@steerable/runtime-darwin-arm64 0.0.0-stage → 0.9.0

package/python-runtime/python/lib/python3.12/site-packages/pycparser/c_parser.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2759 @@
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# pycparser: c_parser.py
+#
+# Recursive-descent parser for the C language.
+#
+# Eli Bendersky [https://eli.thegreenplace.net/]
+# License: BSD
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from dataclasses import dataclass
+from typing import (
+    Any,
+    Literal,
+    NoReturn,
+    NotRequired,
+    Optional,
+    TypedDict,
+    cast,
+)
+
+from . import c_ast
+from .ast_transforms import fix_atomic_specifiers, fix_switch_cases
+from .c_lexer import CLexer, Dialect, Token
+
+
+# ASTs contain many coordinates, so slots reduce their memory overhead.
+@dataclass(slots=True)
+class Coord:
+    """Coordinates of a syntactic element. Consists of:
+    - File name
+    - Line number
+    - Column number
+    """
+
+    file: str
+    line: int
+    column: int | None = None
+
+    def __str__(self) -> str:
+        text = f"{self.file}:{self.line}"
+        if self.column is not None:
+            text += f":{self.column}"
+        return text
+
+
+class ParseError(Exception):
+    pass
+
+
+class CParser:
+    """Recursive-descent C parser.
+
+    Usage:
+        parser = CParser()
+        ast = parser.parse(text, filename)
+
+    The `lexer` parameter lets you inject a lexer class (defaults to CLexer).
+    The positional parameters other than `lexer` are accepted for backward
+    compatibility with the old PLY-based parser and are otherwise unused.
+
+    The keyword-only `dialect` parameter selects keyword recognition: "legacy"
+    preserves existing behavior, while "c23" enables C23 spellings, predefined
+    constants, and other C23-only features.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        lex_optimize: bool = True,
+        lexer: type[CLexer] = CLexer,
+        lextab: str = "pycparser.lextab",
+        yacc_optimize: bool = True,
+        yacctab: str = "pycparser.yacctab",
+        yacc_debug: bool = False,
+        taboutputdir: str = "",
+        *,
+        dialect: Dialect = "legacy",
+    ) -> None:
+        self.clex: CLexer = lexer(
+            error_func=self._lex_error_func,
+            dialect=dialect,
+        )
+        self._dialect = dialect
+
+        # Stack of scopes for keeping track of symbols. _scope_stack[-1] is
+        # the current (topmost) scope. Each scope is a dictionary that
+        # specifies whether a name is a type. If _scope_stack[n][name] is
+        # True, 'name' is currently a type in the scope. If it's False,
+        # 'name' is defined in the scope but not as a type (for instance, if we
+        # saw: int name;)
+        # If 'name' is not a key in _scope_stack[n] then 'name' was not defined
+        # in this scope at all.
+        self._scope_stack: list[dict[str, bool]] = [{}]
+        # Cache the token already checked for typedef-name status to avoid repeated
+        # lookups when peeking or consuming. Cleared when scopes or bindings change.
+        self._typedef_checked_token: Token | None = None
+        self._tokens: _TokenStream = _TokenStream(self.clex.token)
+
+    def parse(
+        self, text: str, filename: str = "", debug: bool = False
+    ) -> c_ast.FileAST:
+        """Parses C code and returns an AST.
+
+        text:
+            A string containing the C source code
+
+        filename:
+            Name of the file being parsed (for meaningful error messages)
+
+        debug:
+            Deprecated debug flag (unused); for backwards compatibility.
+        """
+        self._scope_stack = [{}]
+        self._typedef_checked_token = None
+        self.clex.input(text, filename)
+        self._tokens = _TokenStream(self.clex.token)
+
+        ast = self._parse_translation_unit_or_empty()
+        tok = self._peek()
+        if tok is not None:
+            self._parse_error(f"before: {tok.value}", self._tok_coord(tok))
+        return ast
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Scope and declaration helpers
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    def _parse_error(self, msg: str, coord: Coord | str | None) -> NoReturn:
+        raise ParseError(f"{coord}: {msg}")
+
+    def _push_scope(self) -> None:
+        self._scope_stack.append({})
+        self._typedef_checked_token = None
+
+    def _pop_scope(self) -> None:
+        assert len(self._scope_stack) > 1, "Cannot pop the global scope"
+        self._scope_stack.pop()
+        self._typedef_checked_token = None
+
+    def _add_typedef_name(self, name: str, coord: Coord | None) -> None:
+        """Add a new typedef name (ie a TYPEID) to the current scope"""
+        if not self._scope_stack[-1].get(name, True):
+            self._parse_error(
+                f"Typedef {name!r} previously declared as non-typedef in this scope",
+                coord,
+            )
+        self._scope_stack[-1][name] = True
+        self._typedef_checked_token = None
+
+    def _add_identifier(self, name: str, coord: Coord | None) -> None:
+        """Add a new object, function, or enum member name (ie an ID) to the
+        current scope
+        """
+        if self._scope_stack[-1].get(name, False):
+            self._parse_error(
+                f"Non-typedef {name!r} previously declared as typedef in this scope",
+                coord,
+            )
+        self._scope_stack[-1][name] = False
+        self._typedef_checked_token = None
+
+    def _is_type_in_scope(self, name: str) -> bool:
+        """Is *name* a typedef-name in the current scope?"""
+        for scope in reversed(self._scope_stack):
+            # If name is an identifier in this scope it shadows typedefs in
+            # higher scopes.
+            if name in scope:
+                return scope[name]
+        return False
+
+    def _lex_error_func(self, msg: str, line: int, column: int) -> None:
+        self._parse_error(msg, Coord(file=self.clex.filename, line=line, column=column))
+
+    # To understand what's going on here, read sections A.8.5 and
+    # A.8.6 of K&R2 very carefully.
+    #
+    # A C type consists of a basic type declaration, with a list
+    # of modifiers. For example:
+    #
+    # int *c[5];
+    #
+    # The basic declaration here is 'int c', and the pointer and
+    # the array are the modifiers.
+    #
+    # Basic declarations are represented by TypeDecl (from module c_ast) and the
+    # modifiers are FuncDecl, PtrDecl and ArrayDecl.
+    #
+    # The standard states that whenever a new modifier is parsed, it should be
+    # added to the end of the list of modifiers. For example:
+    #
+    # K&R2 A.8.6.2: Array Declarators
+    #
+    # In a declaration T D where D has the form
+    #   D1 [constant-expression-opt]
+    # and the type of the identifier in the declaration T D1 is
+    # "type-modifier T", the type of the
+    # identifier of D is "type-modifier array of T"
+    #
+    # This is what this method does. The declarator it receives
+    # can be a list of declarators ending with TypeDecl. It
+    # tacks the modifier to the end of this list, just before
+    # the TypeDecl.
+    #
+    # Additionally, the modifier may be a list itself. This is
+    # useful for pointers, that can come as a chain from the rule
+    # p_pointer. In this case, the whole modifier list is spliced
+    # into the new location.
+    def _type_modify_decl(self, decl: Any, modifier: Any) -> c_ast.Node:
+        """Tacks a type modifier on a declarator, and returns
+        the modified declarator.
+
+        Note: the declarator and modifier may be modified
+        """
+        modifier_head = modifier
+        modifier_tail = modifier
+
+        # The modifier may be a nested list. Reach its tail.
+        while modifier_tail.type:
+            modifier_tail = modifier_tail.type
+
+        # If the decl is a basic type, just tack the modifier onto it.
+        if isinstance(decl, c_ast.TypeDecl):
+            modifier_tail.type = decl
+            return modifier
+        else:
+            # Otherwise, the decl is a list of modifiers. Reach
+            # its tail and splice the modifier onto the tail,
+            # pointing to the underlying basic type.
+            decl_tail = decl
+            while not isinstance(decl_tail.type, c_ast.TypeDecl):
+                decl_tail = decl_tail.type
+
+            modifier_tail.type = decl_tail.type
+            decl_tail.type = modifier_head
+            return decl
+
+    # Due to the order in which declarators are constructed,
+    # they have to be fixed in order to look like a normal AST.
+    #
+    # When a declaration arrives from syntax construction, it has
+    # these problems:
+    # * The innermost TypeDecl has no type (because the basic
+    #   type is only known at the uppermost declaration level)
+    # * The declaration has no variable name, since that is saved
+    #   in the innermost TypeDecl
+    # * The typename of the declaration is a list of type
+    #   specifiers, and not a node. Here, basic identifier types
+    #   should be separated from more complex types like enums
+    #   and structs.
+    #
+    # This method fixes these problems.
+    def _fix_decl_name_type(
+        self,
+        decl: c_ast.Decl | c_ast.Typedef | c_ast.Typename,
+        typename: list[c_ast.Node],
+    ) -> c_ast.Decl | c_ast.Typedef | c_ast.Typename:
+        """Fixes a declaration. Modifies decl."""
+        # Reach the underlying basic type
+        typ = decl
+        while not isinstance(typ, c_ast.TypeDecl):
+            typ = typ.type
+
+        decl.name = typ.declname
+        typ.quals = decl.quals[:]
+
+        # The typename is a list of types. Except for _BitInt with an
+        # optional signedness, any type that isn't an IdentifierType must
+        # be the only type in the list (it's illegal to declare "int enum ..").
+        # If all the types are basic, they're collected in the
+        # IdentifierType holder.
+        names: list[str] = []
+        for tn in typename:
+            if isinstance(tn, c_ast.BitIntType):
+                signedness = None
+                for spec in typename:
+                    if spec is tn:
+                        continue
+                    if (
+                        signedness is not None
+                        or not isinstance(spec, c_ast.IdentifierType)
+                        or spec.names not in (["signed"], ["unsigned"])
+                    ):
+                        self._parse_error(
+                            "Invalid multiple types specified", spec.coord
+                        )
+                    signedness = spec.names[0]
+                # Specifiers are shared by comma-separated declarations;
+                # keep the parsed specifier unchanged when attaching the sign.
+                typ.type = c_ast.BitIntType(tn.width, signedness, tn.coord)
+                return decl
+
+            if not isinstance(tn, c_ast.IdentifierType):
+                if len(typename) > 1:
+                    self._parse_error("Invalid multiple types specified", tn.coord)
+                else:
+                    typ.type = tn
+                    # Normalize atomic specifiers for declarations and type
+                    # names alike (casts, sizeof, unnamed parameters, etc.).
+                    return fix_atomic_specifiers(decl)
+            names.extend(tn.names)
+
+        if not typename:
+            # Functions default to returning int
+            if not isinstance(decl.type, c_ast.FuncDecl):
+                self._parse_error("Missing type in declaration", decl.coord)
+            typ.type = c_ast.IdentifierType(["int"], coord=decl.coord)
+        else:
+            typ.type = c_ast.IdentifierType(names, coord=typename[0].coord)
+        return decl
+
+    def _add_declaration_specifier(
+        self,
+        declspec: Optional["_DeclSpec"],
+        newspec: str | c_ast.Node,
+        kind: "_DeclSpecKind",
+    ) -> "_DeclSpec":
+        """Append a specifier in source order; see _DeclSpec for the layout."""
+        if declspec is None:
+            spec: _DeclSpec = {
+                "qual": [],
+                "storage": [],
+                "type": [],
+                "function": [],
+                "alignment": [],
+                "type_attributes": [],
+            }
+        else:
+            spec = declspec
+
+        if kind == "type":
+            assert isinstance(newspec, c_ast.Node)
+            spec[kind].append(newspec)
+        elif kind == "alignment":
+            assert isinstance(newspec, c_ast.Alignas)
+            spec[kind].append(newspec)
+        else:
+            assert isinstance(newspec, str)
+            spec[kind].append(newspec)
+        return spec
+
+    def _build_type_name(
+        self, spec: "_DeclSpec", decl: c_ast.Node | None, coord: Coord | None
+    ) -> c_ast.Typename:
+        """Build and normalize an abstract type, including its attributes.
+
+        Callers select the coordinate according to their grammar context.
+        The name, if any, is taken from the declarator by _fix_decl_name_type.
+        """
+        typename = c_ast.Typename(
+            name=None,
+            quals=spec["qual"][:],
+            align=None,
+            type=decl or c_ast.TypeDecl(None, None, None, None),
+            coord=coord,
+        )
+        return cast(
+            c_ast.Typename,
+            self._attach_type_attributes(
+                self._fix_decl_name_type(typename, spec["type"]), spec
+            ),
+        )
+
+    def _build_declarations(
+        self,
+        spec: "_DeclSpec",
+        decls: list["_DeclInfo"],
+        typedef_namespace: bool = False,
+    ) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        """Builds a list of declarations all sharing the given specifiers.
+        If typedef_namespace is true, each declared name is added
+        to the "typedef namespace", which also includes objects,
+        functions, and enum constants.
+        """
+        is_typedef = "typedef" in spec["storage"]
+        declarations = []
+
+        # Bit-fields are allowed to be unnamed.
+        if decls[0].get("bitsize") is None:
+            # When redeclaring typedef names as identifiers in inner scopes, a
+            # problem can occur where the identifier gets grouped into
+            # spec['type'], leaving decl as None.  This can only occur for the
+            # first declarator.
+            if decls[0]["decl"] is None:
+                if (
+                    len(spec["type"]) < 2
+                    or not isinstance(spec["type"][-1], c_ast.IdentifierType)
+                    or len(spec["type"][-1].names) != 1
+                    or not self._is_type_in_scope(spec["type"][-1].names[0])
+                ):
+                    coord = "?"
+                    for t in spec["type"]:
+                        if hasattr(t, "coord"):
+                            coord = t.coord
+                            break
+                    self._parse_error("Invalid declaration", coord)
+
+                # Make this look as if it came from "direct_declarator:ID"
+                decls[0]["decl"] = c_ast.TypeDecl(
+                    declname=spec["type"][-1].names[0],
+                    type=None,
+                    quals=None,
+                    align=spec["alignment"],
+                    coord=spec["type"][-1].coord,
+                )
+                # Remove the "new" type's name from the end of spec['type']
+                del spec["type"][-1]
+            # A similar problem can occur where the declaration ends up
+            # looking like an abstract declarator.  Give it a name if this is
+            # the case.
+            elif isinstance(decls[0]["decl"], _DECLARATOR_NODES):
+                decls_0_tail = cast(Any, decls[0]["decl"])
+                while not isinstance(decls_0_tail, c_ast.TypeDecl):
+                    decls_0_tail = decls_0_tail.type
+                if decls_0_tail.declname is None:
+                    type_name = cast(c_ast.IdentifierType, spec["type"][-1])
+                    decls_0_tail.declname = type_name.names[0]
+                    del spec["type"][-1]
+
+        for decl in decls:
+            assert decl["decl"] is not None
+            if is_typedef:
+                declaration = c_ast.Typedef(
+                    name=None,
+                    quals=spec["qual"],
+                    storage=spec["storage"],
+                    type=decl["decl"],
+                    coord=decl["decl"].coord,
+                )
+            else:
+                declaration = c_ast.Decl(
+                    name=None,
+                    quals=spec["qual"],
+                    align=spec["alignment"],
+                    storage=spec["storage"],
+                    funcspec=spec["function"],
+                    type=decl["decl"],
+                    init=decl.get("init"),
+                    bitsize=decl.get("bitsize"),
+                    coord=decl["decl"].coord,
+                )
+
+            if not isinstance(declaration.type, _DECLARATOR_NODES):
+                fixed_decl = declaration
+            else:
+                fixed_decl = self._fix_decl_name_type(declaration, spec["type"])
+
+            # Record the declared name in the current scope so the parser can
+            # distinguish identifiers from typedef names.
+            if typedef_namespace:
+                if is_typedef:
+                    self._add_typedef_name(fixed_decl.name, fixed_decl.coord)
+                else:
+                    self._add_identifier(fixed_decl.name, fixed_decl.coord)
+
+            declarations.append(self._attach_type_attributes(fixed_decl, spec))
+
+        return declarations
+
+    def _build_function_definition(
+        self,
+        spec: "_DeclSpec",
+        decl: c_ast.Node,
+        param_decls: list[c_ast.Node] | None,
+        body: c_ast.Node,
+    ) -> c_ast.Node:
+        """Builds a function definition."""
+        if "typedef" in spec["storage"]:
+            self._parse_error("Invalid typedef", decl.coord)
+
+        declaration = self._build_declarations(
+            spec=spec,
+            decls=[{"decl": decl}],
+            typedef_namespace=True,
+        )[0]
+
+        return c_ast.FuncDef(
+            decl=declaration, param_decls=param_decls, body=body, coord=decl.coord
+        )
+
+    def _select_struct_union_class(self, token: str) -> type:
+        """Given a token (either STRUCT or UNION), selects the
+        appropriate AST class.
+        """
+        if token == "struct":
+            return c_ast.Struct
+        else:
+            return c_ast.Union
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Token helpers
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    def _peek(self, k: int = 1) -> Token | None:
+        """Return the k-th next token without consuming it (1-based)."""
+        tok = self._tokens.peek(k)
+        if tok is not self._typedef_checked_token:
+            self._classify_identifier(tok)
+        return tok
+
+    def _classify_identifier(self, tok: Token | None) -> None:
+        # Buffered identifiers are interpreted in the current scope, including
+        # after backtracking. Peeking and consuming can reuse the classification
+        # until a scope or binding changes.
+        if tok is not None and tok.type in {"ID", "TYPEID"}:
+            tok.type = "TYPEID" if self._is_type_in_scope(tok.value) else "ID"
+        self._typedef_checked_token = tok
+
+    def _peek_type(self, k: int = 1) -> str | None:
+        """Return the type of the k-th next token, or None if absent (1-based)."""
+        tok = self._peek(k)
+        return tok.type if tok is not None else None
+
+    def _advance(self) -> Token:
+        tok = self._tokens.next()
+        if tok is None:
+            self._parse_error("At end of input", self.clex.filename)
+        if tok is not self._typedef_checked_token:
+            self._classify_identifier(tok)
+        return tok
+
+    def _accept(self, token_type: str) -> Token | None:
+        """Conditionally consume next token, only if it's of token_type.
+
+        If it is of the expected type, consume and return it.
+        Otherwise, leaves the token intact and returns None.
+        """
+        tok = self._peek()
+        if tok is not None and tok.type == token_type:
+            return self._advance()
+        return None
+
+    def _expect(self, token_type: str) -> Token:
+        tok = self._advance()
+        if tok.type != token_type:
+            self._parse_error(f"before: {tok.value}", self._tok_coord(tok))
+        return tok
+
+    def _mark(self) -> int:
+        return self._tokens.mark()
+
+    def _reset(self, mark: int) -> None:
+        self._tokens.reset(mark)
+
+    def _tok_coord(self, tok: Token) -> Coord:
+        return Coord(file=tok.filename, line=tok.lineno, column=tok.column)
+
+    def _starts_declaration(self, tok: Token | None = None) -> bool:
+        tok = tok or self._peek()
+        if tok is None:
+            return False
+        return tok.type in _DECL_START
+
+    def _starts_expression(self, tok: Token | None = None) -> bool:
+        tok = tok or self._peek()
+        if tok is None:
+            return False
+        return tok.type in _STARTS_EXPRESSION
+
+    def _starts_statement(self) -> bool:
+        if self._peek_type() == "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN":
+            mark = self._mark()
+            self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+            starts = not self._starts_declaration()
+            self._reset(mark)
+            return starts
+        tok_type = self._peek_type()
+        if tok_type is None:
+            return False
+        if tok_type in _STARTS_STATEMENT:
+            return True
+        return self._starts_expression()
+
+    def _starts_declarator(self, id_only: bool = False) -> bool:
+        tok_type = self._peek_type()
+        if tok_type is None:
+            return False
+        if tok_type in {"TIMES", "LPAREN"}:
+            return True
+        if id_only:
+            return tok_type == "ID"
+        return tok_type in {"ID", "TYPEID"}
+
+    def _peek_declarator_name_info(self) -> tuple[str | None, bool]:
+        mark = self._mark()
+        tok_type, saw_paren = self._scan_declarator_name_info()
+        self._reset(mark)
+        return tok_type, saw_paren
+
+    def _parse_any_declarator(
+        self, allow_abstract: bool = False, typeid_paren_as_abstract: bool = False
+    ) -> tuple[c_ast.Node | None, bool]:
+        # C declarators are ambiguous without lookahead. For example:
+        #   int foo(int (aa));   -> aa is a name (ID)
+        #   typedef char TT;
+        #   int bar(int (TT));   -> TT is a type (TYPEID) in parens
+        name_type, saw_paren = self._peek_declarator_name_info()
+        if name_type is None or (
+            typeid_paren_as_abstract and name_type == "TYPEID" and saw_paren
+        ):
+            if not allow_abstract:
+                tok = self._peek()
+                coord = self._tok_coord(tok) if tok is not None else self.clex.filename
+                self._parse_error("Invalid declarator", coord)
+            decl = self._parse_abstract_declarator_opt()
+            return decl, False
+
+        if name_type == "TYPEID":
+            if typeid_paren_as_abstract:
+                decl = self._parse_typeid_noparen_declarator()
+            else:
+                decl = self._parse_typeid_declarator()
+        else:
+            decl = self._parse_id_declarator()
+        return decl, True
+
+    def _scan_declarator_name_info(self) -> tuple[str | None, bool]:
+        saw_paren = False
+        while self._accept("TIMES"):
+            self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+            while self._peek_type() in _TYPE_QUALIFIER:
+                self._advance()
+
+        tok = self._peek()
+        if tok is None:
+            return None, saw_paren
+        if tok.type in {"ID", "TYPEID"}:
+            self._advance()
+            return tok.type, saw_paren
+        if tok.type == "LPAREN":
+            saw_paren = True
+            self._advance()
+            tok_type, nested_paren = self._scan_declarator_name_info()
+            if nested_paren:
+                saw_paren = True
+            depth = 1
+            while True:
+                tok = self._peek()
+                if tok is None:
+                    return None, saw_paren
+                if tok.type == "LPAREN":
+                    depth += 1
+                elif tok.type == "RPAREN":
+                    depth -= 1
+                    self._advance()
+                    if depth == 0:
+                        break
+                    continue
+                self._advance()
+            return tok_type, saw_paren
+        return None, saw_paren
+
+    def _starts_direct_abstract_declarator(self) -> bool:
+        return self._peek_type() in {"LPAREN", "LBRACKET"}
+
+    def _is_assignment_op(self) -> bool:
+        tok = self._peek()
+        return tok is not None and tok.type in _ASSIGNMENT_OPS
+
+    def _try_parse_paren_type_name(
+        self,
+    ) -> tuple[c_ast.Typename, int, Token, list[str]] | None:
+        """Parse and return a parenthesized type name if present.
+
+        Returns (typ, mark, lparen_tok, storage) when the next tokens look like
+        '(' type_name ')', where typ is the parsed type name, mark is the
+        token-stream position before parsing, and lparen_tok is the LPAREN
+        token. C23 storage specifiers may precede the type name, but require a
+        following '{' for a compound literal. Returns None if no parenthesized
+        type name is present.
+        """
+        lparen_tok = self._peek()
+        # Avoid saving a backtracking position when there's no '(' to parse.
+        if lparen_tok is None or lparen_tok.type != "LPAREN":
+            return None
+        mark = self._mark()
+        self._advance()
+        if not self._starts_declaration():
+            self._reset(mark)
+            return None
+        storage = []
+        while self._peek_type() in _STORAGE_CLASS:
+            tok = self._advance()
+            if self._dialect != "c23":
+                self._parse_error(
+                    "Storage class specifiers in compound literals require C23",
+                    self._tok_coord(tok),
+                )
+            storage.append(tok.value)
+        typ = self._parse_type_name()
+        if self._accept("RPAREN") is None:
+            self._reset(mark)
+            return None
+        if storage and self._peek_type() != "LBRACE":
+            self._parse_error(
+                "Storage class specifiers require a compound literal initializer",
+                self._tok_coord(lparen_tok),
+            )
+        return typ, mark, lparen_tok, storage
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Top-level
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    def _parse_attribute_specifier_sequence(self) -> list[c_ast.AttributeSpecifier]:
+        groups = []
+        while self._peek_type() == "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN":
+            opening = self._advance()
+            if self._dialect != "c23":
+                self._parse_error("Attributes require C23", self._tok_coord(opening))
+            attributes = []
+            while self._peek_type() != "ATTRIBUTE_END":
+                if self._accept("COMMA"):
+                    continue
+                name = self._parse_identifier_or_typeid()
+                namespace = None
+                if self._accept("COLONCOLON"):
+                    namespace = name.name
+                    name = self._parse_identifier_or_typeid()
+                arguments = self._accept("ATTRIBUTE_ARGUMENTS")
+                attributes.append(
+                    c_ast.Attribute(
+                        name.name,
+                        namespace,
+                        arguments.value if arguments is not None else None,
+                        name.coord,
+                    )
+                )
+                if not self._accept("COMMA"):
+                    break
+            self._expect("ATTRIBUTE_END")
+            groups.append(
+                c_ast.AttributeSpecifier(attributes, self._tok_coord(opening))
+            )
+        return groups
+
+    def _attribute_declarations(
+        self, nodes: list[c_ast.Node], attributes: list[c_ast.AttributeSpecifier]
+    ) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        """Attach declaration prefixes, shared by comma-separated declarators."""
+        if not nodes or isinstance(nodes[0], c_ast.Pragma):
+            self._parse_error(
+                "Expected declaration after attributes", attributes[0].coord
+            )
+        for node in nodes:
+            # Trailing pragmas belong to the surrounding list, not to the
+            # declaration carrying these attributes.
+            if isinstance(node, c_ast.Pragma):
+                continue
+            decl = node.decl if isinstance(node, c_ast.FuncDef) else node
+            if not isinstance(decl, (c_ast.Decl, c_ast.Typedef)):
+                self._parse_error(
+                    "Expected declaration after attributes", attributes[0].coord
+                )
+            decl.attributes = attributes
+        return nodes
+
+    def _attribute_statement(
+        self, stmt: c_ast.Node, attributes: list[c_ast.AttributeSpecifier]
+    ) -> c_ast.Node:
+        if isinstance(stmt, (c_ast.Label, c_ast.Case, c_ast.Default)):
+            stmt.attributes = attributes
+            return stmt
+        return c_ast.AttributedStatement(attributes, stmt, attributes[0].coord)
+
+    def _attach_type_attributes(
+        self, decl: c_ast.Decl | c_ast.Typedef | c_ast.Typename, spec: "_DeclSpec"
+    ) -> c_ast.Decl | c_ast.Typedef | c_ast.Typename:
+        """Keep attributes after the base type, inside pointer/array modifiers."""
+        if spec["type_attributes"]:
+            target = decl
+            while isinstance(
+                target.type,
+                (c_ast.PtrDecl, c_ast.ArrayDecl, c_ast.FuncDecl, c_ast.TypeDecl),
+            ):
+                target = target.type
+            target.type = c_ast.AttributedType(
+                target.type, spec["type_attributes"], target.type.coord
+            )
+        return decl
+
+    # BNF: translation_unit_or_empty : translation_unit | empty
+    def _parse_translation_unit_or_empty(self) -> c_ast.FileAST:
+        if self._peek() is None:
+            return c_ast.FileAST([])
+        return c_ast.FileAST(self._parse_translation_unit())
+
+    # BNF: translation_unit : external_declaration+
+    def _parse_translation_unit(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        ext = []
+        while self._peek() is not None:
+            ext.extend(self._parse_external_declaration())
+        return ext
+
+    # BNF: external_declaration : function_definition
+    #                           | declaration
+    #                           | pp_directive
+    #                           | pppragma_directive
+    #                           | static_assert
+    #                           | ';'
+    def _parse_external_declaration(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        if self._peek_type() == "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN":
+            attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+            if self._accept("SEMI"):
+                return [c_ast.AttributeDeclaration(attributes, attributes[0].coord)]
+            return self._attribute_declarations(
+                self._parse_external_declaration(), attributes
+            )
+        tok = self._peek()
+        if tok is None:
+            return []
+        if tok.type == "PPHASH":
+            self._parse_pp_directive()
+            return []
+        if tok.type in {"PPPRAGMA", "_PRAGMA"}:
+            return [self._parse_pppragma_directive()]
+        if self._accept("SEMI"):
+            return []
+        if tok.type == "_STATIC_ASSERT":
+            return [self._parse_static_assert()]
+
+        if not self._starts_declaration(tok):
+            # Special handling for old-style function definitions that have an
+            # implicit return type, e.g.
+            #
+            #   foo() {
+            #    return 5;
+            #   }
+            #
+            # These get an implicit 'int' return type.
+            decl = self._parse_id_declarator()
+            if self._peek_type() != "LBRACE":
+                self._parse_error("Invalid function definition", decl.coord)
+            spec: _DeclSpec = {
+                "qual": [],
+                "alignment": [],
+                "storage": [],
+                "type": [c_ast.IdentifierType(["int"], coord=decl.coord)],
+                "function": [],
+                "type_attributes": [],
+            }
+            return [self._parse_function_definition(spec, decl)]
+
+        # From here on, parsing a standard declatation/definition.
+        spec, saw_type, spec_coord = self._parse_declaration_specifiers(
+            allow_no_type=True
+        )
+        if self._is_inferred_auto(spec):
+            decls = self._parse_auto_declaration(spec)
+            return self._parse_declaration_end(decls)
+
+        name_type, _ = self._peek_declarator_name_info()
+        if name_type != "ID":
+            decls = self._parse_decl_body_with_spec(spec, saw_type)
+            return self._parse_declaration_end(decls)
+
+        decl = self._parse_id_declarator()
+
+        if self._peek_type() == "LBRACE" or self._starts_declaration():
+            if not spec["type"]:
+                spec["type"] = [c_ast.IdentifierType(["int"], coord=spec_coord)]
+            return [self._parse_function_definition(spec, decl)]
+
+        decl_dict: _DeclInfo = {"decl": decl}
+        if self._accept("EQUALS"):
+            decl_dict["init"] = self._parse_initializer()
+        decls = self._parse_init_declarator_list(first=decl_dict)
+        decls = self._build_declarations(spec=spec, decls=decls, typedef_namespace=True)
+        return self._parse_declaration_end(decls)
+
+    def _parse_function_definition(
+        self, spec: "_DeclSpec", decl: c_ast.Node
+    ) -> c_ast.Node:
+        # Open the scope shared by parameters, old-style parameter declarations,
+        # and the outermost body.
+        self._push_scope()
+        if isinstance(decl, c_ast.FuncDecl) and decl.args is not None:
+            for param in decl.args.params:
+                name = getattr(param, "name", None)
+                if name:
+                    self._add_identifier(name, param.coord)
+        param_decls = (
+            self._parse_declaration_list() if self._starts_declaration() else None
+        )
+        if self._peek_type() != "LBRACE":
+            self._parse_error("Invalid function definition", decl.coord)
+        body = self._parse_compound_statement(new_scope=False)
+        self._pop_scope()
+        return self._build_function_definition(spec, decl, param_decls, body)
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Declarations
+    #
+    # Declarations always come as lists (because they can be several in one
+    # line). When returning parsed declarations, a list is always returned -
+    # even if it contains a single element. Pragmas before the final semicolon
+    # follow the declarations in that list.
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: declaration : decl_body pppragma_directive* ';' | static_assert
+    def _parse_declaration(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        if self._peek_type() == "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN":
+            attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+            if self._accept("SEMI"):
+                return [c_ast.AttributeDeclaration(attributes, attributes[0].coord)]
+            return self._attribute_declarations(self._parse_declaration(), attributes)
+        if self._peek_type() == "_STATIC_ASSERT":
+            return [self._parse_static_assert()]
+        decls = self._parse_decl_body()
+        return self._parse_declaration_end(decls)
+
+    def _parse_declaration_end(self, decls: list[c_ast.Node]) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        """Consume a declaration's semicolon and retain preceding pragmas.
+
+        Macro expansions can place diagnostic pragmas just before the final
+        semicolon (issue #478). Represent them after the completed declarations
+        in the surrounding list, just like pragmas following the semicolon.
+        """
+        pragmas = self._parse_pppragma_directive_list()
+        self._expect("SEMI")
+        return decls + pragmas
+
+    # BNF: decl_body : declaration_specifiers decl_body_with_spec
+    def _parse_decl_body(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        spec, saw_type, _ = self._parse_declaration_specifiers(allow_no_type=True)
+        return self._parse_decl_body_with_spec(spec, saw_type)
+
+    # BNF: decl_body_with_spec : init_declarator_list
+    #                          | struct_or_union_or_enum_only
+    def _parse_decl_body_with_spec(
+        self, spec: "_DeclSpec", saw_type: bool
+    ) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        if self._is_inferred_auto(spec):
+            return self._parse_auto_declaration(spec)
+
+        # saw_type is True if the specifiers included an actual type (as
+        # opposed to only storage/function/qualifiers).
+        decl_infos: list[_DeclInfo] | None = None
+        if saw_type:
+            if self._starts_declarator():
+                decl_infos = self._parse_init_declarator_list()
+        else:
+            if self._starts_declarator(id_only=True):
+                decl_infos = self._parse_init_declarator_list(id_only=True)
+
+        decls: list[c_ast.Node]
+        if decl_infos is None:
+            ty = spec["type"]
+            s_u_or_e = (c_ast.Struct, c_ast.Union, c_ast.Enum)
+            if len(ty) == 1 and isinstance(ty[0], s_u_or_e):
+                decl = c_ast.Decl(
+                    name=None,
+                    quals=spec["qual"],
+                    align=spec["alignment"],
+                    storage=spec["storage"],
+                    funcspec=spec["function"],
+                    type=ty[0],
+                    init=None,
+                    bitsize=None,
+                    coord=ty[0].coord,
+                )
+                decls = [self._attach_type_attributes(decl, spec)]
+            else:
+                decls = self._build_declarations(
+                    spec=spec,
+                    decls=[{"decl": None}],
+                    typedef_namespace=True,
+                )
+        else:
+            decls = self._build_declarations(
+                spec=spec, decls=decl_infos, typedef_namespace=True
+            )
+
+        return decls
+
+    def _is_inferred_auto(self, spec: "_DeclSpec") -> bool:
+        return self._dialect == "c23" and "auto" in spec["storage"] and not spec["type"]
+
+    # C23 type inference uses one plain (possibly parenthesized) name and an
+    # expression initializer. Preserve its syntax without resolving the type.
+    def _parse_auto_declaration(self, spec: "_DeclSpec") -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        decl = self._parse_id_declarator()
+        if not isinstance(decl, c_ast.TypeDecl):
+            self._parse_error(
+                "Inferred auto declaration requires a plain identifier", decl.coord
+            )
+        self._expect("EQUALS")
+        init = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+        spec["type"] = [c_ast.InferredType(coord=decl.coord)]
+        # Register the name only after parsing the initializer.
+        return self._build_declarations(
+            spec=spec,
+            decls=[{"decl": decl, "init": init}],
+            typedef_namespace=True,
+        )
+
+    # BNF: declaration_list : (declaration pppragma_directive*)+
+    def _parse_declaration_list(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        decls = []
+        while self._starts_declaration():
+            decls.extend(self._parse_declaration())
+            # K&R parameter declarations retain pragmas on either side of
+            # their semicolons, including when reparsing generated code.
+            decls.extend(self._parse_pppragma_directive_list())
+        return decls
+
+    # BNF: declaration_specifiers   : (storage_class_specifier
+    #                               | type_specifier
+    #                               | type_qualifier
+    #                               | function_specifier
+    #                               | alignment_specifier)+
+    def _parse_declaration_specifiers(
+        self, allow_no_type: bool = False
+    ) -> tuple["_DeclSpec", bool, Coord | None]:
+        """Parse declaration-specifier sequence.
+
+        allow_no_type:
+            If True, allow a missing type specifier without error.
+
+        Returns:
+            (spec, saw_type, first_coord) where spec is a dict with
+            qual/storage/type/function/alignment/type_attributes entries, saw_type is True
+            if a type specifier was consumed, and first_coord is the coord
+            of the first specifier token (used for diagnostics).
+        """
+        spec, saw_type, first_coord = self._parse_specifiers(
+            allow_storage_and_function=True
+        )
+        if spec is None:
+            self._parse_error("Invalid declaration", self.clex.filename)
+        if not saw_type and not allow_no_type:
+            self._parse_error("Missing type in declaration", first_coord)
+        return spec, saw_type, first_coord
+
+    # BNF: specifier_qualifier_list : (type_specifier
+    #                               | type_qualifier
+    #                               | alignment_specifier)+
+    def _parse_specifier_qualifier_list(self) -> "_DeclSpec":
+        spec, saw_type, first_coord = self._parse_specifiers(
+            allow_storage_and_function=False
+        )
+        if spec is None:
+            self._parse_error("Invalid specifier list", self.clex.filename)
+        if not saw_type and not spec["alignment"]:
+            self._parse_error("Missing type in declaration", first_coord)
+        return spec
+
+    def _parse_specifiers(
+        self, *, allow_storage_and_function: bool
+    ) -> tuple["_DeclSpec | None", bool, Coord | None]:
+        """Consume specifiers shared by declarations, members, and type names.
+
+        Storage classes and function specifiers are only accepted in
+        declarations. Callers handle their own missing-specifier diagnostics.
+        """
+        spec = None
+        saw_type = False
+        first_coord = None
+
+        while True:
+            tok = self._peek()
+            if tok is None:
+                break
+
+            if tok.type == "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN" and spec is not None:
+                spec["type_attributes"] = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+                break
+
+            # Once a type has been seen, a typedef name can be the declarator
+            # (e.g. the second T in "T T"), rather than another type specifier.
+            if tok.type == "TYPEID" and saw_type:
+                break
+
+            # _Atomic is a type specifier with parentheses, a qualifier without.
+            is_atomic_specifier = (
+                tok.type == "_ATOMIC" and self._peek_type(2) == "LPAREN"
+            )
+            if first_coord is None:
+                first_coord = self._tok_coord(tok)
+
+            kind: _DeclSpecKind = "type"
+            newspec: str | c_ast.Node
+            if tok.type == "_ALIGNAS":
+                kind = "alignment"
+                newspec = self._parse_alignment_specifier()
+            elif is_atomic_specifier:
+                newspec = self._parse_atomic_specifier()
+            elif tok.type in _TYPEOF_SPEC:
+                newspec = self._parse_typeof_specifier()
+            elif tok.type == "_BITINT":
+                newspec = self._parse_bitint_specifier()
+            elif tok.type in _TYPE_QUALIFIER:
+                kind = "qual"
+                newspec = self._advance().value
+            elif allow_storage_and_function and tok.type in _STORAGE_CLASS:
+                kind = "storage"
+                newspec = self._advance().value
+            elif allow_storage_and_function and tok.type in _FUNCTION_SPEC:
+                kind = "function"
+                newspec = self._advance().value
+            elif tok.type in _TYPE_SPEC_SIMPLE or tok.type == "TYPEID":
+                tok = self._advance()
+                newspec = c_ast.IdentifierType([tok.value], coord=self._tok_coord(tok))
+            elif tok.type in {"STRUCT", "UNION"}:
+                newspec = self._parse_struct_or_union_specifier()
+            elif tok.type == "ENUM":
+                newspec = self._parse_enum_specifier()
+            else:
+                break
+
+            spec = self._add_declaration_specifier(spec, newspec, kind)
+            if kind == "type":
+                saw_type = True
+
+        return spec, saw_type, first_coord
+
+    # BNF: type_qualifier_list : type_qualifier+
+    def _parse_type_qualifier_list(self) -> list[str]:
+        quals = []
+        while self._peek_type() in _TYPE_QUALIFIER:
+            quals.append(self._advance().value)
+        return quals
+
+    # BNF: alignment_specifier : _ALIGNAS '(' type_name | constant_expression ')'
+    def _parse_alignment_specifier(self) -> c_ast.Alignas:
+        tok = self._expect("_ALIGNAS")
+        self._expect("LPAREN")
+
+        if self._starts_declaration():
+            typ = self._parse_type_name()
+            self._expect("RPAREN")
+            return c_ast.Alignas(typ, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+        expr = self._parse_constant_expression()
+        self._expect("RPAREN")
+        return c_ast.Alignas(expr, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: atomic_specifier : _ATOMIC '(' type_name ')'
+    def _parse_atomic_specifier(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        self._expect("_ATOMIC")
+        self._expect("LPAREN")
+        typ = self._parse_type_name()
+        self._expect("RPAREN")
+        typ.quals.append("_Atomic")
+        return typ
+
+    # BNF: typeof_specifier : (TYPEOF | TYPEOF_UNQUAL) '(' (type_name | expression) ')'
+    def _parse_typeof_specifier(self) -> c_ast.TypeOf:
+        tok = self._advance()
+        self._expect("LPAREN")
+        if self._starts_declaration():
+            expr = self._parse_type_name()
+        else:
+            expr = self._parse_expression()
+        self._expect("RPAREN")
+        return c_ast.TypeOf(tok.value, expr, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: bitint_specifier : _BITINT '(' constant_expression ')'
+    def _parse_bitint_specifier(self) -> c_ast.BitIntType:
+        tok = self._expect("_BITINT")
+        self._expect("LPAREN")
+        width = self._parse_constant_expression()
+        self._expect("RPAREN")
+        return c_ast.BitIntType(width, None, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: init_declarator_list : init_declarator (',' init_declarator)*
+    def _parse_init_declarator_list(
+        self, first: Optional["_DeclInfo"] = None, id_only: bool = False
+    ) -> list["_DeclInfo"]:
+        decls = (
+            [first]
+            if first is not None
+            else [self._parse_init_declarator(id_only=id_only)]
+        )
+
+        while self._accept("COMMA"):
+            decls.append(self._parse_init_declarator(id_only=id_only))
+        return decls
+
+    # BNF: init_declarator : declarator ('=' initializer)?
+    def _parse_init_declarator(self, id_only: bool = False) -> "_DeclInfo":
+        decl = self._parse_id_declarator() if id_only else self._parse_declarator()
+        if self._accept("EQUALS"):
+            return {"decl": decl, "init": self._parse_initializer()}
+        return {"decl": decl}
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Structs/unions/enums
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: struct_or_union_specifier : struct_or_union ID? '{' struct_declaration_list? '}'
+    #                                | struct_or_union ID
+    def _parse_struct_or_union_specifier(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok = self._advance()
+        attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+        klass = self._select_struct_union_class(tok.value)
+
+        if self._peek_type() in {"ID", "TYPEID"}:
+            name_tok = self._advance()
+            if self._peek_type() == "LBRACE":
+                self._advance()
+                if self._accept("RBRACE"):
+                    return klass(
+                        attributes=attributes,
+                        name=name_tok.value,
+                        decls=[],
+                        coord=self._tok_coord(name_tok),
+                    )
+                decls = self._parse_struct_declaration_list()
+                self._expect("RBRACE")
+                return klass(
+                    attributes=attributes,
+                    name=name_tok.value,
+                    decls=decls,
+                    coord=self._tok_coord(name_tok),
+                )
+
+            return klass(
+                attributes=attributes,
+                name=name_tok.value,
+                decls=None,
+                coord=self._tok_coord(name_tok),
+            )
+
+        if self._peek_type() == "LBRACE":
+            brace_tok = self._advance()
+            if self._accept("RBRACE"):
+                return klass(
+                    attributes=attributes,
+                    name=None,
+                    decls=[],
+                    coord=self._tok_coord(brace_tok),
+                )
+            decls = self._parse_struct_declaration_list()
+            self._expect("RBRACE")
+            return klass(
+                attributes=attributes,
+                name=None,
+                decls=decls,
+                coord=self._tok_coord(brace_tok),
+            )
+
+        self._parse_error("Invalid struct/union declaration", self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: struct_declaration_list : struct_declaration+
+    def _parse_struct_declaration_list(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        decls = []
+        while self._peek_type() not in {None, "RBRACE"}:
+            items = self._parse_struct_declaration()
+            if items is None:
+                continue
+            decls.extend(items)
+        return decls
+
+    # BNF: struct_declaration   : specifier_qualifier_list struct_declarator_list?
+    #                            pppragma_directive* ';'
+    #                           | static_assert
+    #                           | pppragma_directive
+    def _parse_struct_declaration(self) -> list[c_ast.Node] | None:
+        if self._peek_type() == "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN":
+            attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+            return self._attribute_declarations(
+                self._parse_struct_declaration() or [], attributes
+            )
+        if self._peek_type() == "_STATIC_ASSERT":
+            return [self._parse_static_assert()]
+        if self._peek_type() == "SEMI":
+            self._advance()
+            return None
+        if self._peek_type() in {"PPPRAGMA", "_PRAGMA"}:
+            return [self._parse_pppragma_directive()]
+
+        spec = self._parse_specifier_qualifier_list()
+        assert "typedef" not in spec.get("storage", [])
+
+        decls = None
+        if self._starts_declarator() or self._peek_type() == "COLON":
+            decls = self._parse_struct_declarator_list()
+        if decls is not None:
+            return self._parse_declaration_end(
+                self._build_declarations(spec=spec, decls=decls)
+            )
+
+        if len(spec["type"]) == 1:
+            node = spec["type"][0]
+            if isinstance(node, c_ast.Node):
+                decl_type = node
+            else:
+                decl_type = c_ast.IdentifierType(node)
+            return self._parse_declaration_end(
+                self._build_declarations(spec=spec, decls=[{"decl": decl_type}])
+            )
+
+        return self._parse_declaration_end(
+            self._build_declarations(spec=spec, decls=[{"decl": None}])
+        )
+
+    # BNF: struct_declarator_list : struct_declarator (',' struct_declarator)*
+    def _parse_struct_declarator_list(self) -> list["_DeclInfo"]:
+        decls = [self._parse_struct_declarator()]
+        while self._accept("COMMA"):
+            decls.append(self._parse_struct_declarator())
+        return decls
+
+    # BNF: struct_declarator : declarator? ':' constant_expression
+    #                        | declarator (':' constant_expression)?
+    def _parse_struct_declarator(self) -> "_DeclInfo":
+        if self._accept("COLON"):
+            bitsize = self._parse_constant_expression()
+            return {
+                "decl": c_ast.TypeDecl(None, None, None, None),
+                "bitsize": bitsize,
+            }
+
+        decl = self._parse_declarator()
+        if self._accept("COLON"):
+            bitsize = self._parse_constant_expression()
+            return {"decl": decl, "bitsize": bitsize}
+
+        return {"decl": decl}
+
+    # BNF: enum_specifier : ENUM ID? enum_type_specifier? '{' enumerator_list '}'
+    #                     | ENUM ID enum_type_specifier?
+    def _parse_enum_specifier(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok = self._expect("ENUM")
+        attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+        name = None
+        if self._peek_type() in {"ID", "TYPEID"}:
+            name = self._advance().value
+
+        underlying_type = None
+        # A colon followed by an expression belongs to an unnamed bit-field,
+        # e.g. struct S { enum E : 3; }, rather than a fixed underlying type.
+        if self._peek_type() == "COLON" and self._starts_declaration(self._peek(2)):
+            underlying_type = self._parse_enum_type_specifier()
+
+        enums = None
+        if name is None or self._peek_type() == "LBRACE":
+            self._expect("LBRACE")
+            enums = self._parse_enumerator_list()
+            self._expect("RBRACE")
+        return c_ast.Enum(
+            name,
+            enums,
+            underlying_type,
+            self._tok_coord(tok),
+            attributes=attributes,
+        )
+
+    # BNF: enum_type_specifier : ':' specifier_qualifier_list (C23)
+    def _parse_enum_type_specifier(self) -> c_ast.Typename:
+        colon = self._expect("COLON")
+        if self._dialect != "c23":
+            self._parse_error(
+                "Fixed underlying enum types require C23", self._tok_coord(colon)
+            )
+        # The base is a specifier-qualifier list, not a full type name: any
+        # following pointer, array, or function declarator belongs to the enum.
+        spec = self._parse_specifier_qualifier_list()
+        coord = spec["type"][0].coord if spec["type"] else self._tok_coord(colon)
+        return self._build_type_name(spec, None, coord)
+
+    # BNF: enumerator_list : pppragma_directive* enumerator pppragma_directive*
+    #                       (',' pppragma_directive* enumerator pppragma_directive*)*
+    #                       (',' pppragma_directive*)?
+    def _parse_enumerator_list(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        members = self._parse_pppragma_directive_list()
+        # Pragmas do not count as enumerators: even with leading directives,
+        # the list must contain at least one enumerator.
+        enum = self._parse_enumerator()
+        members.append(enum)
+        coord = enum.coord
+        while True:
+            # Directives may appear on either side of a separating comma, or
+            # after the last enumerator. They never replace the comma itself.
+            members.extend(self._parse_pppragma_directive_list())
+            if not self._accept("COMMA"):
+                break
+            members.extend(self._parse_pppragma_directive_list())
+            if self._peek_type() == "RBRACE":
+                break
+            members.append(self._parse_enumerator())
+        return c_ast.EnumeratorList(members, coord)
+
+    # BNF: enumerator : ID ('=' constant_expression)?
+    def _parse_enumerator(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        name_tok = self._expect("ID")
+        attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+        if self._accept("EQUALS"):
+            value = self._parse_constant_expression()
+        else:
+            value = None
+        enum = c_ast.Enumerator(
+            name_tok.value,
+            value,
+            self._tok_coord(name_tok),
+            attributes=attributes,
+        )
+        self._add_identifier(enum.name, enum.coord)
+        return enum
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Declarators
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: declarator : pointer? direct_declarator
+    def _parse_declarator(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        decl, _ = self._parse_any_declarator(
+            allow_abstract=False, typeid_paren_as_abstract=False
+        )
+        assert decl is not None
+        return decl
+
+    # BNF: id_declarator : declarator with ID name
+    def _parse_id_declarator(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        return self._parse_declarator_kind(kind="id", allow_paren=True)
+
+    # BNF: typeid_declarator : declarator with TYPEID name
+    def _parse_typeid_declarator(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        return self._parse_declarator_kind(kind="typeid", allow_paren=True)
+
+    # BNF: typeid_noparen_declarator : declarator without parenthesized name
+    def _parse_typeid_noparen_declarator(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        return self._parse_declarator_kind(kind="typeid", allow_paren=False)
+
+    # BNF: declarator_kind : pointer? direct_declarator(kind)
+    def _parse_declarator_kind(self, kind: str, allow_paren: bool) -> c_ast.Node:
+        ptr = None
+        if self._peek_type() == "TIMES":
+            ptr = self._parse_pointer()
+        direct = self._parse_direct_declarator(kind, allow_paren=allow_paren)
+        if ptr is not None:
+            return self._type_modify_decl(direct, ptr)
+        return direct
+
+    # BNF: direct_declarator : ID | TYPEID | '(' declarator ')'
+    #                        | direct_declarator '[' ... ']'
+    #                        | direct_declarator '(' ... ')'
+    def _parse_direct_declarator(
+        self, kind: str, allow_paren: bool = True
+    ) -> c_ast.Node:
+        if allow_paren and self._accept("LPAREN"):
+            decl = self._parse_declarator_kind(kind, allow_paren=True)
+            self._expect("RPAREN")
+        else:
+            if kind == "id":
+                name_tok = self._expect("ID")
+            else:
+                name_tok = self._expect("TYPEID")
+            decl = c_ast.TypeDecl(
+                declname=name_tok.value,
+                type=None,
+                quals=None,
+                align=None,
+                coord=self._tok_coord(name_tok),
+            )
+            decl.attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+
+        return self._parse_decl_suffixes(decl)
+
+    def _parse_decl_suffixes(self, decl: c_ast.Node) -> c_ast.Node:
+        """Parse a chain of array/function suffixes and attach them to decl."""
+        while True:
+            if self._peek_type() == "LBRACKET":
+                decl = self._type_modify_decl(decl, self._parse_array_decl(decl))
+                continue
+            if self._peek_type() == "LPAREN":
+                func = self._parse_function_decl(decl)
+                decl = self._type_modify_decl(decl, func)
+                continue
+            break
+        return decl
+
+    # BNF: array_decl : '[' array_specifiers? assignment_expression? ']'
+    def _parse_array_decl(self, base_decl: c_ast.Node) -> c_ast.Node:
+        return self._parse_array_decl_common(base_type=None, coord=base_decl.coord)
+
+    def _parse_array_decl_common(
+        self, base_type: c_ast.Node | None, coord: Coord | None = None
+    ) -> c_ast.Node:
+        """Parse an array declarator suffix and return an ArrayDecl node.
+
+        base_type:
+            Base declarator node to attach (None for direct-declarator parsing,
+            TypeDecl for abstract declarators).
+
+        coord:
+            Coordinate to use for the ArrayDecl. If None, uses the '[' token.
+        """
+        lbrack_tok = self._expect("LBRACKET")
+        if coord is None:
+            coord = self._tok_coord(lbrack_tok)
+
+        def make_array_decl(dim, dim_quals):
+            return c_ast.ArrayDecl(
+                type=base_type,
+                dim=dim,
+                dim_quals=dim_quals,
+                coord=coord,
+                attributes=self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence(),
+            )
+
+        if self._accept("STATIC"):
+            dim_quals = ["static"] + (self._parse_type_qualifier_list() or [])
+            dim = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+            self._expect("RBRACKET")
+            return make_array_decl(dim, dim_quals)
+
+        if self._peek_type() in _TYPE_QUALIFIER:
+            dim_quals = self._parse_type_qualifier_list() or []
+            if self._accept("STATIC"):
+                dim_quals = dim_quals + ["static"]
+                dim = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+                self._expect("RBRACKET")
+                return make_array_decl(dim, dim_quals)
+            times_tok = self._accept("TIMES")
+            if times_tok:
+                self._expect("RBRACKET")
+                dim = c_ast.ID(times_tok.value, self._tok_coord(times_tok))
+                return make_array_decl(dim, dim_quals)
+            dim = None
+            if self._starts_expression():
+                dim = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+            self._expect("RBRACKET")
+            return make_array_decl(dim, dim_quals)
+
+        times_tok = self._accept("TIMES")
+        if times_tok:
+            self._expect("RBRACKET")
+            dim = c_ast.ID(times_tok.value, self._tok_coord(times_tok))
+            return make_array_decl(dim, [])
+
+        dim = None
+        if self._starts_expression():
+            dim = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+        self._expect("RBRACKET")
+        return make_array_decl(dim, [])
+
+    # BNF: function_decl : '(' parameter_type_list_opt | identifier_list_opt ')'
+    def _parse_function_decl(self, base_decl: c_ast.Node) -> c_ast.Node:
+        self._expect("LPAREN")
+        if self._accept("RPAREN"):
+            args = None
+        else:
+            args = (
+                self._parse_parameter_type_list()
+                if self._starts_declaration() or self._peek_type() == "ELLIPSIS"
+                else self._parse_identifier_list_opt()
+            )
+            self._expect("RPAREN")
+
+        func = c_ast.FuncDecl(
+            args=args,
+            type=None,
+            coord=base_decl.coord,
+            attributes=self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence(),
+        )
+
+        return func
+
+    # BNF: pointer : '*' type_qualifier_list? pointer?
+    def _parse_pointer(self) -> c_ast.Node | None:
+        stars = []
+        times_tok = self._accept("TIMES")
+        while times_tok:
+            attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+            quals = self._parse_type_qualifier_list() or []
+            stars.append((quals, self._tok_coord(times_tok), attributes))
+            times_tok = self._accept("TIMES")
+
+        if not stars:
+            return None
+
+        ptr = None
+        for quals, coord, attributes in stars:
+            ptr = c_ast.PtrDecl(
+                quals=quals, type=ptr, coord=coord, attributes=attributes
+            )
+        return ptr
+
+    # BNF: parameter_type_list : parameter_list (',' ELLIPSIS)?
+    #                           | ELLIPSIS (C23)
+    def _parse_parameter_type_list(self) -> c_ast.ParamList:
+        # C23 permits a variadic function with no preceding named parameters.
+        ell_tok = self._accept("ELLIPSIS")
+        if ell_tok:
+            coord = self._tok_coord(ell_tok)
+            if self._dialect != "c23":
+                self._parse_error("Ellipsis-only parameter lists require C23", coord)
+            return c_ast.ParamList([c_ast.EllipsisParam(coord)], coord)
+
+        params = self._parse_parameter_list()
+        if self._peek_type() == "COMMA" and self._peek_type(2) == "ELLIPSIS":
+            self._advance()
+            ell_tok = self._advance()
+            params.params.append(c_ast.EllipsisParam(self._tok_coord(ell_tok)))
+        return params
+
+    # BNF: parameter_list : parameter_declaration (',' parameter_declaration)*
+    def _parse_parameter_list(self) -> c_ast.ParamList:
+        first = self._parse_parameter_declaration()
+        params = c_ast.ParamList([first], first.coord)
+        while self._peek_type() == "COMMA" and self._peek_type(2) != "ELLIPSIS":
+            self._advance()
+            params.params.append(self._parse_parameter_declaration())
+        return params
+
+    # BNF: parameter_declaration : declaration_specifiers declarator?
+    #                            | declaration_specifiers abstract_declarator_opt
+    def _parse_parameter_declaration(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+        decl = self._parse_parameter_declaration_body()
+        assert isinstance(decl, (c_ast.Decl, c_ast.Typename))
+        decl.attributes = attributes
+        return decl
+
+    def _parse_parameter_declaration_body(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        spec, _, spec_coord = self._parse_declaration_specifiers(allow_no_type=True)
+
+        if self._is_inferred_auto(spec):
+            self._parse_error("Cannot infer the type of a parameter", spec_coord)
+
+        if "typedef" in spec["storage"]:
+            self._parse_error("Invalid storage class for a parameter", spec_coord)
+
+        if not spec["type"]:
+            spec["type"] = [c_ast.IdentifierType(["int"], coord=spec_coord)]
+
+        if self._starts_declarator():
+            decl, is_named = self._parse_any_declarator(
+                allow_abstract=True, typeid_paren_as_abstract=True
+            )
+            if is_named:
+                return self._build_declarations(
+                    spec=spec,
+                    decls=[{"decl": decl}],
+                )[0]
+            return self._build_parameter_declaration(spec, decl, spec_coord)
+
+        decl = self._parse_abstract_declarator_opt()
+        return self._build_parameter_declaration(spec, decl, spec_coord)
+
+    def _build_parameter_declaration(
+        self, spec: "_DeclSpec", decl: c_ast.Node | None, spec_coord: Coord | None
+    ) -> c_ast.Node:
+        if (
+            len(spec["type"]) > 1
+            and isinstance(spec["type"][-1], c_ast.IdentifierType)
+            and len(spec["type"][-1].names) == 1
+            and self._is_type_in_scope(spec["type"][-1].names[0])
+        ):
+            return self._build_declarations(spec=spec, decls=[{"decl": decl}])[0]
+
+        return self._build_type_name(spec, decl, spec_coord)
+
+    # BNF: identifier_list_opt : identifier_list | empty
+    def _parse_identifier_list_opt(self) -> c_ast.Node | None:
+        if self._peek_type() == "RPAREN":
+            return None
+        return self._parse_identifier_list()
+
+    # BNF: identifier_list : identifier (',' identifier)*
+    def _parse_identifier_list(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        first = self._parse_identifier()
+        params = c_ast.ParamList([first], first.coord)
+        while self._accept("COMMA"):
+            params.params.append(self._parse_identifier())
+        return params
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Abstract declarators
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: type_name : specifier_qualifier_list abstract_declarator_opt
+    def _parse_type_name(self) -> c_ast.Typename:
+        spec = self._parse_specifier_qualifier_list()
+        decl = self._parse_abstract_declarator_opt()
+
+        coord = None
+        if decl is not None:
+            coord = decl.coord
+        elif spec["type"]:
+            coord = spec["type"][0].coord
+
+        return self._build_type_name(spec, decl, coord)
+
+    # BNF: abstract_declarator_opt : pointer? direct_abstract_declarator?
+    def _parse_abstract_declarator_opt(self) -> c_ast.Node | None:
+        if self._peek_type() == "TIMES":
+            ptr = self._parse_pointer()
+            if self._starts_direct_abstract_declarator():
+                decl = self._parse_direct_abstract_declarator()
+            else:
+                decl = c_ast.TypeDecl(None, None, None, None)
+            assert ptr is not None
+            return self._type_modify_decl(decl, ptr)
+
+        if self._starts_direct_abstract_declarator():
+            return self._parse_direct_abstract_declarator()
+
+        return None
+
+    # BNF: direct_abstract_declarator : '(' parameter_type_list_opt ')'
+    #                                 | '(' abstract_declarator ')'
+    #                                 | '[' ... ']'
+    def _parse_direct_abstract_declarator(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        lparen_tok = self._accept("LPAREN")
+        if lparen_tok:
+            if self._starts_declaration() or self._peek_type() in {
+                "RPAREN",
+                "ELLIPSIS",
+            }:
+                params = self._parse_parameter_type_list_opt()
+                self._expect("RPAREN")
+                decl = c_ast.FuncDecl(
+                    args=params,
+                    type=c_ast.TypeDecl(None, None, None, None),
+                    coord=self._tok_coord(lparen_tok),
+                    attributes=self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence(),
+                )
+            else:
+                decl = self._parse_abstract_declarator_opt()
+                self._expect("RPAREN")
+                assert decl is not None
+        elif self._peek_type() == "LBRACKET":
+            decl = self._parse_abstract_array_base()
+        else:
+            self._parse_error("Invalid abstract declarator", self.clex.filename)
+
+        return self._parse_decl_suffixes(decl)
+
+    # BNF: parameter_type_list_opt : parameter_type_list | empty
+    def _parse_parameter_type_list_opt(self) -> c_ast.ParamList | None:
+        if self._peek_type() == "RPAREN":
+            return None
+        return self._parse_parameter_type_list()
+
+    # BNF: abstract_array_base : '[' array_specifiers? assignment_expression? ']'
+    def _parse_abstract_array_base(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        return self._parse_array_decl_common(
+            base_type=c_ast.TypeDecl(None, None, None, None), coord=None
+        )
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Statements
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: statement : labeled_statement | compound_statement
+    #                | selection_statement | iteration_statement
+    #                | jump_statement | expression_statement
+    #                | pppragma_directive
+    def _parse_statement(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        if self._peek_type() == "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN":
+            attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+            if self._accept("SEMI"):
+                return c_ast.AttributeDeclaration(attributes, attributes[0].coord)
+            return self._attribute_statement(self._parse_statement(), attributes)
+        tok_type = self._peek_type()
+        match tok_type:
+            case "CASE" | "DEFAULT":
+                return self._parse_labeled_statement()
+            case "ID" if self._peek_type(2) == "COLON":
+                return self._parse_labeled_statement()
+            case "LBRACE":
+                return self._parse_compound_statement()
+            case "IF" | "SWITCH":
+                return self._parse_selection_statement()
+            case "WHILE" | "DO" | "FOR":
+                return self._parse_iteration_statement()
+            case "GOTO" | "BREAK" | "CONTINUE" | "RETURN":
+                return self._parse_jump_statement()
+            case "PPPRAGMA" | "_PRAGMA":
+                return self._parse_pppragma_directive()
+            case _:
+                return self._parse_expression_statement()
+
+    # BNF: pragmacomp_or_statement : pppragma_directive* statement
+    def _parse_pragmacomp_or_statement(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        if self._peek_type() in {"PPPRAGMA", "_PRAGMA"}:
+            pragmas = self._parse_pppragma_directive_list()
+            stmt = self._parse_statement()
+            return c_ast.Compound(block_items=pragmas + [stmt], coord=pragmas[0].coord)
+        return self._parse_statement()
+
+    # BNF: block_item : declaration | statement
+    def _parse_block_item(self) -> c_ast.Node | list[c_ast.Node]:
+        if self._peek_type() == "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN":
+            attributes = self._parse_attribute_specifier_sequence()
+            if self._accept("SEMI"):
+                return c_ast.AttributeDeclaration(attributes, attributes[0].coord)
+            if self._starts_declaration():
+                return self._attribute_declarations(
+                    self._parse_declaration(), attributes
+                )
+            return self._attribute_statement(self._parse_statement(), attributes)
+        if self._peek_type() == "_STATIC_ASSERT":
+            return self._parse_static_assert()
+        if self._starts_declaration():
+            return self._parse_declaration()
+        return self._parse_statement()
+
+    # BNF: block_item_list : block_item+
+    def _parse_block_item_list(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        items: list[c_ast.Node] = []
+        while self._peek_type() not in {"RBRACE", None}:
+            item = self._parse_block_item()
+            if isinstance(item, c_ast.Node):
+                items.append(item)
+            elif item != [None]:
+                items.extend(item)
+        return items
+
+    # BNF: compound_statement : '{' block_item_list? '}'
+    def _parse_compound_statement(self, *, new_scope: bool = True) -> c_ast.Node:
+        lbrace_tok = self._expect("LBRACE")
+        if new_scope:
+            self._push_scope()
+        block_items = None
+        if not self._accept("RBRACE"):
+            block_items = self._parse_block_item_list()
+            self._expect("RBRACE")
+        if new_scope:
+            self._pop_scope()
+        return c_ast.Compound(
+            block_items=block_items, coord=self._tok_coord(lbrace_tok)
+        )
+
+    # BNF: labeled_statement : ID ':' statement
+    #                        | CASE constant_expression ':' statement
+    #                        | DEFAULT ':' statement
+    def _parse_labeled_statement(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok_type = self._peek_type()
+        match tok_type:
+            case "ID":
+                name_tok = self._advance()
+                self._expect("COLON")
+                if self._starts_statement():
+                    stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                else:
+                    stmt = c_ast.EmptyStatement(self._tok_coord(name_tok))
+                return c_ast.Label(name_tok.value, stmt, self._tok_coord(name_tok))
+            case "CASE":
+                case_tok = self._advance()
+                expr = self._parse_constant_expression()
+                self._expect("COLON")
+                if self._starts_statement():
+                    stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                else:
+                    stmt = c_ast.EmptyStatement(self._tok_coord(case_tok))
+                return c_ast.Case(expr, [stmt], self._tok_coord(case_tok))
+            case "DEFAULT":
+                def_tok = self._advance()
+                self._expect("COLON")
+                if self._starts_statement():
+                    stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                else:
+                    stmt = c_ast.EmptyStatement(self._tok_coord(def_tok))
+                return c_ast.Default([stmt], self._tok_coord(def_tok))
+            case _:
+                self._parse_error("Invalid labeled statement", self.clex.filename)
+
+    # BNF: selection_statement : IF '(' expression ')' statement (ELSE statement)?
+    #                          | SWITCH '(' expression ')' statement
+    def _parse_selection_statement(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok = self._advance()
+        match tok.type:
+            case "IF":
+                self._expect("LPAREN")
+                cond = self._parse_expression()
+                self._expect("RPAREN")
+                then_stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                if self._accept("ELSE"):
+                    else_stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                    return c_ast.If(cond, then_stmt, else_stmt, self._tok_coord(tok))
+                return c_ast.If(cond, then_stmt, None, self._tok_coord(tok))
+            case "SWITCH":
+                self._expect("LPAREN")
+                expr = self._parse_expression()
+                self._expect("RPAREN")
+                stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                return fix_switch_cases(c_ast.Switch(expr, stmt, self._tok_coord(tok)))
+            case _:
+                self._parse_error("Invalid selection statement", self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: iteration_statement : WHILE '(' expression ')' statement
+    #                          | DO statement WHILE '(' expression ')' ';'
+    #                          | FOR '(' (declaration | expression_opt) ';'
+    #                                 expression_opt ';' expression_opt ')' statement
+    def _parse_iteration_statement(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok = self._advance()
+        match tok.type:
+            case "WHILE":
+                self._expect("LPAREN")
+                cond = self._parse_expression()
+                self._expect("RPAREN")
+                stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                return c_ast.While(cond, stmt, self._tok_coord(tok))
+            case "DO":
+                stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                self._expect("WHILE")
+                self._expect("LPAREN")
+                cond = self._parse_expression()
+                self._expect("RPAREN")
+                self._expect("SEMI")
+                return c_ast.DoWhile(cond, stmt, self._tok_coord(tok))
+            case "FOR":
+                self._expect("LPAREN")
+                if self._peek_type() == "_STATIC_ASSERT" or self._starts_declaration():
+                    # Names declared here are scoped to the loop (C11 6.8.5p5)
+                    self._push_scope()
+                    decls = self._parse_declaration()
+                    init = c_ast.DeclList(decls, self._tok_coord(tok))
+                    cond = self._parse_expression_opt()
+                    self._expect("SEMI")
+                    next_expr = self._parse_expression_opt()
+                    self._expect("RPAREN")
+                    stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                    self._pop_scope()
+                    return c_ast.For(init, cond, next_expr, stmt, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+                init = self._parse_expression_opt()
+                self._expect("SEMI")
+                cond = self._parse_expression_opt()
+                self._expect("SEMI")
+                next_expr = self._parse_expression_opt()
+                self._expect("RPAREN")
+                stmt = self._parse_pragmacomp_or_statement()
+                return c_ast.For(init, cond, next_expr, stmt, self._tok_coord(tok))
+            case _:
+                self._parse_error("Invalid iteration statement", self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: jump_statement : GOTO ID ';' | BREAK ';' | CONTINUE ';'
+    #                     | RETURN expression? ';'
+    def _parse_jump_statement(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok = self._advance()
+        match tok.type:
+            case "GOTO":
+                name_tok = self._expect("ID")
+                self._expect("SEMI")
+                return c_ast.Goto(name_tok.value, self._tok_coord(tok))
+            case "BREAK":
+                self._expect("SEMI")
+                return c_ast.Break(self._tok_coord(tok))
+            case "CONTINUE":
+                self._expect("SEMI")
+                return c_ast.Continue(self._tok_coord(tok))
+            case "RETURN":
+                if self._accept("SEMI"):
+                    return c_ast.Return(None, self._tok_coord(tok))
+                expr = self._parse_expression()
+                self._expect("SEMI")
+                return c_ast.Return(expr, self._tok_coord(tok))
+            case _:
+                self._parse_error("Invalid jump statement", self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: expression_statement : expression_opt ';'
+    def _parse_expression_statement(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        expr = self._parse_expression_opt()
+        semi_tok = self._expect("SEMI")
+        if expr is None:
+            return c_ast.EmptyStatement(self._tok_coord(semi_tok))
+        return expr
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Expressions
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: expression_opt : expression | empty
+    def _parse_expression_opt(self) -> c_ast.Node | None:
+        if self._starts_expression():
+            return self._parse_expression()
+        return None
+
+    # BNF: expression : assignment_expression (',' assignment_expression)*
+    def _parse_expression(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        expr = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+        if not self._accept("COMMA"):
+            return expr
+        exprs = [expr, self._parse_assignment_expression()]
+        while self._accept("COMMA"):
+            exprs.append(self._parse_assignment_expression())
+        return c_ast.ExprList(exprs, expr.coord)
+
+    # BNF: assignment_expression : conditional_expression
+    #                            | unary_expression assignment_op assignment_expression
+    def _parse_assignment_expression(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        expr = self._parse_conditional_expression()
+        if self._is_assignment_op():
+            op = self._advance().value
+            rhs = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+            return c_ast.Assignment(op, expr, rhs, expr.coord)
+        return expr
+
+    # BNF: conditional_expression : binary_expression
+    #                            | binary_expression '?' expression ':' conditional_expression
+    def _parse_conditional_expression(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        expr = self._parse_binary_expression()
+        if self._accept("CONDOP"):
+            iftrue = self._parse_expression()
+            self._expect("COLON")
+            iffalse = self._parse_conditional_expression()
+            return c_ast.TernaryOp(expr, iftrue, iffalse, expr.coord)
+        return expr
+
+    # BNF: binary_expression : cast_expression (binary_op cast_expression)*
+    def _parse_binary_expression(
+        self, min_prec: int = 0, lhs: c_ast.Node | None = None
+    ) -> c_ast.Node:
+        if lhs is None:
+            lhs = self._parse_cast_expression()
+
+        while True:
+            tok = self._peek()
+            if tok is None or tok.type not in _BINARY_PRECEDENCE:
+                break
+            prec = _BINARY_PRECEDENCE[tok.type]
+            if prec < min_prec:
+                break
+
+            op = tok.value
+            self._advance()
+            rhs = self._parse_cast_expression()
+
+            while True:
+                next_tok = self._peek()
+                if next_tok is None or next_tok.type not in _BINARY_PRECEDENCE:
+                    break
+                next_prec = _BINARY_PRECEDENCE[next_tok.type]
+                if next_prec > prec:
+                    rhs = self._parse_binary_expression(next_prec, rhs)
+                else:
+                    break
+
+            lhs = c_ast.BinaryOp(op, lhs, rhs, lhs.coord)
+
+        return lhs
+
+    # BNF: cast_expression  : '(' type_name ')' cast_expression
+    #                       | unary_expression
+    def _parse_cast_expression(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        result = self._try_parse_paren_type_name()
+        if result is not None:
+            typ, mark, lparen_tok, _ = result
+            if self._peek_type() == "LBRACE":
+                # (type){...} is a compound literal, not a cast. Examples:
+                #   (int){1}      -> compound literal, handled in postfix
+                #   (int) x       -> cast, handled below
+                self._reset(mark)
+            else:
+                expr = self._parse_cast_expression()
+                return c_ast.Cast(typ, expr, self._tok_coord(lparen_tok))
+        return self._parse_unary_expression()
+
+    # BNF: unary_expression : postfix_expression
+    #                       | '++' unary_expression
+    #                       | '--' unary_expression
+    #                       | unary_op cast_expression
+    #                       | 'sizeof' unary_expression
+    #                       | 'sizeof' '(' type_name ')'
+    #                       | '_Alignof' '(' type_name ')'
+    def _parse_unary_expression(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok_type = self._peek_type()
+        if tok_type in {"PLUSPLUS", "MINUSMINUS"}:
+            tok = self._advance()
+            expr = self._parse_unary_expression()
+            return c_ast.UnaryOp(tok.value, expr, expr.coord)
+
+        if tok_type in {"AND", "TIMES", "PLUS", "MINUS", "NOT", "LNOT"}:
+            tok = self._advance()
+            expr = self._parse_cast_expression()
+            return c_ast.UnaryOp(tok.value, expr, expr.coord)
+
+        if tok_type == "SIZEOF":
+            tok = self._advance()
+            result = self._try_parse_paren_type_name()
+            if result is not None:
+                typ, mark, _, _ = result
+                if self._peek_type() != "LBRACE":
+                    return c_ast.UnaryOp(tok.value, typ, self._tok_coord(tok))
+                # sizeof (type){...} has an expression operand, including
+                # any postfix operators following the compound literal.
+                self._reset(mark)
+            expr = self._parse_unary_expression()
+            return c_ast.UnaryOp(tok.value, expr, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+        if tok_type == "_ALIGNOF":
+            tok = self._advance()
+            self._expect("LPAREN")
+            typ = self._parse_type_name()
+            self._expect("RPAREN")
+            return c_ast.UnaryOp(tok.value, typ, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+        return self._parse_postfix_expression()
+
+    # BNF: postfix_expression   : primary_expression postfix_suffix*
+    #                           | compound_literal postfix_suffix*
+    #      compound_literal : '(' storage_class_specifiers? type_name ')'
+    #                         braced_initializer
+    def _parse_postfix_expression(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        expr = None
+        result = self._try_parse_paren_type_name()
+        if result is not None:
+            typ, mark, lparen_tok, storage = result
+            # Disambiguate between casts and compound literals:
+            #   (int) x   -> cast
+            #   (int) {1} -> compound literal
+            if self._peek_type() == "LBRACE":
+                init = self._parse_initializer()
+                expr = c_ast.CompoundLiteral(
+                    typ, init, storage, self._tok_coord(lparen_tok)
+                )
+            else:
+                self._reset(mark)
+
+        if expr is None:
+            expr = self._parse_primary_expression()
+        while True:
+            tok_type = self._peek_type()
+            if tok_type == "LBRACKET":
+                self._advance()
+                sub = self._parse_expression()
+                self._expect("RBRACKET")
+                expr = c_ast.ArrayRef(expr, sub, expr.coord)
+                continue
+            if tok_type == "LPAREN":
+                self._advance()
+                if self._peek_type() == "RPAREN":
+                    self._advance()
+                    args = None
+                else:
+                    args = self._parse_argument_expression_list()
+                    self._expect("RPAREN")
+                expr = c_ast.FuncCall(expr, args, expr.coord)
+                continue
+            if tok_type in {"PERIOD", "ARROW"}:
+                op_tok = self._advance()
+                name_tok = self._advance()
+                if name_tok.type not in {"ID", "TYPEID"}:
+                    self._parse_error(
+                        "Invalid struct reference", self._tok_coord(name_tok)
+                    )
+                field = c_ast.ID(name_tok.value, self._tok_coord(name_tok))
+                expr = c_ast.StructRef(expr, op_tok.value, field, expr.coord)
+                continue
+            if tok_type in {"PLUSPLUS", "MINUSMINUS"}:
+                tok = self._advance()
+                expr = c_ast.UnaryOp("p" + tok.value, expr, expr.coord)
+                continue
+            break
+        return expr
+
+    # BNF: primary_expression : ID | constant | string_literal
+    #                        | '(' expression ')' | generic_selection | offsetof
+    #                        | '(' compound_statement ')'
+    #                        | '__builtin_va_arg' '('
+    #                          assignment_expression ',' type_name ')'
+    def _parse_primary_expression(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok_type = self._peek_type()
+        if tok_type == "ID":
+            return self._parse_identifier()
+        if (
+            tok_type in _INT_CONST
+            or tok_type in _FLOAT_CONST
+            or tok_type in _CHAR_CONST
+            or tok_type in _PREDEFINED_CONST
+        ):
+            return self._parse_constant()
+        if tok_type in _STRING_LITERAL:
+            return self._parse_unified_string_literal()
+        if tok_type == "LPAREN":
+            self._advance()
+            if self._peek_type() == "LBRACE":
+                # GNU statement expressions participate in all expression
+                # operators, including postfix operators.
+                expr = self._parse_compound_statement()
+            else:
+                expr = self._parse_expression()
+            self._expect("RPAREN")
+            return expr
+        if tok_type == "_GENERIC":
+            return self._parse_generic_selection()
+        if tok_type == "__BUILTIN_VA_ARG":
+            tok = self._advance()
+            self._expect("LPAREN")
+            expr = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+            self._expect("COMMA")
+            typ = self._parse_type_name()
+            self._expect("RPAREN")
+            coord = self._tok_coord(tok)
+            return c_ast.FuncCall(
+                c_ast.ID(tok.value, coord),
+                c_ast.ExprList([expr, typ], coord),
+                coord,
+            )
+        if tok_type == "OFFSETOF":
+            off_tok = self._advance()
+            self._expect("LPAREN")
+            typ = self._parse_type_name()
+            self._expect("COMMA")
+            designator = self._parse_offsetof_member_designator()
+            self._expect("RPAREN")
+            coord = self._tok_coord(off_tok)
+            return c_ast.FuncCall(
+                c_ast.ID(off_tok.value, coord),
+                c_ast.ExprList([typ, designator], coord),
+                coord,
+            )
+
+        self._parse_error("Invalid expression", self.clex.filename)
+
+    # BNF: generic_selection : _GENERIC '(' assignment_expression ','
+    #                         generic_association (',' generic_association)* ')'
+    def _parse_generic_selection(self) -> c_ast.GenericSelection:
+        tok = self._expect("_GENERIC")
+        self._expect("LPAREN")
+        expr = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+        self._expect("COMMA")
+        associations = [self._parse_generic_association()]
+        while self._accept("COMMA"):
+            associations.append(self._parse_generic_association())
+        self._expect("RPAREN")
+        return c_ast.GenericSelection(expr, associations, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: generic_association : type_name ':' assignment_expression
+    #                          | DEFAULT ':' assignment_expression
+    def _parse_generic_association(self) -> c_ast.GenericAssociation:
+        tok = self._peek()
+        if tok is None:
+            self._parse_error("At end of input", self.clex.filename)
+        typ = None if self._accept("DEFAULT") else self._parse_type_name()
+        self._expect("COLON")
+        expr = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+        return c_ast.GenericAssociation(typ, expr, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: offsetof_member_designator : identifier_or_typeid
+    #                                ('.' identifier_or_typeid | '[' expression ']')*
+    def _parse_offsetof_member_designator(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        node = self._parse_identifier_or_typeid()
+        while True:
+            if self._accept("PERIOD"):
+                field = self._parse_identifier_or_typeid()
+                node = c_ast.StructRef(node, ".", field, node.coord)
+                continue
+            if self._accept("LBRACKET"):
+                expr = self._parse_expression()
+                self._expect("RBRACKET")
+                node = c_ast.ArrayRef(node, expr, node.coord)
+                continue
+            break
+        return node
+
+    # BNF: argument_expression_list : assignment_expression (',' assignment_expression)*
+    def _parse_argument_expression_list(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        expr = self._parse_assignment_expression()
+        exprs = [expr]
+        while self._accept("COMMA"):
+            exprs.append(self._parse_assignment_expression())
+        return c_ast.ExprList(exprs, expr.coord)
+
+    # BNF: constant_expression : conditional_expression
+    def _parse_constant_expression(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        return self._parse_conditional_expression()
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Terminals
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: identifier : ID
+    def _parse_identifier(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok = self._expect("ID")
+        return c_ast.ID(tok.value, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: identifier_or_typeid : ID | TYPEID
+    def _parse_identifier_or_typeid(self) -> c_ast.ID:
+        tok = self._advance()
+        if tok.type not in {"ID", "TYPEID"}:
+            self._parse_error("Expected identifier", self._tok_coord(tok))
+        return c_ast.ID(tok.value, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: constant : INT_CONST | FLOAT_CONST | CHAR_CONST | predefined_constant
+    def _parse_constant(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        tok = self._advance()
+        if tok.type in _PREDEFINED_CONST:
+            return c_ast.Constant(
+                _PREDEFINED_CONST[tok.type], tok.value, self._tok_coord(tok)
+            )
+
+        if tok.type in _INT_CONST:
+            # Integer suffixes are at most three characters (e.g. ull, wbu).
+            suffix = tok.value[-3:].lower()
+            if suffix.endswith(("wb", "wbu")):
+                if self._dialect != "c23":
+                    self._parse_error(
+                        "Bit-precise integer constants require C23",
+                        self._tok_coord(tok),
+                    )
+                # Classify by suffix, as with other integer constants; retain
+                # the spelling without computing the value or its bit width.
+                t = "unsigned _BitInt" if "u" in suffix else "_BitInt"
+                return c_ast.Constant(t, tok.value, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+            u_count = 0
+            l_count = 0
+            for ch in tok.value[-3:]:
+                if ch in ("l", "L"):
+                    l_count += 1
+                elif ch in ("u", "U"):
+                    u_count += 1
+            if u_count > 1:
+                raise ValueError("Constant cannot have more than one u/U suffix.")
+            if l_count > 2:
+                raise ValueError("Constant cannot have more than two l/L suffix.")
+            prefix = "unsigned " * u_count + "long " * l_count
+            return c_ast.Constant(prefix + "int", tok.value, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+        if tok.type in _FLOAT_CONST:
+            if tok.value[-2:] in {"df", "DF"}:
+                t = "_Decimal32"
+            elif tok.value[-2:] in {"dd", "DD"}:
+                t = "_Decimal64"
+            elif tok.value[-2:] in {"dl", "DL"}:
+                t = "_Decimal128"
+            elif tok.value[-1] in ("f", "F"):
+                t = "float"
+            elif tok.value[-1] in ("l", "L"):
+                t = "long double"
+            else:
+                t = "double"
+            if (
+                t in {"_Decimal32", "_Decimal64", "_Decimal128"}
+                and self._dialect != "c23"
+            ):
+                self._parse_error(
+                    "Decimal floating constants require C23", self._tok_coord(tok)
+                )
+            return c_ast.Constant(t, tok.value, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+        if tok.type in _CHAR_CONST:
+            return c_ast.Constant("char", tok.value, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+        self._parse_error("Invalid constant", self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: unified_string_literal : (STRING_LITERAL | WSTRING_LITERAL
+    #                               | U8STRING_LITERAL | U16STRING_LITERAL
+    #                               | U32STRING_LITERAL)+
+    def _parse_unified_string_literal(self) -> c_ast.Constant:
+        # Represent the whole run of adjacent literals with one Constant.
+        # C interprets escapes before concatenating the character sequences,
+        # whereas Constant.value holds source spelling. Simply removing the
+        # quotes between "\1" "23" would produce "\123", changing three
+        # characters into one (issue #392).
+        tok = self._advance()
+        if tok.type not in _STRING_LITERAL:
+            self._parse_error("Invalid string literal", self._tok_coord(tok))
+        # Split off the optional encoding prefix and remove the closing quote.
+        # Each part holds unquoted source text that can safely share one literal.
+        prefix, contents = tok.value.split('"', 1)
+        parts = [contents[:-1]]
+        while self._peek_type() in _STRING_LITERAL:
+            tok2 = self._advance()
+            next_prefix, next_contents = tok2.value.split('"', 1)
+            # The first nonempty prefix applies to the whole run, even if it
+            # occurs after ordinary literals. Conflicting prefixes retain the
+            # parser's existing permissive behavior: the first one wins.
+            prefix = prefix or next_prefix
+            next_contents = next_contents[:-1]
+            # Extend the current part when safe; otherwise start a new one so
+            # a quote boundary survives. Empty literals can merge, but do not
+            # end a trailing escape: "\1" "" "23" still needs a boundary.
+            if self._string_literal_needs_separator(parts[-1], next_contents):
+                parts.append(next_contents)
+            else:
+                parts[-1] += next_contents
+        # Re-quote each part, keeping only the necessary literal boundaries.
+        # The prefix on the first literal applies to the adjacent sequence.
+        # The generator can emit this value directly without decoding escapes.
+        value = prefix + '"' + '" "'.join(parts) + '"'
+        return c_ast.Constant("string", value, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _string_literal_needs_separator(left: str, right: str) -> bool:
+        """Whether joining two literal bodies would change their C spelling."""
+        if not left or not right:
+            return False
+
+        # A generated trigraph would be replaced before C string processing;
+        # for example, merging "?" "?=" would create the trigraph for '#'.
+        boundary = left[-2:] + right[:2]
+        if any("??" + ch in boundary for ch in "=/'()!<>-"):
+            return True
+
+        # Only an escape reaching the end of left can absorb characters from
+        # right. The last backslash is the only possible start of that escape.
+        escape_start = left.rfind("\\")
+        if escape_start == -1:
+            return False
+        # An even run of backslashes represents escaped backslashes, not the
+        # start of the numeric escape that the following digits might suggest.
+        run_start = escape_start
+        while run_start > 0 and left[run_start - 1] == "\\":
+            run_start -= 1
+        if (escape_start - run_start + 1) % 2 == 0:
+            return False
+
+        escape = left[escape_start + 1 :]
+        if escape.startswith("x"):
+            # Hex escapes have no digit limit: "\x1" "a" must stay separated.
+            hex_digits = "0123456789abcdefABCDEF"
+            return right[0] in hex_digits and all(ch in hex_digits for ch in escape[1:])
+        # Octal escapes consume at most three digits: "\12" "3" needs a
+        # boundary, but "\123" "4" can become "\1234". Universal character names
+        # have fixed widths and cannot absorb characters from the next literal.
+        return (
+            1 <= len(escape) < 3
+            and all(ch in "01234567" for ch in escape)
+            and right[0] in "01234567"
+        )
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Initializers
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: initializer : assignment_expression
+    #                 | '{' initializer_list ','? '}'
+    #                 | '{' '}'
+    def _parse_initializer(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        lbrace_tok = self._accept("LBRACE")
+        if lbrace_tok:
+            if self._accept("RBRACE"):
+                return c_ast.InitList([], self._tok_coord(lbrace_tok))
+            init_list = self._parse_initializer_list()
+            self._accept("COMMA")
+            self._expect("RBRACE")
+            return init_list
+
+        return self._parse_assignment_expression()
+
+    # BNF: initializer_list : initializer_item (',' initializer_item)* ','?
+    def _parse_initializer_list(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        items = [self._parse_initializer_item()]
+        while self._accept("COMMA"):
+            if self._peek_type() == "RBRACE":
+                break
+            items.append(self._parse_initializer_item())
+        return c_ast.InitList(items, items[0].coord)
+
+    # BNF: initializer_item : designation? initializer
+    def _parse_initializer_item(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        designation = None
+        if self._peek_type() in {"LBRACKET", "PERIOD"}:
+            designation = self._parse_designation()
+        init = self._parse_initializer()
+        if designation is not None:
+            return c_ast.NamedInitializer(designation, init)
+        return init
+
+    # BNF: designation : designator_list '='
+    def _parse_designation(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        designators = self._parse_designator_list()
+        self._expect("EQUALS")
+        return designators
+
+    # BNF: designator_list : designator+
+    def _parse_designator_list(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        designators = []
+        while self._peek_type() in {"LBRACKET", "PERIOD"}:
+            designators.append(self._parse_designator())
+        return designators
+
+    # BNF: designator : '[' constant_expression ']'
+    #                | '.' identifier_or_typeid
+    def _parse_designator(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        if tok := self._accept("LBRACKET"):
+            expr = self._parse_constant_expression()
+            self._expect("RBRACKET")
+            return c_ast.ArrayDesignator(expr, self._tok_coord(tok))
+        if self._accept("PERIOD"):
+            return self._parse_identifier_or_typeid()
+        self._parse_error("Invalid designator", self.clex.filename)
+
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # Preprocessor-like directives
+    # ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    # BNF: pp_directive : '#' ... (unsupported)
+    def _parse_pp_directive(self) -> NoReturn:
+        tok = self._expect("PPHASH")
+        self._parse_error("Directives not supported yet", self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+    # BNF: pppragma_directive : PPPRAGMA PPPRAGMASTR?
+    #                        | _PRAGMA '(' string_literal ')'
+    def _parse_pppragma_directive(self) -> c_ast.Node:
+        if self._peek_type() == "PPPRAGMA":
+            tok = self._advance()
+            if self._peek_type() == "PPPRAGMASTR":
+                str_tok = self._advance()
+                return c_ast.Pragma(str_tok.value, self._tok_coord(str_tok))
+            return c_ast.Pragma("", self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+        if self._peek_type() == "_PRAGMA":
+            tok = self._advance()
+            lparen = self._expect("LPAREN")
+            literal = self._parse_unified_string_literal()
+            self._expect("RPAREN")
+            return c_ast.Pragma(literal, self._tok_coord(lparen))
+
+        self._parse_error("Invalid pragma", self.clex.filename)
+
+    # BNF: pppragma_directive_list : pppragma_directive+
+    def _parse_pppragma_directive_list(self) -> list[c_ast.Node]:
+        pragmas = []
+        while self._peek_type() in {"PPPRAGMA", "_PRAGMA"}:
+            pragmas.append(self._parse_pppragma_directive())
+        return pragmas
+
+    # BNF: static_assert : _STATIC_ASSERT '(' constant_expression
+    #                     (',' unified_string_literal)? ')' ';'
+    # C11 requires a message; omission is supported as an extension.
+    def _parse_static_assert(self) -> c_ast.StaticAssert:
+        tok = self._expect("_STATIC_ASSERT")
+        self._expect("LPAREN")
+        cond = self._parse_constant_expression()
+        msg = None
+        if self._accept("COMMA"):
+            msg = self._parse_unified_string_literal()
+        self._expect("RPAREN")
+        self._expect("SEMI")
+        return c_ast.StaticAssert(cond, msg, self._tok_coord(tok))
+
+
+_ASSIGNMENT_OPS = {
+    "EQUALS",
+    "XOREQUAL",
+    "TIMESEQUAL",
+    "DIVEQUAL",
+    "MODEQUAL",
+    "PLUSEQUAL",
+    "MINUSEQUAL",
+    "LSHIFTEQUAL",
+    "RSHIFTEQUAL",
+    "ANDEQUAL",
+    "OREQUAL",
+}
+
+# Precedence of operators (lower number = weather binding)
+# If this changes, c_generator.CGenerator.precedence_map needs to change as
+# well
+_BINARY_PRECEDENCE = {
+    "LOR": 0,
+    "LAND": 1,
+    "OR": 2,
+    "XOR": 3,
+    "AND": 4,
+    "EQ": 5,
+    "NE": 5,
+    "GT": 6,
+    "GE": 6,
+    "LT": 6,
+    "LE": 6,
+    "RSHIFT": 7,
+    "LSHIFT": 7,
+    "PLUS": 8,
+    "MINUS": 8,
+    "TIMES": 9,
+    "DIVIDE": 9,
+    "MOD": 9,
+}
+
+_STORAGE_CLASS = {
+    "AUTO",
+    "CONSTEXPR",
+    "REGISTER",
+    "STATIC",
+    "EXTERN",
+    "TYPEDEF",
+    "_THREAD_LOCAL",
+}
+
+_FUNCTION_SPEC = {"INLINE", "_NORETURN"}
+
+_TYPE_QUALIFIER = {"CONST", "RESTRICT", "VOLATILE", "_ATOMIC"}
+
+_TYPEOF_SPEC = {"TYPEOF", "TYPEOF_UNQUAL"}
+
+_TYPE_SPEC_SIMPLE = {
+    "VOID",
+    "_BOOL",
+    "CHAR",
+    "SHORT",
+    "INT",
+    "LONG",
+    "FLOAT",
+    "DOUBLE",
+    "_DECIMAL32",
+    "_DECIMAL64",
+    "_DECIMAL128",
+    "_COMPLEX",
+    "SIGNED",
+    "UNSIGNED",
+    "__INT128",
+}
+
+# Struct members without declarators carry a type specifier directly instead.
+_DECLARATOR_NODES = (c_ast.TypeDecl, c_ast.PtrDecl, c_ast.ArrayDecl, c_ast.FuncDecl)
+
+_DECL_START = (
+    _STORAGE_CLASS
+    | _FUNCTION_SPEC
+    | _TYPE_QUALIFIER
+    | _TYPE_SPEC_SIMPLE
+    | _TYPEOF_SPEC
+    | {
+        "TYPEID",
+        "STRUCT",
+        "UNION",
+        "ENUM",
+        "_ALIGNAS",
+        "_ATOMIC",
+        "_BITINT",
+        "ATTRIBUTE_BEGIN",
+    }
+)
+
+_EXPR_START = {
+    "ID",
+    "LPAREN",
+    "PLUSPLUS",
+    "MINUSMINUS",
+    "PLUS",
+    "MINUS",
+    "TIMES",
+    "AND",
+    "NOT",
+    "LNOT",
+    "SIZEOF",
+    "_ALIGNOF",
+    "_GENERIC",
+    "OFFSETOF",
+    "__BUILTIN_VA_ARG",
+}
+
+_INT_CONST = {
+    "INT_CONST_DEC",
+    "INT_CONST_OCT",
+    "INT_CONST_HEX",
+    "INT_CONST_BIN",
+    "INT_CONST_CHAR",
+}
+
+_FLOAT_CONST = {"FLOAT_CONST", "HEX_FLOAT_CONST"}
+
+_PREDEFINED_CONST = {"BOOL_CONST": "bool", "NULLPTR": "nullptr_t"}
+
+_CHAR_CONST = {
+    "CHAR_CONST",
+    "WCHAR_CONST",
+    "U8CHAR_CONST",
+    "U16CHAR_CONST",
+    "U32CHAR_CONST",
+}
+
+_STRING_LITERAL = {
+    "STRING_LITERAL",
+    "WSTRING_LITERAL",
+    "U8STRING_LITERAL",
+    "U16STRING_LITERAL",
+    "U32STRING_LITERAL",
+}
+
+_STARTS_EXPRESSION = (
+    _EXPR_START
+    | _INT_CONST
+    | _FLOAT_CONST
+    | _CHAR_CONST
+    | _STRING_LITERAL
+    | _PREDEFINED_CONST.keys()
+)
+
+_STARTS_STATEMENT = {
+    "LBRACE",
+    "IF",
+    "SWITCH",
+    "WHILE",
+    "DO",
+    "FOR",
+    "GOTO",
+    "BREAK",
+    "CONTINUE",
+    "RETURN",
+    "CASE",
+    "DEFAULT",
+    "PPPRAGMA",
+    "_PRAGMA",
+    "SEMI",
+}
+
+
+class _TokenStream:
+    """Provides buffered access to tokens supplied by a reader."""
+
+    def __init__(self, read_token: Callable[[], Token | None]) -> None:
+        self._read_token = read_token
+        self._buffer: list[Token | None] = []
+        self._index = 0
+
+    def peek(self, k: int = 1) -> Token | None:
+        """Peek at the k-th next token in the stream, without consuming it.
+
+        Examples:
+            k=1 returns the immediate next token.
+            k=2 returns the token after that.
+        """
+        if k <= 0:
+            return None
+        pos = self._index + k - 1
+        if pos >= len(self._buffer):
+            self._fill(k)
+        return self._buffer[pos]
+
+    def next(self) -> Token | None:
+        """Consume a single token and return it."""
+        if self._index >= len(self._buffer):
+            self._fill(1)
+        tok = self._buffer[self._index]
+        self._index += 1
+        return tok
+
+    # The 'mark' and 'reset' methods are useful for speculative parsing with
+    # backtracking; when the parser needs to examine a sequence of tokens
+    # and potentially decide to try a different path on the same sequence, it
+    # can call 'mark' to obtain the current token position, and if the first
+    # path fails restore the position with `reset(pos)`.
+    def mark(self) -> int:
+        return self._index
+
+    def reset(self, mark: int) -> None:
+        self._index = mark
+
+    def _fill(self, n: int) -> None:
+        while len(self._buffer) < self._index + n:
+            tok = self._read_token()
+            self._buffer.append(tok)
+            if tok is None:
+                break
+
+
+# Declaration specifiers are represented by a dictionary with entries:
+# - qual: a list of type qualifiers
+# - storage: a list of storage class specifiers
+# - type: a list of type specifiers
+# - function: a list of function specifiers
+# - alignment: a list of alignment specifiers
+# - type_attributes: attribute groups following the specifier sequence
+class _DeclSpec(TypedDict):
+    qual: list[str]
+    storage: list[str]
+    type: list[c_ast.Node]
+    function: list[str]
+    alignment: list[c_ast.Alignas]
+    type_attributes: list[c_ast.AttributeSpecifier]
+
+
+_DeclSpecKind = Literal["qual", "storage", "type", "function", "alignment"]
+
+
+class _DeclInfo(TypedDict):
+    # Declarator payloads used by declaration/initializer parsing:
+    # - decl: the declarator node (may be None for abstract/implicit cases)
+    # - init: initializer expression; the key may be omitted when absent
+    # - bitsize: bit-field width expression; the key may be omitted when absent
+    decl: c_ast.Node | None
+    init: NotRequired[c_ast.Node | None]
+    bitsize: NotRequired[c_ast.Node | None]