diff-diff 2.1.0__cp39-cp39-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl

diff_diff/prep.py

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+"""
+Data preparation utilities for difference-in-differences analysis.
+
+This module provides helper functions to prepare data for DiD estimation,
+including creating treatment indicators, reshaping panel data, and
+generating synthetic datasets for testing.
+"""
+
+from typing import Any, Dict, List, Optional, Union
+
+import numpy as np
+import pandas as pd
+
+from diff_diff.utils import compute_synthetic_weights
+
+# Constants for rank_control_units
+_SIMILARITY_THRESHOLD_SD = 0.5  # Controls within this many SDs are "similar"
+_OUTLIER_PENALTY_WEIGHT = 0.3  # Penalty weight for outcome outliers in treatment candidate scoring
+
+
+def make_treatment_indicator(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    column: str,
+    treated_values: Optional[Union[Any, List[Any]]] = None,
+    threshold: Optional[float] = None,
+    above_threshold: bool = True,
+    new_column: str = "treated"
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Create a binary treatment indicator column from various input types.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Input DataFrame.
+    column : str
+        Name of the column to use for creating the treatment indicator.
+    treated_values : Any or list, optional
+        Value(s) that indicate treatment. Units with these values get
+        treatment=1, others get treatment=0.
+    threshold : float, optional
+        Numeric threshold for creating treatment. Used when the treatment
+        is based on a continuous variable (e.g., treat firms above median size).
+    above_threshold : bool, default=True
+        If True, values >= threshold are treated. If False, values <= threshold
+        are treated. Only used when threshold is specified.
+    new_column : str, default="treated"
+        Name of the new treatment indicator column.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        DataFrame with the new treatment indicator column added.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Create treatment from categorical variable:
+
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({'group': ['A', 'A', 'B', 'B'], 'y': [1, 2, 3, 4]})
+    >>> df = make_treatment_indicator(df, 'group', treated_values='A')
+    >>> df['treated'].tolist()
+    [1, 1, 0, 0]
+
+    Create treatment from numeric threshold:
+
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({'size': [10, 50, 100, 200], 'y': [1, 2, 3, 4]})
+    >>> df = make_treatment_indicator(df, 'size', threshold=75)
+    >>> df['treated'].tolist()
+    [0, 0, 1, 1]
+
+    Treat units below a threshold:
+
+    >>> df = make_treatment_indicator(df, 'size', threshold=75, above_threshold=False)
+    >>> df['treated'].tolist()
+    [1, 1, 0, 0]
+    """
+    df = data.copy()
+
+    if treated_values is not None and threshold is not None:
+        raise ValueError("Specify either 'treated_values' or 'threshold', not both.")
+
+    if treated_values is None and threshold is None:
+        raise ValueError("Must specify either 'treated_values' or 'threshold'.")
+
+    if column not in df.columns:
+        raise ValueError(f"Column '{column}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    if treated_values is not None:
+        # Convert single value to list
+        if not isinstance(treated_values, (list, tuple, set)):
+            treated_values = [treated_values]
+        df[new_column] = df[column].isin(treated_values).astype(int)
+    else:
+        # Use threshold
+        if above_threshold:
+            df[new_column] = (df[column] >= threshold).astype(int)
+        else:
+            df[new_column] = (df[column] <= threshold).astype(int)
+
+    return df
+
+
+def make_post_indicator(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    time_column: str,
+    post_periods: Optional[Union[Any, List[Any]]] = None,
+    treatment_start: Optional[Any] = None,
+    new_column: str = "post"
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Create a binary post-treatment indicator column.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Input DataFrame.
+    time_column : str
+        Name of the time/period column.
+    post_periods : Any or list, optional
+        Specific period value(s) that are post-treatment. Periods matching
+        these values get post=1, others get post=0.
+    treatment_start : Any, optional
+        The first post-treatment period. All periods >= this value get post=1.
+        Works with numeric periods, strings (sorted alphabetically), or dates.
+    new_column : str, default="post"
+        Name of the new post indicator column.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        DataFrame with the new post indicator column added.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Using specific post periods:
+
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({'year': [2018, 2019, 2020, 2021], 'y': [1, 2, 3, 4]})
+    >>> df = make_post_indicator(df, 'year', post_periods=[2020, 2021])
+    >>> df['post'].tolist()
+    [0, 0, 1, 1]
+
+    Using treatment start:
+
+    >>> df = make_post_indicator(df, 'year', treatment_start=2020)
+    >>> df['post'].tolist()
+    [0, 0, 1, 1]
+
+    Works with date columns:
+
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({'date': pd.to_datetime(['2020-01-01', '2020-06-01', '2021-01-01'])})
+    >>> df = make_post_indicator(df, 'date', treatment_start='2020-06-01')
+    """
+    df = data.copy()
+
+    if post_periods is not None and treatment_start is not None:
+        raise ValueError("Specify either 'post_periods' or 'treatment_start', not both.")
+
+    if post_periods is None and treatment_start is None:
+        raise ValueError("Must specify either 'post_periods' or 'treatment_start'.")
+
+    if time_column not in df.columns:
+        raise ValueError(f"Column '{time_column}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    if post_periods is not None:
+        # Convert single value to list
+        if not isinstance(post_periods, (list, tuple, set)):
+            post_periods = [post_periods]
+        df[new_column] = df[time_column].isin(post_periods).astype(int)
+    else:
+        # Use treatment_start - convert to same type as column if needed
+        col_dtype = df[time_column].dtype
+        if pd.api.types.is_datetime64_any_dtype(col_dtype):
+            treatment_start = pd.to_datetime(treatment_start)
+        df[new_column] = (df[time_column] >= treatment_start).astype(int)
+
+    return df
+
+
+def wide_to_long(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    value_columns: List[str],
+    id_column: str,
+    time_name: str = "period",
+    value_name: str = "value",
+    time_values: Optional[List[Any]] = None
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Convert wide-format panel data to long format for DiD analysis.
+
+    Wide format has one row per unit with multiple columns for each time period.
+    Long format has one row per unit-period combination.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Wide-format DataFrame with one row per unit.
+    value_columns : list of str
+        Column names containing the outcome values for each period.
+        These should be in chronological order.
+    id_column : str
+        Column name for the unit identifier.
+    time_name : str, default="period"
+        Name for the new time period column.
+    value_name : str, default="value"
+        Name for the new value/outcome column.
+    time_values : list, optional
+        Values to use for time periods. If None, uses 0, 1, 2, ...
+        Must have same length as value_columns.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        Long-format DataFrame with one row per unit-period.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> wide_df = pd.DataFrame({
+    ...     'firm_id': [1, 2, 3],
+    ...     'sales_2019': [100, 150, 200],
+    ...     'sales_2020': [110, 160, 210],
+    ...     'sales_2021': [120, 170, 220]
+    ... })
+    >>> long_df = wide_to_long(
+    ...     wide_df,
+    ...     value_columns=['sales_2019', 'sales_2020', 'sales_2021'],
+    ...     id_column='firm_id',
+    ...     time_name='year',
+    ...     value_name='sales',
+    ...     time_values=[2019, 2020, 2021]
+    ... )
+    >>> len(long_df)
+    9
+    >>> long_df.columns.tolist()
+    ['firm_id', 'year', 'sales']
+    """
+    if not value_columns:
+        raise ValueError("value_columns cannot be empty.")
+
+    if id_column not in data.columns:
+        raise ValueError(f"Column '{id_column}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    for col in value_columns:
+        if col not in data.columns:
+            raise ValueError(f"Column '{col}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    if time_values is None:
+        time_values = list(range(len(value_columns)))
+
+    if len(time_values) != len(value_columns):
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"time_values length ({len(time_values)}) must match "
+            f"value_columns length ({len(value_columns)})."
+        )
+
+    # Get other columns to preserve (not id or value columns)
+    other_cols = [c for c in data.columns if c != id_column and c not in value_columns]
+
+    # Use pd.melt for better performance (vectorized)
+    long_df = pd.melt(
+        data,
+        id_vars=[id_column] + other_cols,
+        value_vars=value_columns,
+        var_name='_temp_var',
+        value_name=value_name
+    )
+
+    # Map column names to time values
+    col_to_time = dict(zip(value_columns, time_values))
+    long_df[time_name] = long_df['_temp_var'].map(col_to_time)
+    long_df = long_df.drop('_temp_var', axis=1)
+
+    # Reorder columns and sort
+    cols = [id_column, time_name, value_name] + other_cols
+    return long_df[cols].sort_values([id_column, time_name]).reset_index(drop=True)
+
+
+def balance_panel(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    unit_column: str,
+    time_column: str,
+    method: str = "inner",
+    fill_value: Optional[float] = None
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Balance a panel dataset to ensure all units have all time periods.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Unbalanced panel data.
+    unit_column : str
+        Column name for unit identifier.
+    time_column : str
+        Column name for time period.
+    method : str, default="inner"
+        Balancing method:
+        - "inner": Keep only units that appear in all periods (drops units)
+        - "outer": Include all unit-period combinations (creates NaN)
+        - "fill": Include all combinations and fill missing values
+    fill_value : float, optional
+        Value to fill missing observations when method="fill".
+        If None with method="fill", uses column-specific forward fill.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        Balanced panel DataFrame.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Keep only complete units:
+
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({
+    ...     'unit': [1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3],
+    ...     'period': [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3],
+    ...     'y': [10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 30, 31, 32]
+    ... })
+    >>> balanced = balance_panel(df, 'unit', 'period', method='inner')
+    >>> balanced['unit'].unique().tolist()
+    [1, 3]
+
+    Include all combinations:
+
+    >>> balanced = balance_panel(df, 'unit', 'period', method='outer')
+    >>> len(balanced)
+    9
+    """
+    if unit_column not in data.columns:
+        raise ValueError(f"Column '{unit_column}' not found in DataFrame.")
+    if time_column not in data.columns:
+        raise ValueError(f"Column '{time_column}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    if method not in ["inner", "outer", "fill"]:
+        raise ValueError(f"method must be 'inner', 'outer', or 'fill', got '{method}'")
+
+    all_units = data[unit_column].unique()
+    all_periods = sorted(data[time_column].unique())
+    n_periods = len(all_periods)
+
+    if method == "inner":
+        # Keep only units that have all periods
+        unit_counts = data.groupby(unit_column)[time_column].nunique()
+        complete_units = unit_counts[unit_counts == n_periods].index
+        return data[data[unit_column].isin(complete_units)].copy()
+
+    elif method in ["outer", "fill"]:
+        # Create full grid of unit-period combinations
+        full_index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product(
+            [all_units, all_periods],
+            names=[unit_column, time_column]
+        )
+        full_df = pd.DataFrame(index=full_index).reset_index()
+
+        # Merge with original data
+        result = full_df.merge(data, on=[unit_column, time_column], how="left")
+
+        if method == "fill":
+            # Identify columns to fill (exclude unit and time columns)
+            cols_to_fill = [c for c in result.columns if c not in [unit_column, time_column]]
+
+            if fill_value is not None:
+                # Fill specified columns with fill_value
+                numeric_cols = result.select_dtypes(include=[np.number]).columns
+                for col in numeric_cols:
+                    if col in cols_to_fill:
+                        result[col] = result[col].fillna(fill_value)
+            else:
+                # Forward fill within each unit for non-key columns
+                result = result.sort_values([unit_column, time_column])
+                result[cols_to_fill] = result.groupby(unit_column)[cols_to_fill].ffill()
+                # Backward fill any remaining NaN at start
+                result[cols_to_fill] = result.groupby(unit_column)[cols_to_fill].bfill()
+
+        return result
+
+    return data
+
+
+def validate_did_data(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    outcome: str,
+    treatment: str,
+    time: str,
+    unit: Optional[str] = None,
+    raise_on_error: bool = True
+) -> Dict[str, Any]:
+    """
+    Validate that data is properly formatted for DiD analysis.
+
+    Checks for common data issues and provides informative error messages.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Data to validate.
+    outcome : str
+        Name of outcome variable column.
+    treatment : str
+        Name of treatment indicator column.
+    time : str
+        Name of time/post indicator column.
+    unit : str, optional
+        Name of unit identifier column (for panel data validation).
+    raise_on_error : bool, default=True
+        If True, raises ValueError on validation failures.
+        If False, returns validation results without raising.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    dict
+        Validation results with keys:
+        - valid: bool indicating if data passed all checks
+        - errors: list of error messages
+        - warnings: list of warning messages
+        - summary: dict with data summary statistics
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({
+    ...     'y': [1, 2, 3, 4],
+    ...     'treated': [0, 0, 1, 1],
+    ...     'post': [0, 1, 0, 1]
+    ... })
+    >>> result = validate_did_data(df, 'y', 'treated', 'post', raise_on_error=False)
+    >>> result['valid']
+    True
+    """
+    errors = []
+    warnings = []
+
+    # Check columns exist
+    required_cols = [outcome, treatment, time]
+    if unit is not None:
+        required_cols.append(unit)
+
+    for col in required_cols:
+        if col not in data.columns:
+            errors.append(f"Required column '{col}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    if errors:
+        if raise_on_error:
+            raise ValueError("\n".join(errors))
+        return {"valid": False, "errors": errors, "warnings": warnings, "summary": {}}
+
+    # Check outcome is numeric
+    if not pd.api.types.is_numeric_dtype(data[outcome]):
+        errors.append(
+            f"Outcome column '{outcome}' must be numeric. "
+            f"Got type: {data[outcome].dtype}"
+        )
+
+    # Check treatment is binary
+    treatment_vals = data[treatment].dropna().unique()
+    if not set(treatment_vals).issubset({0, 1}):
+        errors.append(
+            f"Treatment column '{treatment}' must be binary (0 or 1). "
+            f"Found values: {sorted(treatment_vals)}"
+        )
+
+    # Check time is binary for simple DiD
+    time_vals = data[time].dropna().unique()
+    if len(time_vals) == 2 and not set(time_vals).issubset({0, 1}):
+        warnings.append(
+            f"Time column '{time}' has 2 values but they are not 0 and 1: {sorted(time_vals)}. "
+            "For basic DiD, use 0 for pre-treatment and 1 for post-treatment."
+        )
+
+    # Check for missing values
+    for col in required_cols:
+        n_missing = data[col].isna().sum()
+        if n_missing > 0:
+            errors.append(
+                f"Column '{col}' has {n_missing} missing values. "
+                "Please handle missing data before fitting."
+            )
+
+    # Calculate summary statistics
+    summary = {}
+    if not errors:
+        summary["n_obs"] = len(data)
+        summary["n_treated"] = int((data[treatment] == 1).sum())
+        summary["n_control"] = int((data[treatment] == 0).sum())
+        summary["n_periods"] = len(time_vals)
+
+        if unit is not None:
+            summary["n_units"] = data[unit].nunique()
+
+        # Check for sufficient variation
+        if summary["n_treated"] == 0:
+            errors.append("No treated observations found (treatment column is all 0).")
+        if summary["n_control"] == 0:
+            errors.append("No control observations found (treatment column is all 1).")
+
+        # Check for each treatment-time combination
+        if len(time_vals) == 2:
+            # For 2-period DiD, check all four cells
+            for t_val in [0, 1]:
+                for p_val in time_vals:
+                    count = len(data[(data[treatment] == t_val) & (data[time] == p_val)])
+                    if count == 0:
+                        errors.append(
+                            f"No observations for treatment={t_val}, time={p_val}. "
+                            "DiD requires observations in all treatment-time cells."
+                        )
+        else:
+            # For multi-period, check that both treatment groups exist in multiple periods
+            for t_val in [0, 1]:
+                n_periods_with_obs = data[data[treatment] == t_val][time].nunique()
+                if n_periods_with_obs < 2:
+                    group_name = "Treated" if t_val == 1 else "Control"
+                    errors.append(
+                        f"{group_name} group has observations in only {n_periods_with_obs} period(s). "
+                        "DiD requires multiple periods per group."
+                    )
+
+    # Panel-specific validation
+    if unit is not None and not errors:
+        # Check treatment is constant within units
+        unit_treatment_var = data.groupby(unit)[treatment].nunique()
+        units_with_varying_treatment = unit_treatment_var[unit_treatment_var > 1]
+        if len(units_with_varying_treatment) > 0:
+            warnings.append(
+                f"Treatment varies within {len(units_with_varying_treatment)} unit(s). "
+                "For standard DiD, treatment should be constant within units. "
+                "This may be intentional for staggered adoption designs."
+            )
+
+        # Check panel balance
+        periods_per_unit = data.groupby(unit)[time].nunique()
+        if periods_per_unit.min() != periods_per_unit.max():
+            warnings.append(
+                f"Unbalanced panel detected. Units have between "
+                f"{periods_per_unit.min()} and {periods_per_unit.max()} periods. "
+                "Consider using balance_panel() to balance the data."
+            )
+
+    valid = len(errors) == 0
+
+    if raise_on_error and not valid:
+        raise ValueError("Data validation failed:\n" + "\n".join(errors))
+
+    return {
+        "valid": valid,
+        "errors": errors,
+        "warnings": warnings,
+        "summary": summary
+    }
+
+
+def summarize_did_data(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    outcome: str,
+    treatment: str,
+    time: str,
+    unit: Optional[str] = None
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Generate summary statistics by treatment group and time period.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Input data.
+    outcome : str
+        Name of outcome variable column.
+    treatment : str
+        Name of treatment indicator column.
+    time : str
+        Name of time/period column.
+    unit : str, optional
+        Name of unit identifier column.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        Summary statistics with columns for each treatment-time combination.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({
+    ...     'y': [10, 11, 12, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23],
+    ...     'treated': [0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1],
+    ...     'post': [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]
+    ... })
+    >>> summary = summarize_did_data(df, 'y', 'treated', 'post')
+    >>> print(summary)
+    """
+    # Group by treatment and time
+    summary = data.groupby([treatment, time])[outcome].agg([
+        ("n", "count"),
+        ("mean", "mean"),
+        ("std", "std"),
+        ("min", "min"),
+        ("max", "max")
+    ]).round(4)
+
+    # Calculate time values for labeling
+    time_vals = sorted(data[time].unique())
+
+    # Add group labels based on sorted time values (not literal 0/1)
+    if len(time_vals) == 2:
+        pre_val, post_val = time_vals[0], time_vals[1]
+
+        def format_label(x: tuple) -> str:
+            treatment_label = 'Treated' if x[0] == 1 else 'Control'
+            time_label = 'Post' if x[1] == post_val else 'Pre'
+            return f"{treatment_label} - {time_label}"
+
+        summary.index = summary.index.map(format_label)
+
+        # Calculate means for each cell
+        treated_pre = data[(data[treatment] == 1) & (data[time] == pre_val)][outcome].mean()
+        treated_post = data[(data[treatment] == 1) & (data[time] == post_val)][outcome].mean()
+        control_pre = data[(data[treatment] == 0) & (data[time] == pre_val)][outcome].mean()
+        control_post = data[(data[treatment] == 0) & (data[time] == post_val)][outcome].mean()
+
+        # Calculate DiD
+        treated_diff = treated_post - treated_pre
+        control_diff = control_post - control_pre
+        did_estimate = treated_diff - control_diff
+
+        # Add to summary as a new row
+        did_row = pd.DataFrame(
+            {
+                "n": ["-"],
+                "mean": [did_estimate],
+                "std": ["-"],
+                "min": ["-"],
+                "max": ["-"]
+            },
+            index=["DiD Estimate"]
+        )
+        summary = pd.concat([summary, did_row])
+    else:
+        summary.index = summary.index.map(
+            lambda x: f"{'Treated' if x[0] == 1 else 'Control'} - Period {x[1]}"
+        )
+
+    return summary
+
+
+def generate_did_data(
+    n_units: int = 100,
+    n_periods: int = 4,
+    treatment_effect: float = 5.0,
+    treatment_fraction: float = 0.5,
+    treatment_period: int = 2,
+    unit_fe_sd: float = 2.0,
+    time_trend: float = 0.5,
+    noise_sd: float = 1.0,
+    seed: Optional[int] = None
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Generate synthetic data for DiD analysis with known treatment effect.
+
+    Creates a balanced panel dataset with realistic features including
+    unit fixed effects, time trends, and a known treatment effect.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n_units : int, default=100
+        Number of units in the panel.
+    n_periods : int, default=4
+        Number of time periods.
+    treatment_effect : float, default=5.0
+        True average treatment effect on the treated.
+    treatment_fraction : float, default=0.5
+        Fraction of units that receive treatment.
+    treatment_period : int, default=2
+        First post-treatment period (0-indexed). Periods >= this are post.
+    unit_fe_sd : float, default=2.0
+        Standard deviation of unit fixed effects.
+    time_trend : float, default=0.5
+        Linear time trend coefficient.
+    noise_sd : float, default=1.0
+        Standard deviation of idiosyncratic noise.
+    seed : int, optional
+        Random seed for reproducibility.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        Synthetic panel data with columns:
+        - unit: Unit identifier
+        - period: Time period
+        - treated: Treatment indicator (0/1)
+        - post: Post-treatment indicator (0/1)
+        - outcome: Outcome variable
+        - true_effect: The true treatment effect (for validation)
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Generate simple data for testing:
+
+    >>> data = generate_did_data(n_units=50, n_periods=4, treatment_effect=3.0, seed=42)
+    >>> len(data)
+    200
+    >>> data.columns.tolist()
+    ['unit', 'period', 'treated', 'post', 'outcome', 'true_effect']
+
+    Verify treatment effect recovery:
+
+    >>> from diff_diff import DifferenceInDifferences
+    >>> did = DifferenceInDifferences()
+    >>> results = did.fit(data, outcome='outcome', treatment='treated', time='post')
+    >>> abs(results.att - 3.0) < 1.0  # Close to true effect
+    True
+    """
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
+
+    # Determine treated units
+    n_treated = int(n_units * treatment_fraction)
+    treated_units = set(range(n_treated))
+
+    # Generate unit fixed effects
+    unit_fe = rng.normal(0, unit_fe_sd, n_units)
+
+    # Build data
+    records = []
+    for unit in range(n_units):
+        is_treated = unit in treated_units
+
+        for period in range(n_periods):
+            is_post = period >= treatment_period
+
+            # Base outcome
+            y = 10.0  # Baseline
+            y += unit_fe[unit]  # Unit fixed effect
+            y += time_trend * period  # Time trend
+
+            # Treatment effect (only for treated units in post-period)
+            effect = 0.0
+            if is_treated and is_post:
+                effect = treatment_effect
+                y += effect
+
+            # Add noise
+            y += rng.normal(0, noise_sd)
+
+            records.append({
+                "unit": unit,
+                "period": period,
+                "treated": int(is_treated),
+                "post": int(is_post),
+                "outcome": y,
+                "true_effect": effect
+            })
+
+    return pd.DataFrame(records)
+
+
+def create_event_time(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    time_column: str,
+    treatment_time_column: str,
+    new_column: str = "event_time"
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Create an event-time column relative to treatment timing.
+
+    Useful for event study designs where treatment occurs at different
+    times for different units.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Panel data.
+    time_column : str
+        Name of the calendar time column.
+    treatment_time_column : str
+        Name of the column indicating when each unit was treated.
+        Units with NaN or infinity are considered never-treated.
+    new_column : str, default="event_time"
+        Name of the new event-time column.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        DataFrame with event-time column added. Values are:
+        - Negative for pre-treatment periods
+        - 0 for the treatment period
+        - Positive for post-treatment periods
+        - NaN for never-treated units
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({
+    ...     'unit': [1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2],
+    ...     'year': [2018, 2019, 2020, 2018, 2019, 2020],
+    ...     'treatment_year': [2019, 2019, 2019, 2020, 2020, 2020]
+    ... })
+    >>> df = create_event_time(df, 'year', 'treatment_year')
+    >>> df['event_time'].tolist()
+    [-1, 0, 1, -2, -1, 0]
+    """
+    df = data.copy()
+
+    if time_column not in df.columns:
+        raise ValueError(f"Column '{time_column}' not found in DataFrame.")
+    if treatment_time_column not in df.columns:
+        raise ValueError(f"Column '{treatment_time_column}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    # Calculate event time
+    df[new_column] = df[time_column] - df[treatment_time_column]
+
+    # Handle never-treated (inf or NaN in treatment time)
+    col = df[treatment_time_column]
+    if pd.api.types.is_numeric_dtype(col):
+        never_treated = col.isna() | np.isinf(col)
+    else:
+        never_treated = col.isna()
+    df.loc[never_treated, new_column] = np.nan
+
+    return df
+
+
+def aggregate_to_cohorts(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    unit_column: str,
+    time_column: str,
+    treatment_column: str,
+    outcome: str,
+    covariates: Optional[List[str]] = None
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Aggregate unit-level data to treatment cohort means.
+
+    Useful for visualization and cohort-level analysis.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Unit-level panel data.
+    unit_column : str
+        Name of unit identifier column.
+    time_column : str
+        Name of time period column.
+    treatment_column : str
+        Name of treatment indicator column.
+    outcome : str
+        Name of outcome variable column.
+    covariates : list of str, optional
+        Additional columns to aggregate (will compute means).
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        Cohort-level data with mean outcomes by treatment status and period.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({
+    ...     'unit': [1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4],
+    ...     'period': [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1],
+    ...     'treated': [1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+    ...     'y': [10, 15, 12, 17, 8, 10, 9, 11]
+    ... })
+    >>> cohort_df = aggregate_to_cohorts(df, 'unit', 'period', 'treated', 'y')
+    >>> len(cohort_df)
+    4
+    """
+    agg_cols = {outcome: "mean", unit_column: "nunique"}
+
+    if covariates:
+        for cov in covariates:
+            agg_cols[cov] = "mean"
+
+    cohort_data = data.groupby([treatment_column, time_column]).agg(agg_cols).reset_index()
+
+    # Rename columns
+    cohort_data = cohort_data.rename(columns={
+        unit_column: "n_units",
+        outcome: f"mean_{outcome}"
+    })
+
+    return cohort_data
+
+
+def rank_control_units(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    unit_column: str,
+    time_column: str,
+    outcome_column: str,
+    treatment_column: Optional[str] = None,
+    treated_units: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+    pre_periods: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+    covariates: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    outcome_weight: float = 0.7,
+    covariate_weight: float = 0.3,
+    exclude_units: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+    require_units: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+    n_top: Optional[int] = None,
+    suggest_treatment_candidates: bool = False,
+    n_treatment_candidates: int = 5,
+    lambda_reg: float = 0.0,
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Rank potential control units by their suitability for DiD analysis.
+
+    Evaluates control units based on pre-treatment outcome trend similarity
+    and optional covariate matching to treated units. Returns a ranked list
+    with quality scores.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Panel data in long format.
+    unit_column : str
+        Column name for unit identifier.
+    time_column : str
+        Column name for time periods.
+    outcome_column : str
+        Column name for outcome variable.
+    treatment_column : str, optional
+        Column with binary treatment indicator (0/1). Used to identify
+        treated units from data.
+    treated_units : list, optional
+        Explicit list of treated unit IDs. Alternative to treatment_column.
+    pre_periods : list, optional
+        Pre-treatment periods for comparison. If None, uses first half of periods.
+    covariates : list of str, optional
+        Covariate columns for matching. Similarity is based on pre-treatment means.
+    outcome_weight : float, default=0.7
+        Weight for pre-treatment outcome trend similarity (0-1).
+    covariate_weight : float, default=0.3
+        Weight for covariate distance (0-1). Ignored if no covariates.
+    exclude_units : list, optional
+        Units that cannot be in control group.
+    require_units : list, optional
+        Units that must be in control group (will always appear in output).
+    n_top : int, optional
+        Return only top N control units. If None, return all.
+    suggest_treatment_candidates : bool, default=False
+        If True and no treated units specified, identify potential treatment
+        candidates instead of ranking controls.
+    n_treatment_candidates : int, default=5
+        Number of treatment candidates to suggest.
+    lambda_reg : float, default=0.0
+        Regularization for synthetic weights. Higher values give more uniform
+        weights across controls.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        Ranked control units with columns:
+        - unit: Unit identifier
+        - quality_score: Combined quality score (0-1, higher is better)
+        - outcome_trend_score: Pre-treatment outcome trend similarity
+        - covariate_score: Covariate match score (NaN if no covariates)
+        - synthetic_weight: Weight from synthetic control optimization
+        - pre_trend_rmse: RMSE of pre-treatment outcome vs treated mean
+        - is_required: Whether unit was in require_units
+
+        If suggest_treatment_candidates=True (and no treated units):
+        - unit: Unit identifier
+        - treatment_candidate_score: Suitability as treatment unit
+        - avg_outcome_level: Pre-treatment outcome mean
+        - outcome_trend: Pre-treatment trend slope
+        - n_similar_controls: Count of similar potential controls
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Rank controls against treated units:
+
+    >>> data = generate_did_data(n_units=30, n_periods=6, seed=42)
+    >>> ranking = rank_control_units(
+    ...     data,
+    ...     unit_column='unit',
+    ...     time_column='period',
+    ...     outcome_column='outcome',
+    ...     treatment_column='treated',
+    ...     n_top=10
+    ... )
+    >>> ranking['quality_score'].is_monotonic_decreasing
+    True
+
+    With covariates:
+
+    >>> data['size'] = np.random.randn(len(data))
+    >>> ranking = rank_control_units(
+    ...     data,
+    ...     unit_column='unit',
+    ...     time_column='period',
+    ...     outcome_column='outcome',
+    ...     treatment_column='treated',
+    ...     covariates=['size']
+    ... )
+
+    Filter data for SyntheticDiD:
+
+    >>> top_controls = ranking['unit'].tolist()
+    >>> filtered = data[(data['treated'] == 1) | (data['unit'].isin(top_controls))]
+    """
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Input validation
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    for col in [unit_column, time_column, outcome_column]:
+        if col not in data.columns:
+            raise ValueError(f"Column '{col}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    if treatment_column is not None and treatment_column not in data.columns:
+        raise ValueError(f"Treatment column '{treatment_column}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    if covariates:
+        for cov in covariates:
+            if cov not in data.columns:
+                raise ValueError(f"Covariate column '{cov}' not found in DataFrame.")
+
+    if not 0 <= outcome_weight <= 1:
+        raise ValueError("outcome_weight must be between 0 and 1")
+    if not 0 <= covariate_weight <= 1:
+        raise ValueError("covariate_weight must be between 0 and 1")
+
+    if treated_units is not None and treatment_column is not None:
+        raise ValueError("Specify either 'treated_units' or 'treatment_column', not both.")
+
+    if require_units and exclude_units:
+        invalid_required = [u for u in require_units if u in exclude_units]
+        if invalid_required:
+            raise ValueError(f"Units cannot be both required and excluded: {invalid_required}")
+
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Determine pre-treatment periods
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    all_periods = sorted(data[time_column].unique())
+    if pre_periods is None:
+        mid_point = len(all_periods) // 2
+        pre_periods = all_periods[:mid_point]
+    else:
+        pre_periods = list(pre_periods)
+
+    if len(pre_periods) == 0:
+        raise ValueError("No pre-treatment periods specified or inferred.")
+
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Identify treated and control units
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    all_units = list(data[unit_column].unique())
+
+    if treated_units is not None:
+        treated_set = set(treated_units)
+    elif treatment_column is not None:
+        unit_treatment = data.groupby(unit_column)[treatment_column].first()
+        treated_set = set(unit_treatment[unit_treatment == 1].index)
+    elif suggest_treatment_candidates:
+        # Treatment candidate discovery mode - no treated units
+        treated_set = set()
+    else:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Must specify treated_units, treatment_column, or set "
+            "suggest_treatment_candidates=True"
+        )
+
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Treatment candidate discovery mode
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    if suggest_treatment_candidates and len(treated_set) == 0:
+        return _suggest_treatment_candidates(
+            data, unit_column, time_column, outcome_column,
+            pre_periods, n_treatment_candidates
+        )
+
+    if len(treated_set) == 0:
+        raise ValueError("No treated units found.")
+
+    # Determine control candidates
+    control_candidates = [u for u in all_units if u not in treated_set]
+
+    if exclude_units:
+        control_candidates = [u for u in control_candidates if u not in exclude_units]
+
+    if len(control_candidates) == 0:
+        raise ValueError("No control units available after exclusions.")
+
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Create outcome matrices (pre-treatment)
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    pre_data = data[data[time_column].isin(pre_periods)]
+    pivot = pre_data.pivot(index=time_column, columns=unit_column, values=outcome_column)
+
+    # Filter to pre_periods that exist in data
+    valid_pre_periods = [p for p in pre_periods if p in pivot.index]
+    if len(valid_pre_periods) == 0:
+        raise ValueError("No data found for specified pre-treatment periods.")
+
+    # Filter control_candidates to those present in pivot (handles unbalanced panels)
+    control_candidates = [c for c in control_candidates if c in pivot.columns]
+    if len(control_candidates) == 0:
+        raise ValueError("No control units found in pre-treatment data.")
+
+    # Control outcomes: shape (n_pre_periods, n_control_candidates)
+    Y_control = pivot.loc[valid_pre_periods, control_candidates].values.astype(float)
+
+    # Treated outcomes mean: shape (n_pre_periods,)
+    treated_list = [u for u in treated_set if u in pivot.columns]
+    if len(treated_list) == 0:
+        raise ValueError("Treated units not found in pre-treatment data.")
+    Y_treated_mean = pivot.loc[valid_pre_periods, treated_list].mean(axis=1).values.astype(float)
+
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Compute outcome trend scores
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Synthetic weights (higher = better match)
+    synthetic_weights = compute_synthetic_weights(
+        Y_control, Y_treated_mean, lambda_reg=lambda_reg
+    )
+
+    # RMSE for each control vs treated mean (use nanmean to handle missing data)
+    rmse_scores = []
+    for j in range(len(control_candidates)):
+        y_c = Y_control[:, j]
+        rmse = np.sqrt(np.nanmean((y_c - Y_treated_mean) ** 2))
+        rmse_scores.append(rmse)
+
+    # Convert RMSE to similarity score (lower RMSE = higher score)
+    max_rmse = max(rmse_scores) if rmse_scores else 1.0
+    min_rmse = min(rmse_scores) if rmse_scores else 0.0
+    rmse_range = max_rmse - min_rmse
+
+    if rmse_range < 1e-10:
+        # All controls have identical/similar pre-trends (includes single control case)
+        outcome_trend_scores = [1.0] * len(rmse_scores)
+    else:
+        # Normalize so best control gets 1.0, worst gets 0.0
+        outcome_trend_scores = [1 - (rmse - min_rmse) / rmse_range for rmse in rmse_scores]
+
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Compute covariate scores (if covariates provided)
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    if covariates and len(covariates) > 0:
+        # Get unit-level covariate values (pre-treatment mean)
+        cov_data = pre_data.groupby(unit_column)[covariates].mean()
+
+        # Treated covariate profile (mean across treated units)
+        treated_cov = cov_data.loc[list(treated_set)].mean()
+
+        # Standardize covariates
+        cov_mean = cov_data.mean()
+        cov_std = cov_data.std().replace(0, 1)  # Avoid division by zero
+        cov_standardized = (cov_data - cov_mean) / cov_std
+        treated_cov_std = (treated_cov - cov_mean) / cov_std
+
+        # Euclidean distance in standardized space (vectorized)
+        control_cov_matrix = cov_standardized.loc[control_candidates].values
+        treated_cov_vector = treated_cov_std.values
+        covariate_distances = np.sqrt(
+            np.sum((control_cov_matrix - treated_cov_vector) ** 2, axis=1)
+        )
+
+        # Convert distance to similarity score (min-max normalization)
+        max_dist = covariate_distances.max() if len(covariate_distances) > 0 else 1.0
+        min_dist = covariate_distances.min() if len(covariate_distances) > 0 else 0.0
+        dist_range = max_dist - min_dist
+
+        if dist_range < 1e-10:
+            # All controls have identical/similar covariate profiles
+            covariate_scores = [1.0] * len(covariate_distances)
+        else:
+            # Normalize so best control (closest) gets 1.0, worst gets 0.0
+            covariate_scores = (1 - (covariate_distances - min_dist) / dist_range).tolist()
+    else:
+        covariate_scores = [np.nan] * len(control_candidates)
+
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Compute combined quality score
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Normalize weights
+    total_weight = outcome_weight + covariate_weight
+    if total_weight > 0:
+        norm_outcome_weight = outcome_weight / total_weight
+        norm_covariate_weight = covariate_weight / total_weight
+    else:
+        norm_outcome_weight = 1.0
+        norm_covariate_weight = 0.0
+
+    quality_scores = []
+    for i in range(len(control_candidates)):
+        outcome_score = outcome_trend_scores[i]
+        cov_score = covariate_scores[i]
+
+        if np.isnan(cov_score):
+            # No covariates - use only outcome score
+            combined = outcome_score
+        else:
+            combined = norm_outcome_weight * outcome_score + norm_covariate_weight * cov_score
+
+        quality_scores.append(combined)
+
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Build result DataFrame
+    # -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    require_set = set(require_units) if require_units else set()
+
+    result = pd.DataFrame({
+        'unit': control_candidates,
+        'quality_score': quality_scores,
+        'outcome_trend_score': outcome_trend_scores,
+        'covariate_score': covariate_scores,
+        'synthetic_weight': synthetic_weights,
+        'pre_trend_rmse': rmse_scores,
+        'is_required': [u in require_set for u in control_candidates]
+    })
+
+    # Sort by quality score (descending)
+    result = result.sort_values('quality_score', ascending=False)
+
+    # Apply n_top limit if specified
+    if n_top is not None and n_top < len(result):
+        # Always include required units
+        required_df = result[result['is_required']]
+        non_required_df = result[~result['is_required']]
+
+        # Take top from non-required to fill remaining slots
+        remaining_slots = max(0, n_top - len(required_df))
+        top_non_required = non_required_df.head(remaining_slots)
+
+        result = pd.concat([required_df, top_non_required])
+        result = result.sort_values('quality_score', ascending=False)
+
+    return result.reset_index(drop=True)
+
+
+def _suggest_treatment_candidates(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    unit_column: str,
+    time_column: str,
+    outcome_column: str,
+    pre_periods: List[Any],
+    n_candidates: int
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Identify units that would make good treatment candidates.
+
+    A good treatment candidate:
+    1. Has many similar control units available (for matching)
+    2. Has stable pre-treatment trends (predictable counterfactual)
+    3. Is not an extreme outlier
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Panel data.
+    unit_column : str
+        Unit identifier column.
+    time_column : str
+        Time period column.
+    outcome_column : str
+        Outcome variable column.
+    pre_periods : list
+        Pre-treatment periods.
+    n_candidates : int
+        Number of candidates to return.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        Treatment candidates with scores.
+    """
+    all_units = list(data[unit_column].unique())
+    pre_data = data[data[time_column].isin(pre_periods)]
+
+    candidate_info = []
+
+    for unit in all_units:
+        unit_data = pre_data[pre_data[unit_column] == unit]
+
+        if len(unit_data) == 0:
+            continue
+
+        # Average outcome level
+        avg_outcome = unit_data[outcome_column].mean()
+
+        # Trend (simple linear regression slope)
+        times = unit_data[time_column].values
+        outcomes = unit_data[outcome_column].values
+        if len(times) > 1:
+            times_norm = np.arange(len(times))
+            try:
+                slope = np.polyfit(times_norm, outcomes, 1)[0]
+            except (np.linalg.LinAlgError, ValueError):
+                slope = 0.0
+        else:
+            slope = 0.0
+
+        # Count similar potential controls
+        other_units = [u for u in all_units if u != unit]
+        other_means = pre_data[
+            pre_data[unit_column].isin(other_units)
+        ].groupby(unit_column)[outcome_column].mean()
+
+        if len(other_means) > 0:
+            sd = other_means.std()
+            if sd > 0:
+                n_similar = int(np.sum(
+                    np.abs(other_means - avg_outcome) < _SIMILARITY_THRESHOLD_SD * sd
+                ))
+            else:
+                n_similar = len(other_means)
+        else:
+            n_similar = 0
+
+        candidate_info.append({
+            'unit': unit,
+            'avg_outcome_level': avg_outcome,
+            'outcome_trend': slope,
+            'n_similar_controls': n_similar
+        })
+
+    if len(candidate_info) == 0:
+        return pd.DataFrame(columns=[
+            'unit', 'treatment_candidate_score', 'avg_outcome_level',
+            'outcome_trend', 'n_similar_controls'
+        ])
+
+    result = pd.DataFrame(candidate_info)
+
+    # Score: prefer units with many similar controls and moderate outcome levels
+    max_similar = result['n_similar_controls'].max()
+    if max_similar > 0:
+        similarity_score = result['n_similar_controls'] / max_similar
+    else:
+        similarity_score = pd.Series([0.0] * len(result))
+
+    # Penalty for outliers in outcome level
+    outcome_mean = result['avg_outcome_level'].mean()
+    outcome_std = result['avg_outcome_level'].std()
+    if outcome_std > 0:
+        outcome_z = np.abs((result['avg_outcome_level'] - outcome_mean) / outcome_std)
+    else:
+        outcome_z = pd.Series([0.0] * len(result))
+
+    result['treatment_candidate_score'] = (
+        similarity_score - _OUTLIER_PENALTY_WEIGHT * outcome_z
+    ).clip(0, 1)
+
+    # Return top candidates
+    result = result.nlargest(n_candidates, 'treatment_candidate_score')
+    return result.reset_index(drop=True)