sage: bb == b
+            True
+            sage: bb.parent() is R
+            True
+            sage: bb in R # this used to return False
+            True
+            sage: R(bb) == bb # this used to raise an error
+            True
+        """
+
+        x = self._K(x)
+        abs_order = self._absolute_order
+        to_abs = abs_order._K.structure()[1]
+        x = abs_order(to_abs(x))  # will test membership
+        return OrderElement_relative(self, x)
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        Return print representation of this relative order.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: O = EquationOrder([x^2 + x + 1, x^3 - 2],'a,b')
+            sage: O._repr_()
+            'Relative Order generated by [(-b^2 + 6*b + 11)*a + 3*b^2 + b + 14, (-2*b^2 - 2)*a - 2*b^2 - b, (b + 6)*a + 3*b^2 + 6] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + x + 1 over its base field'
+        """
+        s = 'Maximal ' if self._is_maximal() else ''
+        s += 'Relative Order'
+        try:
+            gens = self.ring_generators()
+        except TypeError:
+            gens = self.gens()
+        s += f' generated by {gens[0] if len(gens) == 1 else "[" + ", ".join(map(str, gens)) + "]"}'
+        s += f' in {self._K}'
+        return s
+
+    def absolute_order(self, names='z'):
+        """
+        Return underlying absolute order associated to this relative
+        order.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``names`` -- string (default: ``'z'``); name of generator of absolute
+          extension
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+           There *is* a default variable name, since this absolute
+           order is frequently used for internal algorithms.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: R = EquationOrder([x^2 + 1, x^2 - 5], 'i,g'); R
+            Relative Order generated by [6*i - g, -g*i + 2, 7*i - g] in
+             Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 over its base field
+            sage: R.basis()
+            [1, 6*i - g, -g*i + 2, 7*i - g]
+
+            sage: S = R.absolute_order(); S
+            Order generated by [5/12*z^3 + 1/6*z, 1/2*z^2, 1/2*z^3] in Number Field in z with defining polynomial x^4 - 8*x^2 + 36
+            sage: S.basis()
+            [1, 5/12*z^3 + 1/6*z, 1/2*z^2, 1/2*z^3]
+
+        We compute a relative order in alpha0, alpha1, then make the
+        generator of the number field that contains the absolute order be called
+        gamma.::
+
+            sage: R = EquationOrder( [x^2 + 2, x^2 - 3], 'alpha'); R
+            Relative Order generated by [-alpha1*alpha0 + 1, 5*alpha0 + 2*alpha1, 7*alpha0 + 3*alpha1] in
+             Number Field in alpha0 with defining polynomial x^2 + 2 over its base field
+            sage: R.absolute_order('gamma')
+            Order generated by [1/2*gamma^2 + 1/2, 7/10*gamma^3 + 1/10*gamma, gamma^3] in Number Field in gamma with defining polynomial x^4 - 2*x^2 + 25
+            sage: R.absolute_order('gamma').basis()
+            [1/2*gamma^2 + 1/2, 7/10*gamma^3 + 1/10*gamma, gamma^2, gamma^3]
+        """
+        if names == 'z' or names == ('z',):
+            return self._absolute_order
+        else:
+            return self._absolute_order.change_names(names)
+
+    def basis(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a basis for this order as `\ZZ`-module.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a,b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 + 3])
+            sage: O = K.order([a,b])
+            sage: O.basis()
+            [1, -2*a + b, -b*a - 2, -5*a + 3*b]
+            sage: z = O.1; z
+            -2*a + b
+            sage: z.absolute_minpoly()
+            x^4 + 14*x^2 + 1
+        """
+        try:
+            return self.__basis
+        except AttributeError:
+            pass
+        O = self._absolute_order
+        K = O.number_field()
+        from_K, _ = K.structure()
+        self.__basis = [OrderElement_relative(self, from_K(a)) for a in O.basis()]
+        return self.__basis
+
+    def __add__(left, right):
+        """
+        Add two relative orders or a relative order to an absolute
+        order (which always results in an absolute order).
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a,b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 + 3])
+            sage: O2 = K.order([2*a, b]); O2.absolute_discriminant()
+            36864
+            sage: O3 = K.order([3*a, 2*b]); O3.absolute_discriminant()
+            2985984
+            sage: R = O2 + O3; R
+            Relative Order generated by [-2*a + b, -2*b*a - 4, -5*a + 3*b] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 over its base field
+            sage: R.absolute_discriminant()
+            9216
+            sage: R.is_suborder(O2)
+            False
+            sage: O2.is_suborder(R)
+            True
+            sage: O3.is_suborder(R)
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(right, Order_absolute):
+            return left._absolute_order + right
+
+        if not isinstance(right, Order_relative):
+            raise NotImplementedError("cannot add these orders yet")
+
+        if left._K != right._K:
+            raise TypeError("number fields do not match")
+
+        if left._is_maximal():
+            return left
+
+        if right._is_maximal():
+            return right
+
+        return RelativeOrder(left._K, left._absolute_order + right._absolute_order, check=False)
+
+    def __and__(left, right):
+        """
+        Intersect two relative orders or a relative and absolute order
+        (which always results in an absolute order).
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: L.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 - 5])
+            sage: O1 = L.order([a, 2*b])
+            sage: O2 = L.order([2*a, b])
+            sage: O3 = O1 & O2; O3
+            Relative Order generated by [12*a - 2*b, -2*b*a + 4, 14*a - 2*b] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 over its base field
+            sage: O3.index_in(L.maximal_order())
+            32
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Verify that :issue:`33386` has been resolved::
+
+            sage: (L.maximal_order() & L.maximal_order()).is_maximal()
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(right, Order_absolute):
+            return left._absolute_order & right
+
+        if not isinstance(right, Order_relative):
+            raise NotImplementedError("cannot intersect these orders yet")
+
+        if left._K != right._K:
+            raise TypeError("number fields do not match")
+
+        return RelativeOrder(left._K, left._absolute_order & right._absolute_order, check=False)
+
+    def is_maximal(self, p=None):
+        """
+        Return whether this is the maximal order.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``p`` -- integer prime or ``None`` (default: ``None``); if
+          set, return whether this order is maximal at the prime `p`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 - 5])
+
+            sage: K.order(3*a, b).is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: K.order(5*a, b/2 + 1/2).is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: (K.order(3*a, b) + K.order(5*a, b/2 + 1/2)).is_maximal()
+            True
+            sage: K.maximal_order().is_maximal()
+            True
+
+        Maximality can be checked at primes when the order is maximal at that
+        prime by construction::
+
+            sage: K.maximal_order().is_maximal(p=3)
+            True
+
+        And at other primes::
+
+            sage: K.order(3*a, b).is_maximal(p=3)
+            False
+        """
+        return self._absolute_order.is_maximal(p=p)
+
+    def _is_maximal(self):
+        r"""
+        Return whether this order is already known to be maximal.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 - 5])
+            sage: O = K.order(a, b)
+            sage: O._is_maximal() is None
+            True
+            sage: O.is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: O._is_maximal()
+            False
+        """
+        return self._absolute_order._is_maximal()
+
+    def _is_maximal_at(self, p=None):
+        r"""
+        Return whether this order is already known to be maximal at ``p``.
+
+        When no ``p`` is specified, returns a dictionary of primes for which
+        maximality is known.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 - 2, x^13 - 2])
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order([2, 3, 5], assume_maximal=None)
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(p=7) is None
+            True
+            sage: O = K.maximal_order([2, 3, 7], assume_maximal=None)
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(p=5)
+            True
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(p=7)
+            True
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at()
+            {2: True, 3: True, 5: True, 7: True}
+        """
+        return self._absolute_order._is_maximal_at(p=p)
+
+    def _assume_maximal(self, is_maximal=True, p=None):
+        r"""
+        Record that this order ``is_maximal`` at the integer prime ``p``.
+
+        To support the deprecated behavior for
+        ``is_maximal="non-maximal-non-unique"``, this returns an order.
+        Typically, the order itself.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: L.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 - 1000005, x^2 - 5*1000099^2])
+            sage: O = L.maximal_order([13], assume_maximal=None)
+
+        We can store information about more primes::
+
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(p=7) is None
+            True
+            sage: 7.divides(L.absolute_discriminant())
+            False
+            sage: O._assume_maximal(p=7) is O
+            True
+            sage: O._is_maximal_at(p=7)
+            True
+
+        We cannot store contradicting information at a prime::
+
+            sage: O._assume_maximal(p=7, is_maximal=False)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: cannot assume this order to be non-maximal at 7 because we already found it to be maximal at that prime
+
+        We can safely store information that we know to be wrong to support
+        legacy behavior of orders that are assumed to be only maximal at some
+        primes::
+
+            sage: L.<a, b> = NumberField([x^2 - 2, x^3 - 2])
+            sage: O = L.maximal_order([2, 3], assume_maximal=None)
+            sage: O.is_maximal()
+            True
+            sage: N = O._assume_maximal(is_maximal='non-maximal-non-unique')
+            sage: N._assume_maximal(p=2) is N
+            True
+            sage: N is O
+            False
+            sage: N == O
+            True
+            sage: N.is_maximal()
+            False
+            sage: N.is_maximal(p=2)
+            True
+        """
+        absolute_order = self._absolute_order._assume_maximal(is_maximal=is_maximal, p=p)
+        if absolute_order is not self._absolute_order:
+            assert is_maximal == "non-maximal-non-unique"
+            self = type(self)(self._K, absolute_order)
+        return self
+
+    def absolute_discriminant(self):
+        """
+        Return the absolute discriminant of ``self``, which is the discriminant
+        of the absolute order associated to ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT: integer
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: R = EquationOrder([x^2 + 1, x^3 + 2], 'a,b')
+            sage: d = R.absolute_discriminant(); d
+            -746496
+            sage: d is R.absolute_discriminant()
+            True
+            sage: factor(d)
+            -1 * 2^10 * 3^6
+        """
+        return self.absolute_order().discriminant()
+
+    def is_suborder(self, other):
+        """
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is a subset of the order ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a,b> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^3 + 2])
+            sage: R1 = K.order([a, b])
+            sage: R2 = K.order([2*a, b])
+            sage: R3 = K.order([a + b, b + 2*a])
+            sage: R1.is_suborder(R2)
+            False
+            sage: R2.is_suborder(R1)
+            True
+            sage: R3.is_suborder(R1)
+            True
+            sage: R1.is_suborder(R3)
+            True
+            sage: R1 == R3
+            True
+        """
+        return self.absolute_order().is_suborder(other.absolute_order())
+
+    def index_in(self, other):
+        """
+        Return the index of ``self`` in ``other``.
+
+        This is a lattice index,
+        so it is a rational number if ``self`` is not contained in ``other``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- another order with the same ambient absolute number field
+
+        OUTPUT: a rational number
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a,b> = NumberField([x^3 + x + 3, x^2 + 1])
+            sage: R1 = K.order([3*a, 2*b])
+            sage: R2 = K.order([a, 4*b])
+            sage: R1.index_in(R2)
+            729/8
+            sage: R2.index_in(R1)
+            8/729
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, Order):
+            raise TypeError("other must be an absolute order.")
+        return self.absolute_order().index_in(other.absolute_order())
+
+
+def each_is_integral(v):
+    """
+    Return whether every element of the list ``v`` of elements of a number
+    field is integral.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: W.<sqrt5> = NumberField(x^2 - 5)
+        sage: from sage.rings.number_field.order import each_is_integral
+        sage: each_is_integral([sqrt5, 2, (1+sqrt5)/2])
+        True
+        sage: each_is_integral([sqrt5, (1+sqrt5)/3])
+        False
+    """
+    return all(x.is_integral() for x in v)
+
+
+def absolute_order_from_ring_generators(gens, check_is_integral=True,
+                                        check_rank=True, is_maximal=None,
+                                        allow_subfield=False):
+    """
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``gens`` -- list of integral elements of an absolute order
+    - ``check_is_integral`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); whether to check
+      that each generator is integral
+    - ``check_rank`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); whether to check that the
+      ring generated by ``gens`` is of full rank
+    - ``is_maximal`` -- boolean (or ``None``); set if maximality of the
+      generated order is known
+    - ``allow_subfield`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); if ``True`` and the
+      generators do not generate an order, i.e., they generate a subring of
+      smaller rank, instead of raising an error, return an order in a smaller
+      number field
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^4 - 5)
+        sage: K.order(a)
+        Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+
+    We have to explicitly import this function, since typically it is called
+    with ``K.order`` as above.::
+
+        sage: from sage.rings.number_field.order import absolute_order_from_ring_generators
+        sage: absolute_order_from_ring_generators([a])
+        Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+        sage: absolute_order_from_ring_generators([3*a, 2, 6*a + 1])
+        Order generated by 3*a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+
+    If one of the inputs is non-integral, it is an error.::
+
+        sage: absolute_order_from_ring_generators([a/2])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: each generator must be integral
+
+    If the ``gens`` do not generate an order, i.e., generate a ring of full
+    rank, then it is an error.::
+
+        sage: absolute_order_from_ring_generators([a^2])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: the rank of the span of gens is wrong
+
+    Both checking for integrality and checking for full rank can be
+    turned off in order to save time, though one can get nonsense as
+    illustrated below.::
+
+        sage: absolute_order_from_ring_generators([a/2], check_is_integral=False)
+        Order generated by [1, 1/2*a, 1/4*a^2, 1/8*a^3] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+        sage: absolute_order_from_ring_generators([a^2], check_rank=False)
+        Order generated by a^2 in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+    """
+    if check_is_integral and not each_is_integral(gens):
+        raise ValueError("each generator must be integral")
+    gens = Sequence(gens)
+    n = [x.absolute_minpoly().degree() for x in gens]
+    module_gens = monomials(gens, n)
+    return absolute_order_from_module_generators(module_gens,
+                                                 check_integral=False,
+                                                 check_is_ring=False,
+                                                 check_rank=check_rank,
+                                                 is_maximal=is_maximal,
+                                                 allow_subfield=allow_subfield)
+
+
+def absolute_order_from_module_generators(gens,
+                                          check_integral=True, check_rank=True,
+                                          check_is_ring=True, is_maximal=None,
+                                          allow_subfield=False, is_maximal_at=()):
+    r"""
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``gens`` -- list of elements of an absolute number field that generates an
+      order in that number field as a `\ZZ`-*module*
+    - ``check_integral`` -- check that each generator is integral
+    - ``check_rank`` -- check that the ``gens`` span a module of the correct
+      rank
+    - ``check_is_ring`` -- check that the module is closed under multiplication
+      (this is very expensive)
+    - ``is_maximal`` -- boolean (or ``None``); set if maximality of the
+      generated order is known
+    - ``is_maximal_at`` -- tuple of primes where this order is known to be
+      maximal
+
+    OUTPUT: an absolute order
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    We have to explicitly import the function, since it is not meant
+    for regular usage::
+
+        sage: from sage.rings.number_field.order import absolute_order_from_module_generators
+
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^4 - 5)
+        sage: O = K.maximal_order(); O
+        Maximal Order generated by [1/2*a^2 + 1/2, 1/2*a^3 + 1/2*a] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+        sage: O.basis()
+        [1/2*a^2 + 1/2, 1/2*a^3 + 1/2*a, a^2, a^3]
+        sage: O.module()
+        Free module of degree 4 and rank 4 over Integer Ring
+        Echelon basis matrix:
+        [1/2   0 1/2   0]
+        [  0 1/2   0 1/2]
+        [  0   0   1   0]
+        [  0   0   0   1]
+        sage: g = O.basis(); g
+        [1/2*a^2 + 1/2, 1/2*a^3 + 1/2*a, a^2, a^3]
+        sage: absolute_order_from_module_generators(g)
+        Maximal Order generated by [1/2*a^2 + 1/2, 1/2*a^3 + 1/2*a] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+
+    We illustrate each check flag -- the output is the same but in case
+    the function would run ever so slightly faster::
+
+        sage: absolute_order_from_module_generators(g,  check_is_ring=False)
+        Maximal Order generated by [1/2*a^2 + 1/2, 1/2*a^3 + 1/2*a] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+        sage: absolute_order_from_module_generators(g,  check_rank=False)
+        Maximal Order generated by [1/2*a^2 + 1/2, 1/2*a^3 + 1/2*a] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+        sage: absolute_order_from_module_generators(g,  check_integral=False)
+        Maximal Order generated by [1/2*a^2 + 1/2, 1/2*a^3 + 1/2*a] in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^4 - 5
+
+    Next we illustrate constructing "fake" orders to illustrate turning
+    off various check flags::
+
+        sage: k.<i> = NumberField(x^2 + 1)
+        sage: R = absolute_order_from_module_generators([2, 2*i],
+        ....:                                           check_is_ring=False); R
+        Order of conductor 4 generated by [2, 2*i]
+         in Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1
+        sage: R.basis()
+        [2, 2*i]
+        sage: R = absolute_order_from_module_generators([k(1)],                         # needs sage.symbolic
+        ....:                                           check_rank=False); R
+        Order of conductor I generated by []
+         in Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1
+        sage: R.basis()                                                                 # needs sage.symbolic
+        [1]
+
+    If the order contains a non-integral element, even if we do not check
+    that, we will find that the rank is wrong or that the order is not closed
+    under multiplication::
+
+        sage: absolute_order_from_module_generators([1/2, i],
+        ....:                                       check_integral=False)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: the module span of the gens is not closed under multiplication.
+        sage: R = absolute_order_from_module_generators([1/2, i],
+        ....:                                           check_is_ring=False,
+        ....:                                           check_integral=False); R
+        Order of conductor 0 generated by [1/2, i] in Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1
+        sage: R.basis()
+        [1/2, i]
+
+    We turn off all check flags and make a really messed up order::
+
+        sage: R = absolute_order_from_module_generators([1/2, i],
+        ....:                                           check_is_ring=False,
+        ....:                                           check_integral=False,
+        ....:                                           check_rank=False); R
+        Order of conductor 0 generated by [1/2, i] in Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1
+        sage: R.basis()
+        [1/2, i]
+
+    An order that lives in a subfield::
+
+        sage: F.<alpha> = NumberField(x**4 + 3)
+        sage: F.order([alpha**2], allow_subfield=True)
+        Order of conductor 2 generated by ... in Number Field in beta with defining polynomial ... with beta = ...
+    """
+    if not gens:
+        raise ValueError("gens must span an order over ZZ")
+    gens = Sequence(gens)
+    if check_integral and not each_is_integral(gens):
+        raise ValueError("each generator must be integral")
+
+    K = gens.universe()
+    if isinstance(K, Order) or K == ZZ:
+        K = K.number_field()
+    V, from_V, to_V = K.vector_space()
+    mod_gens = [to_V(x) for x in gens]
+    ambient = ZZ**V.dimension()
+    W = ambient.span(mod_gens)
+
+    if allow_subfield:
+        if W.rank() < K.degree():
+            # We have to make the order in a smaller field.
+            # We do this by choosing a random element of W,
+            # moving it back to K, and checking that it defines
+            # a field of degree equal to the degree of W.
+            # Then we move everything into that field, where
+            # W does define an order.
+            while True:
+                alpha = from_V(W.random_element())
+                if alpha.minpoly().degree() == W.rank():
+                    break
+            # Now alpha generates a subfield where W is an order
+            # (with the right rank).
+            # We move each generator of W to this subfield.
+            K, _ = K.subfield(alpha, 'beta')
+            gens = [K(x) for x in gens]
+            V, from_V, to_V = K.vector_space()
+            mod_gens = [to_V(x) for x in gens]
+            ambient = ZZ**V.dimension()
+            W = ambient.span(mod_gens)
+
+    elif check_rank:
+        if W.rank() != K.degree():
+            raise ValueError("the rank of the span of gens is wrong")
+
+    if check_is_ring:
+        if any(to_V(x * y) not in W for x in gens for y in gens):
+            raise ValueError("the module span of the gens is not closed under multiplication.")
+
+    return AbsoluteOrder(K, W, check=False, is_maximal=is_maximal, is_maximal_at=is_maximal_at)
+
+
+def relative_order_from_ring_generators(gens,
+                                        check_is_integral=True,
+                                        check_rank=True,
+                                        is_maximal=None,
+                                        allow_subfield=False,
+                                        is_maximal_at=()):
+    """
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``gens`` -- list of integral elements of an absolute order
+    - ``check_is_integral`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); whether to check
+      that each generator is integral
+    - ``check_rank`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); whether to check that the
+      ring generated by ``gens`` is of full rank
+    - ``is_maximal`` -- boolean (or ``None``); set if maximality of the
+      generated order is known
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    We have to explicitly import this function, since it is not meant
+    for regular usage::
+
+        sage: from sage.rings.number_field.order import relative_order_from_ring_generators
+        sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+        sage: K.<i, a> = NumberField([x^2 + 1, x^2 - 17])
+        sage: R = K.base_field().maximal_order()
+        sage: S = relative_order_from_ring_generators([i,a]); S
+        Relative Order generated by [7*i - 2*a, -a*i + 8, 25*i - 7*a] in
+         Number Field in i with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 over its base field
+
+    Basis for the relative order, which is obtained by computing the algebra generated
+    by i and a::
+
+        sage: S.basis()
+        [1, 7*i - 2*a, -a*i + 8, 25*i - 7*a]
+    """
+    if check_is_integral and not each_is_integral(gens):
+        raise ValueError("each generator must be integral")
+    gens = Sequence(gens)
+
+    # The top number field that contains the order.
+    K = gens.universe()
+
+    # The absolute version of that field.
+    Kabs = K.absolute_field('z')
+    from_Kabs, to_Kabs = Kabs.structure()
+
+    module_gens = [to_Kabs(a) for a in gens]
+    n = [a.absolute_minpoly().degree() for a in gens]
+    absolute_order_module_gens = monomials(module_gens, n)
+
+    abs_order = absolute_order_from_module_generators(absolute_order_module_gens,
+                                                      check_integral=False,
+                                                      check_is_ring=False,
+                                                      check_rank=check_rank,
+                                                      is_maximal=is_maximal,
+                                                      is_maximal_at=is_maximal_at)
+
+    return RelativeOrder(K, abs_order, check=False)
+
+
+def GaussianIntegers(names='I', latex_name='i'):
+    r"""
+    Return the ring of Gaussian integers.
+
+    This is the ring of all complex numbers
+    of the form `a + b I` with `a` and `b` integers and `I = \sqrt{-1}`.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: ZZI.<I> = GaussianIntegers()
+        sage: ZZI
+        Gaussian Integers generated by I in Number Field in I with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 with I = 1*I
+        sage: factor(3 + I)
+        (-2*I - 1) * (I - 1)
+        sage: CC(I)
+        1.00000000000000*I
+        sage: I.minpoly()
+        x^2 + 1
+        sage: GaussianIntegers().basis()
+        [1, I]
+    """
+    from sage.rings.complex_double import CDF
+    from sage.rings.number_field.number_field import NumberField
+    f = ZZ['x']([1, 0, 1])
+    nf = NumberField(f, names, embedding=CDF(0, 1), latex_name=latex_name)
+    return nf.ring_of_integers()
+
+
+def EisensteinIntegers(names='omega'):
+    r"""
+    Return the ring of Eisenstein integers.
+
+    This is the ring of all complex numbers
+    of the form `a + b \omega` with `a` and `b` integers and
+    `\omega = (-1 + \sqrt{-3})/2`.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: R.<omega> = EisensteinIntegers()
+        sage: R
+        Eisenstein Integers generated by omega in Number Field in omega
+         with defining polynomial x^2 + x + 1
+         with omega = -0.50000000000000000? + 0.866025403784439?*I
+        sage: factor(3 + omega)
+        (omega) * (-3*omega - 2)
+        sage: CC(omega)
+        -0.500000000000000 + 0.866025403784439*I
+        sage: omega.minpoly()
+        x^2 + x + 1
+        sage: EisensteinIntegers().basis()
+        [1, omega]
+    """
+    from sage.rings.complex_double import CDF
+    from sage.rings.number_field.number_field import NumberField
+    f = ZZ['x']([1, 1, 1])
+    nf = NumberField(f, names, embedding=CDF(-0.5, 0.8660254037844386))
+    return nf.ring_of_integers()