koffi 0.9.4 → 0.9.5

package/vendor/dragonbox/subproject/3rdparty/ryu/ryu/f2s.c

@@ -1,345 +1,345 @@
-// Copyright 2018 Ulf Adams
-//
-// The contents of this file may be used under the terms of the Apache License,
-// Version 2.0.
-//
-//    (See accompanying file LICENSE-Apache or copy at
-//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0)
-//
-// Alternatively, the contents of this file may be used under the terms of
-// the Boost Software License, Version 1.0.
-//    (See accompanying file LICENSE-Boost or copy at
-//     https://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, this software
-// is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY
-// KIND, either express or implied.
-
-// Runtime compiler options:
-// -DRYU_DEBUG Generate verbose debugging output to stdout.
-
-#include "ryu/ryu.h"
-
-#include <assert.h>
-#include <stdbool.h>
-#include <stdint.h>
-#include <stdlib.h>
-#include <string.h>
-#include <limits.h>
-
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-#include <stdio.h>
-#endif
-
-#include "ryu/common.h"
-#include "ryu/f2s_intrinsics.h"
-#include "ryu/digit_table.h"
-
-#define FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS 23
-#define FLOAT_EXPONENT_BITS 8
-#define FLOAT_BIAS 127
-
-// A floating decimal representing m * 10^e.
-typedef struct floating_decimal_32 {
-  uint32_t mantissa;
-  // Decimal exponent's range is -45 to 38
-  // inclusive, and can fit in a short if needed.
-  int32_t exponent;
-} floating_decimal_32;
-
-static inline floating_decimal_32 f2d(const uint32_t ieeeMantissa, const uint32_t ieeeExponent) {
-  int32_t e2;
-  uint32_t m2;
-  if (ieeeExponent == 0) {
-    // We subtract 2 so that the bounds computation has 2 additional bits.
-    e2 = 1 - FLOAT_BIAS - FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS - 2;
-    m2 = ieeeMantissa;
-  } else {
-    e2 = (int32_t) ieeeExponent - FLOAT_BIAS - FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS - 2;
-    m2 = (1u << FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS) | ieeeMantissa;
-  }
-  const bool even = (m2 & 1) == 0;
-  const bool acceptBounds = even;
-
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-  printf("-> %u * 2^%d\n", m2, e2 + 2);
-#endif
-
-  // Step 2: Determine the interval of valid decimal representations.
-  const uint32_t mv = 4 * m2;
-  const uint32_t mp = 4 * m2 + 2;
-  // Implicit bool -> int conversion. True is 1, false is 0.
-  const uint32_t mmShift = ieeeMantissa != 0 || ieeeExponent <= 1;
-  const uint32_t mm = 4 * m2 - 1 - mmShift;
-
-  // Step 3: Convert to a decimal power base using 64-bit arithmetic.
-  uint32_t vr, vp, vm;
-  int32_t e10;
-  bool vmIsTrailingZeros = false;
-  bool vrIsTrailingZeros = false;
-  uint8_t lastRemovedDigit = 0;
-  if (e2 >= 0) {
-    const uint32_t q = log10Pow2(e2);
-    e10 = (int32_t) q;
-    const int32_t k = FLOAT_POW5_INV_BITCOUNT + pow5bits((int32_t) q) - 1;
-    const int32_t i = -e2 + (int32_t) q + k;
-    vr = mulPow5InvDivPow2(mv, q, i);
-    vp = mulPow5InvDivPow2(mp, q, i);
-    vm = mulPow5InvDivPow2(mm, q, i);
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-    printf("%u * 2^%d / 10^%u\n", mv, e2, q);
-    printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
-#endif
-    if (q != 0 && (vp - 1) / 10 <= vm / 10) {
-      // We need to know one removed digit even if we are not going to loop below. We could use
-      // q = X - 1 above, except that would require 33 bits for the result, and we've found that
-      // 32-bit arithmetic is faster even on 64-bit machines.
-      const int32_t l = FLOAT_POW5_INV_BITCOUNT + pow5bits((int32_t) (q - 1)) - 1;
-      lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (mulPow5InvDivPow2(mv, q - 1, -e2 + (int32_t) q - 1 + l) % 10);
-    }
-    if (q <= 9) {
-      // The largest power of 5 that fits in 24 bits is 5^10, but q <= 9 seems to be safe as well.
-      // Only one of mp, mv, and mm can be a multiple of 5, if any.
-      if (mv % 5 == 0) {
-        vrIsTrailingZeros = multipleOfPowerOf5_32(mv, q);
-      } else if (acceptBounds) {
-        vmIsTrailingZeros = multipleOfPowerOf5_32(mm, q);
-      } else {
-        vp -= multipleOfPowerOf5_32(mp, q);
-      }
-    }
-  } else {
-    const uint32_t q = log10Pow5(-e2);
-    e10 = (int32_t) q + e2;
-    const int32_t i = -e2 - (int32_t) q;
-    const int32_t k = pow5bits(i) - FLOAT_POW5_BITCOUNT;
-    int32_t j = (int32_t) q - k;
-    vr = mulPow5divPow2(mv, (uint32_t) i, j);
-    vp = mulPow5divPow2(mp, (uint32_t) i, j);
-    vm = mulPow5divPow2(mm, (uint32_t) i, j);
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-    printf("%u * 5^%d / 10^%u\n", mv, -e2, q);
-    printf("%u %d %d %d\n", q, i, k, j);
-    printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
-#endif
-    if (q != 0 && (vp - 1) / 10 <= vm / 10) {
-      j = (int32_t) q - 1 - (pow5bits(i + 1) - FLOAT_POW5_BITCOUNT);
-      lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (mulPow5divPow2(mv, (uint32_t) (i + 1), j) % 10);
-    }
-    if (q <= 1) {
-      // {vr,vp,vm} is trailing zeros if {mv,mp,mm} has at least q trailing 0 bits.
-      // mv = 4 * m2, so it always has at least two trailing 0 bits.
-      vrIsTrailingZeros = true;
-      if (acceptBounds) {
-        // mm = mv - 1 - mmShift, so it has 1 trailing 0 bit iff mmShift == 1.
-        vmIsTrailingZeros = mmShift == 1;
-      } else {
-        // mp = mv + 2, so it always has at least one trailing 0 bit.
-        --vp;
-      }
-    } else if (q < 31) { // TODO(ulfjack): Use a tighter bound here.
-      vrIsTrailingZeros = multipleOfPowerOf2_32(mv, q - 1);
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-      printf("vr is trailing zeros=%s\n", vrIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
-#endif
-    }
-  }
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-  printf("e10=%d\n", e10);
-  printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
-  printf("vm is trailing zeros=%s\n", vmIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
-  printf("vr is trailing zeros=%s\n", vrIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
-#endif
-
-  // Step 4: Find the shortest decimal representation in the interval of valid representations.
-  int32_t removed = 0;
-  uint32_t output;
-  if (vmIsTrailingZeros || vrIsTrailingZeros) {
-    // General case, which happens rarely (~4.0%).
-    while (vp / 10 > vm / 10) {
-#ifdef __clang__ // https://bugs.llvm.org/show_bug.cgi?id=23106
-      // The compiler does not realize that vm % 10 can be computed from vm / 10
-      // as vm - (vm / 10) * 10.
-      vmIsTrailingZeros &= vm - (vm / 10) * 10 == 0;
-#else
-      vmIsTrailingZeros &= vm % 10 == 0;
-#endif
-      vrIsTrailingZeros &= lastRemovedDigit == 0;
-      lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (vr % 10);
-      vr /= 10;
-      vp /= 10;
-      vm /= 10;
-      ++removed;
-    }
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-    printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
-    printf("d-10=%s\n", vmIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
-#endif
-    if (vmIsTrailingZeros) {
-      while (vm % 10 == 0) {
-        vrIsTrailingZeros &= lastRemovedDigit == 0;
-        lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (vr % 10);
-        vr /= 10;
-        vp /= 10;
-        vm /= 10;
-        ++removed;
-      }
-    }
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-    printf("%u %d\n", vr, lastRemovedDigit);
-    printf("vr is trailing zeros=%s\n", vrIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
-#endif
-    if (vrIsTrailingZeros && lastRemovedDigit == 5 && vr % 2 == 0) {
-      // Round even if the exact number is .....50..0.
-      lastRemovedDigit = 4;
-    }
-    // We need to take vr + 1 if vr is outside bounds or we need to round up.
-    output = vr + ((vr == vm && (!acceptBounds || !vmIsTrailingZeros)) || lastRemovedDigit >= 5);
-  } else {
-    // Specialized for the common case (~96.0%). Percentages below are relative to this.
-    // Loop iterations below (approximately):
-    // 0: 13.6%, 1: 70.7%, 2: 14.1%, 3: 1.39%, 4: 0.14%, 5+: 0.01%
-    while (vp / 10 > vm / 10) {
-      lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (vr % 10);
-      vr /= 10;
-      vp /= 10;
-      vm /= 10;
-      ++removed;
-    }
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-    printf("%u %d\n", vr, lastRemovedDigit);
-    printf("vr is trailing zeros=%s\n", vrIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
-#endif
-    // We need to take vr + 1 if vr is outside bounds or we need to round up.
-    output = vr + (vr == vm || lastRemovedDigit >= 5);
-  }
-  const int32_t exp = e10 + removed;
-
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-  printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
-  printf("O=%u\n", output);
-  printf("EXP=%d\n", exp);
-#endif
-
-  floating_decimal_32 fd;
-  fd.exponent = exp;
-  fd.mantissa = output;
-  return fd;
-}
-
-static inline int to_chars(const floating_decimal_32 v, const bool sign, char* const result) {
-  // Step 5: Print the decimal representation.
-  int index = 0;
-  if (sign) {
-    result[index++] = '-';
-  }
-
-  uint32_t output = v.mantissa;
-  const uint32_t olength = decimalLength9(output);
-
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-  printf("DIGITS=%u\n", v.mantissa);
-  printf("OLEN=%u\n", olength);
-  printf("EXP=%u\n", v.exponent + olength);
-#endif
-
-  // Print the decimal digits.
-  // The following code is equivalent to:
-  // for (uint32_t i = 0; i < olength - 1; ++i) {
-  //   const uint32_t c = output % 10; output /= 10;
-  //   result[index + olength - i] = (char) ('0' + c);
-  // }
-  // result[index] = '0' + output % 10;
-  uint32_t i = 0;
-  while (output >= 10000) {
-#ifdef __clang__ // https://bugs.llvm.org/show_bug.cgi?id=38217
-    const uint32_t c = output - 10000 * (output / 10000);
-#else
-    const uint32_t c = output % 10000;
-#endif
-    output /= 10000;
-    const uint32_t c0 = (c % 100) << 1;
-    const uint32_t c1 = (c / 100) << 1;
-    memcpy(result + index + olength - i - 1, DIGIT_TABLE + c0, 2);
-    memcpy(result + index + olength - i - 3, DIGIT_TABLE + c1, 2);
-    i += 4;
-  }
-  if (output >= 100) {
-    const uint32_t c = (output % 100) << 1;
-    output /= 100;
-    memcpy(result + index + olength - i - 1, DIGIT_TABLE + c, 2);
-    i += 2;
-  }
-  if (output >= 10) {
-    const uint32_t c = output << 1;
-    // We can't use memcpy here: the decimal dot goes between these two digits.
-    result[index + olength - i] = DIGIT_TABLE[c + 1];
-    result[index] = DIGIT_TABLE[c];
-  } else {
-    result[index] = (char) ('0' + output);
-  }
-
-  // Print decimal point if needed.
-  if (olength > 1) {
-    result[index + 1] = '.';
-    index += olength + 1;
-  } else {
-    ++index;
-  }
-
-  // Print the exponent.
-  result[index++] = 'E';
-  int32_t exp = v.exponent + (int32_t) olength - 1;
-  if (exp < 0) {
-    result[index++] = '-';
-    exp = -exp;
-  }
-
-  if (exp >= 10) {
-    memcpy(result + index, DIGIT_TABLE + 2 * exp, 2);
-    index += 2;
-  } else {
-    result[index++] = (char) ('0' + exp);
-  }
-
-  return index;
-}
-
-int f2s_buffered_n(float f, char* result) {
-  // Step 1: Decode the floating-point number, and unify normalized and subnormal cases.
-  const uint32_t bits = float_to_bits(f);
-
-#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
-  printf("IN=");
-  for (int32_t bit = 31; bit >= 0; --bit) {
-    printf("%u", (bits >> bit) & 1);
-  }
-  printf("\n");
-#endif
-
-  // Decode bits into sign, mantissa, and exponent.
-  const bool ieeeSign = ((bits >> (FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS + FLOAT_EXPONENT_BITS)) & 1) != 0;
-  const uint32_t ieeeMantissa = bits & ((1u << FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS) - 1);
-  const uint32_t ieeeExponent = (bits >> FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS) & ((1u << FLOAT_EXPONENT_BITS) - 1);
-
-  // Case distinction; exit early for the easy cases.
-  if (ieeeExponent == ((1u << FLOAT_EXPONENT_BITS) - 1u) || (ieeeExponent == 0 && ieeeMantissa == 0)) {
-    return copy_special_str(result, ieeeSign, ieeeExponent, ieeeMantissa);
-  }
-
-  const floating_decimal_32 v = f2d(ieeeMantissa, ieeeExponent);
-  return to_chars(v, ieeeSign, result);
-}
-
-void f2s_buffered(float f, char* result) {
-  const int index = f2s_buffered_n(f, result);
-
-  // Terminate the string.
-  result[index] = '\0';
-}
-
-char* f2s(float f) {
-  char* const result = (char*) malloc(16);
-  f2s_buffered(f, result);
-  return result;
-}
+// Copyright 2018 Ulf Adams
+//
+// The contents of this file may be used under the terms of the Apache License,
+// Version 2.0.
+//
+//    (See accompanying file LICENSE-Apache or copy at
+//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0)
+//
+// Alternatively, the contents of this file may be used under the terms of
+// the Boost Software License, Version 1.0.
+//    (See accompanying file LICENSE-Boost or copy at
+//     https://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, this software
+// is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY
+// KIND, either express or implied.
+
+// Runtime compiler options:
+// -DRYU_DEBUG Generate verbose debugging output to stdout.
+
+#include "ryu/ryu.h"
+
+#include <assert.h>
+#include <stdbool.h>
+#include <stdint.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+#include <string.h>
+#include <limits.h>
+
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+#include <stdio.h>
+#endif
+
+#include "ryu/common.h"
+#include "ryu/f2s_intrinsics.h"
+#include "ryu/digit_table.h"
+
+#define FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS 23
+#define FLOAT_EXPONENT_BITS 8
+#define FLOAT_BIAS 127
+
+// A floating decimal representing m * 10^e.
+typedef struct floating_decimal_32 {
+  uint32_t mantissa;
+  // Decimal exponent's range is -45 to 38
+  // inclusive, and can fit in a short if needed.
+  int32_t exponent;
+} floating_decimal_32;
+
+static inline floating_decimal_32 f2d(const uint32_t ieeeMantissa, const uint32_t ieeeExponent) {
+  int32_t e2;
+  uint32_t m2;
+  if (ieeeExponent == 0) {
+    // We subtract 2 so that the bounds computation has 2 additional bits.
+    e2 = 1 - FLOAT_BIAS - FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS - 2;
+    m2 = ieeeMantissa;
+  } else {
+    e2 = (int32_t) ieeeExponent - FLOAT_BIAS - FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS - 2;
+    m2 = (1u << FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS) | ieeeMantissa;
+  }
+  const bool even = (m2 & 1) == 0;
+  const bool acceptBounds = even;
+
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+  printf("-> %u * 2^%d\n", m2, e2 + 2);
+#endif
+
+  // Step 2: Determine the interval of valid decimal representations.
+  const uint32_t mv = 4 * m2;
+  const uint32_t mp = 4 * m2 + 2;
+  // Implicit bool -> int conversion. True is 1, false is 0.
+  const uint32_t mmShift = ieeeMantissa != 0 || ieeeExponent <= 1;
+  const uint32_t mm = 4 * m2 - 1 - mmShift;
+
+  // Step 3: Convert to a decimal power base using 64-bit arithmetic.
+  uint32_t vr, vp, vm;
+  int32_t e10;
+  bool vmIsTrailingZeros = false;
+  bool vrIsTrailingZeros = false;
+  uint8_t lastRemovedDigit = 0;
+  if (e2 >= 0) {
+    const uint32_t q = log10Pow2(e2);
+    e10 = (int32_t) q;
+    const int32_t k = FLOAT_POW5_INV_BITCOUNT + pow5bits((int32_t) q) - 1;
+    const int32_t i = -e2 + (int32_t) q + k;
+    vr = mulPow5InvDivPow2(mv, q, i);
+    vp = mulPow5InvDivPow2(mp, q, i);
+    vm = mulPow5InvDivPow2(mm, q, i);
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+    printf("%u * 2^%d / 10^%u\n", mv, e2, q);
+    printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
+#endif
+    if (q != 0 && (vp - 1) / 10 <= vm / 10) {
+      // We need to know one removed digit even if we are not going to loop below. We could use
+      // q = X - 1 above, except that would require 33 bits for the result, and we've found that
+      // 32-bit arithmetic is faster even on 64-bit machines.
+      const int32_t l = FLOAT_POW5_INV_BITCOUNT + pow5bits((int32_t) (q - 1)) - 1;
+      lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (mulPow5InvDivPow2(mv, q - 1, -e2 + (int32_t) q - 1 + l) % 10);
+    }
+    if (q <= 9) {
+      // The largest power of 5 that fits in 24 bits is 5^10, but q <= 9 seems to be safe as well.
+      // Only one of mp, mv, and mm can be a multiple of 5, if any.
+      if (mv % 5 == 0) {
+        vrIsTrailingZeros = multipleOfPowerOf5_32(mv, q);
+      } else if (acceptBounds) {
+        vmIsTrailingZeros = multipleOfPowerOf5_32(mm, q);
+      } else {
+        vp -= multipleOfPowerOf5_32(mp, q);
+      }
+    }
+  } else {
+    const uint32_t q = log10Pow5(-e2);
+    e10 = (int32_t) q + e2;
+    const int32_t i = -e2 - (int32_t) q;
+    const int32_t k = pow5bits(i) - FLOAT_POW5_BITCOUNT;
+    int32_t j = (int32_t) q - k;
+    vr = mulPow5divPow2(mv, (uint32_t) i, j);
+    vp = mulPow5divPow2(mp, (uint32_t) i, j);
+    vm = mulPow5divPow2(mm, (uint32_t) i, j);
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+    printf("%u * 5^%d / 10^%u\n", mv, -e2, q);
+    printf("%u %d %d %d\n", q, i, k, j);
+    printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
+#endif
+    if (q != 0 && (vp - 1) / 10 <= vm / 10) {
+      j = (int32_t) q - 1 - (pow5bits(i + 1) - FLOAT_POW5_BITCOUNT);
+      lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (mulPow5divPow2(mv, (uint32_t) (i + 1), j) % 10);
+    }
+    if (q <= 1) {
+      // {vr,vp,vm} is trailing zeros if {mv,mp,mm} has at least q trailing 0 bits.
+      // mv = 4 * m2, so it always has at least two trailing 0 bits.
+      vrIsTrailingZeros = true;
+      if (acceptBounds) {
+        // mm = mv - 1 - mmShift, so it has 1 trailing 0 bit iff mmShift == 1.
+        vmIsTrailingZeros = mmShift == 1;
+      } else {
+        // mp = mv + 2, so it always has at least one trailing 0 bit.
+        --vp;
+      }
+    } else if (q < 31) { // TODO(ulfjack): Use a tighter bound here.
+      vrIsTrailingZeros = multipleOfPowerOf2_32(mv, q - 1);
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+      printf("vr is trailing zeros=%s\n", vrIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
+#endif
+    }
+  }
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+  printf("e10=%d\n", e10);
+  printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
+  printf("vm is trailing zeros=%s\n", vmIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
+  printf("vr is trailing zeros=%s\n", vrIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
+#endif
+
+  // Step 4: Find the shortest decimal representation in the interval of valid representations.
+  int32_t removed = 0;
+  uint32_t output;
+  if (vmIsTrailingZeros || vrIsTrailingZeros) {
+    // General case, which happens rarely (~4.0%).
+    while (vp / 10 > vm / 10) {
+#ifdef __clang__ // https://bugs.llvm.org/show_bug.cgi?id=23106
+      // The compiler does not realize that vm % 10 can be computed from vm / 10
+      // as vm - (vm / 10) * 10.
+      vmIsTrailingZeros &= vm - (vm / 10) * 10 == 0;
+#else
+      vmIsTrailingZeros &= vm % 10 == 0;
+#endif
+      vrIsTrailingZeros &= lastRemovedDigit == 0;
+      lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (vr % 10);
+      vr /= 10;
+      vp /= 10;
+      vm /= 10;
+      ++removed;
+    }
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+    printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
+    printf("d-10=%s\n", vmIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
+#endif
+    if (vmIsTrailingZeros) {
+      while (vm % 10 == 0) {
+        vrIsTrailingZeros &= lastRemovedDigit == 0;
+        lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (vr % 10);
+        vr /= 10;
+        vp /= 10;
+        vm /= 10;
+        ++removed;
+      }
+    }
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+    printf("%u %d\n", vr, lastRemovedDigit);
+    printf("vr is trailing zeros=%s\n", vrIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
+#endif
+    if (vrIsTrailingZeros && lastRemovedDigit == 5 && vr % 2 == 0) {
+      // Round even if the exact number is .....50..0.
+      lastRemovedDigit = 4;
+    }
+    // We need to take vr + 1 if vr is outside bounds or we need to round up.
+    output = vr + ((vr == vm && (!acceptBounds || !vmIsTrailingZeros)) || lastRemovedDigit >= 5);
+  } else {
+    // Specialized for the common case (~96.0%). Percentages below are relative to this.
+    // Loop iterations below (approximately):
+    // 0: 13.6%, 1: 70.7%, 2: 14.1%, 3: 1.39%, 4: 0.14%, 5+: 0.01%
+    while (vp / 10 > vm / 10) {
+      lastRemovedDigit = (uint8_t) (vr % 10);
+      vr /= 10;
+      vp /= 10;
+      vm /= 10;
+      ++removed;
+    }
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+    printf("%u %d\n", vr, lastRemovedDigit);
+    printf("vr is trailing zeros=%s\n", vrIsTrailingZeros ? "true" : "false");
+#endif
+    // We need to take vr + 1 if vr is outside bounds or we need to round up.
+    output = vr + (vr == vm || lastRemovedDigit >= 5);
+  }
+  const int32_t exp = e10 + removed;
+
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+  printf("V+=%u\nV =%u\nV-=%u\n", vp, vr, vm);
+  printf("O=%u\n", output);
+  printf("EXP=%d\n", exp);
+#endif
+
+  floating_decimal_32 fd;
+  fd.exponent = exp;
+  fd.mantissa = output;
+  return fd;
+}
+
+static inline int to_chars(const floating_decimal_32 v, const bool sign, char* const result) {
+  // Step 5: Print the decimal representation.
+  int index = 0;
+  if (sign) {
+    result[index++] = '-';
+  }
+
+  uint32_t output = v.mantissa;
+  const uint32_t olength = decimalLength9(output);
+
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+  printf("DIGITS=%u\n", v.mantissa);
+  printf("OLEN=%u\n", olength);
+  printf("EXP=%u\n", v.exponent + olength);
+#endif
+
+  // Print the decimal digits.
+  // The following code is equivalent to:
+  // for (uint32_t i = 0; i < olength - 1; ++i) {
+  //   const uint32_t c = output % 10; output /= 10;
+  //   result[index + olength - i] = (char) ('0' + c);
+  // }
+  // result[index] = '0' + output % 10;
+  uint32_t i = 0;
+  while (output >= 10000) {
+#ifdef __clang__ // https://bugs.llvm.org/show_bug.cgi?id=38217
+    const uint32_t c = output - 10000 * (output / 10000);
+#else
+    const uint32_t c = output % 10000;
+#endif
+    output /= 10000;
+    const uint32_t c0 = (c % 100) << 1;
+    const uint32_t c1 = (c / 100) << 1;
+    memcpy(result + index + olength - i - 1, DIGIT_TABLE + c0, 2);
+    memcpy(result + index + olength - i - 3, DIGIT_TABLE + c1, 2);
+    i += 4;
+  }
+  if (output >= 100) {
+    const uint32_t c = (output % 100) << 1;
+    output /= 100;
+    memcpy(result + index + olength - i - 1, DIGIT_TABLE + c, 2);
+    i += 2;
+  }
+  if (output >= 10) {
+    const uint32_t c = output << 1;
+    // We can't use memcpy here: the decimal dot goes between these two digits.
+    result[index + olength - i] = DIGIT_TABLE[c + 1];
+    result[index] = DIGIT_TABLE[c];
+  } else {
+    result[index] = (char) ('0' + output);
+  }
+
+  // Print decimal point if needed.
+  if (olength > 1) {
+    result[index + 1] = '.';
+    index += olength + 1;
+  } else {
+    ++index;
+  }
+
+  // Print the exponent.
+  result[index++] = 'E';
+  int32_t exp = v.exponent + (int32_t) olength - 1;
+  if (exp < 0) {
+    result[index++] = '-';
+    exp = -exp;
+  }
+
+  if (exp >= 10) {
+    memcpy(result + index, DIGIT_TABLE + 2 * exp, 2);
+    index += 2;
+  } else {
+    result[index++] = (char) ('0' + exp);
+  }
+
+  return index;
+}
+
+int f2s_buffered_n(float f, char* result) {
+  // Step 1: Decode the floating-point number, and unify normalized and subnormal cases.
+  const uint32_t bits = float_to_bits(f);
+
+#ifdef RYU_DEBUG
+  printf("IN=");
+  for (int32_t bit = 31; bit >= 0; --bit) {
+    printf("%u", (bits >> bit) & 1);
+  }
+  printf("\n");
+#endif
+
+  // Decode bits into sign, mantissa, and exponent.
+  const bool ieeeSign = ((bits >> (FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS + FLOAT_EXPONENT_BITS)) & 1) != 0;
+  const uint32_t ieeeMantissa = bits & ((1u << FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS) - 1);
+  const uint32_t ieeeExponent = (bits >> FLOAT_MANTISSA_BITS) & ((1u << FLOAT_EXPONENT_BITS) - 1);
+
+  // Case distinction; exit early for the easy cases.
+  if (ieeeExponent == ((1u << FLOAT_EXPONENT_BITS) - 1u) || (ieeeExponent == 0 && ieeeMantissa == 0)) {
+    return copy_special_str(result, ieeeSign, ieeeExponent, ieeeMantissa);
+  }
+
+  const floating_decimal_32 v = f2d(ieeeMantissa, ieeeExponent);
+  return to_chars(v, ieeeSign, result);
+}
+
+void f2s_buffered(float f, char* result) {
+  const int index = f2s_buffered_n(f, result);
+
+  // Terminate the string.
+  result[index] = '\0';
+}
+
+char* f2s(float f) {
+  char* const result = (char*) malloc(16);
+  f2s_buffered(f, result);
+  return result;
+}