passagemath-categories 10.6.31rc3__cp314-cp314-macosx_13_0_arm64.whl

sage/functions/hypergeometric.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1156 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-categories
+r"""
+Hypergeometric functions
+
+This module implements manipulation of infinite hypergeometric series
+represented in standard parametric form (as `\,_pF_q` functions).
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- Fredrik Johansson (2010): initial version
+
+- Eviatar Bach (2013): major changes
+
+EXAMPLES:
+
+Examples from :issue:`9908`::
+
+    sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+    sage: maxima('integrate(bessel_j(2, x), x)').sage()
+    1/24*x^3*hypergeometric((3/2,), (5/2, 3), -1/4*x^2)
+    sage: sum(((2*I)^x/(x^3 + 1)*(1/4)^x), x, 0, oo)
+    hypergeometric((1, 1, -1/2*I*sqrt(3) - 1/2, 1/2*I*sqrt(3) - 1/2),...
+    (2, -1/2*I*sqrt(3) + 1/2, 1/2*I*sqrt(3) + 1/2), 1/2*I)
+    sage: res = sum((-1)^x/((2*x + 1)*factorial(2*x + 1)), x, 0, oo)
+    sage: res                                   # not tested (depends on maxima version)
+    hypergeometric((1/2,), (3/2, 3/2), -1/4)
+    sage: res in [hypergeometric((1/2,), (3/2, 3/2), -1/4), sin_integral(1)]
+    True
+
+Simplification (note that ``simplify_full`` does not yet call
+``simplify_hypergeometric``)::
+
+    sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+    sage: hypergeometric([-2], [], x).simplify_hypergeometric()
+    x^2 - 2*x + 1
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [], x).simplify_hypergeometric()
+    e^x
+    sage: a = hypergeometric((hypergeometric((), (), x),), (),
+    ....:                    hypergeometric((), (), x))
+    sage: a.simplify_hypergeometric()
+    1/((-e^x + 1)^e^x)
+    sage: a.simplify_hypergeometric(algorithm='sage')
+    1/((-e^x + 1)^e^x)
+
+Equality testing::
+
+    sage: bool(hypergeometric([], [], x).derivative(x) ==                               # needs sage.symbolic
+    ....:      hypergeometric([], [], x))  # diff(e^x, x) == e^x
+    True
+    sage: bool(hypergeometric([], [], x) == hypergeometric([], [1], x))                 # needs sage.symbolic
+    False
+
+Computing terms and series::
+
+    sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+    sage: var('z')
+    z
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [], z).series(z, 0)
+    Order(1)
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [], z).series(z, 1)
+    1 + Order(z)
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [], z).series(z, 2)
+    1 + 1*z + Order(z^2)
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [], z).series(z, 3)
+    1 + 1*z + 1/2*z^2 + Order(z^3)
+
+    sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+    sage: hypergeometric([-2], [], z).series(z, 3)
+    1 + (-2)*z + 1*z^2
+    sage: hypergeometric([-2], [], z).series(z, 6)
+    1 + (-2)*z + 1*z^2
+    sage: hypergeometric([-2], [], z).series(z, 6).is_terminating_series()
+    True
+    sage: hypergeometric([-2], [], z).series(z, 2)
+    1 + (-2)*z + Order(z^2)
+    sage: hypergeometric([-2], [], z).series(z, 2).is_terminating_series()
+    False
+
+    sage: hypergeometric([1], [], z).series(z, 6)                                       # needs sage.symbolic
+    1 + 1*z + 1*z^2 + 1*z^3 + 1*z^4 + 1*z^5 + Order(z^6)
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [1/2], -z^2/4).series(z, 11)                               # needs sage.symbolic
+    1 + (-1/2)*z^2 + 1/24*z^4 + (-1/720)*z^6 + 1/40320*z^8 +...
+    (-1/3628800)*z^10 + Order(z^11)
+
+    sage: hypergeometric([1], [5], x).series(x, 5)                                      # needs sage.symbolic
+    1 + 1/5*x + 1/30*x^2 + 1/210*x^3 + 1/1680*x^4 + Order(x^5)
+
+    sage: sum(hypergeometric([1, 2], [3], 1/3).terms(6)).n()                            # needs sage.symbolic
+    1.29788359788360
+    sage: hypergeometric([1, 2], [3], 1/3).n()                                          # needs sage.symbolic
+    1.29837194594696
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [], x).series(x, 20)(x=1).n() == e.n()                     # needs sage.symbolic
+    True
+
+Plotting::
+
+    sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+    sage: f(x) = hypergeometric([1, 1], [3, 3, 3], x)
+    sage: plot(f, x, -30, 30)                                                           # needs sage.plot
+    Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+    sage: g(x) = hypergeometric([x], [], 2)
+    sage: complex_plot(g, (-1, 1), (-1, 1))                                             # needs sage.plot
+    Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+
+Numeric evaluation::
+
+    sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+    sage: hypergeometric([1], [], 1/10).n()  # geometric series
+    1.11111111111111
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [], 1).n()  # e
+    2.71828182845905
+    sage: hypergeometric([], [], 3., hold=True)
+    hypergeometric((), (), 3.00000000000000)
+    sage: hypergeometric([1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], 1/2).n()
+    1.02573619590134
+    sage: hypergeometric([1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], 1/2).n(digits=30)
+    1.02573619590133865036584139535
+    sage: hypergeometric([5 - 3*I], [3/2, 2 + I, sqrt(2)], 4 + I).n()
+    5.52605111678803 - 7.86331357527540*I
+    sage: hypergeometric((10, 10), (50,), 2.)
+    -1705.75733163554 - 356.749986056024*I
+
+Conversions::
+
+    sage: maxima(hypergeometric([1, 1, 1], [3, 3, 3], x))                               # needs sage.symbolic
+    hypergeometric([1,1,1],[3,3,3],_SAGE_VAR_x)
+    sage: hypergeometric((5,), (4,), 3)._sympy_()                                   # needs sympy sage.symbolic
+    hyper((5,), (4,), 3)
+    sage: hypergeometric((5, 4), (4, 4), 3)._mathematica_init_()                        # needs sage.symbolic
+    'HypergeometricPFQ[{5,4},{4,4},3]'
+
+Arbitrary level of nesting for conversions::
+
+    sage: maxima(nest(lambda y: hypergeometric([y], [], x), 3, 1))                      # needs sage.symbolic
+    1/(1-_SAGE_VAR_x)^(1/(1-_SAGE_VAR_x)^(1/(1-_SAGE_VAR_x)))
+    sage: maxima(nest(lambda y: hypergeometric([y], [3], x), 3, 1))._sage_()            # needs sage.symbolic
+    hypergeometric((hypergeometric((hypergeometric((1,), (3,), x),), (3,),...
+    x),), (3,), x)
+    sage: nest(lambda y: hypergeometric([y], [], x), 3, 1)._mathematica_init_()         # needs sage.symbolic
+    'HypergeometricPFQ[{HypergeometricPFQ[{HypergeometricPFQ[{1},{},x]},...
+
+The confluent hypergeometric functions can arise as solutions to second-order
+differential equations (example from `here <http://ask.sagemath.org/question/
+1168/how-can-one-use-maxima-kummer-confluent-functions>`_)::
+
+    sage: var('m')                                                                      # needs sage.symbolic
+    m
+    sage: y = function('y')(x)                                                          # needs sage.symbolic
+    sage: desolve(diff(y, x, 2) + 2*x*diff(y, x) - 4*m*y, y,                            # needs sage.symbolic
+    ....:         contrib_ode=true, ivar=x)
+    [y(x) == _K1*hypergeometric_M(-m, 1/2, -x^2) +...
+     _K2*hypergeometric_U(-m, 1/2, -x^2)]
+
+Series expansions of confluent hypergeometric functions::
+
+    sage: hypergeometric_M(2, 2, x).series(x, 3)                                        # needs sage.symbolic
+    1 + 1*x + 1/2*x^2 + Order(x^3)
+    sage: hypergeometric_U(2, 2, x).series(x == 3, 100).subs(x=1).n()                   # needs sage.symbolic
+    0.403652637676806
+    sage: hypergeometric_U(2, 2, 1).n()                                                 # needs mpmath sage.symbolic
+    0.403652637676806
+"""
+
+# ****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2010 Fredrik Johansson <fredrik.johansson@gmail.com>
+#       Copyright (C) 2013 Eviatar Bach <eviatarbach@gmail.com>
+#
+# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation, either version 2 of the License, or
+# (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+from functools import reduce
+
+from sage.arith.misc import binomial, factorial, rising_factorial
+from sage.calculus.functional import derivative
+from sage.functions.error import erf
+from sage.functions.gamma import gamma
+from sage.functions.hyperbolic import cosh, sinh
+from sage.functions.log import exp, log
+from sage.functions.other import sqrt, real_part
+from sage.misc.lazy_import import lazy_import
+from sage.misc.misc_c import prod
+from sage.rings.infinity import Infinity
+from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+from sage.rings.integer_ring import ZZ
+from sage.rings.rational_field import QQ
+from sage.structure.element import Expression, get_coercion_model
+from sage.symbolic.function import BuiltinFunction
+
+lazy_import('sage.misc.latex', 'latex')
+
+lazy_import('sage.symbolic.constants', 'pi')
+lazy_import('sage.symbolic.ring', 'SR')
+
+lazy_import('sage.libs.mpmath.utils', 'call', as_='_mpmath_utils_call')
+lazy_import('mpmath', 'hyp1f1', as_='_mpmath_hyp1f1')
+lazy_import('mpmath', 'hyper', as_='_mpmath_hyper')
+lazy_import('mpmath', 'hyperu', as_='_mpmath_hyperu')
+
+
+def rational_param_as_tuple(x):
+    r"""
+    Utility function for converting rational `\,_pF_q` parameters to
+    tuples (which mpmath handles more efficiently).
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.functions.hypergeometric import rational_param_as_tuple
+        sage: rational_param_as_tuple(1/2)
+        (1, 2)
+        sage: rational_param_as_tuple(3)
+        3
+        sage: rational_param_as_tuple(pi)                                               # needs sage.symbolic
+        pi
+    """
+    try:
+        x = x.pyobject()
+    except AttributeError:
+        pass
+    try:
+        if x.parent() is QQ:
+            p = int(x.numer())
+            q = int(x.denom())
+            return p, q
+    except AttributeError:
+        pass
+    return x
+
+
+class Hypergeometric(BuiltinFunction):
+    r"""
+    Represent a (formal) generalized infinite hypergeometric series.
+
+    It is defined as
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \,_pF_q(a_1, \ldots, a_p; b_1, \ldots, b_q; z)
+        = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{(a_1)_n \cdots (a_p)_n}{(b_1)_n
+        \cdots(b_q)_n} \, \frac{z^n}{n!},
+
+    where `(x)_n` is the rising factorial.
+    """
+    def __init__(self):
+        """
+        Initialize class.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: maxima(hypergeometric)                                                # needs sage.symbolic
+            hypergeometric
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = hypergeometric([-4,2],[1],1)  # optional - maple
+            sage: G = maple(F); G                   # optional - maple
+            hypergeom([-4, 2],[1],1)
+            sage: G.simplify()                      # optional - maple
+            0
+        """
+        BuiltinFunction.__init__(self, 'hypergeometric', nargs=3,
+                                 conversions={'mathematica':
+                                              'HypergeometricPFQ',
+                                              'maxima': 'hypergeometric',
+                                              'maple': 'hypergeom',
+                                              'sympy': 'hyper',
+                                              'fricas': 'hypergeometricF'})
+
+    def __call__(self, a, b, z, **kwargs):
+        """
+        Return symbolic hypergeometric function expression.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``a`` -- list or tuple of parameters
+        - ``b`` -- list or tuple of parameters
+        - ``z`` -- number or symbolic expression
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+            sage: hypergeometric([], [], 1)
+            hypergeometric((), (), 1)
+            sage: hypergeometric([], [1], 1)
+            hypergeometric((), (1,), 1)
+            sage: hypergeometric([2, 3], [1], 1)
+            hypergeometric((2, 3), (1,), 1)
+            sage: hypergeometric([], [], x)
+            hypergeometric((), (), x)
+            sage: hypergeometric([x], [], x^2)
+            hypergeometric((x,), (), x^2)
+
+        The only simplification that is done automatically is returning 1
+        if ``z`` is 0. For other simplifications use the
+        ``simplify_hypergeometric`` method.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: hypergeometric([2, 3, 4], [4, 1], 1)                                  # needs sage.symbolic
+            hypergeometric((2, 3, 4), (4, 1), 1)
+        """
+        return BuiltinFunction.__call__(self,
+                                        SR._force_pyobject(a),
+                                        SR._force_pyobject(b),
+                                        z, **kwargs)
+
+    def _print_latex_(self, a, b, z):
+        r"""
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: latex(hypergeometric([1, 1], [2], -1))                                # needs sage.symbolic
+            \,_2F_1\left(\begin{matrix} 1,1 \\ 2 \end{matrix} ; -1 \right)
+        """
+        aa = ",".join(latex(c) for c in a)
+        bb = ",".join(latex(c) for c in b)
+        z = latex(z)
+        return (r"\,_{}F_{}\left(\begin{{matrix}} {} \\ {} \end{{matrix}} ; "
+                r"{} \right)").format(len(a), len(b), aa, bb, z)
+
+    def _eval_(self, a, b, z, **kwargs):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: hypergeometric([], [], 0)                                             # needs sage.symbolic
+            1
+        """
+        if not isinstance(a, tuple) or not isinstance(b, tuple):
+            raise TypeError("The first two parameters must be of type list")
+
+        if not isinstance(z, Expression) and z == 0:  # Expression is excluded
+            return Integer(1)                         # to avoid call to Maxima
+
+    def _evalf_try_(self, a, b, z):
+        """
+        Call :meth:`_evalf_` if one of the arguments is numerical and none
+        of the arguments are symbolic.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - ``None`` if we didn't succeed to call :meth:`_evalf_` or if
+          the input wasn't suitable for it.
+
+        - otherwise, a numerical value for the function.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: hypergeometric._evalf_try_((1.0,), (2.0,), 3.0)                       # needs mpmath
+            6.36184564106256
+            sage: hypergeometric._evalf_try_((1.0, 1), (), 3.0)                         # needs mpmath
+            -0.0377593153441588 + 0.750349833788561*I
+            sage: hypergeometric._evalf_try_((1, 1), (), 3)    # exact input
+            sage: hypergeometric._evalf_try_((x,), (), 1.0)    # symbolic               # needs sage.symbolic
+            sage: hypergeometric._evalf_try_(1.0, 2.0, 3.0)    # not tuples
+        """
+        # We need to override this for hypergeometric functions since
+        # the first 2 arguments are tuples and the generic _evalf_try_
+        # cannot handle that.
+        if not isinstance(a, tuple) or not isinstance(b, tuple):
+            return None
+
+        args = list(a) + list(b) + [z]
+        if any(self._is_numerical(x) for x in args):
+            if not any(isinstance(x, Expression) for x in args):
+                p = get_coercion_model().common_parent(*args)
+                return self._evalf_(a, b, z, parent=p)
+
+    def _evalf_(self, a, b, z, parent=None, algorithm=None):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: hypergeometric([1, 1], [2], -1).n()                                   # needs sage.symbolic
+            0.693147180559945
+            sage: hypergeometric([], [], RealField(100)(1))                             # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr sage.symbolic
+            2.7182818284590452353602874714
+        """
+        if not isinstance(a, tuple) or not isinstance(b, tuple):
+            raise TypeError("The first two parameters must be of type list")
+        aa = [rational_param_as_tuple(c) for c in a]
+        bb = [rational_param_as_tuple(c) for c in b]
+        return _mpmath_utils_call(_mpmath_hyper, aa, bb, z, parent=parent)
+
+    def _tderivative_(self, a, b, z, *args, **kwargs):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: hypergeometric([1/3, 2/3], [5], x^2).diff(x)                          # needs sage.symbolic
+            4/45*x*hypergeometric((4/3, 5/3), (6,), x^2)
+            sage: hypergeometric([1, 2], [x], 2).diff(x)                                # needs sage.symbolic
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: derivative of hypergeometric function with...
+            respect to parameters. Try calling .simplify_hypergeometric()...
+            first.
+            sage: hypergeometric([1/3, 2/3], [5], 2).diff(x)                            # needs sage.symbolic
+            0
+        """
+        diff_param = kwargs['diff_param']
+        if diff_param in hypergeometric(a, b, 1).variables():  # ignore z
+            raise NotImplementedError("derivative of hypergeometric function "
+                                      "with respect to parameters. Try calling"
+                                      " .simplify_hypergeometric() first.")
+        t = (reduce(lambda x, y: x * y, a, 1) *
+             reduce(lambda x, y: x / y, b, Integer(1)))
+        return (t * derivative(z, diff_param) *
+                hypergeometric([c + 1 for c in a], [c + 1 for c in b], z))
+
+    class EvaluationMethods:
+
+        def _fast_callable_(self, a, b, z, etb):
+            """
+            Override the ``fast_callable`` method.
+
+            OUTPUT:
+
+            A :class:`~sage.ext.fast_callable.ExpressionCall` representing the
+            hypergeometric function in the expression tree.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: h = hypergeometric([], [], x)
+                sage: from sage.ext.fast_callable import ExpressionTreeBuilder
+                sage: etb = ExpressionTreeBuilder(vars=['x'])
+                sage: h._fast_callable_(etb)
+                {hypergeometric((), (), x)}(v_0)
+
+                sage: var('x, y')                                                       # needs sage.symbolic
+                (x, y)
+                sage: f = fast_callable(hypergeometric([y], [], x), vars=[x, y])        # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: f(3, 4)                                                           # needs sage.symbolic
+                hypergeometric((4,), (), 3)
+            """
+            return etb.call(self, *map(etb.var, etb._vars))
+
+        def sorted_parameters(self, a, b, z):
+            """
+            Return with parameters sorted in a canonical order.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, 1, 3], [5, 4],                                 # needs sage.symbolic
+                ....:                1/2).sorted_parameters()
+                hypergeometric((1, 2, 3), (4, 5), 1/2)
+            """
+            return hypergeometric(sorted(a), sorted(b), z)
+
+        def eliminate_parameters(self, a, b, z):
+            """
+            Eliminate repeated parameters by pairwise cancellation of identical
+            terms in ``a`` and ``b``.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: hypergeometric([1, 1, 2, 5], [5, 1, 4],                           # needs sage.symbolic
+                ....:                1/2).eliminate_parameters()
+                hypergeometric((1, 2), (4,), 1/2)
+                sage: hypergeometric([x], [x], x).eliminate_parameters()                # needs sage.symbolic
+                hypergeometric((), (), x)
+                sage: hypergeometric((5, 4), (4, 4), 3).eliminate_parameters()          # needs sage.symbolic
+                hypergeometric((5,), (4,), 3)
+            """
+            aa = list(a)  # tuples are immutable
+            bb = list(b)
+            q = qq = len(bb)
+            i = 0
+            while i < qq and aa:
+                bbi = bb[i]
+                if bbi in aa:
+                    aa.remove(bbi)
+                    bb.remove(bbi)
+                    qq -= 1
+                else:
+                    i += 1
+            if qq != q:
+                return hypergeometric(aa, bb, z)
+            return self
+
+        def is_termwise_finite(self, a, b, z) -> bool:
+            """
+            Determine whether all terms of ``self`` are finite.
+
+            Any infinite terms or ambiguous terms beyond the first
+            zero, if one exists, are ignored.
+
+            Ambiguous cases (where a term is the product of both zero
+            and an infinity) are not considered finite.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: hypergeometric([2], [3, 4], 5).is_termwise_finite()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([2], [-3, 4], 5).is_termwise_finite()
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([-2], [-3, 4], 5).is_termwise_finite()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([-3], [-3, 4],
+                ....:                5).is_termwise_finite()  # ambiguous
+                False
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: hypergeometric([0], [-1], 5).is_termwise_finite()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([0], [0],
+                ....:                5).is_termwise_finite()  # ambiguous
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([1], [2], Infinity).is_termwise_finite()
+                False
+                sage: (hypergeometric([0], [0], Infinity)
+                ....:  .is_termwise_finite())  # ambiguous
+                False
+                sage: (hypergeometric([0], [], Infinity)
+                ....:  .is_termwise_finite())  # ambiguous
+                False
+            """
+            if z == 0:
+                return 0 not in b
+            if abs(z) == Infinity:
+                return False
+            for bb in b:
+                if bb in ZZ and bb <= 0:
+                    if any((aa in ZZ) and (bb < aa <= 0) for aa in a):
+                        continue
+                    return False
+            return True
+
+        def is_terminating(self, a, b, z):
+            r"""
+            Determine whether the series represented by ``self`` terminates
+            after a finite number of terms.
+
+            This happens if any of the
+            numerator parameters are nonnegative integers (with no
+            preceding nonnegative denominator parameters), or `z = 0`.
+
+            If terminating, the series represents a polynomial of `z`.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: hypergeometric([1, 2], [3, 4], x).is_terminating()                # needs sage.symbolic
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([1, -2], [3, 4], x).is_terminating()               # needs sage.symbolic
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([1, -2], [], x).is_terminating()                   # needs sage.symbolic
+                True
+            """
+            if z == 0:
+                return True
+            for aa in a:
+                if (aa in ZZ) and (aa <= 0):
+                    return self.is_termwise_finite()
+            return False
+
+        def is_absolutely_convergent(self, a, b, z):
+            r"""
+            Determine whether ``self`` converges absolutely as an infinite
+            series. ``False`` is returned if not all terms are finite.
+
+            EXAMPLES:
+
+            Degree giving infinite radius of convergence::
+
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, 3], [4, 5],                                    # needs sage.symbolic
+                ....:                6).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, 3], [-4, 5],                                   # needs sage.symbolic
+                ....:                6).is_absolutely_convergent()  # undefined
+                False
+                sage: (hypergeometric([2, 3], [-4, 5], Infinity)                        # needs sage.symbolic
+                ....:  .is_absolutely_convergent())  # undefined
+                False
+
+            Ordinary geometric series (unit radius of convergence)::
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: hypergeometric([1], [], 1/2).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([1], [], 2).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([1], [], 1).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([1], [], -1).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([1], [], -1).n()  # Sum still exists
+                0.500000000000000
+
+            Degree `p = q+1` (unit radius of convergence)::
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, 3], [4], 6).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, 3], [4], 1).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, 3], [5], 1).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, 3], [6], 1).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([-2, 3], [4],
+                ....:                5).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, -3], [4],
+                ....:                5).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, -3], [-4],
+                ....:                5).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                True
+                sage: hypergeometric([2, -3], [-1],
+                ....:                5).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+
+            Degree giving zero radius of convergence::
+
+                sage: hypergeometric([1, 2, 3], [4],                                    # needs sage.symbolic
+                ....:                2).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+                sage: hypergeometric([1, 2, 3], [4],                                    # needs sage.symbolic
+                ....:                1/2).is_absolutely_convergent()
+                False
+                sage: (hypergeometric([1, 2, -3], [4], 1/2)                             # needs sage.symbolic
+                ....:  .is_absolutely_convergent())  # polynomial
+                True
+            """
+            p, q = len(a), len(b)
+            if not self.is_termwise_finite():
+                return False
+            if p <= q:
+                return True
+            if self.is_terminating():
+                return True
+            if p == q + 1:
+                if abs(z) < 1:
+                    return True
+                if abs(z) == 1:
+                    if real_part(sum(b) - sum(a)) > 0:
+                        return True
+            return False
+
+        def terms(self, a, b, z, n=None):
+            """
+            Generate the terms of ``self`` (optionally only ``n`` terms).
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: list(hypergeometric([-2, 1], [3, 4], x).terms())                  # needs sage.symbolic
+                [1, -1/6*x, 1/120*x^2]
+                sage: list(hypergeometric([-2, 1], [3, 4], x).terms(2))                 # needs sage.symbolic
+                [1, -1/6*x]
+                sage: list(hypergeometric([-2, 1], [3, 4], x).terms(0))                 # needs sage.symbolic
+                []
+            """
+            if n is None:
+                n = Infinity
+            t = Integer(1)
+            k = 1
+            while k <= n:
+                yield t
+                for aa in a:
+                    t *= (aa + k - 1)
+                for bb in b:
+                    t /= (bb + k - 1)
+                t *= z
+                if t == 0:
+                    break
+                t /= k
+                k += 1
+
+        def deflated(self, a, b, z):
+            r"""
+            Rewrite as a linear combination of functions of strictly lower
+            degree by eliminating all parameters ``a[i]`` and ``b[j]`` such
+            that ``a[i]`` = ``b[i]`` + ``m`` for nonnegative integer ``m``.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: x = hypergeometric([6, 1], [3, 4, 5], 10)
+                sage: y = x.deflated(); y
+                1/252*hypergeometric((4,), (7, 8), 10)
+                 + 1/12*hypergeometric((3,), (6, 7), 10)
+                 + 1/2*hypergeometric((2,), (5, 6), 10)
+                 + hypergeometric((1,), (4, 5), 10)
+                sage: x.n(); y.n()
+                2.87893612686782
+                2.87893612686782
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: x = hypergeometric([6, 7], [3, 4, 5], 10)
+                sage: y = x.deflated(); y
+                25/27216*hypergeometric((), (11,), 10)
+                 + 25/648*hypergeometric((), (10,), 10)
+                 + 265/504*hypergeometric((), (9,), 10)
+                 + 181/63*hypergeometric((), (8,), 10)
+                 + 19/3*hypergeometric((), (7,), 10)
+                 + 5*hypergeometric((), (6,), 10)
+                 + hypergeometric((), (5,), 10)
+                sage: x.n(); y.n()
+                63.0734110716969
+                63.0734110716969
+            """
+            return sum(map(prod, self._deflated()))
+
+        def _deflated(self, a, b, z):
+            """
+            Private helper to return list of deflated terms.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: x = hypergeometric([5], [4], 3)
+                sage: y = x.deflated(); y
+                7/4*hypergeometric((), (), 3)
+                sage: x.n(); y.n()
+                35.1496896155784
+                35.1496896155784
+            """
+            new = self.eliminate_parameters()
+            aa = new.operands()[0].operands()
+            bb = new.operands()[1].operands()
+            for i, aaa in enumerate(aa):
+                for j, bbb in enumerate(bb):
+                    m = aaa - bbb
+                    if m in ZZ and m > 0:
+                        aaaa = aa[:i] + aa[i + 1:]
+                        bbbb = bb[:j] + bb[j + 1:]
+                        terms = []
+                        for k in range(m + 1):
+                            # TODO: could rewrite prefactors as recurrence
+                            term = binomial(m, k)
+                            for c in aaaa:
+                                term *= rising_factorial(c, k)
+                            for c in bbbb:
+                                term /= rising_factorial(c, k)
+                            term *= z ** k
+                            term /= rising_factorial(aaa - m, k)
+                            F = hypergeometric([c + k for c in aaaa],
+                                               [c + k for c in bbbb], z)
+                            unique = []
+                            counts = []
+                            for c, f in F._deflated():
+                                if f in unique:
+                                    counts[unique.index(f)] += c
+                                else:
+                                    unique.append(f)
+                                    counts.append(c)
+                            Fterms = zip(counts, unique)
+                            terms += [(term * termG, G) for (termG, G) in
+                                      Fterms]
+                        return terms
+            return ((1, new),)
+
+
+hypergeometric = Hypergeometric()
+
+
+def closed_form(hyp):
+    """
+    Try to evaluate ``hyp`` in closed form using elementary
+    (and other simple) functions.
+
+    It may be necessary to call :meth:`Hypergeometric.deflated` first to
+    find some closed forms.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+        sage: from sage.functions.hypergeometric import closed_form
+        sage: var('a b c z')
+        (a, b, c, z)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([1], [], 1 + z))
+        -1/z
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([], [], 1 + z))
+        e^(z + 1)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([], [1/2], 4))
+        cosh(4)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([], [3/2], 4))
+        1/4*sinh(4)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([], [5/2], 4))
+        3/16*cosh(4) - 3/64*sinh(4)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([], [-3/2], 4))
+        19/3*cosh(4) - 4*sinh(4)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([-3, 1], [var('a')], z))
+        -3*z/a + 6*z^2/((a + 1)*a) - 6*z^3/((a + 2)*(a + 1)*a) + 1
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([-3, 1/3], [-4], z))
+        7/162*z^3 + 1/9*z^2 + 1/4*z + 1
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([], [], z))
+        e^z
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([a], [], z))
+        1/((-z + 1)^a)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([1, 1, 2], [1, 1], z))
+        (z - 1)^(-2)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([2, 3], [1], x))
+        -1/(x - 1)^3 + 3*x/(x - 1)^4
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([1/2], [3/2], -5))
+        1/10*sqrt(5)*sqrt(pi)*erf(sqrt(5))
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([2], [5], 3))
+        4
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([2], [5], 5))
+        48/625*e^5 + 612/625
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([1/2, 7/2], [3/2], z))
+        1/5*z^2/(-z + 1)^(5/2) + 2/3*z/(-z + 1)^(3/2) + 1/sqrt(-z + 1)
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([1/2, 1], [2], z))
+        -2*(sqrt(-z + 1) - 1)/z
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([1, 1], [2], z))
+        -log(-z + 1)/z
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([1, 1], [3], z))
+        -2*((z - 1)*log(-z + 1)/z - 1)/z
+        sage: closed_form(hypergeometric([1, 1, 1], [2, 2], x))
+        hypergeometric((1, 1, 1), (2, 2), x)
+    """
+    if hyp.is_terminating():
+        return sum(hyp.terms())
+
+    new = hyp.eliminate_parameters()
+
+    def _closed_form(hyp):
+        a, b, z = hyp.operands()
+        a, b = a.operands(), b.operands()
+        p, q = len(a), len(b)
+
+        if z == 0:
+            return Integer(1)
+        if p == q == 0:
+            return exp(z)
+        if p == 1 and q == 0:
+            return (1 - z) ** (-a[0])
+
+        if p == 0 and q == 1:
+            # TODO: make this require only linear time
+            def _0f1(b, z):
+                F12 = cosh(2 * sqrt(z))
+                F32 = sinh(2 * sqrt(z)) / (2 * sqrt(z))
+                if 2 * b == 1:
+                    return F12
+                if 2 * b == 3:
+                    return F32
+                if 2 * b > 3:
+                    return ((b - 2) * (b - 1) / z * (_0f1(b - 2, z) -
+                            _0f1(b - 1, z)))
+                if 2 * b < 1:
+                    return (_0f1(b + 1, z) + z / (b * (b + 1)) *
+                            _0f1(b + 2, z))
+                raise ValueError
+            # Can evaluate 0F1 in terms of elementary functions when
+            # the parameter is a half-integer
+            if 2 * b[0] in ZZ and b[0] not in ZZ:
+                return _0f1(b[0], z)
+
+        # Confluent hypergeometric function
+        if p == 1 and q == 1:
+            aa, bb = a[0], b[0]
+            if aa * 2 == 1 and bb * 2 == 3:
+                t = sqrt(-z)
+                return sqrt(pi) / 2 * erf(t) / t
+            if a == 1 and b == 2:
+                return (exp(z) - 1) / z
+            n, m = aa, bb
+            if n in ZZ and m in ZZ and m > 0 and n > 0:
+                rf = rising_factorial
+                if m <= n:
+                    return (exp(z) * sum(rf(m - n, k) * (-z) ** k /
+                            factorial(k) / rf(m, k) for k in
+                            range(n - m + 1)))
+                else:
+                    T = sum(rf(n - m + 1, k) * z ** k /
+                            (factorial(k) * rf(2 - m, k)) for k in
+                            range(m - n))
+                    U = sum(rf(1 - n, k) * (-z) ** k /
+                            (factorial(k) * rf(2 - m, k)) for k in
+                            range(n))
+                    return (factorial(m - 2) * rf(1 - m, n) *
+                            z ** (1 - m) / factorial(n - 1) *
+                            (T - exp(z) * U))
+
+        if p == 2 and q == 1:
+            R12 = QQ((1, 2))
+            R32 = QQ((3, 2))
+
+            def _2f1(a, b, c, z):
+                """
+                Evaluation of 2F1(a, b; c; z), assuming a, b, c positive
+                integers or half-integers
+                """
+                if b == c:
+                    return (1 - z) ** (-a)
+                if a == c:
+                    return (1 - z) ** (-b)
+                if a == 0 or b == 0:
+                    return Integer(1)
+                if a > b:
+                    a, b = b, a
+                if b >= 2:
+                    F1 = _2f1(a, b - 1, c, z)
+                    F2 = _2f1(a, b - 2, c, z)
+                    q = (b - 1) * (z - 1)
+                    return (((c - 2 * b + 2 + (b - a - 1) * z) * F1 +
+                            (b - c - 1) * F2) / q)
+                if c > 2:
+                    # how to handle this case?
+                    if a - c + 1 == 0 or b - c + 1 == 0:
+                        raise NotImplementedError
+                    F1 = _2f1(a, b, c - 1, z)
+                    F2 = _2f1(a, b, c - 2, z)
+                    r1 = (c - 1) * (2 - c - (a + b - 2 * c + 3) * z)
+                    r2 = (c - 1) * (c - 2) * (1 - z)
+                    q = (a - c + 1) * (b - c + 1) * z
+                    return (r1 * F1 + r2 * F2) / q
+
+                if (a, b, c) == (R12, 1, 2):
+                    return (2 - 2 * sqrt(1 - z)) / z
+                if (a, b, c) == (1, 1, 2):
+                    return -log(1 - z) / z
+                if (a, b, c) == (1, R32, R12):
+                    return (1 + z) / (1 - z) ** 2
+                if (a, b, c) == (1, R32, 2):
+                    return 2 * (1 / sqrt(1 - z) - 1) / z
+                if (a, b, c) == (R32, 2, R12):
+                    return (1 + 3 * z) / (1 - z) ** 3
+                if (a, b, c) == (R32, 2, 1):
+                    return (2 + z) / (2 * (sqrt(1 - z) * (1 - z) ** 2))
+                if (a, b, c) == (2, 2, 1):
+                    return (1 + z) / (1 - z) ** 3
+                raise NotImplementedError
+            aa, bb = a
+            cc, = b
+            if z == 1:
+                return (gamma(cc) * gamma(cc - aa - bb) / gamma(cc - aa) /
+                        gamma(cc - bb))
+            if all((cf * 2) in ZZ and cf > 0 for cf in (aa, bb, cc)):
+                try:
+                    return _2f1(aa, bb, cc, z)
+                except NotImplementedError:
+                    pass
+        return hyp
+    return sum([coeff * _closed_form(pfq) for coeff, pfq in new._deflated()])
+
+
+class Hypergeometric_M(BuiltinFunction):
+    r"""
+    The confluent hypergeometric function of the first kind,
+    `y = M(a,b,z)`, is defined to be the solution to Kummer's differential
+    equation
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        zy'' + (b-z)y' - ay = 0.
+
+    This is not the same as Kummer's `U`-hypergeometric function, though it
+    satisfies the same DE that `M` does.
+
+    .. warning::
+
+        In the literature, both are called "Kummer confluent
+        hypergeometric" functions.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+
+        sage: hypergeometric_M(1, 1, 1.)                                                # needs mpmath
+        2.71828182845905
+
+        sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+        sage: hypergeometric_M(1, 1, 1)
+        hypergeometric_M(1, 1, 1)
+        sage: hypergeometric_M(1, 1, 1).n(70)                                           # needs mpmath
+        2.7182818284590452354
+        sage: hypergeometric_M(1, 1, 1).simplify_hypergeometric()
+        e
+        sage: hypergeometric_M(1, 3/2, 1).simplify_hypergeometric()
+        1/2*sqrt(pi)*erf(1)*e
+        sage: hypergeometric_M(1, 1/2, x).simplify_hypergeometric()
+        (-I*sqrt(pi)*x*erf(I*sqrt(-x))*e^x + sqrt(-x))/sqrt(-x)
+    """
+    def __init__(self):
+        r"""
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: maxima(hypergeometric_M(1,1,x))                                       # needs sage.symbolic
+            kummer_m(1,1,_SAGE_VAR_x)
+            sage: latex(hypergeometric_M(1,1,x))                                        # needs sage.symbolic
+            M\left(1, 1, x\right)
+        """
+        BuiltinFunction.__init__(self, 'hypergeometric_M', nargs=3,
+                                 conversions={'mathematica':
+                                              'Hypergeometric1F1',
+                                              'maple': 'KummerM',
+                                              'maxima': 'kummer_m',
+                                              'fricas': 'kummerM'},
+                                 latex_name='M')
+
+    def _eval_(self, a, b, z, **kwargs):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: a, b = var('a,b')                                                     # needs sage.symbolic
+            sage: hypergeometric_M(a, b, 0)                                             # needs sage.symbolic
+            1
+        """
+        if not isinstance(z, Expression) and z == 0:
+            return Integer(1)
+        return
+
+    def _evalf_(self, a, b, z, parent=None, algorithm=None):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: hypergeometric_M(1,1,1).n()                                           # needs mpmath sage.symbolic
+            2.71828182845905
+        """
+        return _mpmath_utils_call(_mpmath_hyp1f1, a, b, z, parent=parent)
+
+    def _derivative_(self, a, b, z, diff_param):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: diff(hypergeometric_M(1, 1, x), x, 3)                                 # needs sage.symbolic
+            hypergeometric_M(4, 4, x)
+            sage: diff(hypergeometric_M(x, 1, 1), x, 3)                                 # needs sage.symbolic
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: derivative of hypergeometric function with respect to parameters
+        """
+        if diff_param == 2:
+            return (a / b) * hypergeometric_M(a + 1, b + 1, z)
+        raise NotImplementedError('derivative of hypergeometric function '
+                                  'with respect to parameters')
+
+    class EvaluationMethods:
+        def generalized(self, a, b, z):
+            """
+            Return as a generalized hypergeometric function.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: var('a b z')                                                      # needs sage.symbolic
+                (a, b, z)
+                sage: hypergeometric_M(a, b, z).generalized()                           # needs sage.symbolic
+                hypergeometric((a,), (b,), z)
+            """
+            return hypergeometric([a], [b], z)
+
+
+hypergeometric_M = Hypergeometric_M()
+
+
+class Hypergeometric_U(BuiltinFunction):
+    r"""
+    The confluent hypergeometric function of the second kind,
+    `y = U(a,b,z)`, is defined to be the solution to Kummer's differential
+    equation
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+             zy'' + (b-z)y' - ay = 0.
+
+    This satisfies `U(a,b,z) \sim z^{-a}`, as
+    `z\rightarrow \infty`, and is sometimes denoted
+    `z^{-a}{}_2F_0(a,1+a-b;;-1/z)`. This is not the same as Kummer's
+    `M`-hypergeometric function, denoted sometimes as
+    `_1F_1(\alpha,\beta,z)`, though it satisfies the same DE that
+    `U` does.
+
+    .. warning::
+
+       In the literature, both are called "Kummer confluent
+       hypergeometric" functions.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs mpmath
+        sage: hypergeometric_U(1, 1, 1)
+        hypergeometric_U(1, 1, 1)
+        sage: hypergeometric_U(1, 1, 1.)
+        0.596347362323194
+
+        sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+        sage: hypergeometric_U(1, 1, 1).n(70)                                           # needs mpmath
+        0.59634736232319407434
+        sage: hypergeometric_U(10^4, 1/3, 1).n()                                        # needs sage.libs.pari
+        6.60377008885811e-35745
+        sage: hypergeometric_U(1, 2, 2).simplify_hypergeometric()
+        1/2
+
+        sage: hypergeometric_U(2 + I, 2, 1).n()                                         # needs sage.symbolic
+        0.183481989942099 - 0.458685959185190*I
+        sage: hypergeometric_U(1, 3, x).simplify_hypergeometric()                       # needs sage.symbolic
+        (x + 1)/x^2
+    """
+    def __init__(self):
+        r"""
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: maxima(hypergeometric_U(1, 1, x))                                     # needs sage.symbolic
+            kummer_u(1,1,_SAGE_VAR_x)
+            sage: latex(hypergeometric_U(1, 1, x))                                      # needs sage.symbolic
+            U\left(1, 1, x\right)
+        """
+        BuiltinFunction.__init__(self, 'hypergeometric_U', nargs=3,
+                                 conversions={'mathematica':
+                                              'HypergeometricU',
+                                              'maple': 'KummerU',
+                                              'maxima': 'kummer_u',
+                                              'fricas': 'kummerU'},
+                                 latex_name='U')
+
+    def _eval_(self, a, b, z, **kwargs):
+        return
+
+    def _evalf_(self, a, b, z, parent=None, algorithm=None):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: hypergeometric_U(1, 1, 1).n()                                         # needs mpmath sage.symbolic
+            0.596347362323194
+        """
+        return _mpmath_utils_call(_mpmath_hyperu, a, b, z, parent=parent)
+
+    def _derivative_(self, a, b, z, diff_param):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: diff(hypergeometric_U(1, 1, x), x, 3)                                 # needs sage.symbolic
+            -6*hypergeometric_U(4, 4, x)
+            sage: diff(hypergeometric_U(x, 1, 1), x, 3)                                 # needs sage.symbolic
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: derivative of hypergeometric function with respect to parameters
+        """
+        if diff_param == 2:
+            return -a * hypergeometric_U(a + 1, b + 1, z)
+        raise NotImplementedError('derivative of hypergeometric function '
+                                  'with respect to parameters')
+
+    class EvaluationMethods:
+        def generalized(self, a, b, z):
+            """
+            Return in terms of the generalized hypergeometric function.
+
+            EXAMPLES::
+
+                sage: # needs sage.symbolic
+                sage: var('a b z')
+                (a, b, z)
+                sage: hypergeometric_U(a, b, z).generalized()
+                hypergeometric((a, a - b + 1), (), -1/z)/z^a
+                sage: hypergeometric_U(1, 3, 1/2).generalized()
+                2*hypergeometric((1, -1), (), -2)
+                sage: hypergeometric_U(3, I, 2).generalized()
+                1/8*hypergeometric((3, -I + 4), (), -1/2)
+            """
+            return z ** (-a) * hypergeometric([a, a - b + 1], [], -z ** (-1))
+
+
+hypergeometric_U = Hypergeometric_U()