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+{"00a4a413-b81a-55ed-8395-f8514dc9b430":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"The astrolabe is in the form of a clock face. Seven plates belong to it, one of them fixed and the others rotating. The six rotating plates are attached to the fixed one by a central screw decorated with a rosette. On top of the faces of these plates, which have meridians, concentric circles and astronomical and astrological terms and names engraved on them, is placed an indicator with hooked ends which can be used to determine the positions of 29 stars. These in turn can be used to measure time and distance.  \n  \nHistorical sources indicate that the astrolabe was invented by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus in the second century BC. The most advanced types of astrolabe were used by the Muslims of al-Andalus and the Maghreb.","short_description":"Astrolabes are astronomical instruments used for measuring time and distance. Their plates bear engraved concentric circles, meridians and astrological terms and numerals. Invented in the 2nd century BC, the most advanced astrolabes were used by the Muslims in al-Andalus and the Maghreb.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","initial_owner":"Muhammad bin Batut of the Hamairi family.","dates":"Hegira 650 / AD 1252.","location":"Sultanahmet, Istanbul.","dimensions":"Height 19 cm, diameter 17 cm.","method_for_datation":"According to the inscription on the astrolabe, it was made in the year 650 / 1252 and belonged to Muhammad bin Batut of the Hamairi family in Ishbiliya (modern Seville).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription specifies the city of Ishbiliya (modern Seville).","provenance":"Ishbiliya (modern Seville), Spain.","obtention":"Transferred to the Museum in 1964 from the Treasury of the Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul.","bibliography":"ölçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, p.90.","author":"Alev Özay","translator":"Barry Wood","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["astrology","astronomy","brass","calligraphy","science"],"materials":["Cast and beaten brass with engraved decoration."]},"026dea32-9637-5a90-8cb3-ddf63a376262":{"name":"Astronomical instrument: *Qiblanuma*.","description":"The *qiblanuma* is a portable astronomical instrument whose name literally means 'showing the direction to the Ka'ba'. The wooden instrument is round, with a lid, and is decorated with lacquering, a technique known as *Edirnekari*, in red, pink, black, blue, green, and gilding. The main body includes the compass and pointer. The regions where the instrument can be used are shown on a map and a list of cities is given with their Arabic names.  \n  \nThe upper part of the inside lid shows, on a green background, the minarets of the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, with the Ka'ba in the courtyard. To the left of this are depictions of the sacred sites at the Plain of 'Arafat. To the right and in the foreground are date palms and olive trees, symbols of paradise and blessing. The empty space in the background is filled with illustrations of pomegranates in a bowl, representing plenty. A cartouche framed with leaf motifs extending from among the pomegranates, is decorated with a bouquet of roses on a gold background. The rose bouquet, symbolic of the Prophet Muhammad, was a popular motif in 18th-century Ottoman literature and floral paintings. Fruits in a bowl, symbolising fertility, abundance and immortality, were a typical motif of the period. The inscription in the lower part of the inside lid states that the instrument was made by Barun al-Muhtari in Istanbul in AH 1151 / AD 1738. It also includes instructions on how to use the instrument.  \n  \nThe outside of the lid is decorated in the naturalistic style known as Turkish Baroque-Rococo on a gold background. It features vases filled with roses and flowers surrounded by garlands of acanthus leaves and scrolling tendrils. Six oval medallions placed in this composition feature figureless landscape depictions, which are also found on wall paintings of the same period. The landscape depictions include views of lakes, houses amid trees on the shore, mansions, and villages on the opposite shore, all drawn with the illusion of depth.","short_description":"*Qiblanuma*s are portable astronomical instruments that show the direction to the Ka'ba in Mecca, which Muslims face to pray. They remained in use until the late AH 13th / AD 19th century and this example produced in Istanbul was decorated with a lacquering technique known as *Edirnekari*.","type":"Scientific instrument, laquered on wood","holder":"Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.","dates":"Hegira 1151 / AD 1738.","location":"Sultanahmet, Istanbul.","dimensions":"Diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"The date 1151 (1738–9) is given on the inside of the lid.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription inside the lid gives the place of production as Istanbul.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turkey.","obtention":"The instrument was transferred to the museum in 1951 from the Hisar Mosque in Izmir, .","bibliography":"Ölçer, N. *et al, In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Istanbul, 1993, p.88.  \n  \nÖlçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp.290–91.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","author":"Gönül Tekeli","translator":"Barry Wood","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["astronomical instrument","Edirnekari technique","lacquer","Ottoman Baroque","pilgrimage","Qiblanuma","science."],"materials":["Lacquered (Edirnekari technique) on wood."]},"06f33fba-bdfd-5b3c-aa40-773547772993":{"name":"Astrolabe","short_description":"An astrolabe is a computing device used to solve various astronomical problems, such as telling time. The body of an astrolabe, which is known as the mater, consists of a metal disc with a raised rim. Stored within the mater are several circular metal plates, each engraved with a stereographic projection of the heavens at a specific latitude. Laid atop the uppermost of these plates (whichever one matches the current location of the user) is the rete, an open-work metal plate that functions as a star map, with the location of certain bright stars indicated by pointers. On the reverse of the mater is the alidade, a sight used for measuring the altitude of the sun by day and of a given star by night.","type":"Scientific instrument","holder":"The Chester Beatty Library","dates":"Hegira 1120 / AD 1708-1709","location":"Dublin","dimensions":"Diameter c. 12 cm","provenance":"Iran, Isfahan","catalogue_holding_link":"https://viewer.cbl.ie/viewer/image/Is_Sc6/1/LOG_0000/","keywords":["astronomy","calligraphy","science","scientific instrument"],"materials":["brass"]},"070ed0d9-7748-52d3-bd7e-202fe737f430":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"Planispheric astrolabe made of brass and comprising four main pieces: a box or 'mother' made up of five sheets that represent different latitudes, a network or 'spider' with indicators for 24 stars and an alidade. On the obverse or 'back' there is a zodiacal calendar and an altimetric scale called the 'shadow square'.  \nAstrolabes are versatile instruments that allow the position of the sun and stars to be calculated. They serve as a calendar and as a clock, and can be used to measure heights and distances. They were used in navigation until they were replaced by the quadrant. They were very useful for working out the time during the day and the night, and for establishing prayer times.  \nThis instrument was made in Toledo by the astrolabe maker Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahali, whose name appears with the year of manufacture (AH 459 / AD 1067) in an inscription in Arabic on the back. Another two astrolabes and a celestial globe signed by him also exist. The astrolabe in the National Archaeological Museum has all of the characteristics of the Andalusian astrolabes, which were famous from the time of the Caliphate and continued to be made in the different Taifas, as in this example from Toledo.","short_description":"Made in Toledo (according to the inscription), this is one of the oldest astrolabes to have survived, and it demonstrates the scientific excellence attained in al-Andalus during the Taifa era. It was used to find one’s position using the stars in the night sky shown on one of its faces.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"National Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 459 / AD 1067.","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Diameter 24.2 cm, maximum depth 1.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"On the back, on the upper part, there is an inscription with the date: 'In the month of Sha'ban of the year 459' (AD 1067).","method_for_provenance":"The name of the city where it was made, Toledo, is written on the back.","provenance":"Toledo, Spain.","obtention":"The astrolabe came to the National Archaeological Museum in 1867 from the National Library.","bibliography":"García Franco, S., *Catálogo Crítico de Astrolabios Existentes en España, Madrid, 1945, pp.229–35.*  \nKing, D. A. “Andalusi Astronomical Instruments”, in *Al Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain* (ed. J. D. Dodds), New York, 1992, pp.376–83.  \nSamsó, J., *Islamic Astronomy and Medieval Spain*, Aldershot, Hampshire, 1994.  \nVernet, J. and Samsó, J., *Instrumentos Astronómicos en la España Medieval: Su Influencia en Europa*, Santa Cruz de la Palma, 1985, pp.80–1.  \nViladrich, M., “Astrolabios Andalusíes”, in *El Legado Científico Andalusí*, Madrid, 1992, pp.53–65.","author":"M.ª del Carmen Alonso Rodríguez","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["astrolabe","astronomy","science","Taifas","Toledo","zodiac"],"materials":["Cast and engraved brass"]},"0a01c64a-7bc8-567a-8c39-1d5b33e5f0a2":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"A round, brass astrolabe with a circular frame and an arabesque cartouche at the top from which a ring (the throne) would have been attached and the instrument suspended when in use. The astrolabe is an instrument used from at least the AH 2nd / AD 8th century. It is a multi-functional device that is employed in several ways: timekeeping by day and night; surveying and determining the distance and height of objects; measuring latitude and reading horoscopes. To use the astrolabe the appropriate disc is selected and inserted into the frame (mater) and set to a specific date and time according to the geographic location of the user. A plate (rete) with open-work zodiac signs in the inner circle, and other constellations in the outer circle, revolves over this giving an accurate astronomical reading.  \nIn the inscription on the back of the astrolabe is the name of the craftsman Abd al-Karim, accompanied by the names al-Malik, al-Mu’izz and Shihab al-Din. As there is no single ruler bearing this title before the year AH 638 / AD 1241, this is probably a list of three different individuals. It has been suggested that these names can be identified as: al-Malik al-Ashraf Musa I, one of the most powerful Ayyubid rulers of the early AH 7th / AD 13th century, and al-Mu’izz, a younger brother of al-Malik. The third name may be another younger brother of al-Malik al-Ashraf: al-Malik al-Muzaffar Shihab al-Din Ghazi who ruled the city of Mayyafariqin from AH 617–45 / AD 1220/1–47. These three Ayyubid brothers probably employed the craftsman, while the patron of this astrolabe is identified as Shihab al-Din.","short_description":"To use this astrolabe, the appropriate disc is inserted into the circular frame. Zodiac signs on the outer circle and constellations on the inner circle are revolved to give an astronomical reading. The readings have many uses, from telling the time of day for prayer times to reading horoscopes.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork, brass, copper, silver","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"Hegira 683 / AD 1240–41.","location":"London, England","dimensions":"Height 26.45 cm, width 19.02 cm.","method_for_datation":"Previously the date was read as 633 (1236). However, Ward (2004) has recently made a more accurate reading of 638 (1240–1).","method_for_provenance":"Until recently the inscription was interpreted as al-Misri (from Cairo, Egypt). However, Ward (2004) believes it to refer to a ‘city’ and not specifically to Cairo. The inscription then refers to three Ayyubid brothers who ruled over parts of northern Syria and the Jazira in the first half of the 7th / 13th century. It is now thought that this astrolabe was produced in Mayyafariqin, a city known for its metalworking industry, which was under the rule of Shihab al-Din in around 637 / 1240.","provenance":"Syria or the Jazira.","obtention":"Acquired in 1855.","bibliography":"Ward, R., \"The Inscription of the Astrolabe by 'Abd al-Karim in the British Museum\", Muqarnas, XXI, 2004, pp.345–57.","author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["astrology","astronomy","constellation","science","timekeeping","zodiac"],"materials":["Engraved brass with silver and copper inlay."]},"0db4a4c1-61f8-578b-9b95-99cacaf89afb":{"name":"Astrolabe","description":"Astrolabe. Made by 'Abd al-Karim al-Misri.","type":"Scientific instrument; metalwork","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"1236; acquisition date: 1855","location":"London","provenance":"Egypt"},"1028751a-07f0-53c2-8d14-e1b298d6e008":{"name":"Board","alternate_name":"Qur'anic board","description":"Qur'anic board used in the African *madrasas* (schools), places where the first verses of the Qur'an are learned, under the direction of the *marabout* (teacher). The learning method consists of copying and reciting the different verses of the Qur'an, in a process of memorisation, which allows the students to erase them and then to write the following verses. The *alluha* (table of wood), the reed, and the ink are the only available pedagogic materials of the Qur'anic schools in the rural areas. The Qur'anic boards turn into documents that preserve the written personality of those who used them, the irregularity of the letter, the crooked lines, the hesitations, the corrected mistakes, the erased lines that refuse to disappear, as a register of a period of effort and domain of skills typical of the school stage.","type":"Print; Woodwork","holder":"National Museum of Anthropology","dates":"19th century","location":"Madrid","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell"},"1488ab73-2672-5641-a84a-174c9bfb4fd8":{"name":"Perpetual calendar","description":"This perpetual calendar is contained within a cylindrical silver casing with a rounded shoulder. Four lateral knobs, two on either side, move the calendar's paper and textile elements, giving the month, the date and probably the day (this section is damaged). Above, a circular medallion contains the start year of the calendar, 1327 H/ 1909 AD.  The calendar is decorated all over with delicate niello deccoration. The front, with three superposed and elongated cartouche-shaped openings, is ornamented with a lobed panel containing naturalistic flower sprays. Below, a panel with three loop extensions contains an Arabic inscription - taqweem da'imi - that identifies the object's function. In the Tanzimat period, and up to 1926, the Mailya or Rumi calendar was introduced, which was based on the Julian solar calendar but started in the year of the Prophet's (pbuh) move from Makkah to Madina in 1 H/ 622 AD. It used old Syrian names for the months and was intended to ease the annual tax and fiscal calculations and payments.","type":"Nielloed silver calendar; metalwork","holder":"Sharjah Museum of Islamic Civilisation / Sharjah Museums Department","dates":"Hegira 1327 / AD 1909","location":"Sharjah","provenance":"Ottoman empire","author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis"},"16b09d34-6359-51a2-97ca-7d634682b13c":{"name":"Planispheric astrolabe.","description":"The astrolabe is an astronomical instrument consisting of several parts. The main part is the circular body, called the mater, which is composed of a limb (outer edge) fastened to a plate. The limb of the mater bears a 360° scale, numbered clockwise at intervals of five degrees. Every fifteen degrees is punctuated by a dotted line. Above, a handle is attached to the body. The ring that normally passes through the handle is missing. It served to fix a cord since the astrolabe was used suspended. Seven thin plates and the rete, a skeleton-like plate which indicates the stars, are fitted into the mater. A pin, passing through a hole at the centre, holds the several parts together.  \nThe planispheric astrolabe is based on the principle of stereographic projection. The circles on the plates present the spherical surface of the earth at particular geographical latitude. The circles of the rete correspond to the vault of the fixed stars. Because the rete is the movable part, originally turned around by four knobs that are now missing, both the earth and the firmament can be set in combination with each other. The stars are indicated by the star-pointers. The 29 star-pointers of this astrolabe have bulbous bases, which are perforated with holes. The names of the stars are engraved in *kufic* letters below the pointer. The attraction of Western Arabic astrolabes derives from the curvatures and decorations of these star pointers. Another important part of the rete is the ecliptic, the circle of the zodiac. The Arabic names of the zodiacal signs are engraved in *kufic*.  \nOn the back of the astrolabe are several circles representing the zodiac or the months of the Julian calendar with their Arabic names and two shadow squares. Above the east–west line are engraved the name of Ahmad ibn Ali al-Sharfi, the craftsman who made the astrolabe, and the date and place of manufacture.  \nAn astrolabe was used for various purposes such as the measuring of the altitude of the sun or the stars to determine the times of sunrise, sunset or prayer.","short_description":"Astronomical instrument. It consists of several parts, which indicate, for example, the stars, the zodiac or the ecliptic. It served various purposes such as measuring the altitude of the sun or the stars to determine the times of sunrise, sunset or prayer.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"National Maritime Museum.","dates":"Hegira 729 / AD 1329.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Diameter 12.2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The year of its manufacture is given on the back.","method_for_provenance":"The place of manufacture, which is incised together with the name of the craftsman on the back of the astrolabe, is given as Alcalá.","provenance":"Alcalá (near Sevilla), Spain.","obtention":"The astrolabe was bought by a Major Arvid Mörner in Fez, Morocco in 1907. In December 1931 the National Maritime Museum acquired the astrolabe from the property of Count Otto Hamilton.","bibliography":"Gunther, R. T., *The Astrolabes of the World*, 2 vols. London (reprint), 1976.  \nKing, D. A., *Islamic Astronomical Instruments*, London, 1987.  \nMaddison, F. and Savage-Smith, E., in *Science, Tools and Magic*, Part 1, Vol. 12 of the Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art (ed. J. Raby), London, New York, 1997.  \n*Sjöhistoriska Museet Årsbok*, 108, 1988/9.  \nStautz, B., *Die Astrolabiensammlungen des Deutschen Museums und des Bayrischen Nationalmuseums*, Munich 1999.","author":"Friederike Voigt (on the basis of information about the object given by Susanna Allesson Nyberg).","copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["astrolabe","astronomy","prayer","science"],"materials":["brass","engraved."]},"17dd3ddc-9ae3-581d-8b9f-700deb1e3f48":{"name":"Omega Speedmaster Watch","description":"When the American astronaut Buzz Aldrin walked on the surface of the moon on 21 July 1969, he was wearing an Omega Speedmaster wristwatch. Originally, Neil Armstrong was supposed to wear a similar watch when, prior to Aldrin, he became the first human being to set foot on the moon. However, after the moon lander’s clock broke during the approach, Armstrong decided to leave his Speedmaster in the lander just to be on the safe side. These watches, made in the Swiss city of Biel, had been chosen by the US space agency NASA because of their superior quality: Omega watches were simply better than any competing timepiece and the Speedmaster, made in the Swiss canton of Berne, was the only model that was found to be spaceworthy after stringent testing. The watches were tested under conditions of zero gravity, extreme temperatures, and high acceleration. Thus the Omega Speedmaster became the only representative of Switzerland ever to reach the moon.","type":"Watch","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"1967","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"L: 24,7cm, Diameter: 3.97cm","method_for_datation":"Documents","provenance":"Switzerland, Biel, canton of Bern","obtention":"Bought in 2009","workshop":"Omega AG","keywords":["Biel","Bienne","Omega","Speedmaster","Watch"],"materials":["glass","leather","steel"]},"2a51dcfa-cb1d-50b4-aa78-fe06eed41edc":{"name":"Plan of Temple Mount, called “Harem ech-Cherif” by Muslims. (In French)","description":"This annotated plan by Ermete Pierotti pays particular attention to the water cisterns below the surface of the Haram al Sharif, which were used by those people who lived in, worked in, and visited the compound. Ermete Pierotti was an Italian naval officer who was employed by the Ottoman government in Jerusalem between 1854 and 1861. He was an engineer on the Haram al Sharif. This gave him unprecedented access to the monuments, which he recorded in some detail.","type":"Hand-annotated plan with extensive notes","holder":"Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF)","owner":"Palestine Exploration Fund","initial_owner":"Ermete Pierotti","dates":"AH 1862 / AD 1862","location":"London","dimensions":"41 x 30cm","place_of_production":"Jerusalem","method_for_datation":"Written on document","method_for_provenance":"Written on document","provenance":"Jerusalem and Cambridge","obtention":"Acquired following Ermete Pierotti's death","bibliography":"Pierotti, E., J*erusalem Explored: Being a Description of the Ancient and Modern City, with Numerous Illustrations Consisting of Views, Ground Plans and Sections*, London: Bell and Daldy, 1864.  \n  \nLegouas, J.Y., “Saving Captain Pierotti”, in *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*, 143.3 (2013).","workshop":"Ermete Pierotti, Jerusalem","author":"Felicity Cobbing","copy_editor":"Judy Harter","keywords":["Cisterns","Ermete Pierotti","Haram Al Sharif","Jerusalem","Ottoman"],"materials":["Ink","Paper","watercolour"]},"30efc219-29fa-5f32-b34b-24791540a5c9":{"name":"Astrolabe","description":"This portable astrolabe consists of a suspension device with a 18cm diameter disk, divided up into degrees, and a handle. Two moving parts are used for measurements: the spider on the front, and the alidade (a flat ruler revolving round a point) on the back. The astrolabe remained in use as the primary tool for navigation until the 18th century. However, it was also used as an astronomical tool, to measure the height of stars from the horizon, or the angle separating one star from another.","type":"Scientific instrument; metalworks","holder":"Musée national du Bardo","dates":"Late 18th century","location":"Le Bardo, Tunis","provenance":"Tunis","author":"Saloua Zangar","translator":"Flaminia Baldwin"},"331be2fc-32f2-5ed5-bb67-3f9817fcb2d0":{"name":"*Aegilops ovata* L.","alternate_name":"Geniculate goatgrass (common name)","description":"This is a Portuguese case of this scientific transnational reality. Herbarium sheet with three fruiting specimens of Aegilops ovata. The specimens were collected in Algeria, in May 1840 by the Scientific Commission of Argelia, under M. Durieu supervision. It includes a label with the scientific name and collecting details, as well as a color scale and a linear scale. A detail: Genus Aegilops is possibly one of the ancestors to common wheat.","type":"Herbarium specimen","holder":"National Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbon","dates":"1840","location":"Lisbon","provenance":"Algeria","author":"Ana Isabel Correia (FCUL/MUHNAC-UL)"},"3ce9d4f4-ee92-5a23-b01e-6209cae6e2dc":{"name":"Celestial Globe","description":"This precisely executed globe, made of two hemispheres, is the sixth earliest surviving celestial globe. The maker’s name is given twice on the globe. The first, and shorter inscription, states that the globe was made by Muhammad ibn Mahmud ibn ‘Ali al-Tabari. His name appears again in the longer five-line inscription, where he omits the name of his grandfather and his nisbah, but emphasizes instead his trade as an astrolabe-maker, al-asturlabi. And indeed the globe does reflect the work of a professional instrument maker.  \n  \nThe long inscription, situated near the south pole of the instrument, states that its maker, Muhammad ibn Mahmud based it on the illustrations in the AH 4th / AD 10th-century astronomer al-Sufi’s *Kitab suwar al-kawakib al-thabitah* (‘Book of the Fixed Stars’), adapting it to take account of the 200-year lapse of time and rectifying errors of placement and spelling and that the maker had written the identifications of the various constellations of the Zodiac, fixed stars, lunar mansions, and of some non-Zodiacal constellations as well. These show certain discrepancies with al-Sufi’s figures, and, further away from the ecliptic, the star-positions are increasingly misleading. And, although the maker does not say so, he would also have been responsible for calibrating the globe, a necessary condition of its being used for astronomical purposes.","type":"Scientific instrument","holder":"Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art","owner":"Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art","dates":"AH 684 (AD 1285–6)","location":"London","dimensions":"Diameter: 13.4cm","place_of_production":"Iran","method_for_datation":"Dated AH 684 (AD 1285–6)","bibliography":"Maddison, F. and Savage-Smith, E., *Science, Tools & Magic. The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. XII. Part One: Body and Spirit Mapping the Universe, London: The Nour Foundation, 1997: cat.123, pp.212–13.  \n  \nRogers, J.M., *The Arts of Islam. Masterpieces from the Khalili Collection*, London: Thames & Hudson, 2010: cat.365, p.309.*","catalogue_holding_link":"https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-celestial-globe-sci21/","author":"Qaisra Khan","materials":["brass","incised and inlaid with silver"]},"3e423cff-0065-54f2-9ad6-2060de93303b":{"name":"Barometer","description":"This barometer was a fixture of the Ottoman Anatolian Railway Company (CFOA – Chemin de fer Otoman d'Anatolie), 19th century.","type":"Scientific instrument","holder":"Istanbul Railway Museum","dates":"1888","location":"Istanbul","provenance":"Istanbul","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega"},"52254363-31d0-54f5-bab4-97458eb40b9d":{"name":"Vanadinite","description":"Vanadinite crystals on matrix. Vanadinite is a vanadate mineral with the chemical formula Pb5(VO4)3Cl. This mineral species was named Vanadinite (1839) because it contains vanadium. It belongs to the Apatite group of phosphates. Crystals of vanadinite conform to the hexagonal system of symmetry. These Vanadinite crystals are short prismatic, with smooth faces and sharp hedges. Their colour is orange-red and they are nearly opaque. And they present an intense resinous lustre. Vanadinite occurs as a secondary mineral in the oxidized zone of lead-bearing deposits and it is one of the main industrial ores of the element vanadium. This sample has been collected at Mibladen Mine, Midelt, Khénifra Province, Morocco.","type":"Mineral","holder":"National Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbon","dates":"c. 1839","location":"Lisbon","provenance":"Mibladen Mine, Midelt, Morocco","author":"Liliana Póvoas (MUHNAC-UL)"},"5dff6363-db06-5f8b-a5b7-182ee09e3ba6":{"name":"Gas burner","alternate_name":"Set of Bunsen burners","description":"The object is a set of four Bunsen burners, in metal. Each burner has its own regulation valve for gas. The Bunsen Burner is still today widely used in chemistry laboratories.","type":"Scientific instrument","holder":"National Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbon","dates":"c. 1900–20","location":"Lisbon","author":"Marta C. Lourenço (MUHNAC-UL)"},"5f18b902-02aa-5f60-bcb2-d6de493dfceb":{"name":"Implement to remove teeth.","description":"An implement similar to a pair of pliers that originally would have terminated with a saw-like edge, to facilitate a dentist in pulling, for instance, a septic tooth. The metal ring around the middle of the instrument would have moved and facilitated the doctor in manoeuvring the instrument, thus allowing him a better grip on the tooth. The early Muslims excelled in medicine and surgery, including dental medicine, and they created a number of instruments, which assisted them in carrying out different surgical operations, one of which is this.  \nSurgical operations included the use of general anaesthesia. For example an anaesthetic sponge was used; soaked in hashish oil, opium and belladonna; it was then dried in the sun. When the time came it was moistened and placed on the nose of the patient where the tranquilizing substances were absorbed by the patient's tissues sending him into a deep sleep, and thereby ensuring that he remained free from pain during surgery. Surgical instruments were subjected to processes of sterilisation in order that infection would not be transferred from one patient to another, especially in dentistry where the spread of infection was more likely. At this time Abu Bakr al-Razi (AH 251–313 / AD 865-925) had already arrived at the discovery of the preparation of alcohol which was used in the sterilisation of surgical instruments.","short_description":"Not only did Muslim physicians excel in diagnosis and treatment but they also invented tools that would help surgery in general and dentistry in particular. They used different kinds of anaesthetics and sterilised their surgical tools.","type":"Teeth remover, copper","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 10 cm.","method_for_datation":"This instrument was dated based on its discovery, along with a number of other surgical instruments, in the city of Fustat. During the Abbasid period the city was well-known for its flourishing scientific movement, especially in the fields of medicine and surgery. Al-Fatih ibn Khaqan, a minister of the Abbasid caliph, al-Mutawakkil 'ala Allah (r. 232–47 / 847–61) built a hospital in Fustat in 247 / 861. Ahmad ibn Tulun (r. 254–70 / 868–84) also built the *al-'Alaa* Hospital in 254 / 868 in Fustat.","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that this instrument was produced in Egypt as it was discovered during archaeological excavations in Fustat along with a number of similar surgical instruments.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"The instrument was donated to the museum by Doctor Henry Amin 'Awad in 1975. He is a well known Egyptian specialist of skin diseases and has a wide range of interests in Islamic archaeological artefacts; he has written a number of works in this field.","bibliography":"–––––––, *Quand les sciences parlent arabe VIIIe-XVe ap. J.-C./IIe-IXe siècle H*,exhibition catalogue, Cairo, 2003.  \nFarukh, O., *Tarikh al-'ulum 'ind al-Arab \\[History of Arab Sciences\\],* Beirut, 1980.  \nHoncke, S., *Shams al-Arab tastaa' ala al-gharb \\[The Sun of the Arabs Shines on the West\\]* (Trans. Baidun, Farouq Wadso, Kamal), Beirut, 1981.  \nMuntasir, Abd al-Halim, *Tarikh al-'ilm wa dor al-'ulama al-Arab fi takadumihu \\[History of Science and the Role of Arab Scholars in its Advancement\\],* Cairo, 1980.  \n'Awad, Henry Amin, “Al-Jiraha fi al-'asr al-Islami \\[Surgery in the Islamic period\\]”, *Majalat Dirasat al-Athariya al-Islamiya \\[Journal of Islamic Archaeological Studies\\],* Vol. 3, Cairo, 1988.","author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["cast copper","hospital","medicine","Sciences","surgery","Surgical instrument"],"materials":["Cast copper."]},"707017b0-ac19-5968-8e9b-29b8a4f1aeab":{"name":"Weighing armchair","description":"Weighing armchairs were used for medical purposes. Early metabolism studies were made by weighing the test subjects before and after eating or any other activities. They were also used to weigh handicapped people and old patients who could not stand up. The chair is made of polished brown walnut wood. There are two rows of metal plates in front of the seating area. There is a decoration made by punched holes on the backside of the armchair. There is a wooden footrest attached with metal bars to the main body of the armchair. On the rear side there is a weighing mechanism.","type":"Medical material","holder":"Cerrahpaşa Medical History Museum","dates":"1890–1923","location":"Istanbul","provenance":"Istanbul","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega"},"7ef4da57-b989-5c8a-b7bd-e74673870ad0":{"name":"Aqueducts around Jericho No.7","description":"An original plan from the survey of Western Palestine showing the aqueducts bringing water from the wadies Fara, Kelt and Nuwayimeh into the Jericho oasis. These aqueducts date from the Hellenistic era onwards, and were used and added to for centuries well into the Islamic era. Note in particular how they feed into the Umayyad period Khirbet al Mafjar, a huge agricultural estate and palace, and the Mamluk period sugar mill, Tawaheen es Sukkar.","type":"Manuscript map, elevation drawings","holder":"Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF)","owner":"Palestine Exploration Fund","initial_owner":"Palestine Exploration Fund","dates":"AH 1290 / AD 1873","location":"London","place_of_production":"Palestine","method_for_datation":"Recorded dates of the survey","method_for_provenance":"Palestine Exploration Fund project","provenance":"Palestine, Survey of Western Palestine field drawing","obtention":"Created for the PEF during the survey of Western Palestine, 1872–1878","bibliography":"Warren, C., *The Survey of Western Palestine-Jerusalem*, London: Legare Street Press, 2022.","workshop":"Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF)","author":"Felicity Cobbing","copy_editor":"Judy Harter","keywords":["aqueduct","Jericho","Mamluk","photography","sugar mill"],"materials":["Paper","pen and ink","pencil"]},"7f8a48e3-b8ea-55d5-9114-484b7cc5c0a2":{"name":"*Thymus ciliatus* Benth. Presently: *Thymus munbyanus* subsp. coloratus (Boiss. & Reut.) Greuter & Burdet","alternate_name":"Moroccan wild thyme (common name)","description":"Natural History Museums were an important institution for scientific researching, exchange and circulate ideas and natural knowledge. This object is a Herbarium and the specimen was collected in Algeria, on the Lions Mountain, near Oran, in May 1850 by Giles Munby. The aromatic leaves are grey-green, covered with hairs. The pink flowers are crowded into terminal clusters. It is a drought tolerant species from NW Africa (Algeria and Morocco). It is included in the first Centuria of Plantae Algeriensis Exciccatae, distributed to different herbaria. It is used as a medicinal plant in its area of occurrence.","type":"Herbarium specimen","holder":"National Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbon","dates":"1850","location":"Lisbon","provenance":"Algeria","author":"Ana Isabel Correia (FCUL/MUHNAC-UL)"},"803bdaca-8310-5038-ad10-5c3aca20a66a":{"name":"Estácio Pharmacy","description":"Estacio Pharmacy in Porto founded in 1883 starts to produce the first pills medication, within the scientific development of the 18th century end. The preparation of manipulated medicines in the apothecaries of the Catholic monasteries  and convents (Boticas de Convento) was  replaced by the production of medicines by Laboratorial Pharmacies.","type":"Pharmacy; medical equipment","holder":"Pharmacy Museum","dates":"c. 1890–1910","location":"Porto","provenance":"Porto","author":"Paula Basso"},"80bf7d8a-befa-587f-8452-207110b874a9":{"name":"Map of the Sykes–Picot Agreement and Historical Note","description":"The lines drawn on the map and the lines drawn in the portrait bear the marks of the same authority: both the border and the identity are shaped by the tip of the pen. During the First World War, Britain and France secretly agreed, with Russia’s approval, to divide the Ottoman Middle East. With a few strokes of the pen, new frontiers were drawn across the lands once linked by the Hijaz Railway. These lines silenced local voices, fragmented communities and reshaped territories. Decisions made behind closed doors by imperial powers set the political, social and cultural course of the region for generations to come.","type":"Map","holder":"Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF)","dates":"1916","location":"Paris","dimensions":"80 x 72 cm"},"8156c3ae-ba08-58a6-9fc3-bd29004780ae":{"name":"Astrolabe of ‘Umar ibn Yusuf ibn ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali ibn Rasul al-Muzaffari","short_description":"This astrolabe is unusually well documented for an object produced during the medieval period. Its inscription attributes it to a Rasulid prince, ‘Umar ibn Yusuf, a few years before he ascended to the throne (r. 1295–96). ‘Umar compiled a number of scientific treatises, including one on the construction of astrolabes, an autographed version of which is preserved in Cairo and contains certifications by his teachers as to his competence as a maker of such devices and a description of this very piece.","type":"Metalwork","holder":"The Metropolitan Museum of Art","dates":"Dated Hegira 690 / AD 1291","location":"New York","dimensions":"Case (a): Max. W: 19.4cm, Diameter: 15.6cm, D: 0.6cm; Bar with attached nail (b): Max. H: 4.8cm, Max. W: 2.9cm, L: 12.7cm; Net (c): Diameter: 12.7cm; Plates (d-g): Diameter: 12.7cm; Pin (h): L: 4.4cm, W: 1.3cm","provenance":"Yemen","obtention":"Edward C. Moore Collection, Bequest of Edward C. Moore, 1891  \nMaker: ‘Umar ibn Yusuf ibn ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali ibn Rasul al-Muzaffari  \nFormer owner: Edward C. Moore, American, New York 1827–1891 New York, New York (until d. 1891; bequeathed to MMA)","bibliography":"Dimand, Maurice S., \"Specimens of Mohammedan Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art\", *Metropolitan Museum Studies*, 1/1 (November 1928): 107, ill. fig. 8 (b/w).  \nDjebbar, Ahmed, *L'Age d'Or des Sciences Arabes*, Paris: Institut du Monde Arabe, 2005: 98-99, no. 26, ill. fig. 26 (colour).  \nEkhtiar, Maryam, Canby, Shelia R., Haidar, Navina and Soucek, Priscilla P. (eds), *Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in The Metropolitan Museum of Art*, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011: 158-159, no. 107, ill. 158 (colour).  \nEttinghausen, Richard (ed), *The Arts of Islam. Masterpieces from The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York*, Berlin: Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz Berlin, 1981: 146-147, no. 56, ill. 147 (colour).  \nKing, David A., *Islamic Astronomy and Geography*, Farnham, England: Ashgate, 2012: 156, ill. fig. 9.6.  \nWalker, Daniel S., Ponce Guadián, Arturo, Babaie, Sussan, Carboni, Stefano, Froom, Aimee, Swietochowski, Marie Lukens, Masuya, Tomoko, Daskalakis-Matthews, Annie Christine, Kahil, Abdallah and Kessler, Rochelle, *Arte Islámico del Museo Metropolitano de Arte de Nueva York. Colegio de San Ildefonso, Septiembre de 1994-Enero de 1995*, Mexico City: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 1994: 206-207, no. 81, ill. 207 (b/w).","copyright":"The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Edward C. Moore Collection, Bequest of Edward C. Moore, 1891","keywords":["astronomical instrument","astronomy","brass","Rasulid","science","scientific object","timekeeping","Yemen"],"materials":["brass","cast and hammered","chased","inlaid with silver","pierced"]},"827d2b0c-14c4-5af4-883c-a966ae4b929e":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"This astrolabe has six plates on its obverse side with 12 location points. Only six place-names have been designated: Fez, Marrakesh, Tripoli, Egypt and the holy towns of Mecca and Medina. The whole is covered by a fretted plate equipped with curved needles that refer to 26 stars. The Arabic letters mainly represent alphabetical monograms that are executed in slender 'astronomical' *kufic*\\-style calligraphy, which is so termed because, although it disappeared from use from the AH 12th / AD 18th century, the *kufic* style remained popular for use on astronomical instruments. These monograms are placed according to a Maghrebi classification system.  \nThe reverse side features a small pivoting ruler that has two plates pierced with holes.  \nThe border on the back is divided into two quadrants, followed by the zodiac cycle, and then by a Maghrebi calendar in the Christian tradition, which is another characteristic of astrolabes from the Muslim West. It should be noted that the Muslim calendar was solely a lunar one; the fact that this astrolabe has a Christian calendar shows that, for certain times, the data was calculated in accordance with both the solar month and the lunar month.  \nThis example was kept in a woven yellow ochre pocket bag with black trimming. This type of astrolabe was very common in North Africa in the AH 11th and 12th / AD 17th and 18th centuries. Several feature signatures. Morocco was one of the main centres of production.","short_description":"Astrolabe with six plates on the front indicating location points. An openwork plate fitted with pointers bears alphabetic *kufic* figures arranged in the Maghrebian order. On the back there is a pivoting scale, two dials and a characteristic zodiac arranged according to the Christian system.","type":"Scientific instrument","holder":"National Museum of Cirta","dates":"Hegira 11th–12th century / AD 17th–18th century.","location":"Constantine","dimensions":"Diameter 13.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Comparison with similarly dated instruments.","method_for_provenance":"The slender *kufic* Maghrebi characters, the Christian calendar and the values of the monograms, distinguish it as a Moroccan astrolabe; furthermore, the names of two Moroccan towns are inscribed onto two tympana; the instrument thus probably comes from either Fez or Marrakesh.","provenance":"Marrakesh or Fez, Morocco.","bibliography":"Hartner, W., “Asturlãb”, *Encyclopédie de l'islam*, Vol. 1, pp.744–9.","author":"Houria Cherid","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"Maria Vlotides","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["astrolabe","astronomical instrument","datebook","discipline","learning","Maghrebi calendar","monogram","Planetary device","science","symbol"],"materials":["cut-out","engraved and pierced.","Yellow copper"]},"869b29bc-51fe-528b-b3a2-1d11954beeb5":{"name":"The Jami‘ al-Mabadi’ wa’l-Ghayat of al-Marrakushi","description":"Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi’s treatise, compiled c. 680 AH (AD 1281–2) in Cairo, is the most important written source for medieval Islamic astronomical instruments and includes discussions of sundials, armillary spheres, astrolabes and quadrants for determining time from solar altitude.  \n  \nIt is copied in *naskh* script with 28 lines to the page.","type":"Treatise / Compendium","holder":"Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, London","owner":"Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art","dates":"AH 1070 (AD 1659–60)","location":"London","dimensions":"30.8cm x 19.2cm","place_of_production":"Iran or India","method_for_datation":"dated AH 1070 (AD 1659–60)","bibliography":"Maddison, F. and Savage-Smith, E., *Science, Tools & Magic. The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. XII. Part One: Body and Spirit Mapping the Universe, London: The Nour Foundation, 1997: cat. 118, pp. 190-2, 200.  \n  \nRogers, J.M., *The Arts of Islam. Masterpieces from the Khalili Collection*, London: Thames & Hudson, 2010: cat. 368, p. 311.*","catalogue_holding_link":"https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-kitab-al-masalik-wal-mamalik-of-al-istakhri-mss972/","author":"Qaisra Khan","keywords":["metalwork","Ottomans","water","water-scoop"],"materials":["gold and opaque watercolour on paper","Ink","leather binding with flap"]},"885fddf1-77ce-5cb4-849f-e54d4e7280e2":{"name":"Astrolabe","short_description":"This rare astrolabe is considered to be one of the oldest known dated astrolabes from Muslim Spain. It was made by the celebrated Andalusi astrolabist, Muhammad ibn al-Saffar in Cordoba, dated 411 AH / 1020 AD as mentioned in the signature within a square space at the back of its mater. The date follows the Arabic alphanumeric system known as *abjad*. The year is marked by a combination of letters *ta-ya-alif*, that corresponds to *ta* (400), *ya* (10) and *alif* (1), which totals up to 411. The astrolabe contains six plates which correspond to two localities for each plate, among which are Makkah, Damascus, Cairo and Cordoba. The rete, on the other hand, is a new addition from the 17th-century Ottoman Turkey. The maker of this astrolabe, Muhammad ibn al-Saffar (d. 1029) made several astrolabes and other scientific instruments with at least three are known to survive and are today scattered in different museums.","type":"Metalwork","holder":"Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia","dates":"Hegira 411 / AD 1020","location":"Kuala Lumpur","dimensions":"Measurement: L: 19cm (with hinges), D: 12.2cm, T: 1.2cm","provenance":"Spain, Cordoba","materials":["Carved and engraved brass"]},"8c5bd2b7-5767-58df-9aca-d0fdbe20c4ea":{"name":"Portable pharmacy","description":"The Arab world was a territory to discover but with a individual pharmacy travel case in order to face different diseases.","type":"Pharmacy; medical equipment","holder":"Pharmacy Museum","dates":"c. 1880–1900","location":"Lisbon","provenance":"Italy","author":"Paula Basso"},"90784455-0cab-5e8d-b78a-45d2891efa16":{"name":"Universal astrolabe","short_description":"The astrolabe was made by Ahmad ibn al-Sarraj for Muhammad al-Tanukhi in the year of the Hijra 729. The border of the disc is inscribed with the names of four owners, two of them are named *muwaqqit* i.e. astronomers employed for religious purposes. It is the only known specimen of an Islamic universal astrolabe. Ahmad ibn al-Sarraj probably lived in Aleppo in the early 14th century and he is the author of treatises on mathematics and astronomy.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"Benaki Museum","dates":"Hegira 729 / AD 1328-29","location":"Athens","dimensions":"Diameter 20 cm","provenance":"Syria, probably Aleppo","keywords":["Ahmad ibn al-Sarraj","astrolabe","metalwork"],"materials":["brass"]},"90e620af-4d11-5f42-a4a6-000de55134c6":{"name":"Illusionist Collages to be deciphered obliquely","description":"Two pictures made from coloured paper strips, exactingly juxtaposed and glued in successive layers, and strategically placed to allow different images to appear from distinct angles. Both pictures, which once belonged to the Cabinet of Physics of the Colégio de Nobres were used to illustrate visual effects. A seated young boy playing cards and a man laughing can be seen in one picture. In the other picture one of three images can be observed in succession from different angles: a woman playing a fife, a boy sitting at a table feeding his dog and an old usurer. Both pictures are framed in black painted wood, ornamented with gold motifs and protected with a glass. The set can be removed from the frame by opening a side lock and pulling a ring-pull.","short_description":"Two pictures that when observed from different angles change to another image are an example of optical phenomena of 18th-century physics. In one of the pictures two images appear and in the other three images are discerned.","type":"Didactic instrument","holder":"Museum of Physics, University of Coimbra","owner":"Physics and Science Museum, University of Coimbra","initial_owner":"*Colégio de Nobres* (College of Noblemen)","dates":"Before 1768","location":"Coimbra, Coimbra","dimensions":"H: 28 cm; w: 35 cm; d: 3 cm","place_of_production":"Lisbon (?)","method_for_datation":"These two pictures are mentioned in an inventory of the Colégio de Nobres’, undated. They were probably executed between 1766 and 1768.","provenance":"Cabinet of Physics","obtention":"These pictures once belonged to the Cabinet of Physics of the Colégio de Nobres in Lisbon and were transferred to the University of Coimbra in 1773.","bibliography":"Dalla Bella, G. A., *Index Instrumentorum*, 26 de Julho de 1788.  \nSilva, M, A., \"Um novo museu em Coimbra: O museu pombalino de Física que a reforma pombalina criou em 1772\", *Revista da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade*, 1940, Vol. IX, No. 1.  \nCarvalho, R., *História do Gabinete de Física da Universidade de Coimbra*, Coimbra, 1978, pp. 540–541.","copyright":"Copyright images: Museu de Física da Universidade de Coimbra.","author":"Ermelinda Antunes","translator":"Manuel Silva Pereira","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Colégio de Nobres","education","optics","physics cabinet","science","Scientific instruments","university"],"materials":["paper and glass","Wood"]},"91a520f6-9937-54cd-a224-0a3b83e3587f":{"name":"Azurite","description":"Two aggregates of azurite prismatic crystals with a radial distribution. Azurite is a copper carbonate mineral, of chemical formula Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2. Its name comes from the antiquity for its deep blue colour after the Arabian azure that came from the Persian lazhward. Azurite crystals conform to the monoclinic system of symmetry. In this sample they are prismatic, opaque and their faces present striations. The lustre is vitreous. Azurite was used as a blue pigment for centuries, providing a wide range of blues. It is also used as jewellery and as an ornamental stone. As a secondary mineral found in the oxidized portions of copper deposits, the presence of Azurite is a good surface indicator of the presence of copper ores. This sample was collected at the Touissit Mine, near Oudja, Morocco.","type":"Mineral","holder":"National Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbon","dates":"c. 1920","location":"Lisbon","provenance":"Morocco","author":"Liliana Póvoas (MUHNAC-UL)"},"940d00ac-1015-5d53-8ce3-ab0f77662dcf":{"name":"Ain es Sultan, 50 sq. miles","description":"An original field map from the Survey of Western Palestine showing the water courses feeding into the Jordan Valley and River in the Jericho oasis.","type":"Manuscript map","holder":"Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF)","owner":"Palestine Exploration Fund","initial_owner":"Palestine Exploration Fund","dates":"AH 1290 / AD 1873","location":"London","place_of_production":"Palestine","method_for_datation":"Recorded dates of the survey.","method_for_provenance":"Palestine Exploration Fund project.","provenance":"Palestine, Survey of Western Palestine field map","obtention":"Created for the PEF during the Survey of Western Palestine, AH 1872 - 1282 / AD 1872–1878","bibliography":"Warren, C., *The Survey of Western Palestine-Jerusalem*, London: Legare Street Press, 2022.","workshop":"Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF)","author":"Felicity Cobbing","copy_editor":"Judy Harter","keywords":["aqueduct","Jericho","Mamluk","Map","Survey","Umayyad"],"materials":["pen and ink","pencil","Tracing paper"]},"9892afbf-5858-5187-a107-9629faacf1c5":{"name":"Astrolabe","short_description":"This bronze astrolabe was made in the early 19th century during the Qajar period in Iran. For many centuries astrolabes were used as universal instruments by astronomers, surveyors, and astrologers, serving as both a timer and a calendar. However, they were most commonly owned by the wealthy for representative purposes as a decorative object.  \nThe astrolabe consists of three elements: the mater, the rete, and the alidade. The *mater*, a bronze disk which serves as a base, holds the instrument's individual parts together. The front surface of the disk is concave with an ornamented rim; this particular astrolabe has a map on its *mater*. The *rete*, placed on top the *mater*, acts as a star chart, indicating the positions of the stars, and in this instance is decorated with a zodiac ring, engraved flowers, and star names. The alidade can be aligned to measure the altitude of the sun or a star in the sky. The astrolabe is divided into four zones by ornamented, concentric circles; rectangles fill the space between the circles, each of which are filled with numbers and characters. On the other side, the gradation and height scale of the pointed star or point can be determined. To hang or to hold the astrolabe, a movable ring is attached. The front of the base is decorated with an inscription panel; the back side has engraved floral garlands as decoration. This inscription is dedicated to Fath-Ali Shah.","type":"Metalwork","holder":"MKG Museum for Applied Arts","dates":"Hegira ca. 13th century / AD early 19th century","location":"Hamburg","dimensions":"Diameter: 23.5cm","method_for_datation":"Dated through the inscription.","method_for_provenance":"Purchased at the auction Spitzer, Paris, (Cat.No.2892).","provenance":"Iran","obtention":"Purchased in 1893.","bibliography":"King, D. A., *In Synchrony with the Heavens. Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization. Instruments of Mass Calculation Theology and Science*, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, 2005.  \nNeubauer, E. and Sezgin, F., *Wissenschaft und Technik im Islam*, vol. 2, Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften an der Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, 2003.","copy_editor":"Caitlin Link","keywords":["astrolabe","Astrolabium","science"],"materials":["Bronze","Engraving"]},"98b9d80b-38b8-5e8a-a9b7-1a6d821098d6":{"name":"Fragment of a box with a combination lock","short_description":"This combination lock is the work of the astrolabe-maker Muhammad ibn Hamid al-Asturlabi al-Isfahani in 597 H.  \nThe four double dials, each of which can be set in 16 positions, allows for 4,294,967,296 combinations. When the right combination is entered, it releases the inner metal plate, attached both to an external handle and to the locking mechanism itself.","type":"Box, metal work , cast, silver, copper","holder":"The David Collection","dates":"Hegira 597 / AD 1200–1201","location":"Copenhagen","provenance":"Iran, Isfahan?","keywords":["Box","brass","cast","figurative decoration","science","scientific object"],"materials":["Cast and hammered brass","inlaid with silver and copper"]},"9bc4738a-149f-58cd-8ef4-babead8e025c":{"name":"Planispheric Astrolabe","short_description":"A planispheric astrolabe with a flat brass disk, a triangular projection at the top (*kursi*), and two suspension rings. Six plates sit inside it, held in place with an openwork star map (*ankabut*), which is fastened to the ruler on the verso with a horse that projects outward. This astrolabe is exact in scientific detail and contains the requisite inscriptions and tables without superfluity. The front of the instrument contains a movable star chart or rete (*ankabut* in Arabic), with 42 leaves pointing to the stars and with a smaller off-center circle representing the elliptic. Behind the rete is placed a brass disk inscribed with circles of equal altitude for a particular observer. Thirty nested circles, beginning with the horizon and reaching the point of the zenith, indicate circles of equal altitude on the sky, each three degrees higher than the one outside it. Additional arcs on the plate divide the sky in azimuth, and below the horizon parts of still more circles display the equal and unequal hours used for time reckoning.  \nBecause a plate applies to a particular latitude only, a variety of plates are generally provided; an unusually large number, six plates, each inscribed on both sides, are included with this astrolabe. Five of the plates serve for the following pairs of latitudes: 18 and 20 degrees; 22 and 24 degrees; 28 and 30 degrees; 32 and 34 degrees; 36 and 38 degrees (the designer omitted 26 degrees because no major town in the Middle East falls near this latitude). The plates for the latitudes of Persia (32, 34 and 36 degrees) have particularly elaborate decorations surrounding the inscriptions. The sixth plate contains on one side a typical \"tablet of horizons\" and on the other a grid of ecliptic coordinates.  \nUnderneath all the plates, in the so-called \"womb\" of the astrolabe, is a gazetteer containing the longitudes and latitudes of 46 towns; in addition it lists the azimuth of Mecca, and for the innermost series also the direction to Mecca.  \nA moveable index for measuring the altitudes of the sun or stars, called an alidade, is fastened on the back side of the instrument; on this astrolabe the alidade is not decorated and is either unfinished or, more likely, a later replacement. Similarly, the \"horse\" that holds the alidade and plates in place is also a replacement. On the upper part of the back side, within the decorative bracket called the \"*kursi*,\" a hole has been drilled for a magnetic compass, which is now missing.  \nThe entire back surface of the astrolabe combines calligraphy with a compact assortment of astronomical graphs and tables. The finely calibrated upper left quadrant gives sines and cosines, whereas the rectangular \"shadow box\" below the center yields tangents. The almost vertical arcs in the upper right quadrant show the seasonal height of the noon-day sun for various latitudes, and the nearly horizontal arcs give the seasonal height of the sun when it is in the azimuth of Mecca as seen from seven cities: Tus, Yazd, Isfahan, Qazvin, Basra, Baghdad and Shiraz. Semicircular tables on the lower quadrants consist of the decorated names of the zodiacal signs, flanked on the inside by the astrological \"faces\" and lunar mansions and on the outside by the astrological \"limits\" and the list of planets ruling each of the limits. Within this shadow box is a 4 x 10 grid of symbols exhibiting the astrological triplicities of zodiacal signs as well as the planetary lords of the signs by day and by night.","type":"Metalwork","holder":"Saint Louis Art Museum","dates":"Hegira 1127 / AD 1715","location":"Saint Louis","dimensions":"Height: 28.3cm, Width: 18.4cm, Depth: 3.5cm","method_for_datation":"Scholarly review and/or comparison to similar objects from the period.","method_for_provenance":"Astrolabes were used for astronomical and mathematical calculations. This one is signed by two famous astrolabe makers who worked both together and separately in the Iranian city of Isfahan.","provenance":"Isfahan, Iran, Asia","obtention":"Museum Purchase, 1926","keywords":["Asia","astrolabe","brass","Iran","Isfahan","metalwork","Persian"],"materials":["brass"]},"9dd60e86-bef2-5b84-bc64-d726595a61b1":{"name":"Armillary sphere from the Grammar School, Varaždin","description":"An armillary sphere used as an astrological instrument to teach the distances between planets and stars and to measure time in the Jesuit Grammar School in Varaždin. Engraved on the ring of the sphere are the signs of the Zodiac.  \nThe grammar school, founded by the Jesuit order in 1636, continued under the headship of the order until 1773 when Pope Clement XIV extinguished the order with his Bull of Suppression. The curriculum at the school was according to the Jesuit system and teaching was in Latin. Immediately after the suppression of the Jesuits, by decree of Empress Maria Theresia the Bishop of Zagreb, Josip Galjuf, took over the grammar school in Varaždin and other schools in Croatia and Slavonia. He appointed Anton Rajšp, former Jesuit and doctor of theology, as head of the grammar school. The Pauline order took over the school in 1776 but after suppression of the order by decree of Emperor Joseph II, Anton Rajšp became the head of the school again.","short_description":"An armillary sphere used as an astrological instrument to teach the distances between planets and stars and to measure time in the Jesuit Grammar School in Varaždin. Engraved on the ring of the sphere are the signs of the Zodiac.  \nFounded by the Jesuit order in 1636, the school continued under the headship of the order until 1773 when Pope Clement XIV extinguished the order with his Bull of Suppression. By decree of Empress Maria Theresia the Bishop of Zagreb, Josip Galjuf, took over the grammar school and other schools in Croatia and Slavonia. He appointed Anton Rajšp, former Jesuit and doctor of theology, as head of the grammar school.","type":"Timepiece","holder":"City Museum, Varaždin","dates":"First half of the 18th century","location":"Varaždin, North-West Croatia","dimensions":"H: 30 cm; diameter: 32 cm","method_for_datation":"The object is dated by an inscription.","provenance":"From the former Jesuit Grammar School in Varaždin","obtention":"From the former Jesuit Grammar School in Varaždin.","bibliography":"Klemm, M., *Stari satovi u muzejima sjeverozapadne Hrvatske* (Old clocks in the Museum of North-West Croatia), exhibition catalogue, Varaždin, 1990.  \n*Od svagdana do blagdana. Barok u Hrvatskoj. Katalog izložbe* (From Everyday to Holidays: Baroque in Croatia), exhibition catalogue, Zagreb, 1993, p. 317.  \nTežak, S., *Povijesni pregled varaždinskih škola u 18. stoljeću. 300 godina Uršulinki u Varaždinu* (Historical Survey of Schools in Varaždin in the Eighteenth Century: Three Hundred Years of the Ursulines in Varaždin), Zagreb-Varaždin, 2003.","author":"Ljerka Šimunić","translator":"Nikolina Jovanović","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["astronomical instrument","astronomy","education","Jesuit","Jesuit Grammar School","religious schools","science","scientific instrument","scientific object","teaching"],"materials":["brass","Paper","Wood"]},"9f4dd257-a6bc-5852-b6b1-45af52c3e4f7":{"name":"Military Medical kit of Carol Davila","description":"In the second half of the 19th century, French doctor Carol Davila played an important role in the development of the Romanian medical system. He came to Bucharest in 1853, sent by the French government at the request of Wallachian prince Barbu Stirbei who needed a specialist to form well trained Romanian doctors. Davila was named medic of the army and later general inspector of the country’s sanitary service and he was the founder of a medicine and pharmacy school. Among other decorations he received for his activity, he was awarded two Ottoman ones (the Orders of Medjidie and of Osmanie), the first for curing Ottoman soldiers who contracted cholera during the Ottoman occupation of Wallachia (1855), and the other for treating wounded Ottoman soldiers during the Russian-Ottoman war of 1877-1878.","type":"Medical kit","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"1877–1878","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"France"},"9f4ec4b3-5bb8-51d7-b82f-ba92ec74033b":{"name":"Spoon.","alternate_name":"Medical implement to press down the tongue.","description":"An implement that resembles a spoon, with one end that has a flattened oval shape. The object was probably used by doctors during the examination of the mouth and throat and in the course of surgery to remove the tonsils. Excavations which took place in the city of Fustat – the first capital of Islamic Egypt established by Amr ibn al-'As in the year AH 21 / AD 641 – revealed a large cache of surgical instruments, considered to be the oldest extant of their kind. Instruments similar to those which were uncovered in Fustat have appeared in the descriptions of the surgeon from al-Andalus, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf bin al-'Abbas al-Zahrawi (AH 329–404 / AD 940–1013), in his surgical encyclopaedia, *Al-Tasrif liman 'ajaz 'an al-Taalif*, considered the richest and largest source of surgical knowledge of the period, and an important medical and surgical reference book in the centuries that followed. The encyclopaedia contains more than 150 illustrations of surgical instruments with detailed descriptions about using them in different surgical operations.","short_description":"Muslim physicians knew surgery and practised it. This tool demonstrates that physicians gave much importance to medicine and medical tools in various areas of treatment and how they developed them. A detailed description of these tools can be found in the book of al-Zahrawi, an Andalusian surgeon.","type":"Spoon, copper","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 12.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The implement is dated based on information from various historical sources that attest to the flourishing state of medicine and associated sciences during the Abbasid period.","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that the object was produced in Egypt, since it was discovered in the city of Fustat. Furthermore, the flourishing state of the sciences, especially medicine, and the numerous hospitals in Egypt during this time make an Egyptian provenance likely.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"The object was donated to the museum by Doctor Henry Amin 'Awad in 1975. As a scholar he is greatly interested in the study of human heritage, especially the Islamic arts, and he has made a number of studies in this field.","bibliography":"Abd al-Rahim, Abd al-Rahim Khalaf, *Al-Adawat Jirahiya wa al-Awani al-Tibiya fi al-'asr al-Islami min al-Qarn al-Awal hatta al-Qarn al-Tasi' lil Hijra \\[Surgical Instruments and Medical Vessels in the Islamic Period from the First Century to the Ninth Century\\],* MA thesis, University of Cairo, 1999.  \n–––––––, **Quand les sciences parlent arabe VIIIe-XVe ap. J.-C./IIe-IXe siècle H*,* Cairo, exhibition catalogue, 2003.  \nHoncke, *S.,Shams al-Arab tastaa' ala al-gharb \\[Sun of the Arabs Shines on the West\\] (Trans.* Baidun, Farouq Wadso, Kamal), *Beirut, 1981.*  \n'Awad, H. A., “Al- Jiraha fi al-'asr al-Islami \\[Surgery in the Islamic Period\\]”, *Majalat al-Dirasat al-Islamiya \\[Journal of Islamic Studies\\],* Vol. 3, Cairo, 1988, p.273.","author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["cast copper","Copper","hospital","medical instrument","medicine","Sciences","surgery","Surgical instrument"],"materials":["Cast copper."]},"a3cbcd9b-cf11-5b68-9f33-19a8c46c9df8":{"name":"Map of the Ottoman province (vilayet) of Damascus marking the Hijaz Railway line in red.","description":"The map is part of the Pocket Atlas of the Ottoman Lands: The Geographical and Statistical Conditions of the Ottoman State. It depicts the territories extending from the Hama region in the north through Damascus, the Hauran, and Jordan to the northern Hijaz. A red line begins at Hama and continues southward, representing the Hijaz Railway. A western branch extends toward the Mediterranean coast, corresponding to the railway connection between the main line and Haifa. The principal heading reads سوريه ولايتى, Vilayet of Syria. The vilayet was the principal provincial administrative unit established under the Ottoman provincial reforms of the nineteenth century. Vilayets were divided into sanjaks, and beneath the title the map identifies the four sanjaks of Damascus, Hama, Hauran, and Karak.","type":"Map, pocket atlas","holder":"Wolf-Dieter Lemke Collection","owner":"Wolf-Dieter Lemke Collection","dates":"AH 1324 / AD 1905","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height: 14,2 cm; width: 9,3 cm","provenance":"Collection of Wolf-Dieter Lemke, Berlin","bibliography":"Masters, Bruce, *The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516–1918: A Social and Cultural History*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.","copy_editor":"Danielle Morcom","keywords":["Hijaz","Map","Syria","trainline","Türkiye"],"materials":["Paper","printed coloured pocket atlas"]},"a43858e3-8e59-51e3-a4ad-791bad0297de":{"name":"AC generator","description":"In 1891, Charles Brown of Great Britain and Walter Boveri of Germany started an electrical engineering business in canton of Aargau. During its first year, Brown, Boveri & Co. had 70 employees. Only ten years later, that number had grown to over 1500. This steep increase was partly due to the success of the alternating current generator which the company began to produce in 1895. Europe was just discovering the benefits of electricity and demand was growing by the day. Switzerland had been an immigration country for generations and offered its new residents opportunities to realise their entrepreneurial dreams. In addition to Brown and Boveri, these immigrant entrepreneurs included the Austrian Carl Franz Bally, the founder of the shoe factory that bears his name, as well as the German pharmacist Henri Nestlé. Other famous brands like Rolex, Maggi, and Hero also owe their existence to the initiative of immigrants. The Jacobs, Hayeks, and Huxleys of this world continue to drive the Swiss economy to this day – just like a powerful generator.","type":"Generator","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Regionalwerke AG Baden","dates":"1895","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 123,5cm, W: 182cm, D: 109,5cm, Weight: 2,5 tons","method_for_datation":"Production of this Type of Generator began in 1895 in Baden","provenance":"Switzerland, Baden, canton of Aargau","obtention":"Depository of Regionalwerke AG Baden, 2009","workshop":"Brown Boveri SA","keywords":["Baden","Boveri","brown","Electricity","Generator"],"materials":["copper","steel"]},"a8a7b007-ba46-517e-94a2-c79734028dc9":{"name":"Surgical scalpel.","description":"A surgical scalpel with a long handle tends in a sharp blade; the blade is less thick and less narrow than the handle. Excavations which took place in the city of Fustat – the first capital of Islamic Egypt established by Amr ibn al-'As in the year AH 21 / AD 641 – revealed a large cache of surgical instruments, considered to be the oldest extant of their kind. This collection demonstrates Islamic Egypt's remarkable progress in the fields of medicine and surgery.  \nThe Muslims excelled in the field of surgery from the early Islamic period. Historical sources and manuscripts provide information about the advancement of medical surgery in all parts of the Islamic world. Perhaps the doctor from al-Andalus, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Zahrawi (AH 329–404 / AD 940–1013), is the most famous of the Muslim surgeons. He advised that surgeons should be familiar with anatomy and he emphasised the necessity of dissection as a means of acquiring knowledge of the human body, whereby the reasons for death could be ascertained and the benefits of seeing similar cases were exploited. Al-Zahrawi's most famous work is his encyclopaedia, *Al-Tasrif liman 'ajaz 'an al-Taalif,* which describes and illustrates more than 150 surgical instruments. When undertaking surgical operations Muslim surgeons took special care to sterilise the site of the operation; Al-Zahrawi demonstrated several ways to make a sterile environment in his encyclopaedia.  \nSurgical operations included the use of general anaesthesia. For example an anaesthetic sponge was used; soaked in hashish oil, opium, ray-grass, henbane and belladonna; it was then dried in the sun. When the time came it was moistened and placed on the nose of the patient where the tranquilizing substances were absorbed by the patient's tissues sending him into a deep sleep, thereby ensuring that the patient remained free from pain during surgery. Muslim surgeons used surgical thread made from animal gut such as cat gut. Al-Zahrawi taught his students how to sew up wounds with magical interior-stitching similar to that used in cosmetic surgery today. Al-Zahrawi's encyclopaedia covers cosmetic surgery, such as rectifying disfigurements to the lip, ear, nose, and he discusses surgery on the blood vessels. Muslim doctors practiced procedures of setting fractured bones and used splints and dressings for the treatment of fractured skulls, arms and shoulders. Perhaps the huge numbers of medical and surgical instruments extant demonstrate the extraordinary progress in the field of medicine and surgery in the Islamic world in the early period.","short_description":"This scalpel, discovered in the city of Fustat among a large collection of surgical tools, is proof of the wide variety of tools used by Muslim physicians in treatment and surgery.","type":"Scalpel, copper","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Cairo","dimensions":"Length 16.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The dating of this scalpel is based on information available in historical sources which relates to progress in the fields of medicine and surgery in Egypt during the Abbasid period. Furthermore, by comparison; in analysing illustrations of surgical instruments in al-Zahrawi's encyclopaedia, *al-Tasrif liman 'ajaz 'an al-Taalif* along with other contemporary medical works, with the instrument seen here.","method_for_provenance":"It is likely that the scalpel, along with the other surgical instruments discovered during archaeological excavations that took placed in the city of Fustat, were made in Egypt for there are no indications from the historical sources that instruments such as these were imported from outside the region. This is in addition to the fact that the fields of medicine and surgery flourished in Egypt during this period.","provenance":"Egypt.","obtention":"This object was discovered during the course of archaeological excavations, which took place at Fustat.","bibliography":"–––––––, **Quand les sciences parlent arabe VIIIe-XVe ap. J.-C./IIe-IXe siècle H**,exhibition catalogue,Cairo, 2003.  \n–––––––, “Catalogue Ishamat al-Hadara al-'Arabiya wa al-Islamiya fi al-'ulum al-Tibiya \\[Catalogue of the Contributions of Arab Civilization to the Medical Sciences\\]” *Makhtutat Dar al-Kutub al-Masriya \\[Manuscripts of the Dar al-Kutub al-Masriiya\\], Cairo, 2002.*  \nSayour, S. A., “La Medicina en la Epoca Islamica”, *Prisma, Magazine of the Ministry of Culture,* Cairo, No. 12, 2001, p.49.  \n'Awad, H. A., “Al-Jiraha fi al-'asr al-Islami \\[Surgery in the Islamic Period\\]”, *Majalat Dirasat al-Athariya al-Islamiya \\[Journal of Islamic Archaeological Studies\\],* Vol. 3, Cairo, 1988.","author":"Salah Sayour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Amal Sachedina (from the Arabic).","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Copper","cosmetic","medicine","scalpel","surgery","Surgical instrument"],"materials":["Cast copper."]},"a8f4d9df-4a01-55fb-98f5-9b27f994af97":{"name":"Pharmacy bottles","description":"To travel with «quina» – cinchona plant – to the non European territories was really mandatory for health reasons, specially to attack malaria disease.","type":"Bottles; medical equipment","holder":"Pharmacy Museum","dates":"c. 1890–1910","location":"Lisbon","provenance":"Germany","author":"Paula Basso"},"a9f4d4b8-28f3-5859-9dd0-a35478d37a9f":{"name":"Planispheric astrolabe","short_description":"This planispheric astrolabe was, as an inscription on its back states, made by Hamid ibn al-Khidr al-Khujandi, an eminent astronomer and mathematician at the court of the Buyid ruler Fakhr al-Dawla (r. AH 366-387 /AD 977-997). The rete of this particular astrolabe has markers for 33 stars, six of which are shown by the beaks of stylised birds. Markings on the back suggest that it may have been designed for use in Baghdad, possibly by another member of the Buyid family.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art","dates":"Hegira 374 / AD 984-985","location":"Doha","dimensions":"Height: 21.1 cm, width:15.1 cm, depth:3.1 cm","provenance":"Iran, Rayy or Iraq, Baghdad","obtention":"Martine-Marie-Pol, Comtesse de Béhague (1870–1939); Jean-Louis, Marquis de Ganay (1922–2013) until  \n1970; Alain Brieux (1922–1985) in Paris until 1976; Jasim al-Homaizi Collection until 1999; sold to Qatar Museums","bibliography":"Allan, James W., *Metalwork Treasures from the Islamic Courts*, London: The Islamic Art Society, 2002.  \n  \nGonnella, Julia, et al, *Museum of Islamic Art: The Collection*, London: Thames & Hudson, 2022.  \n  \nSeipel, Joseph H., *God is Beautiful and Loves Beauty: The object in Islamic Art and Culture*, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013.  \n  \nSoueif, Ahdaf, *Reflections on Islamic Art*, Doha: Bloomsbury Qatar Foundation Publishing, 2011.","author":"Tara Desjardins","keywords":["astrolabe","astronomy","Buyid","Hamid ibn al-Khidr al-Khujandi","Iran","Iraq","metalwork","science"],"materials":["Black compund","brass","Casting","Engraving","Iron","openwork","Riveting"]},"aa3d92ab-8ac6-563e-ac59-78aeb1947c64":{"name":"Snow cannon","description":"«Switzerland’s peaks are virtually devoid of snow, but in Savognin the snow falls from clear skies» wrote the newspaper Bündner Tagblatt on 9 December 1978. On that day, ten snow cannons provided enough snow for a three-kilometre piste on a green slope in the canton of Graubünden. When the first major artificial snow-blowing system in Europe went into operation, this marked the dawn of a new era in winter tourism. The snow cannons that caused a stir at the time are taken for granted today in every skiing resort of any size. Snow cannons were invented in Canada in 1940, when a team of researchers was studying the icing up of jet engines in a wind tunnel. While spraying water into a running turbine at sub-zero temperatures, the scientists had to contend with an undesirable side-effect: snow, which kept accumulating at the rear of the wind tunnel. What was an annoyance to those early researchers later became one of the biggest innovations in sports.","type":"Snow cannon","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"1978","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 60cm, L: 48.5cm, W: 28cm, Diameter: 9.5cm","method_for_datation":"Documents","provenance":"Savognin, Switzerland","obtention":"Donated in 2003","keywords":["Canton of Graubünden","Canton of Grison","Climate Change","Savognin","Skiing","Snow","Snow cannon","Sports","Switzerland"],"materials":["Aluminium pipe with two jets"]},"aac7ff4c-14c4-5608-abb0-fe70488c219b":{"name":"Breguet travel clock","description":"Organisers of major sporting events, mountaineers, and even astronauts rely on Swiss timepieces today. In the past, military strategists who made history swore by Swiss clocks. For example, Napoleon Bonaparte used a pocket watch by Abraham-Louis Breguet at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. The clients of the watchmaker from the canton of Neuchâtel included not only the French general, but also his opponents: Both the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher devised their battle strategies with Breguet watches in their pockets. Apparently Breguet was more concerned with sales than with Swiss neutrality! Incidentally, Napoleon was a real Breguet fan and owned a total of three Breguet timepieces. The only one that has survived, however, is a travel clock kept in the Swiss National Museum.","type":"Clock","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"AD 1796","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 11cm, W: 7,8cm, D: 5,8cm","method_for_datation":"Documents","provenance":"France, Paris","obtention":"Donated in 1991","keywords":["Abraham-Louis Breguet","Clock","Napoleon Bonaparte","Paris"],"materials":["Bronze","gilded"]},"ab91307f-d3d5-5f2a-88d0-9f2eb6934a29":{"name":"Qibla directional plate.","description":"Muslims must face the *qibla*, the direction of the Ka'ba in the city of Mecca, while praying. They therefore often need instruments to help pinpoint the direction of the Ka'ba. This plate is one such instrument. Its base is a round and flat area that has a circle of semi-vertical columns on it. Recorded around the centre of the circle is the name of the craftsperson and the place in which it was made (“made by Sayyid Thabit in Damascus”). Emanating from the centre towards the rim are tables in the form of a sequence of rings. These rings contain the names of a number of cities in three bands (Damascus, Baghdad, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Tehran, Kabul …), in addition to alphabets corresponding to numbers that indicate degrees of angles. The inner circumference of the plate's rim is marked by units, each of which is equivalent to five degrees and also the four cardinal directions (east, west, north, south), which are set in half circles.  \nThe exterior surface of the rim contains a two-line explanation in Arabic on how to use the instrument. In between these two lines are four medallions in which it is indicated that the plate was made by order of Sultan Salim I \"the triumphant champion of justice and supreme ruler \\[khaqan\\] who is the son of the supreme ruler, king of the two lands and the two seas, and servant of the two sanctuaries, may God immortalise his rule\". All this information is registered in black *kufic* script on a white background, and is covered with a transparent glaze.","short_description":"The scientific diagram inscribed on this ceramic dish served an important function. A schematic arrangement of city names and trigonometric data help the user to establish the orientation of the Ka'ba in Mecca and thus the direction of prayer. It was especially useful when travelling.","type":"Ottoman ceramics, glazed","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Sultan Salim I (also Selim, r. AH 918–26 / AD 1512–20).","dates":"Hegira 918–26 / AD 1512–20.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Width 3.5 cm, diameter 18.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the plate indicates that it was made by order of Sultan Salim I, (r. 918–26 / 1512–20).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the plate indicates that it was made in Damascus.","provenance":"Damascus, Syria.","obtention":"Purchased in 1935.","bibliography":"Cluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.441.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Baghdad","ceramics","Constantinople","Damascus","determining qibla direction","earthenware","Jerusalem","Ka'ba","Kabul","Mecca","prayer","Prayers","qibla","Sayyid Thabit","Sultan Salim (Selim)","Tehran","transparent glaze"],"materials":["and a transparent glaze.","Earthenware with black and blue paint on a white base"]},"b4c26e22-f7f2-5d49-aaea-80ad69f658de":{"name":"Silver pocket watch with chain and key","short_description":"The enamelled clock face of this pocket watch has an image of a Hijaz-railway engine and the Ottoman coat-of-arms. This was likely to have been made for an Ottoman official involved in the building of the railway.","type":"Watch; pocket watch","holder":"Khalili Family Trust – Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage Collection","dates":"Early 20th century AD","location":"London","dimensions":"Diameter: 5.5cm; bow & chain: 38cm","method_for_datation":"The Hijaz Railway was constructed between 1900 and 1908.","provenance":"Turkey","bibliography":"Nicholson, J., *The Hejaz railway*, London: Stacey International, 2005.","author":"Qaisra Khan","keywords":["Clock","engineering","hajj","Hijaz","Hijaz Railway","Holy place","Ka'ba","Mecca","Medina","Mosque","pilgrimage","Pilgrimage route","prayer","Prophet Muhammad","Religion","silver","travel"],"materials":["enamel","Silver"]},"b588456d-6066-57a5-856e-b4b1770386d5":{"name":"Plaster cast panel for microbiological education","description":"Maquettes were used in medical education in the Ottoman Empire before a western education system was adopted. The maquettes were commissioned abroad and before working on cadavers, models and moulages were used in classes. Maquettes prepared by Dr. Auzoux in Paris were first taken to Marseilles in boxes, then shipped to İstanbul from there. This example was made of plaster and contains examples of amoeba. There are Roman numerals under each example. On the lower left of the panel one can read \"Établissements Auzoux, Rue de Vaugirard, Paris”.","type":"Medical material","holder":"Cerrahpaşa Medical History Museum","dates":"1820–1840","location":"Istanbul","provenance":"France","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega"},"b755f317-188a-5599-8821-1c6c3bb2c776":{"name":"*The Anatomical Waxes of the Istituto delle Scienze*","alternate_name":"Wax statue representing a naked man (Adam); wax statue representing a naked woman (Eve); wax statue representing a skinned man (“scorticato”); wax statue of a man showing superficial and deep muscles; wax statue of a man showing deep muscles; wax skele...","description":"The eighteenth-century was an especially lucky age for Bolognese wax artists thanks to the renovated intellectual life in town. Originally for the creation of ephemera as well as for long-lasting works. This art was generally employed for scientific purposes, by doctors, as they needed to study the delicate intricacies of the human body. In 1742 Pope Benedict XIV commissioned Ercole Lelli, a professor of the local Academy of Fine Arts, to create a group of anatomical waxes for study purposes for the room of Anatomy in the *Istituto delle Scienze*. Lelli had to mould eight statues on natural scale including a naked man and woman, and six skinned figures in order to emphasise the different muscular layers. The series is composed of more than 40 anatomical waxes representing muscles and bones. A century later professor Michele Medici wrote that Lelli used two human skeletons for his skinned men, arranged and modelled the different muscles with a mixture of hemp, wax, bran and turpentine then moulded the muscles in the right places, from life. Lelli said that the human body, known through the dissection of corpses, was the main interest of artistic anatomy. Every single detail was carefully studied and analysed; even the statues attitudes, especially in the nudes, were made to emphasise the superficial muscles.","short_description":"The eight anatomical statues realised by Ercole Lelli, include the 52 anatomical waxes (30 of them are about muscles and 20 about bones). Lelli planned the furnishings of the anatomy room; designing elegant cabinets with glass panes, perfect for housing the anatomical waxes, alternating with showcases where the statues could be easily studied from each point of view.","type":"Anatomical waxes","holder":"Musei di Palazzo Poggi, Anatomical waxes Museum, Institute of normal anatomy, University of Bologna","owner":"University of Bologna","initial_owner":"*Istituto delle Scienze*","dates":"1742–1751","location":"Bologna, Emilia-Romagna","dimensions":"Adam: h cm. 161; Eve: h cm. 147; skinned man: h cm. 163; Statue with deep and superficial muscles: h cm. 158; Statue with deep muscles: h cm. 154; Statue with skeletal muscles: h cm. 164; female skeleton: h cm. 163; male skeleton: h cm. 182","place_of_production":"Bologna","method_for_datation":"Documents.","provenance":"Museo di “notomia umana” – *Istituto delle Scienze*","obtention":"In original place.","bibliography":"*I materiali dell'Istituto delle Scienze*, Bologna, 1979.  \n*Le cere anatomiche bolognesi del Settecento*(exhibition catalogue), Bologna, 1981.  \nResidori, G. in *Rappresentare il corpo. Arte e anatomia da Leonardo all'Illuminismo* (exhibition catalogue) (ed. G. Olmi), Bologna, 2004, pp. 316-318.  \nFalabella, S. “Lelli Ercole”, *Dizionario biografico degli italiani*, p. 64, Rome, 2005, pp. 333-335.","workshop":"Bolognese wax school","author":"Ilaria Negretti","translator":"Antonella Mampieri","translation_copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","keywords":["Anatomical waxes","anatomy","Benedict XIV","Ercole Lelli","Institute of Sciences","medicine","science","Sciences","surgery"],"materials":["52 anatomical waxes: wax","Adam","Eve","female skeleton: human bones","male skeleton: human bones","metal","skinned man","statue with muscles","wax"]},"b9037025-526c-5ec9-ad5b-a435eec55808":{"name":"Travel notebook for meteorological observations","description":"Travel notebook which belonged to Portuguese Navy’s Commander Hermenegildo Capelo, used during the expedition to the interior of the African continent in 1884/1885, from Angola’s coast to the Mozambique’s shore, along with the Portuguese Navy’s Commander Roberto Ivens. The main objective for the Portuguese expeditionary voyages in Africa was to gather all sorts of information: meteorological data, course of rivers, local inhabitants and populations, among others.","type":"Logbook","holder":"Maritime Museum","dates":"1884","location":"Lisbon","author":"Bruno Gonçalves Neves"},"bac9e0ba-15e5-5bf5-a004-180b8c11e31d":{"name":"Astrolabe","short_description":"The astrolabe is an astronomical instrument device that Muslims inherited from the Hellenistic world and then passed on to medieval Europe. According to its inscriptions, this handsome gilt brass astrolabe was made in Seville, in southern Spain. Like all such instruments, it was designed to measure the altitude of the stars, sun or moon, and to establish different astronomical and topographical associations without resorting to calculations or formulas. It was especially valuable for timekeeping, as the Muslim times of prayer are astronomically determined. In addition to being functional, the astrolabe was also intended to be beautiful. This example is unusual in that it seems to have been altered nearly 70 years after it was made, possibly in Egypt or Syria; Seville had by that time already fallen to the Christian reconquest.","type":"Tools and Equipment","holder":"Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA)","dates":"Hegira 624 / AD 1226-1227","location":"Los Angeles","dimensions":"21.3 x 14 x 2.9cm","method_for_datation":"According to its inscriptions, the astrolabe was made by Muhammad ibn ‘Abda al-‘Aziz al Khama’iri in Seville in Hegira 624/AD 1226-7, who may have a familial relationship with another Spanish astrolabist also associated with Seville. The rete of the astrolabe was later altered by the astrolabist Ibrahim in Mamluk Egypt or Syria in Hegira 693/AD 1293-4, based on an additional inscription.","method_for_provenance":"Its Arabic inscriptions indicate it was made in Seville.","provenance":"Spain","obtention":"Carolyn Merchant (1936 - ), Berkeley, CA, until 2003 (gifted to): LACMA, gift of Carolyn Merchant.","bibliography":"Komaroff, Linda, *Islamic Art at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art*, Rev. ed., Los Angeles: Museum Associates, 2005: 24, fig. 20.  \nKomaroff, Linda, *Lo Terrenal y lo divino: Arte islámico siglos VII al XIX Colección del Museo de Arte del Condado de Los Angeles*, Santiago, Chile: Centro Cultural La Moneda, 2015: 90.  \nKomaroff, Linda, *Beauty and Identity: Islamic Art from the Los Angeles County Museum of Art*, Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 2016: 110, 122-123.","author":"LACMA Staff","keywords":["astronomy","metalwork","Muslim Spain","prayer","Reconquista","Religion","science","scientific instrument","timekeeping"],"materials":["Gilt copper alloy"]},"c072d700-9ae2-5214-ad10-69e3cb6824fa":{"name":"Film camera of the Manaki brothers","alternate_name":"Film camera of Charls Trade Company, serial no. 300","description":"Janaki (1878–1945) and Milton (1880–1964) Manaki were born in Bitola and went on to become pioneers of Macedonian film and the first filmmakers in the Balkans. The Manaki brothers shot their first film merely 10 years after the Lumiere brothers. In 1905, they shot their grandmother Despina spinning wool with women from the neighbourhood. Their first film of ethnographic value was shot soon after. It documents celebration of the feast of St. Cyril and Methodius in front of the Church in Bitola devoted to these saints. In their films, the Manaki brothers strived to document visually events from everyday life and to frame them as real works of art. In 1921, they projected the first film in the open-air arena at the Shirok Sokak Street in Bitola.","type":"Camera; part of filming equipment","holder":"The Archive of the City of Bitola","dates":"1905","location":"Bitola","author":"Aco Kimovski (Archive of the City of Bitola)","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega"},"c55a0ee3-358d-5f51-ab63-42f3d19fc7db":{"name":"Astrolabe","short_description":"Brass astrolabe signed by the maker, Muhammed Khalil bn Hasan `Ali, and the calligrapher, Muhammed Baqir Isfahani, and dated AH 1095 / AD 1634-84.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyyah","dates":"Hegira 1095 / AD 1683–1684","location":"Kuwait City","provenance":"Iranian world","keywords":["astrolabe","astronomy","metalwork","science"]},"c64f3835-f9f7-5723-9b30-b413f5f0111c":{"name":"*Homarus hakelensis* Fraas 1878 and clupeomorph fishes","description":"*Homarus* is as genus of marine crustacean decapode (lobster). Its first pair of legs is transformed into big claws showing dimorphism (one specialised into a crushing claw and the other into a cutting claw). In the fossil register we can find about eight species of Homarus. But nowadays only two exist: *Homarus gammarus* (European lobster) and *Homarus americanus* (American lobster). *Homarus hakelensis* is a fossil species described from specimens found at the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian) site of Hakel, Lebanon. In this plate we can also find some specimens of clupeomorph fishes. In this group of teleosts, that date back to the Early Cretaceous (c. 140 million years) belongs, today, the herring, the sardine and the anchovy, for example. They are generally small silvery marine fishes.","type":"Fossil","holder":"National Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbon","dates":"Cenomanian, Upper Cretaceous (c. 95 million years)","location":"Lisbon","provenance":"Hakel, Lebanon","author":"Liliana Póvoas (MUHNAC-UL)"},"d66e9193-b359-50c2-9fea-50514b0595be":{"name":"Reflecting circle","alternate_name":"Borda's circle","description":"Reflecting circle wich belong to Portuguese Navy’s Commander Hermenegildo Capelo. It works on the principle of double reflection, like the octant and sextant, with the advantage of its limbus corresponding to a full circle, making possible the measure of angles of any amplitude. This instrument was used in the “Portuguese Scientific Expedition to the Southern Africa’s Hinterland”, in 1877.","type":"Borda's circle; scientific instrument","holder":"Maritime Museum","dates":"19th century","location":"Lisbon","author":"Bruno Gonçalves Neves"},"da60db2e-b27e-5914-9284-ae2e7d5378d4":{"name":"Astrolabe-quadrant","description":"One side of the instrument carries a Prophatius astrolabe-quadrant for latitude 41°, with an unequal hour diagram (horary quadrant) above. The other side is a sine-cosine quadrant with arcs of sine and versed sine. There are brief instructions in Turkish and Arabic on the sides and edges. The maker’s name and the date appear on each side, with slight variations in some details of the signature. The *nisbah* of the maker, al-Ufi, indicates that he was from Of, a small town on the Black Sea.","type":"Scientific instrument","holder":"Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art","owner":"Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art","dates":"AH 1256 (AD 1840–41)","location":"London","dimensions":"16.8cm x 12.8 x 3cm; radius of quadrant: 12.5cm","place_of_production":"Istanbul","method_for_datation":"Dated AH 1256 (AD 1840–41)","bibliography":"Maddison, F. and Savage-Smith, E., *Science, Tools & Magic. The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. XII. Part One: Body and Spirit Mapping the Universe, London: The Nour Foundation, 1997: cat. 156, pp. 266-268.*","catalogue_holding_link":"https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-astrolabe-quadrant-sci40/","author":"Qaisra Khan","materials":["brass socket for the plumb-line","inscribed in red and black ink under a yellowish varnish","solid walnut","the lead weight for the plumb-line is housed in the instrument"]},"de4802a1-86e2-5973-8765-e8cc4ee04f98":{"name":"Planispheric astrolabe.","description":"The maker and final destination of this flat astrolabe, which is in reasonably good condition, are both known. All of the elements that make up a planispheric astrolabe have survived: the main part or mater; the alidade on the back of the instrument; three tympans or superposed disks on top of the mater; the rete or mobile openwork plaque (*shabaka*) representing the map of fixed stars turning around the earth; and the throne, a triangular piece for hanging it. It would have been one of the first portable astrolabes to have been made in the West on the model of the well known al-Zarqali astrolabe from Toledo, known in Europe as the Azarchel. The name of the maker is engraved on the back of the throne, and is none other than the famous Seville craftsman Muhammad ibn al-Futuh al-Khamayri, from whom four further astrolabes are known. An inscription in cursive characters on the back of the mater names the mosque to which it is dedicated: the Andalusian Mosque in Fez.  \nAn essential scientific instrument used by ancient astronomers to determine prayer times, the position of stars and horoscopes, this astrolabe was also an especially well-crafted work of art, in particular in the cutting of the flashes in the rete.","short_description":"This astrolabe includes all of the component parts of the planispheric astrolabes that were indispensable to ancient astronomers for determining prayer times and the height of the stars, and for establishing horoscopes. It is one of the first portable astrolabes in the West.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork","holder":"Batha Museum.","initial_owner":"*Habus* (endowment).","dates":"Hegira 614 / AD 1217–18.","location":"Fez.","dimensions":"Height 22.5 cm, diameter 21 cm.","method_for_datation":"The inscription engraved on the suspension plate names the craftsman and the date it was made: 'This was made by Muhammad ibn al-Fatuh al-Khamayri in the year 614 [AD 1218]'. The numbers are written in letters according to the Abajid style.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the back of the astrolabe: 'This was made *habus* property to deserve the blessing and forgiveness of God the Supreme for the *minbar* of the Andalusian Mosque in the town of Fez, may God the Supreme protect it'. There were actually two *minbars* at the Andalusian Mosque, one commissioned in 369 / 980 and the other built under the Almohads.","provenance":"Andalusian Mosque, Fez.","obtention":"Restoration.","bibliography":"Amahan, A., *6000 ans d'art au Maroc*, catalogue, Paris, 1990.  \nBergé, M., *Les Arabes, Histoire et Civilisation, des origines à la chute du Royaume de Grenade*, Paris, 1978.  \nMichel, H., *Traité de l'astrolabe*, Paris, 1947.  \nRenaud, P.J., “Astronomie et Astrologie marocaines”, *Hespéris* XXIX, Rabat, 1942, pp.42–63.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_MA_EN_001","author":"Naima El Khatib-Boujibar","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["astronomy","epigraphic decoration","geometric decoration","habus","religious object","science","scientific object","vegetal decoration"],"materials":["Engraved brass."]},"dfeaa653-0f75-546d-8c39-7cac8ec05374":{"name":"Planispheric Astrolabe","description":"Astrolabes of this size were not precise enough for astronomical observations, but served well for telling time, and astrologers could use them to determine the position of a planet relative to the different astrological houses. The intricate calligraphic faceplate of this example is typical of Safavid‑period astrolabes; it reads: \"In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate\" (bismallah al‑Rahman al‑Rahim).","type":"Metalwork","holder":"The Metropolitan Museum","initial_owner":"I. G. Sargis, New York(until 1963)","dates":"AH 1065 / AD 1654-5","location":"New York","dimensions":"Height: 21,6cm, width: 17,1cm, depth: 5,7cm","place_of_production":"Attributed to Iran, Mashhad","obtention":"Sold to the museum in 1963","bibliography":"Bowie, T. R., \"An Exhibition Prepared by Theodore Bowie.\" In *Islamic Art Across the World.*, Vol. no. 1970/3. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Art Museum, June 17 to Oct. 1, 1970.  \n  \nMayer, L. A., *Islamic Architects and Their Works.*, Geneva: Albert Kundig, 1956.  \n  \nRahim, H., *Inscription as Art in the World of Islam: Unity in Diversity: at the Emily Lowe Gallery.* , Hempstead, NY: Hofstra Museum, Hofstra University, 1996.  \n  \nEkhtiar, M., P. P. Soucek, S. R. Canby, and N. Haidar, ed., Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in The Metropolitan Museum of Art., 1st ed., New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.  \n  \nSaliba, G., *Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance.* , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011.  \n  \nEkhtiar, M., and C. Moore, ed. \"A Resource for Educators.\" In Art of the Islamic World., New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2012.  \n  \nTokyo Metropolitan Art Museum. \"Masterpieces of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.\" In *Earth, Sea, and Sky: Nature in Western Art.* ,Tokyo: Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum, 2012.","catalogue_holding_link":"https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/451699","materials":["Brass and steel","cast and hammered","pierced and engraved"]},"e8e399f5-c3f4-5c44-8ed7-085220b24c32":{"name":"*Farmácia Barbosa*","alternate_name":"Barbosa Pharmacy (reconstruction)","description":"A reconstruction of Farmácia Barbosa, an 18th-century apothecary, with its numerous niches and shelves painted in cream, and examples of 18th-century Portuguese pharmaceutical earthenware.  \nThe central niche, decorated with engraved Baroque motifs in gold, held a religious image – St. Michael – which would guide the pharmacist's actions. The stands, with shelves, had drawers at the bottom for storing medicinal plants and samples, while the shelves held the hand-painted apothecary's jars, decorated profusely in the Baroque style or embellished with a private or religious coat of arms. Painted in monochrome two-tone blue, some are labelled in Latin to describe the product inside and some have blank spaces ready to have a label or inscription applied.  \nThe Portuguese earthenware displayed in this pharmacy came from the dispensaries of various convents such as those belonging to the orders of the Augustinians, the Carmelites, the Dominicans, St. Philip of Nery (Oratory), the Third Order of St. Francis, the Jesuits, the Poor Clares and even the military orders of Aviz and Santiago.  \nAnother collection of apothecary jars belonged to the Santa Casa da Misericórdia of Viana; their earthenware was produced at the Darque factory in 1774. This reconstruction includes the original pharmacy ceiling from Santa Casa da Misericórdia, its edges decorated with vegetal motifs in red, green, blue and white. The apothecary display case decorated with carvings bears the initials of the original owners of the pharmacy, Manuel Rodrigues Barbosa, at its centre. Barbosa practiced the profession in the Monastery at Paço de Sousa and acquired all the equipment from there in 1834.  \nFeatures discovered during restoration suggest that the higher central area predates the rest. This is shown by its structure; how it was built and the materials used. Inside the old pharmacy, there are bottles, flasks, weights and measures, retorts, crucibles and *pharmacopeias* that together make up the pharmaceutical arsenal used in the preparation of medicaments in the 18th century.","short_description":"A reconstruction of Farmácia Barbosa, an 18th-century apothecary. The stands, with shelves, had drawers at the bottom for storing medicinal plants and samples, whilst the shelves would hold the famous hand-painted apothecary jars profusely decorated in the Baroque style.","type":"Woodwork","holder":"Pharmacy Museum","owner":"Museu da Farmácia / Associação Nacional de Farmácias","initial_owner":"Paço de Sousa Monastery","dates":"c. 1770–1790","location":"Lisbon, Lisbon","dimensions":"H: 2.90 m","place_of_production":"Paço de Sousa, Penafiel","method_for_datation":"Documents and evidence recovered during restoration process.","provenance":"Paço de Sousa Penafiel","obtention":"Private Donation","bibliography":"Basso, M. P., *Treasures of the Pharmacy Museum*, Lisbon, 2001.","author":"Paula Basso","translator":"Mick Greer","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["apothecary jars","furnishing","medicine","Pharmacy","science"],"materials":["Carved wood"]},"e98373dd-6e4e-5ada-9719-c553fa2337f9":{"name":"Glass vessel possibly for chemistry.","description":"A plain, utilitarian glass vessel without ornamentation. Its unusual shape indicates specialised use, probably in a field such as chemistry. It has an oval-shaped body with a narrow and long pipe coming out of its side and curving upward almost perpendicularly. The pipe grows gradually wider near the tip and its outward-splayed lip is shaped like a little funnel. This vessel is made of thin, white, translucent glass. It is free from decoration, probably so that the progress of chemical reactions taking place within it could be observed.  \nThe Abbasid period witnessed a cultural and scientific renaissance and archaeologists have discovered many glass finds intended for practical uses.","short_description":"Skilled craftsmanship was required not just for luxury wares but for more utilitarian objects as well. This undecorated but highly sophisticated glass vessel was probably used for experiments in chemistry.","type":"Vassel, glass","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 3rd–4th century / AD 9th–10th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 22.2 cm, width (of belly) 9.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"Glass production flourished in many Islamic centres in Iran, Iraq, Syria and Egypt, and throughout several eras. Similarly, shaped glass fragments have been attributed to the early 'Abbasid period. Numerous utilitarian, Abbasid-era glass objects have been found in the Raqqa region during archaeological excavations of the 'Abbasid palace complexes under the direction of Nasib Salibi during the 1950s and Michael Meinecke during the 1990s. It is possible that this vessel was produced in the early Abbasid period.","method_for_provenance":"Numerous finds of glass in archaeological excavations at Raqqa, together with knowledge that the area was a glass-making centre, make it possible that the object was manufactured in Raqqa, a large urban city complex that flourished under the Abbasids.","provenance":"Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"Purchased in 1919.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.250.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Blown glass","chemistry","Glass vessel","Michael Meinecke","Nasib Salibi","Raqqa","science"],"materials":["Blown glass."]},"ea99bbf2-1d63-5510-96b0-82bb57bbc44b":{"name":"Traditional clepsydra","alternate_name":"Water clock; irrigation time bowl;*Tanast*, *Tassa*, *Tighira*","description":"Locally known as *tanast*, *tassa* or *tighira*, the traditional clepsydra is a water clock used in the oases of southeastern Morocco, particularly in Tafilalet, to measure irrigation turns. Farmers rely on it to know exactly how long they can access water from canals, springs, or reservoirs to water their fields. It consists of a small perforated copper bowl that floats inside a larger bucket of water. As water slowly seeps into the bowl, it becomes heavier until it sinks, and the moment it sinks marks one fixed unit of irrigation time. By repeating this cycle communities could divide water fairly among rights-holders, according to customary law.  \nThe device embodies the principle of hydraulic justice—time, rather than volume, becomes the standard, allowing a constant and transparent distribution even when flow varies. Its durable copper construction, portability, and ease of calibration made it ideal for communal use beside canals and reservoirs.  \nBeyond its utilitarian value, the clepsydra reflects deep cultural meanings: the sanctity of water, the moral duty to share, and the sophisticated know-how of rural artisans who crafted reliable instruments without modern technology.  \n  \nThough many oases now use pumps and clocks, the Tanast remains a powerful symbol of Morocco’s living hydraulic heritage and community self-governance.","type":"Traditional time-measuring device for water distribution","holder":"Mohammed VI Museum of Water Civilisation","owner":"Mohammed VI Museum of Water Civilisation","initial_owner":"Community water users in Tafilalet (traditional practice)","dates":"AH 16th / AD 20th century","location":"Marrakech","dimensions":"12 × 28cm (bowl); 18cm × 42cm","place_of_production":"Tafilalet, Morocco","method_for_datation":"Based on curatorial documentation and typology of Tafilalet irrigation tools.","method_for_provenance":"Museum records (exhibition documentation).","provenance":"Collected as part of the museum’s permanent exhibition on traditional water management","obtention":"Museum acquisition for didactic display (details not available).","bibliography":"El Faïz, M., *L’eau et les hommes au Maghreb*, Rabat: L’Harmattan, 2002.","author":"MUSEUM Staff","copy_editor":"Judy Harter","keywords":["clepsydra","community management","copperwork","irrigation time","oases","Tafilalet","tanast","water rights"],"materials":["Copper bowl with central perforation","copper bucket","handcrafted metalwork"]},"eb5b5b6f-3b83-5284-8eb0-50673debe16c":{"name":"Medical box of Dr. İbrahim Göze","description":"Dr. İbrahim Ethem Göze started studying medicine first in Civilian Medical School and graduated from Darülfünun Medical Faculty in 1914. He specialized in dermatology in Gureba Hospital in Istanbul. This medical box belonged to Dr. İbrahim Ethem Göze is rectangular in shape, brown and covered with leather. It also has a handle for carrying. It is in two pieces with four chambers inside. One of the chambers has a cover. In the front there are salvarsan (Arsphenamine) medicine boxes used to cure syphilis, in the chamber at the back there are brown bottles on which sulphur, ammonia, alcohol and tincture of iodine is written. In the covered chamber there are ampules, bandage, a metal syringe with its needle and one tongue holder. On the box one can read the figure of 152.","type":"Medical material","holder":"Cerrahpaşa Medical History Museum","dates":"1890–1923","location":"Istanbul","provenance":"Istanbul","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega"},"ebfd44a0-d4f8-5620-97dd-65b9e16f66cf":{"name":"The Acrobat","alternate_name":"Acrobat illustrating the state of equilibrium","description":"The Acrobat stands as one of the most emblematic objects of the Physics and Science Museum impressive collection of instruments. After de inventory the *acrobat stands on a single foot and turns around on the top of an artistically carved and decorated wooden base*. Elegantly dressed, epoch style, the figure maintains the equilibrium on top of the base through a single iron spike under one of its showes. It holds an inverted U shaped bent rod with heavy brass balls at both ends whose main function is to lower the centre of gravity of the figure bellow the contact point of the foot with the base.  \nStarting in the XVII century, scientific instruments like *The Acrobat* could be found in many Physics cabinets or used as decorative objects. Instruments of this kind, although of simpler conception are still common today namely as toys. Both artistically and historically, *The Acrobat* exceeds his original function and value.","short_description":"This instrument, used for experimental physics in the College of Philosophy at the University of Coimbra, illustrated the importance of an object’s centre of gravity relative to its surface of support when in a state of equilibrium.","type":"Scientific and didactic instrument","holder":"Museum of Physics, University of Coimbra","owner":"Museum of Physics, Science Museum of University of Coimbra","initial_owner":"Colégio de Nobres (Royal College of Noblemen)","dates":"1766–1768","location":"Coimbra, Coimbra","dimensions":"H: 52 cm; w: 22.5 cm depth: 20 cm","place_of_production":"Lisbon","method_for_datation":"This instrument is referred to in an undated inventory of the Colégio de Nobres, likely organised between 1766 and 1768.","provenance":"Colégio de Nobres (Royal College of Noblemen)","obtention":"The Cabinet of Physics at the Colégio de Nobres was transferred to the University of Coimbra in 1773.","bibliography":"Nollet, J.-A., *Leçons de Physique Expérimentale,* Paris, 1764, Vol. III, plate I, Fig. 2.  \nAlmeida, T. de, *Recreasão filozofica ou dialogo sobre a Filosofia Natural para instrucsão de pesoas curiozas, que não frequentárão as aulas*, Lisbon, 1784, Vol. I, plate I, fig. 2.  \n*Les Mécanismes du Génie*. *Instruments Scientifiques du XVIII et XIX siècles*, Europália, Charleroi, 1991.  \n*O Engenho e a Arte,* *Colecção de Instrumentos do Real Gabinete de Física, Universidade de Coimbra e Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian*, Lisbon, 1997.","copyright":"Copyright images: Museu de Física da Universidade de Coimbra.","author":"Ermelinda Antunes","translator":"Manuel Silva Pereira","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["centre of gravity","Mechanics"],"materials":["brass and iron","carved","painted and gilded wood"]},"f32db4ad-178e-583f-be68-731a20b86a1a":{"name":"Map of the Hijaz Railway. Designation in Ottoman Turkish and Arabic","description":"The map is part of the Pocket Atlas of the Ottoman Lands: The Geographical and Statistical Conditions of the Ottoman State. It represents territories extending from Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean in the west to the Euphrates River in the east, and from Damascus in the north to the Hijaz region in the south. The map identifies regions, towns, ports, deserts, mountain ranges and maritime routes in Ottoman Turkish written in Arabic script. A route beginning in Damascus and continuing through Darʿa and Maʿan toward Medina corresponds to the Hijaz Railway. The map table heading is given first in Ottoman Turkish and immediately below in Arabic, reading: \"Map of the Hijaz Railway\", with a list of stations underneath. Each location is accompanied by a numerical value expressed in kilometres, indicating cumulative distances measured from Damascus.","type":"Map, pocket atlas","holder":"Wolf-Dieter Lemke Collection","owner":"Wolf-Dieter Lemke Collection","dates":"AH c. 1328 / AD c. 1910","location":"Berlin","dimensions":"Height: 13 cm; width: 9,2 cm","provenance":"Collection of Wolf-Dieter Lemke, Berlin","bibliography":"Nicholson, James, *The Hejaz Railway*, London: Stacey International, 2005.  \n  \nAga Khan Trust for Culture, *Historic Train Stations of the Al-Hijaz Railway Network*, Geneva: Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 2004.","copy_editor":"Danielle Morcom","keywords":["Hijaz","Map","Syria","Trainlines","Türkiye"],"materials":["Paper","printed coloured pocket atlas"]},"f795fd67-bd2c-50a0-87cd-f4f308542324":{"name":"Earth and celestial globe, the so-called 'St. Gallen Globe'","description":"For many years, the so-called St. Gallen Globe, one of the prized objects of Swiss cultural history, was a source of contention. The globe featuring Mercator maps of the earth and the celestial sphere was created by Tilemann Stella in northern Germany towards the end of the sixteenth century, as a document discovered in 2016 reveals. Although they were not suitable for navigation, globes were extremely popular in the early modern period. What makes the St. Gallen Globe so special is its combination of world and celestial globes. Entitled as a gift, which, however, was later satisfied, the globe was incorporated in the library of the Abbey of St Gallen where it was kept until 1712. During the Second War of Villmergen the globe was robbed and carted off to Zürich where it was displayed in the Wasserkirche (Water Church). St Gallen demanded the return of the globe, but to no avail. When the Swiss National Museum was established in 1898, the globe passed into the hands of the Swiss Confederation; it has been on display in the museum ever since. The dispute over the treasure, which went down in Swiss history as the cultural heritage conflict between Zürich and St Gallen, was only resolved in 2006 when the St Gallen Abbey library received a true copy of the contested globe.","type":"Globe","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Zentralbibliothek Zürich","dates":"Around 1570","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 233cm, W: 174cm, Diameter: 121cm (with frame), L: 380cm","method_for_datation":"In 2016 a document was found which revealed the globe’s origin.","provenance":"Northern Germany, Mecklenburg","obtention":"The globe was donated 1595 to the Stiftsbibliothek St. Gallen and robbed 1712 by Zürich troops during the second Villmerger-wars. Since then it is in the property of the Stadtbibliothek Zürich, now called Zentralbibliothek. When the Landesmuseum opened its doors in 1898 it was given into possession of the Landesmuseum as part of the “Morgengabe”.","keywords":["Scientific instruments","St. Gallen Globus","terrestrial and cellestial globe"],"materials":["painted","Papier-mâché","Wood"]},"fa16c243-a50e-562c-8d05-fe7c41233b43":{"name":"A monumental planispheric astrolabe made for Shah Jahan, most probably by Diya’ al-Din Muhammad Lahori","short_description":"The astrolabe was the principal Islamic instrument for telling the time, surveying and determining latitude. It consists of a solid body, the mater, into which fit a series of plates (six in this astrolabe) and a revolving circular web-like star map, the rete, known as *‘ankabut* (‘spider’) in Arabic. The various elements, supplemented by a sighting vane (the alidade), on the back of the instrument, were held together by a pin.  \nIn a recent detailed study, Professor S.R. Sarma has shown that this astrolabe is almost certainly the work of Diya’ al-Din Muhammad, a member of the famous Lahori astrolabe makers. Several features have led him to the conclusion that it was made for the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, sometime between 1648, when he moved his capital to Delhi renaming it Shahjahanabad – the name used on this astrolabe – and the end of his reign in 1658. Sanskrit legends were added to the Arabic ones in 1701, during which process the original inscription naming the maker, the date and the patron must have been effaced.","type":"Astrolabe; scientific instrument","holder":"Khalili Family Trust – Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art","dates":"AD between 1648–58","location":"London","dimensions":"H: 60.2cm; diameter: 52.6cm; thickness: 1.4cm","method_for_datation":"Attribution, date and provenance based on extensive research by Professor S.R. Sarma.","provenance":"Punjab, Lahore","bibliography":"Maddison, F., and Savage-Smith, E., *Science, Tools & Magic*, London: The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, volume 12, Part One, 1997: cat.133, pp.230–33.  \nSarma, S.R., “A Monumental Astrolabe Made for Shāh Jahān and Later Reworked with Sanskrit Legends”, *Medieval Encounters*, 23 (2017): 198–262.","keywords":["astronomical instrument","astronomy","brass","Mughal","Mughal India","scientific object","silver"],"materials":["brass","cut and engraved","sheet and cast","the rete is inlaid with silver"]},"fb6d76a4-8c2e-5feb-8110-649d35ff03da":{"name":"Celestial globe","description":"As everyone knows, 29 February is a leap day and appears on the calendar only once every four years. The day was introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. The new Gregorian calendar finally did justice to the fact that a year has 365.2425 days. Only four years later, Jost Bürgi, a brilliant astronomer, mathematician, clockmaker, and maker of astronomical instruments, built a celestial globe incorporating the new calendar for the German Kaiser. He developed the first-ever mechanical system to display 29 February in leap years. Bürgi was born in what is today the canton of St. Gallen and worked with the famous astronomer Johannes Kepler at the imperial court in Prague. In addition to the celestial globe, he also invented many other things. He was the first person to draw up a logarithmic table. Additionally, he built a clock with three hands, thereby creating the second as a unit of time.","type":"Celestial globe","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"AD 1594","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 25,5cm, Diameter of the globe: 14,2cm","method_for_datation":"According to an Inscription on the lower side of the globe","provenance":"Germany, Kassel, Hessen","obtention":"Donated in 1978","keywords":["Celestial Globe","Jost Bürgi","Kassel","scientific instrument"],"materials":["Brass golden plated","chased","engraved"]},"ff3db0a2-4bc7-576e-bbd7-b0882e3ea217":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"An astrolabe that has a hollowed-out central disc; a sort of base plate (a mater), that is formed by riveting the back plate to the raised edge (the limb), which is inscribed in *kufic* script. The jointed ring (or throne), from which the instrument is suspended perpendicular to the ground to give a reading, is not all original. The *rête* (the pierced front plate showing the positions of the stars) is a replacement made in the 13th century. The astrolabe can be taken apart by unscrewing the central knob (horse) to reveal seven plates. Engraved on the plates in simpler *kufic* script to that seen on the limb, are seven names of places: Mecca, Medina, Saragossa, Samarra, Cairo, Toledo and Constantinople, along with the latitude and the hours in the longest day. The plates are engraved with azimuths as well as almucantarsand there are lines indicating times of prayer. The interior of the *mater* is engraved with the markings of 66 degrees, it is a plate of ecliptic co-ordinates, while the back bears four scales of altitude and two ecliptic and calendrical scales. The maker’s signature is on the back of the *mater*.  \nThe astrolabe is a device known from at least the AH 2nd / AD 8th century, and it represents the notion of heaven with all its stars, based on the assumption that earth is at the centre of a spherical universe. The astrolabe had many purposes. It served as an astronomical calculating device allowing the observation of solar and stellar altitudes. It was also used for navigational purposes. Time-keeping was another important function of the astrolabe in the Muslim sphere, for it was exploited in particular to calculate the precise timing of the five daily prayers.  \nSpain was invaded by the Muslims in the AH 2nd / AD 8th century and subsequently a vibrant civilisation evolved, one that collected, incorporated and disseminated the ideas of ancient as well as contemporaneous Arab scientists and scholars. This European-made and dated astrolabe is the earliest known, produced in AH 417 / AD 1026–7 by Muhammad ibn al-Saffar. Interestingly, Ibn al-Saffar, brother of Muhammad ibn al-Saffar, was the author of the first known treatise from Islamic Spain on the astrolabe. Two contemporary astrolabes survive from this period; both signed by Muhammad ibn al-Saffar, this one is the earlier of the two. In Europe production and use of the astrolabe had waned by the 18th century, but in the Islamic world they were made and used into the 20th century.","short_description":"The Muslim world inherited the astrolabe from Antiquity. It was an essential astronomical calculation device used for observing the stars, navigation and time keeping. In the AH 2nd / AD 8th century, following the Muslim conquest of Spain, it was introduced to Europe.","type":"Scientific instrument, metalwork, cast copper","holder":"National Museums of Scotland.","dates":"Hegira 417 / AD 1026–7.","location":"Edinburgh, Scotland","dimensions":"Diameter 15.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"On the back of the astrolabe the inscription in *kufic* script states: ‘Work of Muhammad bin \\[ibn\\] al-Saffar in Córdoba in the year 17 and 400’ (417 / 1026–7).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the back of the astrolabe gives the place of origin as Córdoba.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain.","obtention":"A gift to the Royal Museum, NMS, from James H. Farr, F.I.M.I., Edinburgh, in 1959.","bibliography":"NMS Object Record File, containing material directly reproduced from the following references:  \nKing, D. A., ‘Some Medieval Astronomical Instruments and their Secrets’, **in** Mazzolini, R. G. (ed.), *Non-Verbal Communication in Science prior to 1900*, Florence 1993, pp.29–52.  \nMaddison, F., and Turner, A., *Science and Technology in Islam*, exhibition catalogue, London 1976, pp.104–6.  \nPhillips, P., *The Collectors’ Encyclopeadia of Antiques*, London 1973, p.604, fig. a.  \nPlenderleith, R. W., ‘Discovery of an Old Astrolabe’ in *The Scottish Geographical Magazine,* Vol. 76, No. 1, 1960: 25.","author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["astrolabe","astronomy","Cordoba","kufic script","Muhammad ibn al-Saffar","science"],"materials":["Cast brass","incised."]}}

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+{"00a4a413-b81a-55ed-8395-f8514dc9b430":{"name":"Astrolabio.","description":"El astrolabio tiene forma de esfera de reloj y está formado por siete placas, una de ellas fija y el resto giratorias. Las seis placas móviles están unidas a la placa fija por medio de un tornillo central decorado con una roseta. Las placas tienen grabados meridianos, círculos concéntricos, y términos y nombres astronómicos y astrológicos, y sobre ellas hay un indicador con puntas en gancho con el que se puede determinar la posición de 29 estrellas. También sirve para medir el tiempo y la distancia.  \nLas fuentes históricas indican que el astrolabio fue inventado por el astrónomo griego Hiparco en el siglo II a. C. Los musulmanes de al-Andalus y el Magreb utilizaron los modelos más avanzados de astrolabios.","short_description":"Los astrolabios son instrumentos astronómicos que sirven para medir el tiempo y la distancia. Las láminas llevan grabados círculos concéntricos, meridianos, números y términos astrológicos. Se inventaron en el siglo II a. C. y los más avanzados fueron usados por los musulmanes de al-Andalus y el Magreb.","holder":"Museo de Arte Turco e Islámico.","initial_owner":"Muhammad ibn Batut, de la familia Hamairi.","dates":"El astrolabio tiene forma de esfera de reloj y está formado por siete placas, una de ellas fija y el resto giratorias. Las seis placas móviles están unidas a la placa fija por medio de un tornillo central decorado con una roseta. Las placas tienen grabados meridianos, círculos concéntricos, y términos y nombres astronómicos y astrológicos, y sobre ellas hay un indicador con puntas en gancho con el que se puede determinar la posición de 29 estrellas. También sirve para medir el tiempo y la distancia.  \nLas fuentes históricas indican que el astrolabio fue inventado por el astrónomo griego Hiparco en el siglo II a. C. Los musulmanes de al-Andalus y el Magreb utilizaron los modelos más avanzados de astrolabios.","location":"Estambul","dimensions":"Alto 19 cm, diámetro 17 cm.","method_for_datation":"Según la inscripción que aparece en el astrolabio, fue fabricado en el año 650 / 1252 y perteneció a Muhammad ibn Batut, de la familia Hamairi de Ishbiliya (actual Sevilla).","method_for_provenance":"La inscripción menciona la ciudad de Ishbiliya (actual Sevilla).","provenance":"Ishbiliya, actual Sevilla (España).","obtention":"El astrolabio pasó del tesoro del palacio Topkapı (Estambul) al museo en 1964.","bibliography":"Ölçer, N. et al., *Museo de Arte Turco e Islámico*, Estambul, 2002, p. 90.","author":"Alev Özay","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","translator":"Yaiza Martínez","translation_copy_editor":"Lucía Rodríguez Corral","keywords":["bronce.","caligrafía"],"materials":["Bronce fundido y batido con decoración tallada."]},"026dea32-9637-5a90-8cb3-ddf63a376262":{"name":"Instrumento astronómico *qiblanuma*.","description":"El *qiblanuma* es un instrumento astronómico portátil cuyo nombre significa, literalmente, 'que muestra la dirección a la Kaaba'. Es de madera, redondo, tiene tapa y está lacado en colores rojo, rosa, negro, azul, verde y dorado con la técnica *edirnekari*. El cuerpo principal incluye la brújula y el indicador. Presenta un mapa con las regiones en las que puede utilizarse el instrumento, así como una lista de ciudades con sus nombres árabes.  \nEn la mitad superior de la parte interior de la tapa se ven, sobre un fondo verde, los alminares de la Masyid al-Haram de La Meca con la Kaaba en el patio. A la izquierda aparecen imágenes de los lugares santos de la llanura de Arafat. A la derecha, en primer plano, hay palmeras y olivos, símbolos del paraíso y de la bendición. El espacio vacío del fondo está decorado con una ilustración de granadas en un cuenco, que simbolizan la abundancia. De entre las granadas salen unas hojas que forman un marco decorativo que contiene un ramillete de rosas sobre un fondo dorado. Este ramillete, símbolo del profeta Muhammad, se encuentra en numerosas piezas literarias y pictóricas otomanas del siglo XVIII. Las frutas en un cuenco, que simbolizan la fertilidad, la abundancia y la inmortalidad, son también un motivo típico del periodo. La inscripción de la mitad inferior del interior de la tapa relata que Barun al-Muhtari fabricó el instrumento en 1151 / 1738 en Estambul; también contiene instrucciones de uso.  \nLa parte exterior de la tapa, con fondo dorado, está decorada con un estilo naturalista conocido como barroco-rococó turco. Presenta floreros rebosantes de rosas y otras flores rodeadas de guirnaldas de hojas de acanto y zarcillos rizados. La composición contiene seis medallones ovalados que presentan paisajes sin personajes, un motivo que también está presente en pinturas murales del mismo periodo. En los paisajes se ven lagos, casas en arboledas a la orilla del agua, mansiones y aldeas situadas en la orilla de enfrente, todo pintado con un efecto de profundidad.","short_description":"Los *qiblanuma* son instrumentos astronómicos portátiles que muestran la dirección de la Kaaba (en La Meca), hacia la que rezan los musulmanes. Se usaron hasta finales del siglo XIII / XIX. Este ejemplo se fabricó en Estambul y está decorado con la técnica de lacado *edirnekari*.","holder":"Museo de Arte Turco e Islámico.","dates":"1151 de la Hégira / 1738 d. C.","location":"Estambul","dimensions":"Diámetro 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"En la parte interior de la tapa se menciona la fecha de 1151 (1738-39).","method_for_provenance":"La inscripción del interior de la tapa señala que el lugar de producción fue Estambul.","provenance":"Estambul.","obtention":"El instrumento se trasladó al museo en 1951 desde la mezquita de Hisar, en Izmir (Turquía).","bibliography":"Ölçer, N. et al., *In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Estambul, 1993, p. 88.  \nÖlçer, N. et al., *Museo de Arte Turco e Islámico*, Estambul, 2002, pp. 290-91.","author":"Gönül Tekeli","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","translator":"Yaiza Martínez","translation_copy_editor":"Lucía Rodríguez Corral","keywords":["barroco otomano","instrumento astronómico","laqueado","peregrinaje.","Qiblanuma","técnica Edirnekari"],"materials":["Lacado (técnica edirnekari) en madera."]},"070ed0d9-7748-52d3-bd7e-202fe737f430":{"name":"Astrolabio.","description":"Astrolabio planisférico fabricado en latón y compuesto por cuatro piezas principales: una caja o “madre” de cinco láminas que representan distintas latitudes, una red o “araña” con indicadores para veinticuatro estrellas y una alidada. En el anverso –o “dorso”– lleva un calendario zodiacal y una escala altímetra denominada “cuadrado de sombras”.  \n  \nLos astrolabios son instrumentos versátiles que permiten calcular la posición del sol y de las estrellas, sirven como calendario y como reloj, así como para medir alturas y distancias. Se emplearon en la navegación hasta su sustitución por el cuadrante. Fueron muy útiles para los cálculos del tiempo durante el día y la noche, y para establecer las horas de la oración.  \n  \nEste instrumento fue fabricado en Toledo por el astrolabista Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahali, cuyo nombre y el año de ejecución, 459 H. / 1067 d. C., aparecen en una inscripción en caracteres arábigos en el dorso. Se conservan otros dos astrolabios y un globo celeste firmados por él. El del Museo Arqueológico Nacional tiene todas las características de los astrolabios andalusíes, que fueron famosos desde tiempos del califato y siguieron fabricándose en las distintas taifas, como en este caso la de Toledo.","short_description":"Fabricado en Toledo, según la inscripción, es uno de los astrolabios más antiguos que se conservan y muestra el alto nivel científico alcanzado en al-Andalus en época de las taifas. Sirvió para orientarse a partir de la posición de las estrellas en la bóveda celeste nocturna representada en el plano.","holder":"Museo Arqueológico Nacional.","dates":"459 H. / 1067 d. C.","location":"Madrid.","dimensions":"Diámetro 24,2 cm; grosor máximo 1,9 cm.","method_for_datation":"En el dorso, en la parte superior, aparece una inscripción con la fecha: “En el mes de Xaban del año 459” (1067 d. C.).","method_for_provenance":"En el dorso aparece escrito el nombre de la ciudad donde fue fabricado, Toledo.","provenance":"Toledo.","obtention":"El instrumento ingresó en el Museo Arqueológico Nacional en 1867 procedente de la Biblioteca Nacional.","bibliography":"\\-García Franco, S., Catálogo crítico de astrolabios existentes en España, Madrid, 1945, pp. 229-235.  \n  \n\\-King, D. A. “Andalusi Astronomical Instruments”, Al Andalus – The Art of Islamic Spain (ed. J. D. Dodds), Nueva York, 1992, pp. 376-383.  \n  \n\\-Vernet, J., y Samsó, J., Instrumentos astronómicos en la España medieval: su influencia en Europa, Santa Cruz de la Palma, 1985, pp. 80-81.  \n  \n\\-Viladrich, M., “Astrolabios andalusíes”, El legado científico andalusí, Madrid, 1992, pp. 53-65.  \n  \n\\-Samsó, J., Islamic Astronomy and Medieval Spain, Hampshire, 1994.","author":"M.ª del Carmen Alonso Rodríguez","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","keywords":["astrolabio","taifas","Toledo","Zodiaco"],"materials":["Latón fundido y grabado."]},"0a01c64a-7bc8-567a-8c39-1d5b33e5f0a2":{"name":"Astrolabio","description":"Astrolabio circular de latón con trono (remate superior) de arabescos al que está enlazada la anilla para tenerlo suspendido durante su uso.  \nEl astrolabio se utiliza al menos desde el siglo II / VIII y tenía muchas utilidades: medir el tiempo de noche y de día, calcular la distancia y altura de objetos, medir la latitud y leer el horóscopo. En su empleo, se selecciona el disco apropiado y se inserta en la madre (la placa), ajustando luego la fecha y la hora según la localización geográfica de quien lo está utilizando. El círculo interno con los signos del zodiaco calados, a los que se añaden las constelaciones del círculo externo, gira para proporcionar una lectura astronómica precisa.  \nEn la inscripción de la parte posterior del astrolabio figura el nombre del artesano, Abd al-Karim, junto con los nombres al-Malik, al-Muizz y Shihab al-Din. No se conoce ningún gobernante con estos títulos antes del año 638 / 1241, así que probablemente se trata de una lista de tres personas diferentes. Se ha dicho que estos nombres corresponderían a al-Malik al-Ashraf Musa I, uno de los gobernantes ayyubíes más poderosos de principios del siglo VII / XIII, y al-Muizz, hermano menor de al-Malik. El tercer nombre correspondería a otro hermano menor de al-Malik al-Ashraf, al-Malik al-Muzaffar Shihab al-Din Gazi, quien gobernó la ciudad de Mayyafariqin enlos años 617-645 / 1220-1247. Probablemente fueron estos tres hermanos quienes contrataron al artesano, aunque el destinatario del astrolabio era Shihab al-Din.","short_description":"Este astrolabio se utiliza insertando el disco adecuado en la placa circular. Los signos del zodiaco y las constelaciones de los círculos giran para ofrecer la lectura astronómica. Son muchas sus utilidades, desde fijar las horas de los rezos a leer el horóscopo.","holder":"Museo Británico","dates":"Año 638 de la Hégira / 1240-41 d. C.","location":"Londres, Inglaterra","dimensions":"Alto 26,45 cm, ancho 19,02 cm.","method_for_datation":"En un principio se pensó que el año que figura en la inscripción era el 633 / 1236. Sin embargo, Ward (2004) estableció que se trataba del año 638 / 1240.","method_for_provenance":"Hasta hace poco tiempo se creía que la inscripción decía al-Misri (de Egipto, cairota). Sin embargo, Ward (2004) cree que la ciudad a la que se refiere no es específicamente El Cairo. Los tres hermanos nombrados gobernaron en diferentes partes de Siria y Yazira en la primera mitad del siglo VII / XIII. Ahora se piensa que este astrolabio fue fabricado en Mayyafariqin, ciudad conocida por su metalistería y que en torno al año 637 / 1240 estaba gobernada por Shihab al-Din.","provenance":"Siria o Yazira.","obtention":"Adquirido en 1855.","bibliography":"Ward, R., “The Inscription of the Astrolabe by Abd al-Karim in the Museo Británico”, **Muqarnas**, XXI, 2004, pp. 345–357.","author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","translator":"Lucía Arias","translation_copy_editor":"Miguel Garcia","keywords":["astronomía"],"materials":["Latón labrado con incrustaciones de plata y cobre."]},"16b09d34-6359-51a2-97ca-7d634682b13c":{"name":"Astrolabio planisférico.","description":"El astrolabio es un instrumento astronómico que consta de varias partes. La parte principal es la madre, un cuerpo circular compuesto de un limbo (extremo exterior) fijado a una placa, tímpano. El limbo lleva grabada una escala de 360°, numerada en el sentido de las agujas del reloj y en intervalos de cinco grados. Una línea de puntos indica cada quince grados. Los astrolabios solían estar colgados, este ejemplo, incluye un asa en la parte superior, aunque no se conserva el anillo que suele atravesar el asa y que servía para sujetar la cadena o el cordón que lo sujetaba. Presenta otras siete placas ajustadas a la madre, junto con la araña, una placa que es como un esquema en el que se indican las estrellas. Las placas están unidas entre sí gracias a un seguro que las atraviesa por el centro. El astrolabio planisférico se basa en el principio de la proyección estereográfica. Los círculos de las placas representan la superficie esférica de la tierra en cada latitud geográfica y los círculos de la araña corresponden a la bóveda de las estrellas fijas. La araña es la parte móvil y originalmente giraba gracias a cuatro botones no conservados. La tierra y el firmamento pueden colocarse en combinación. Este astrolabio presenta veintinueve punteros para indicar las estrellas, todos ellos perforados y con base abombada. Los nombres de la estrellas están grabados en letras *cúficas*, debajo de cada puntero. La atracción de los astrolabios islámicos occidentales radica en las curvaturas y decoraciones de estos punteros de las estrellas. Otra parte importante es la eclíptica o círculo del zodiaco. Los nombres árabes de los signos zodiacales están grabados en escritura *cúfica*.  \nEn el reverso, presenta varios círculos que representan el zodiaco y los meses del año según el calendario juliano con sus nombres en árabe y dos cuadrados sombreados. Encima de la línea este-oeste está grabado el nombre de Ahmad ibn Ali al-Sharfi, el artesano que hizo este astrolabio, junto con la fecha y el lugar de producción.  \nEl astrolabio tenía varios usos: medir la altitud del sol o de las estrellas para establecer las horas del amanecer, el atardecer o la hora del rezo.","short_description":"Instrumento astronómico. Cuenta con varias partes que indican las estrellas, el zodiaco y la eclíptica. Entre sus funciones está medir a altitud del sol o de las estrellas para establecer la hora del amanecer, el atardecer o la hora del rezo.","holder":"Museo Marítimo Nacional.","dates":"Año 729  de la Hégira/ 1329 d.C.","location":"Estocolmo","dimensions":"Diámetro 12,2 cm.","method_for_datation":"El año de producción está grabado en el reverso de la pieza.","method_for_provenance":"Alcalá es el lugar de procedencia y está grabado junto con el nombre del artesano y la fecha en el reverso del astrolabio.","provenance":"Alcalá (cerca de Sevilla), España.","obtention":"El comandante Arvid Mörner compró este astrolabio en Fez, Marruecos, en 1907. En diciembre de 1931, el Museo Marítimo Nacional lo adquirió al Conde Otto Hamilton.","bibliography":"Gunther, R. T., *The Astrolabes of the World*, 2 vols. Londres (reimpreso), 1976.  \nKing, D. A., *Islamic Astronomical Instruments*, Londres, 1987.  \nMaddison, F. and Savage-Smith, E., in *Science, Tools and Magic*, Part 1, Vol. 12 of the Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art (ed. J. Raby), Londres, Nueva York, 1997.  \n*Sjöhistoriska Museet Årsbok*, 108, 1988/9.  \nStautz, B., *Die Astrolabiensammlungen des Deutschen Museums und des Bayrischen Nationalmuseums*, Munich 1999.","author":"Friederike Voigt (on the basis of information about the object given by Susanna Allesson Nyberg).","translator":"Lucía Arias","translation_copy_editor":"Jackeline Herrera Merlos Kott","keywords":["Alfombra","astrolabio","ciencia"],"materials":["Latón grabado."]},"5f18b902-02aa-5f60-bcb2-d6de493dfceb":{"name":"Extractor de dientes.","description":"Instrumento parecido a unas pinzas que quizá tuviera originalmente el extremo con dientes de sierra para facilitar a los dentistas la tarea de extraer, por ejemplo, una muela infectada. Es posible que el anillo de metal que se aprecia hacia la mitad del instrumento se desplazara para que resultase más sencillo de manejar y el médico pudiera agarrar mejor el diente. Los musulmanes, desde siempre, destacaron en la medicina y la cirugía, incluida la odontología, e inventaron varios instrumentos, como este, que les servían para realizar intervenciones.  \nEn las operaciones también se utilizaba anestesia general. Uno de los métodos empleados era una esponja anestésica empapada en aceite de hachís, opio y belladona que se dejaba secar al sol. Llegado el momento, se humedecía y se colocaba en la nariz del paciente, que absorbía las sustancias tranquilizantes y quedaba profundamente dormido, de modo que no sentía dolor durante la operación.  \nEl instrumental quirúrgico era sometido a procesos de esterilización para no contagiar infecciones entre pacientes, sobre todo en las intervenciones odontológicas, donde el contagio era más probable. En esta época, Abu Bakr al-Razi (251-313 / 865-925) ya había descubierto la preparación de alcohol, que se usaba para esterilizar el instrumental quirúrgico.","short_description":"Los médicos musulmanes destacaron en el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de enfermedades y, además, inventaron instrumental quirúrgico que resultaba especialmente útil en la cirugía dental. Empleaban distintos tipos de anestesia y esterilizaban los instrumentos.","holder":"Museo de Arte Islámico","dates":"Siglo III de la Hégira / IX d. C.","location":"El Cairo","dimensions":"Largo 10 cm.","method_for_datation":"Se encontró, junto con otros instrumentos quirúrgicos, en la ciudad de Fustat. Durante la época abbasí, la ciudad fue famosa por sus avances en el terreno científico, sobre todo en medicina y cirugía. Al-Fatih ibn Jaqan, ministro del califa abbasí al-Mutawakkil ala Allah (r. 232-247 / 847-861) construyó un hospital en Fustat en 247 / 861. Ahmad ibn Tulun (r. 254-270 / 868-884) también construyó en Fustat el hospital al-Alaa en 254 / 868.","method_for_provenance":"Es muy probable que se fabricara en Egipto, puesto que se descubrió en excavaciones arqueológicas de la ciudad de Fustat junto con otros instrumentos quirúrgicos similares.","provenance":"Egipto.","obtention":"Donado en 1975 por el doctor Henry Amin Awad, conocido dermatólogo egipcio y muy interesado en la arqueología islámica, tema sobre el que ha escrito varias obras.","bibliography":"Awad, H. A., “Al-jiraha fi al-asr al-islami \\[Cirugía en el periodo islámico\\]”, *Majalat al-Dirasat al-Islamiya \\[Revista de estudios islámicos\\]*, Vol. 3, El Cairo, 1988.  \nFarukh, O., *Tarij al-ulum ind al-arab \\[Historia de las ciencias árabes\\]*, Beirut, 1980.  \nHunke, S., *Shams al-arab tastaa ala al-garb \\[El sol de los árabes luce en Occidente\\]* Beirut, 1981 \\[trad. de *Allahs Sonne über dem Abendlanded*, Stuttgart, 1960\\].  \nMuntasir, Abd al-Halim, *Tarij al-ilm wa dor al-ulama al-arab fi takadumihu \\[Historia de la ciencia y el papel de los eruditos árabes en su avance\\]*, El Cairo, 1980.  \n*Quand les sciences parlent arabe VIIIe-XVe siècle ap. J.-C. / IIe-IXe siècle H.*, catálogo de exposición, El Cairo, 2003.","author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Lucía Rodríguez Corral","translation_copy_editor":"Miguel Garcia","keywords":["ciencias","cobre fundido.","hospital","instrumento quirúrgico","medicina"],"materials":["Cobre fundido."]},"827d2b0c-14c4-5af4-883c-a966ae4b929e":{"name":"Astrolabio.","description":"Este astrolabio lleva en el anverso seis placas con doce indicaciones de lugar. Sólo seis topónimos están designados explícitamente: Fez, Marrakech, Trípoli, Egipto y las ciudades santas de La Meca y Medina. Completa el conjunto una placa calada con agujas curvadas que remiten a veintiséis estrellas. Los caracteres arábigos representan en general monogramas alfabéticos en estilo cúfico “astronómico”, así llamado porque, aunque desapareciera en el siglo XII / XVIII, el estilo cúfico se ha mantenido en los instrumentos astronómicos. Las cifras están repartidas según el orden magrebí.  \nEl reverso lleva una regleta giratoria con dos placas perforadas.  \nEl reborde está dividido en dos cuadrantes seguidos del círculo del zodiaco y del calendario magrebí –según el orden cristiano–, otra característica de los astrolabios del Occidente musulmán. Hay que precisar que el calendario musulmán es únicamente lunar; el hecho de que este astrolabio esté dotado de un calendario cristiano demuestra que, en ciertos periodos, los datos se calculaban en correspondencia con el mes solar y el mes lunar.  \nEste astrolabio se conserva en una funda hecha de un tejido ocre amarillento con ribete negro. Este tipo de astrolabio estaba muy difundido en el norte de África en los siglos XI-XII / XVII-XVIII. Muchos llevan firmas. Marruecos era uno de los principales centros de fabricación.","short_description":"Astrolabio que presenta en el anverso seis placas con indicaciones de lugares. Una placa calada y dotada de agujas tiene caracteres alfabéticos cúficos repartidos según el orden magrebí. En el reverso se encuentran una regleta giratoria, dos cuadrantes y un zodiaco característico que sigue el orden cristiano.","holder":"Museo Nacional de Cirta","dates":"Siglo XI o XII de la Hégira / XVII o XVIII d. C.","location":"Constantina","dimensions":"Diámetro 13,5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Comparación con instrumentos similares datados.","method_for_provenance":"Los finos caracteres cúficos magrebíes, el calendario cristiano y los valores de las cifras alfabéticas indican que se trata de un astrolabio marroquí. Por otra parte, en dos lugares aparecen inscritos los nombres de ciudades marroquíes; probablemente, pues, el instrumento procede de Fez o Marrakech.","provenance":"Marrakech o Fez (Marruecos).","bibliography":"Hartner, W., “Asturlãb”, *Encyclopédie de l’islam*, t. 1, pp. 744-49.","author":"Houria Cherid","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"Sakina Missoum","translation_copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","keywords":["astrolabio","calendario magrebí","cifras alfabéticas","instrumento astronómico"],"materials":["Cobre amarillo","grabado y calado.","recortado"]},"9f4ec4b3-5bb8-51d7-b82f-ba92ec74033b":{"name":"Cuchara de dentista.","description":"Instrumento parecido a una cuchara, con un extremo plano de forma ovalada. Es probable que lo utilizasen los médicos para examinar la boca y la garganta, así como durante las operaciones de amígdalas. En las excavaciones que se efectuaron en la ciudad de Fustat (la primera capital del Egipto islámico, establecida por Amr ibn al-As en el año 21 / 641), se encontró un gran número de instrumentos quirúrgicos que se consideran los más antiguos que existen. Hay descripciones de instrumentos similares a los descubiertos en Fustat en la obra de un cirujano de al-Andalus, Abu al-Qasim Jalaf bin al-Abbas al-Zahrawi (329-404 / 940-1013), cuya enciclopedia quirúrgica, *Al-tasrif liman ayaz ‘an al-talif*, constituye la mayor y más valiosa fuente de conocimientos quirúrgicos del periodo, y fue una referencia importante para médicos y cirujanos de los siglos posteriores. La enciclopedia contiene más de 150 ilustraciones de instrumentos médicos con descripciones detalladas sobre su uso en distintas intervenciones quirúrgicas.","short_description":"Los médicos musulmanes conocían y practicaban la cirugía. Este instrumento demuestra que los médicos daban mucha importancia a la medicina y el instrumental en distintos ámbitos médicos, y que los desarrollaron. En el libro del cirujano andalusí Al Zahrawi se hallan descripciones de estos útiles.","holder":"Museo de Arte Islámico","dates":"Siglo III de la Hégira / IX d. C.","location":"El Cairo","dimensions":"Largo 12,5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Por fuentes históricas, que ponen de manifiesto el esplendor que vivieron la medicina y las ciencias asociadas durante el periodo abbasí.","method_for_provenance":"Es muy probable que el lugar de producción del objeto sea Egipto, puesto que se descubrió en la ciudad de Fustat. Esta suposición queda respaldada por el auge de las ciencias, especialmente de la medicina, experimentado en Egipto, donde además había muchos hospitales en aquella época.","provenance":"Egipto.","obtention":"El doctor Henry Amin Awad, erudito interesado en el estudio del patrimonio y que ha realizado estudios en el campo del arte islámico, donó el objeto al museo en 1975.","bibliography":"Abd al-Rahim, Abd al-Rahim Khalaf, *Al-adawat yirahiya wa al-awani al-tibiya fi al-asr al-islami min al-qarn al-awal hatta al-aarn al-tasi lil hiyra \\[Instrumentos quirúrgicos y recipientes médicos en el periodo islámico desde el siglo primero hasta el noveno\\]*, tesis de máster, Universidad de El Cairo, 1999.  \nAbd al-Rahim, Abd al-Rahim Khalaf, *Quand les sciences parlent arabe. VIIIe-XVe siècle ap. J.-C./ IIe-IXe siècle H*, catálogo de la exposición, El Cairo, 2003.  \nHoncke, S., *Shams al-arab tastaa ala al-Garb \\[El sol de los árabes luce en Occidente\\]*, Beirut, 1981.  \n‘Awad, H. A., \"Al- yiraha fi al-asr al-islami \\[Cirugía en el periodo islámico\\]\", *Mayalat al-Dirasat al-Islamiya \\[Revista de Estudios Islámicos\\]*, volumen 3, El Cairo, 1988, p. 273.","author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Lucía Rodríguez Corral","translation_copy_editor":"Miguel Garcia","keywords":["ciencias","cirugía","cobre","cobre fundido.","hospital","instrumental médico","Instrumental quirúrgico","medicina"],"materials":["Cobre fundido."]},"a8a7b007-ba46-517e-94a2-c79734028dc9":{"name":"Bisturí.","description":"Bisturí con mango largo y cuchilla más fina y ancha que él. En las excavaciones efectuadas en la ciudad de Fustat (la primera capital del Egipto islámico, fundada por Amr ibn al-As en el año 21 / 641) se encontró gran número de instrumentos quirúrgicos, que se consideran los más antiguos existentes y demuestran lo avanzado del Egipto islámico en el campo de la medicina y la cirugía.  \nLos musulmanes destacaron en estas disciplinas desde la primera época del periodo islámico. Las fuentes históricas y los manuscritos contienen información sobre el progreso de la cirugía en el mundo islámico en general, progreso corroborado por el numeroso instrumental que se conserva. Tal vez el más famoso de los cirujanos musulmanes sea el médico de al-Andalus Abu al-Qasim Jalaf ibn al-Zahrawi (conocido como Abulcasis, 329-404 / 940-1013). Recomendaba que los cirujanos aprendiesen anatomía y defendía la importancia de la disección para adquirir conocimientos sobre el cuerpo humano, de modo que pudiesen determinarse las causas de la muerte para aplicar ese conocimiento en futuros casos. Su obra más famosa es la enciclopedia *Al-tasrif liman ayaz an al-taalif*, que contiene la descripción de más de 150 instrumentos quirúrgicos acompañados de una ilustración. En el momento de las intervenciones quirúrgicas, los cirujanos musulmanes ponían sumo cuidado en la esterilización del lugar; Al-Zahrawi explica en su enciclopedia varios métodos para esterilizar el entorno de trabajo.  \nEn las operaciones también se utilizaba anestesia general. Uno de los métodos empleados era una esponja anestésica empapada en aceite de hachís, opio, ballica, beleño y belladona que se dejaba secar al sol. Pasado un tiempo se humedecía y se colocaba en la nariz del paciente, que absorbía las sustancias tranquilizantes y quedaba profundamente dormido, de forma que no sentía dolor durante la operación. Los cirujanos musulmanes también usaban hilo quirúrgico hecho con intestinos de animales como el gato. Al-Zahrawi enseñaba a sus alumnos a coser las heridas con un tipo de punto interior parecido al que se emplea en la actual cirugía estética. La enciclopedia de Al-Zahrawi habla de operaciones de cirugía estética que corregían desfiguraciones de los labios, las orejas y la nariz, así como de cirugía de los vasos sanguíneos. Otra de las prácticas de los médicos musulmanes consistía en entablillar y vendar los huesos fracturados del cráneo, los brazos y los hombros.","short_description":"Este bisturí, encontrado en la ciudad de Fustat entre muchos otros instrumentos quirúrgicos, demuestra que los médicos musulmanes empleaban un numeroso instrumental en sus tratamientos y operaciones.","holder":"Museo de Arte Islámico","dates":"Siglo III de la Hégira / IX d. C.","location":"El Cairo","dimensions":"Largo 16,50 cm.","method_for_datation":"Por fuentes históricas que hablan de los avances en el campo de la medicina y la cirugía en Egipto durante el periodo abbasí, así como por comparación con las ilustraciones del instrumental quirúrgico que al-Zahrawi incluye en su enciclopedia *Al-tasrif liman ayaz an al-Taalif* y con las descripciones de instrumentos de otras obras sobre medicina de la época.","method_for_provenance":"Es probable que el bisturí, así como el resto de los instrumentos quirúrgicos hallados en excavaciones arqueológicas en la ciudad de Fustat, se fabricasen en Egipto, pues las fuentes históricas no mencionan que esta clase de instrumentos se importase de otros lugares. Hay que tener en cuenta también el hecho de que la medicina y la cirugía vivían una época de esplendor en Egipto durante este periodo.","provenance":"Egipto.","obtention":"Hallado en excavaciones de Fustat.","bibliography":"Awad, H. A., “Al-yiraha fi al-asr al-islami \\[Cirugía en el periodo islámico\\]”, *Majalat al-Dirasat al-slamiya \\[Revista de estudios islámicos\\]*, Vol. 3, El Cairo, 1988, p. 273.  \n“Catalogue ishamat al-hadara al-arabiya wa al-islamiya fi al-ulum al-tibiya \\[Catálogo de las contribuciones de la civilización árabe e islámica a la medicina\\]”, *Makhtutat Dar al-Kutub al-Masriya \\[Manuscritos de Dar al-Kutub al-Masriiya\\]*, El Cairo, 2002.  \nSayour, S. A., “La medicina en la época islámica”, *Prisma* (revista del ministerio de Cultura egipcio), El Cairo, 12, 2001, p. 49.  \n*Quand les sciences parlent arabe – VIIIe-XVe siècle ap. J.-C. / IIe-IXe siècle H*, catálogo de exposición, El Cairo, 2003.","author":"Salah Sayour","copy_editor":"Majd Musa","translator":"Lucía Rodríguez Corral","translation_copy_editor":"Miguel Garcia","keywords":["bisturí","cirugía","cobre","cosmético","Instrumental quirúrgico","medicina"],"materials":["Cobre fundido."]},"ab91307f-d3d5-5f2a-88d0-9f2eb6934a29":{"name":"Plato con orientación de La Meca.","description":"Los musulmanes deben rezar siempre mirando hacia la *qibla*, la dirección de la Kaaba en la ciudad de La Meca. Por ello, a veces necesitan instrumentos, como este plato, que los ayuden a determinar la dirección de la Kaaba. En el centro de la base del plato, redonda y plana, se ve un círculo del que salen varias columnas radiales. Alrededor del centro del círculo se lee el nombre del artesano y el lugar de fabricación (“Hecho por Sayyid Zabit en Damasco”). Entre el centro y el borde hay unas tablas de filas que forman una secuencia de anillos y contienen los nombres de varias ciudades (Damasco, Bagdad, Constantinopla, Jerusalén, Teherán, Kabul, etc.) dispuestos en tres bandas, así como letras correspondientes a números que indican grados de ángulos. La circunferencia interior del borde del plato presenta marcas de unidades –cada una de las cuales equivale a cinco grados– y los cuatro puntos cardinales en semicírculos.  \nEn la superficie exterior del borde se explica, en dos líneas en árabe, el modo de empleo del instrumento. Entre ambas líneas hay cuatro medallones en los que se dice que el plato se fabricó por orden del sultán Selim I, “el triunfante adalid de la justicia y soberano supremo \\[*jaqan*\\], que es hijo del soberano supremo, rey de las dos tierras y los dos mares, y sirviente de los dos santuarios, que Dios inmortalice su mandato”. Toda esta información está plasmada en letra cúfica negra sobre fondo blanco, cubierta de un vidriado transparente.","short_description":"Esta tabla científica inscrito en un plato de cerámica cumplía una importante función. Recoge nombres de ciudades y datos trigonométricos que ayudan al usuario a saber la orientación de La Meca y la dirección del rezo. Resultaba especialmente útil en los viajes.","holder":"Museo Nacional de Damasco.","initial_owner":"Sultán Selim I (r. 918-926 / 1512-1520).","dates":"918-926 de la Hégira / 1512-1520 d. C.","dimensions":"Alto 3,5 cm; diámetro 18,5 cm.","method_for_datation":"La inscripción del plato indica que se fabricó por orden del sultán Selim I (r. 918-926 / 1512-1520).","method_for_provenance":"La inscripción del plato indica que se fabricó en Damasco.","provenance":"Damasco (Siria).","obtention":"Adquirido en 1935.","bibliography":"Cluzan, S., et al (eds.), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, París, 1994.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J., y Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Friburgo, 1985, p. 441.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, Londres, 2004.","author":"Mona al-Moadin","copy_editor":"Zena Takieddine","translator":"Lucía Rodríguez Corral","translation_copy_editor":"Miguel Garcia","keywords":["Bagdad","barro cocido","cerámica","Constantinopla","Damasco","dirección de la qibla","Jerusalén","Kaaba.","Kabul","La Meca","objeto práctico","oración","qibla","rezos","Sayyid Zabit","sultán Selim","Teherán","vidriado transparente"],"materials":["Barro cocido con pintura negra y azul sobre fondo blanco y vidriado transparente."]},"de4802a1-86e2-5973-8765-e8cc4ee04f98":{"name":"Astrolabio planisférico.","description":"Son conocidos tanto el nombre del artista como el último destino de este astrolabio plano conservado en bastante buen estado. Se aprecian todos los elementos esenciales de un astrolabio planisférico: la parte principal o madre; la alidada, dispuesta en el dorso del instrumento; tres tímpanos o discos superpuestos colocados sobre la madre; la araña o lámina calada móvil (*shabaka*) que indica la posición de las estrellas fijas que giran alrededor de la tierra; el colgadero o triángulo de suspensión. Esta pieza se considera uno de los primeros astrolabios portátiles fabricados en Occidente bajo el modelo del célebre astrónomo de Toledo al-Zarqali, conocido en Europa como Azarshel. El dorso del colgadero está grabado con el nombre de su creador, el famoso fabricante sevillano Mohamed ibn al-Fatuh al-Jamairi, autor de otros cuatro astrolabios. En el dorso de la madre, una inscripción en caracteres cursivos menciona la mezquita a la que iba destinado: la Mezquita de los Andalusíes en Fez.  \nEl astrolabio era un instrumento científico indispensable con el que los antiguos astrónomos determinaban la hora de la oración o la situación de los astros y establecían el horóscopo. Éste es además una obra artística de primorosa ejecución, especialmente el diseño de los indicadores flamiformes de la araña.","short_description":"Este astrolabio plano posee todo los elementos que componen las diferentes partes de un astrolabio planisférico, instrumento indispensable con el que los antiguos astrónomos determinaban la hora de la oración, la posición de los astros y establecían el horóscopo. Se considera uno de los primeros astrolabios portátiles de Occidente.","holder":"Museo Batha.","dates":"614 de la Hégira/1217-1218 d. C.","location":"Fez","dimensions":"Alto 22,5 cm; diámetro 21 cm.","method_for_datation":"Una inscripción revela el nombre del artesano y la fecha de fabricación: “Esto fue hecho por Mohamed Ibn al-Fatuh al-Jamairi en el año 614” [1218]; las cifras están escritas con letras, según el método Abayid.","method_for_provenance":"Por la inscripción que figura al dorso del astrolabio: “Se constituyó en *habus* para merecer los favores y el perdón de Dios Supremo, en provecho de los *minbar* de la Mezquita de los Andalusíes de la ciudad de Fez, la protegida de Dios Supremo” (la Mezquita de los Andalusíes poseía, en efecto, dos *minbar*, uno mandado fabricar en 369/980 y otro de época almohade).","provenance":"Mezquita de los Andalusíes (Fez).","bibliography":"Amahane, A., *6000 ans d’art au Maroc* (catálogo), París, 1990.  \nBergé, M., *Les Arabes, Histoire et Civilisation, des origines à la chute du Royaume de Grenade*, París, 1978.  \nMichel, H., *Traité de l’astrolabe*, París, 1947.  \nRenaud, P.J., “Astronomie et Astrologie marocaines”, *Hespéris*, XXIX, Rabat, 1942, pp. 42-63.","author":"Naima El Khatib-Boujibar","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"Laura Tortosa Rey-Stolle","translation_copy_editor":"Miguel Garcia","materials":["Latón grabado."]},"e98373dd-6e4e-5ada-9719-c553fa2337f9":{"name":"Frasco de vidrio, probablemente usado en química.","description":"Recipiente de cristal de uso cotidiano, liso y sin adornos. Su extraña forma indica que tuvo un uso especializado, probablemente en un laboratorio de química. Tiene un cuerpo ovalado de cuyo lateral sale un tubo estrecho y alargado que se curva hacia arriba en un ángulo casi recto. El ancho del tubo va aumentando hacia su extremo, donde tiene una boca exvasada en forma de embudo. El frasco es de vidrio fino, blanco y translúcido. Está exento de decoración, posiblemente para poder observar las reacciones químicas que se produjeran en su interior.  \nEn época abbasí se vivió un renacimiento cultural y científico. Los arqueólogos han hallado numerosos objetos de vidrio de la época destinados a fines prácticos.","short_description":"Era necesaria una gran destreza artesanal no sólo para fabricar piezas suntuarias, sino también para crear objetos prácticos. Este recipiente de vidrio, exento de decoración pero muy sofisticado, posiblemente se usó en experimentos químicos.","holder":"Museo Nacional de Damasco.","dates":"Siglo III o IV de la Hégira / IX o X d. C. aproximadamente.","dimensions":"Alto 22,2 cm; ancho (del cuerpo) 9,6 cm.","method_for_datation":"La producción de vidrio prosperó en numerosas ciudades de Irán, Irak, Siria y Egipto a lo largo de varias épocas. Se han encontrado fragmentos de vidrio con formas parecidas que se datan en el periodo abbasí. En las excavaciones llevadas a cabo en los complejos palaciegos abbasíes de la región de al-Raqqa bajo la dirección de Nasib Salibi en la década de 1950 y de Michael Meinecke en la de 1990, se hallaron numerosos objetos de vidrio de época abbasí. Es posible que este frasco se fabricase a principios de dicha época.","method_for_provenance":"En las excavaciones arqueológicas de al-Raqqa se encontraron numerosos objetos de vidrio y se sabe, además, que la zona fue un importante centro de producción vidriera; por ello, es posible que el objeto se fabricase en al-Raqqa, un gran complejo urbano que prosperó en época abbasí.","provenance":"Región de al-Raqqa (Siria).","obtention":"Adquirido en 1919.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus*, Damasco, 1969, p. 250.  \nCarboni, S., y Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, Nueva York, 2001.","author":"Mona al-Moadin","copy_editor":"Zena Takieddine","translator":"Lucía Rodríguez Corral","translation_copy_editor":"Miguel Garcia","keywords":["al-Raqqa","ciencia","frasco de vidrio","Michael Meinecke","Nasib Salibi","química","vidrio soplado."],"materials":["Vidrio soplado."]},"ff3db0a2-4bc7-576e-bbd7-b0882e3ea217":{"name":"Astrolabio.","description":"Astrolabio formado por una placa madre remachada por detrás al borde elevado (limbo), grabado este con escritura cúfica. Para hacer las lecturas, se colgaba, vertical al suelo, por la anilla o trono, que en esta pieza no es la original. También la araña, la pieza central que gira sobre la madre e indica la posición de las estrellas, fue remplazada en el siglo VII / XIII.  \nEl astrolabio puede desmontarse sacando la chaveta central; se descubren entonces siete placas. En ellas, en letra cúfica como la del limbo, hay grabados siete nombres de ciudades (La Meca, Medina, Zaragoza, Samarra, El Cairo, Toledo y Constantinopla), junto con su latitud y las horas del día más largo. Las placas tienen grabados asimismo azimuts y almicantarats, y hay líneas que indican las horas de rezo. El interior de la madre tiene grabadas las marcas de 66 grados en una placa de coordinadas eclípticas, mientras que en la parte posterior hay cuatro escalas de altitud y otras dos eclípticas y de calendario. La signatura del artesano aparece en la parte posterior de la madre.  \nLos astrolabios representan una noción del cielo con todas sus estrellas basada en la idea de que la tierra era el centro de un universo esférico. Se utilizaron desde, al menos, el siglo II / VIII con diversos propósitos, como cálculos astronómicos que permitían determinar la altitud del sol y las estrellas, o en la navegación. En el mundo musulmán, una función importante era medir el tiempo para determinar la hora de las cinco oraciones diarias.  \nLos musulmanes invadieron la Península Ibérica en el siglo II/VIII. Desarrollaron una vibrante civilización que recogió, incorporó y difundía la ideas de científicos y eruditos árabes anteriores y contemporáneos. Este astrolabio es el más antiguo fabricado y datado en Europa que se conoce. Lo hizo Muhammad ibn al-Saffar en el año 417 / 1026-27. Llama la atención que su hermano, Ibn al-Saffar, fuera el autor del primer tratado sobre astrolabios de la España musulmana. De este periodo se conservan otros dos astrolabios, ambos obra de Muhammad ibn al-Saffar pero posteriores a este. Aunque en el mundo musulmán la producción y uso de astrolabios continuó hasta el siglo XIV / XX, en Europa disminuyó en el XII / XVIII.","short_description":"El mundo musulmán heredó el astrolabio de la Antigüedad. Fue un aparato esencial de cálculos astronómicos que se utilizó en la observación de los astros, la navegación o la medición del tiempo. Fue introducido en Europa con la conquista musulmana de la Península Ibérica en el siglo II / VIII.","holder":"Museos Nacionales de Escocia","initial_owner":".","dates":"417 de la Hégira / 1026-27 d. C.","location":"Edimburgo, Escocia","dimensions":"Diámetro 15,5 cm.","method_for_datation":"En la parte posterior de la pieza aparece una inscripción en letra cúfica que dice: “Obra de Muhammad ibn al-Saffar en Córdoba en el año 17 y 400” (417 / 1026-27).","method_for_provenance":"Según la inscripción de su parte posterior, procede de Córdoba.","provenance":"Córdoba","obtention":"Donado por James H. Farr al Museo Real en 1959.","bibliography":"King, D. A., “Some Medieval Astronomical Instruments and their Secrets”, en Mazzolini (ed.), *Non-Verbal Communication in Science prior to 1900*, Florencia, 1993, pp. 29–52.  \nMaddison, F., y Turner, A., *Science and Technology in Islam*, catálogo de exposición, Londres, 1976, pp. 104–106.  \nPhillips, P., *The Collectors’ Encyclopeadia of Antiques*, Londres, 1973, p. 604, fig. a.  \nPlenderleith, R. W., “Discovery of an Old Astrolabe”, *The Scottish Geographical Magazine*, Vol. 76, n.º 1, 1960, p. 25.","author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","translator":"Lucía Arias","translation_copy_editor":"Miguel Garcia","keywords":["astrolabio","Córdoba","escritura cúfica","Muhammad ibn al-Saffar"],"materials":["Bronce fundido e inciso."]}}

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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"00a4a413-b81a-55ed-8395-f8514dc9b430":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"Astrolabe en forme de cadran d'horloge. Il se compose de sept plaques, dont une fixe et six tournantes fixées à la plaque fixe par un écrou central décoré d'une rosette. Au-dessus de ces plaques, gravées de méridiens, de cercles concentriques de noms et de termes astrologiques et astronomiques, vient se poser un indicateur à index en crochets qui servent à déterminer la position de 29 étoiles et calculer le temps et certaines distances.  \nDes sources historiques précisent que l'astrolabe a été inventé par l'astronome grec Hipparchus au IIe siècle av. J.-C. Les musulmans d'al-Andalus et du Maghreb utilisaient les astrolabes les plus perfectionnés.","short_description":"Les astrolabes sont des instruments d’astronomie utilisés pour mesurer le temps et les distances. Leurs plaques sont gravées de cercles concentriques, de méridiens, de termes astrologiques et de nombres. Inventés au IIe siècle av.J.-C., les astrolabes les plus perfectionnés étaient utilisés par les musulmans d’al-Andalus et du Maghreb.","holder":"Musée des arts turcs et islamiques.","initial_owner":"Muhammad ibn Batut de la famille Hamayri.","dates":"650 de l’Hégire / 1252 J.-C.","location":"Sultanahmet, Istanbul","dimensions":"Ø 17 cm, H. 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"Selon l'inscription figurant sur l'objet, il a été fabriqué en 650/1252 et appartenait à un certain Muhammad ibn Batut de la famille Hamayri de Ichbiliya (actuelle Séville).","method_for_provenance":"L'inscription précise la ville de Ichbiliya (actuelle Séville).","provenance":"Séville, Espagne.","obtention":"Transféré du trésor du palais de Topkapi au musée en 1383/1964.","bibliography":"ölçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, p.90.","author":"Alev Özay","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["calligraphie","cuivre"],"materials":["Fonte de cuivre et cuivre battu et gravé."]},"026dea32-9637-5a90-8cb3-ddf63a376262":{"name":"*Qiblanuma*.","description":"Qiblanuma, instrument d'astronomie portatif dont le nom signifie littéralement “montrant la direction de la Kaaba.” De forme circulaire et fermé par un couvercle, l'objet construit en bois est laqué selon une technique dite *Edirnekari* de couleurs rouge, rose, noir, bleu, vert et doré. La partie principale contient le compas et un index. Les régions où l'instrument peut être utilisé figurent sur une carte, et une liste de ville aux noms en arabe est donnée.  \nLa partie supérieure de l'intérieur du couvercle illustre sur fond vert les minarets du Masjid al-Haram à La Mecque avec la Kaaba en son centre. à gauche sont représentés les sites sacrés de la plaine d'Arafat. à droite et au premier plan à droite figurent des palmiers-dattiers et des oliviers, symboles du paradis et de bénédiction. L'espace vide en arrière-plan est occupé par des grenades dans une coupe, image de l'abondance. Un cartouche encadré de motifs de feuillage partant des grenades est décoré d'un bouquet de roses sur fond or. Le bouquet de ces fleurs, symbole du prophète Mahomet, était populaire dans la littérature et la décoration ottomanes au XIIe siècle H (XVIIIe siècle J.-C.). Les fruits dans une coupe, motif typique de cette période, symbolisent la fertilité, l'abondance et l'immortalité. L'inscription en partie inférieure précise que l'instrument a été fabriqué par un certain Barun al-Muhtari à Istanbul en 1151 H / 1738 J.-C. et fournit des instructions sur le fonctionnement de l'instrument.  \nL'extérieur du couvercle est décoré en style baroque rococo sur fond doré. On y trouve des vases remplis de roses et autres fleurs entourées de guirlandes de feuilles d'acanthe et de vrilles en spirales, dans un style naturaliste appelé “rococo turc.” Six médaillons ovales disposés dans la composition présentent des illustrations de paysages sans personnages, que l'on trouve également sur des fresques murales de la même période. Elles comprennent des vues de lacs, de maisons au bord de l'eau parmi des arbres, de grandes demeures et de villages sur la côte opposée, le tout donnant une impression de profondeur.","short_description":"Les *qiblanuma* sont des instruments d’astronomie portatifs qui montrent la direction de la Kaaba à La Mecque, face à laquelle les musulmans prient. Ils restèrent en usage jusqu’à la fin du XIIIe siècle H (XIXe siècle J.-C.) ; cet exemplaire fabriqué à Istanbul était décoré selon une technique de laque appelée *Edirnekari*.","holder":"Musée des arts turcs et islamiques.","dates":"1151 de l’Hégire / 1738 J.-C.","location":"Sultanahmet, Istanbul","dimensions":"Ø 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"La date 1151/1739 figure à l'intérieur du couvercle.","method_for_provenance":"L'inscription à l'intérieur du couvercle indique Istanbul comme lieu de production.","provenance":"Istanbul, Turquie.","obtention":"Transféré au musée de la mosquée d'Hisar à Izmir en 1370/1851.","bibliography":"ölçer, N. et al, *In Pursuit of Excellence: The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts*, Milan, 1996, p. 88.  \nölçer, N. *et al, Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art*, Istanbul, 2002, pp. 290-291.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TR_FR_001","author":"Gönül Tekeli","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["baroque ottoman","Edirnekari","instruments d’astronomie","laque","Pèlerinage","Qiblanuma"],"materials":["Laque sur bois","selon la technique dite Edirnekari."]},"070ed0d9-7748-52d3-bd7e-202fe737f430":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"Astrolabe planisphérique fabriqué en laiton et composé de quatre pièces principales : une caisse ou “mère” qui contient cinq lames correspondant à cinq latitudes, un filet ou “araignée” avec des indicateurs pour vingt-quatre étoiles et une alidade. Sur l'envers, également appelé “dos”, il y a un calendrier zodiacal et une échelle altimétrique appelée “carré d'ombres”. Les astrolabes sont des instruments à usages multiples qui permettent de calculer la position du soleil et des étoiles ; ils servent de calendrier, d'horloge, d'instrument de mesure des hauteurs et des distances ; ils ont été employés pour la navigation jusqu'au moment où ils ont été remplacés par le quadrant. Ils étaient très utiles pour le calcul du temps, de jour comme de nuit, et pour fixer les heures de prière.  \nCet instrument a été fabriqué à Tolède par l'astrolabiste Ibrahim ibn Saïd al-Sahali, dont le nom figure au dos sur une inscription en caractères arabes, de même que la date d'exécution, l'année 459 (1067 J.-C.). On conserve deux autres astrolabes et un globe céleste signés du même artisan. Celui du Musée archéologique national présente toutes les caractéristiques des astrolabes andalous, qui furent fameux à l'époque du califat et que l'on a continué à fabriquer dans les différents royaumes taïfas, comme dans le cas de Tolède.","short_description":"Fabriqué à Tolède, selon son inscription, cet astrolabe est l'un des plus anciens qui soit conservé ; il atteste le haut niveau scientifique atteint en al-Andalus à l'époque des Taïfas. Il servait à s'orienter à partir de la position des étoiles dans la voûte céleste nocturne représentée sur le plan.","holder":"Musée archéologique national.","dates":"459 H / 1067 J.-C.","location":"Madrid.","dimensions":"Ø 24, 2 cm, ép. maximale 1, 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"Au dos figure une inscription avec la date : “Au mois de *chaaban* de l'an 459” (1067 J.-C.).","method_for_provenance":"Au dos figure le nom de la ville où il fut fabriqué, Tolède.","provenance":"Tolède.","obtention":"L'astrolabe est entré au Musée archéologique national en 1867 en provenance de la Bibliothèque nationale.","bibliography":"García Franco, S., *Catálogo crítico de astrolabios existentes en España*,Madrid, 1945, pp. 229-235.  \nKing, D. A., “Andalusi Astronomical Instruments”, *Al Andalus. The Art of Islamic Spain* (Jerrilyn D. Dodds éd.), New York, 1992, pp. 376-383.  \nSamsó, J., *Islamic astronomy and medieval Spain*, Hampshire, 1994.  \nVernet, J. et Samsó, J., *Instrumentos astronómicos en la España medieval: su influencia en Europa*, Santa Cruz de la Palma, 1985, pp. 80-81.  \nViladrich, M., “Astrolabios andalusiés”, *El legado científico andalusí*, Madrid, 1992, pp. 53-65.","author":"M.ª del Carmen Alonso Rodríguez","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","translator":"Benito Pelegrín (de l'espagnol)","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["astrolabe","Taifas","Tolède","zodiaque"],"materials":["Laiton fondu et gravé."]},"0a01c64a-7bc8-567a-8c39-1d5b33e5f0a2":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"Astrolabe circulaire en cuivre jaune à cadre circulaire et cartouche d'arabesques en partie supérieure auquel un anneau (le trône) était attaché pour suspendre l'instrument lors de son utilisation. L'astrolabe est utilisé depuis au moins le IIe siècle H (VIIIe siècle J.-C.). Instrument multifonctionnel, il servait aussi bien à donner le temps de jour comme de nuit, qu'à l'étude et à la détermination de la distance et de la hauteur d'objets, à la mesure de la latitude et à la lecture des horoscopes. Un disque gravé approprié était inséré dans le cadre (la mère) et positionné sur une date et une heure spécifiques en fonction de la localisation géographique de l'utilisateur. Un plateau (l'araignée) à signes du zodiaque ajourés dans le cercle intérieur, et d'autres constellations dans le cercle extérieur, tournait tout autour pour permettre une lecture astronomique précise.  \nDans l'inscription au verso de l'instrument figure le nom de son artisan, Abd al-Karim, accompagné de celui de al-Malik, al-Mouiz et Chihab al-Din. Comme aucun souverain ne porte ce titre avant l'an 638 H / 1241 J.-C., il s'agit probablement d'une liste de trois individus différents. On a pu suggérer que ces noms étaient ceux de al-Malik al-Achraf Moussa Ier, l'un des plus puissants souverains ayyoubides du début du VIIIe siècle H (XIIIe siècle J.-C.), et al-Mouiz, frère cadet du premier. Le troisième nom serait celui d'un autre frère cadet, al-Malik al-Mudaffar Chihab al-Din Ghazi qui gouverna la ville de Mayyafariqin de 617 à 645/1221-1247. Ces trois frères ayyoubides employèrent probablement cet artisan, tandis que le commanditaire de l'astrolabe serait Chihab al-Din.","short_description":"Pour utiliser cet astrolabe, le disque approprié doit être inséré dans le cadre circulaire. On fait tourner les signes du zodiaque du cercle extérieur et les constellations du cercle intérieur pour permettre une lecture astronomique précise. Les usages sont multiples, de l'établissement des heures de prière à la lecture des horoscopes.","holder":"The British Museum.","dates":"638 de l’Hégire / 1241 J.-C.","location":"Londres","dimensions":"H. 26,45 cm, l. 19,02 cm.","method_for_datation":"La date était jadis lue 633 (1236), mais Ward a récemment proposé une lecture plus précise : 638 (1241).","method_for_provenance":"Jusqu'à récemment, l'inscription sur l'astrolabe avait été interprétée comme “al-Misri” (du Caire en Égypte). Cependant, Ward, après une étude plus approfondie, a conclu que ce mot ne désigne pas Le Caire, mais simplement une “cité”. Le reste de l'inscription semble se référer à trois frères ayyoubides qui régnèrent sur certaines parties de la Syrie et de la province de Jazira au cours de la première moitié du VIIe/XIIIe siècle. Cet astrolabe a sans doute été fabriqué dans ces régions plutôt qu'au Caire. Il a même pu être réalisé à Mayyafariqin, ville connue pour son importante industrie du métal et qui était gouvernée par Chihab al-Din vers 637/1240.","provenance":"Syrie ou Jazira.","obtention":"Acheté par le British Museum en 1855.","bibliography":"Ward, R., “The Inscription of the Astrolabe by Abd al-Karim in the British Museum”, *Muqarnas*, XXI, 2004, pp. 345-357.","author":"Emily Shovelton","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["Astronomie"],"materials":["Cuivre jaune gravé à incrustations d’argent et de cuivre."]},"16b09d34-6359-51a2-97ca-7d634682b13c":{"name":"Astrolabe planisphérique","description":"L'astrolabe est un instrument d'astronomie composé de plusieurs parties. La première est un plateau circulaire appelé mère ou *mater* doté d'une bordure sur laquelle est gravée une échelle de 360 degrés, numérotée dans le sens des aiguilles d'une montre par intervalles de 5 degrés. Chaque section de 15 degrés est signalée par une ligne en pointillé. En partie haute figure une prise dont manque l'anneau qui lui est normalement rattaché. Un cordon y était passé pour suspendre l'instrument. Sept fines plaques de laiton et le *rete* ou araignée, plaque découpée qui indique les étoiles, sont fixés sur la *mater* par une broche traversant le plateau en son centre.  \nLe fonctionnement de l'astrolabe planisphérique repose sur le principe de la projection stéréographique. Les cercles sur les plaques représentent la surface sphérique de la terre à une latitude donnée. Ceux du *rete* correspondent à la voûte des étoiles fixes. Comme le *rete* est mobile, grâce à quatre boutons ici disparus, la terre et le firmament peuvent être placés en combinaison. Les étoiles sont indiquées par des pointeurs. Les 29 pointeurs de cet astrolabe possèdent un pied fait de deux anneaux percés et au-dessous duquel est gravé en style coufique le nom d'une étoile. La séduction de ces astrolabes arabes d'Occident vient des courbures et de la décoration de ces éléments. Une partie tout aussi importante du *rete* est l'écliptique, ou cercle zodiacal. Les noms arabes des signes du zodiaque y sont gravés en style coufique.  \nAu dos de l'instrument figurent plusieurs cercles représentant le zodiaque ou les mois du calendrier julien sous leur nom arabe et deux carrés sombres. Au-dessus de la ligne est-ouest sont gravés le nom d'Ahmad ibn Ali al-Charfi, l'artisan qui a fabriqué l'instrument, la date et le lieu de sa fabrication.  \nL'astrolabe servait à de nombreux usages comme la mesure de l'altitude du soleil et des étoiles pour déterminer le lever et le coucher du soleil ou l'heure de la prière.","short_description":"Instrument astronomique composé de plusieurs pièces indiquant, par exemple, la position des étoiles, le zodiaque ou l’écliptique. Il servait à de nombreuses fonctions comme mesurer l’altitude du soleil ou des étoiles, déterminer le lever du soleil ou les heures de prière.","holder":"Astrolabe planisphérique.","dates":"729 de l’Hégire / 1329 J.-C.","location":"Stockholm","dimensions":"Ø 12,2 cm.","method_for_datation":"L’année de fabrication est gravée au dos.","method_for_provenance":"Le lieu de fabrication, gravé au dos ainsi que le nom de l’artisan, est Alcalá.","provenance":"Alcalá (près de Séville), Espagne.","obtention":"Acheté par le major Arvid Mörner à Fès (Maroc) en 1907. Le Musée maritime national l’a acquis en 1931 auprès du comte Otto Hamilton.","bibliography":"Gunther, R. T., *The Astrolabes of the World*, 2 vol., Londres (reprint), 1976.  \nKing, D. A., *Islamic Astronomical Instruments*, Londres, 1987.  \nMaddison, F. et Savage-Smith, E., *Science, Tools and Magic: The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art* (J. Raby éd.), vol. XII, 1, Londres-New York, 1997.  \n*Sjöhistoriska Museet Årsbok*, 108, 1988/1989.  \nStautz, B., *Die Astrolabiensammlungen des Deutschen Museums und des Bayrischen Nationalmuseums*, Munich, 1999.","author":"Friederike Voigt (sur la base d’informations fournies par Susanna Allesson Nyberg).","copy_editor":"Monica Allen","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["Astrolabes","prière.","sciences"],"materials":["gravé.","Laiton"]},"30efc219-29fa-5f32-b34b-24791540a5c9":{"name":"Astrolabe","description":"Cet instrument portatif en cuivre comprend un appareil de suspension composé d’une poignée, d’un disque de 18 cm de diamètre dont le bord est divisé en degrés. Deux éléments mobiles servant aux mesures : sur la face, l’araignée ; sur le dos, l’alidade, qui est une règle plate tournant autour du centre. L’astrolabe reste le principal instrument de navigation jusqu’à la fin du XVIIIe siècle. Il est aussi un instrument de mesures astronomiques puisqu’il sert à mesurer la hauteur des astres au-dessus de l’horizon ou la distance angulaire entre eux.","type":"Instrument scientifique; travail métallique","holder":"Musée national du Bardo","dates":"Fin XVIIIe siècle","location":"Le Bardo, Tunis","provenance":"Tunis","author":"Saloua Zangar"},"5f18b902-02aa-5f60-bcb2-d6de493dfceb":{"name":"Instrument pour l’arrachage des dents.","description":"Instrument semblable à une paire de tenailles, initialement terminé par une bordure en dents de scie et que l'on pouvait utiliser pour l'arrachage des dents. L'anneau de métal central est mobile pour permettre une meilleure prise de la dent. Les musulmans excellèrent très tôt dans les domaines de la médecine et de la chirurgie, y compris l'art dentaire, et créèrent un certain nombre d'instruments pour accomplir les différentes interventions mises au point.  \nLes opérations chirurgicales faisaient déjà appel à l'anesthésie générale. On se servait alors d'une éponge imbibée d'un mélange d'huile de haschich, d'opium de ray-grass, de jusquiame et de belladone, mise à sécher au soleil puis humidifiée et placée sur le nez du patient pour l'insensibiliser. Les instruments étaient stérilisés pour éviter la transmission des infections, en particulier en dentisterie où le problème était évident. à cette époque, Abou Bakr al-Razi (251-313 H / 865-925 J.-C.) avait déjà découvert une préparation d'alcool utilisée à la stérilisation des instruments chirurgicaux.","short_description":"Les médecins musulmans n'excellaient pas seulement dans le diagnostic et dans le traitement, ils inventaient également des instruments qui devaient aider la chirurgie en général et la dentisterie en particulier. Ils utilisaient différentes sortes d'anesthésiques et stérilisaient leurs instruments chirurgicaux.","holder":"Musée d’art islamique","dates":"IIIe siècle de l’Hégire (IXe siècle J.-C.).","location":"Le Caire","dimensions":"L. 10 cm.","method_for_datation":"Cet instrument a été découvert avec d'autres instruments chirurgicaux lors de fouilles archéologiques à Fustat. Au cours de la période abbasside, cette ville était connue pour l'importance de sa communauté scientifique, en particulier dans les domaines de la médecine et de la chirurgie. Al-Fatih ibn Khaqan, ministre du calife abbasside al-Mutawakkil 'ala Allah (R. 232-247/847-861) construisit un hôpital à Fustat en 247/861. Ahmad ibn Touloun (r. 254-270/868-884) y édifia également l'hôpital al-'Alaa en 254/868.","method_for_provenance":"Il est probable que cet instrument découvert lors de fouilles archéologiques à Fustat en compagnie d'autres instruments de chirurgie a été fabriqué en égypte.","provenance":"Égypte.","obtention":"Don au musée du docteur Henry Amin 'Awad en 1975. Dermatologue égyptien réputé, il s'est beaucoup intéressé aux artéfacts archéologiques islamiques et a écrit un certain nombre d'ouvrages dans ce domaine.","bibliography":"–––––––, *Quand les sciences parlent arabe – VIIIe-XVe siècle ap. J.-C. / IIe-IXe siècle H,* catalogue d'exposition, Le Caire, 2003.  \nFarukh, O., *Tarikh al-'ouloum 'ind al-Arab* \\[Histoire des sciences arabes\\], Beyrouth, 1980.  \nHoncke, *S.,Chams al-Arab tastaa' ala al-Gharb* \\[Le soleil des Arabes brille sur l'Occident\\], trad. Baidun, Farouq Wadso, Kamal,Beyrouth, 1981.  \nMuntasir, Abd al-Halim, *Tarikh al-'ilm wa dor al-'oulama al-Arab fi takadoumihou* \\[L'histoire de la science arabe et le rôle des savants arabes dans ses progrès\\], Le Caire, 1980.  \n'Awad, H. A., “Al-Jiraha fi al-'asr al-Islami \\[La chirurgie à l'époque islamique\\]”, *Majalat al-Dirasat al-Islamiya* \\[Journal des études islamiques\\], vol. 3, Le Caire, 1988.","author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["fonte de cuivre","hôpitaux","Instruments chirurgicaux","médecine","sciences"],"materials":["Fonte de cuivre."]},"827d2b0c-14c4-5af4-883c-a966ae4b929e":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"Cet astrolabe comporte à l'avers six plaques avec douze indications de lieu. Six toponymes seulement sont nommément désignés : Fès, Marrakech, Tripoli, l'égypte, et les villes saintes de La Mecque et de Médine. Surmontant l'ensemble, une plaque ajourée est équipée d'aiguilles recourbées qui renvoient à vingt-six étoiles. Les lettres arabes représentent en général des chiffres alphabétiques en caractères de style coufique grêle “astronomique”, ainsi dénommé car, bien qu'ayant disparu dès le XIIe siècle H (XVIIIe siècle J.-C.), le style coufique est resté en vigueur sur les instruments astronomiques. Ces chiffres sont répartis selon un ordre maghrébin.  \n  \nLe revers porte une réglette pivotante munie de deux plaques trouées.  \n  \nLa bordure du dos est divisée en deux quadrants suivis du cercle du zodiaque, puis du calendrier maghrébin, selon l'ordre chrétien, une autre caractéristique de l'astrolabe de l'Occident musulman. Il faut préciser que le calendrier musulman était uniquement lunaire ; le fait que cet astrolabe soit doté d'un calendrier chrétien montre que, pour certaines périodes, les données étaient calculées en correspondance avec le mois solaire et le mois lunaire.  \n  \nCet exemplaire est conservé dans une pochette en tissage ocre jaune à bordure noire. Ce genre d'astrolabe était très répandu en Afrique du Nord aux XIe et XIIe siècles H (XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles J.-C.). Plusieurs portent des signatures. Le Maroc était un des principaux centres de fabrication.","short_description":"Astrolabe portant à l'avers six plaques avec indications de lieux. Une plaque ajourée équipée d'aiguilles comporte des chiffres alphabétiques coufiques répartis selon l'ordre maghrébin. Sur le revers se trouvent une réglette pivotante, deux cadrans et le zodiaque, caractéristique, établi selon l'ordre chrétien.","holder":"Musée national de Cirta","dates":"XIe-XIIe siècle de l’Hégire (XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle J.-C.).","location":"Constantine","dimensions":"Ø 13,5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Comparaison avec des instruments similaires datés.","method_for_provenance":"Les caractères coufiques grêles maghrébins, le calendrier chrétien ainsi que les valeurs des chiffres alphabétiques désignent un astrolabe marocain ; d'autre part, deux noms de villes marocaines sont inscrits sur deux tympans ; l'instrument vient donc probablement de Fès ou de Marrakech.","provenance":"Marrakech ou Fès, Maroc.","bibliography":"Hartner, W., « Asturlãb », *Encyclopédie de l'islam*, t. 1, pp. 744-749.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_MA_FR_001","author":"Houria Cherid","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["astrolabe","calendrier maghrébin","chiffres alphabétiques","instrument astronomique"],"materials":["Cuivre jaune découpé","gravé et repercé."]},"9f4ec4b3-5bb8-51d7-b82f-ba92ec74033b":{"name":"Cuillère.","description":"Instrument ressemblant à une cuillère à extrémité ovale aplatie. Il était probablement utilisé par les médecins pour l'examen de la bouche et de la gorge, et pour les amygdalectomies. Des fouilles menées à Fustat – première capitale de l'égypte islamique fondée par Amr ibn al-'As en 21 H / 641 J.-C. – ont révélé une importante cache d'instruments chirurgicaux considérés comme les plus anciens de ce type. Des instruments similaires figurent dans l'encyclopédie chirurgicale *Al-Tasrif liman 'ajaz 'an al-Taalif* du médecin d'al-Andalus Abou al-Qasim Khalaf bin al-'Abbas al-Zahrawi (329-404 H / 940-1013 J.-C.), la plus importante source de connaissance médicale et chirurgicale pour la période et pour les siècles suivants. Elle contient plus de 150 illustrations d'instruments chirurgicaux accompagnées de leurs descriptions détaillées et de leurs utilisations opératoires.","short_description":"Les médecins musulmans connaissaient la chirurgie et la pratiquaient. Cette cuillère montre que les médecins accordaient beaucoup d'importance à la médecine et aux instruments médicaux dans les différents domaines de traitement et comment ils les mettaient au point. On peut trouver une description détaillée de ces instruments dans le livre d'al-Zahrawi, un chirurgien andalou.","holder":"Musée d’art islamique","dates":"IIIe siècle de l’Hégire (IXe siècle J.-C.).","location":"Le Caire","dimensions":"L. 12,5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Diverses sources historiques témoignent du développement florissant de la médecine et des sciences rattachées au cours de la période abbasside.","method_for_provenance":"Il est probable que cet objet découvert à Fustat a été produit en égypte. La situation florissante des sciences, en particulier de la médecine, et la présence de nombreux hôpitaux en égypte au cours de la période appuient cette origine égyptienne.","provenance":"Égypte.","obtention":"Offert au musée par le docteur Henry Amin 'Awad en 1975. Universitaire, il s'est beaucoup intéressé à l'étude du patrimoine de l'humanité et à ce titre aux arts islamiques.","bibliography":"Abd al-Rahim, Abd al-Rahim Khalaf, *Al-Adawat Jirahiya wa al-Awani al-Tibiya fi al-'asr al-Islami min al-Qarn al-Awal hatta al-Qarn al-Tasi' lil Hijra* \\[Instruments chirurgicaux et ustensiles médicaux dans la période islamique du premier au neuvième siècle\\] maîtrise, Université du Caire, 1999.  \n–––––––, *Quand les sciences parlent arabe – VIIIe-XVe siècle ap. J.-C. / IIe-IXe siècle H,* catalogue d'exposition, Le Caire, 2003.  \nHoncke, *S.,Chams al-Arab tastaa' ala al-Gharb* \\[Le soleil des Arabes brille sur l'Occident\\], trad. Baidun, Farouq Wadso, Kamal,Beyrouth, 1981.  \n'Awad, H. A., “Al-Jiraha fi al-'asr al-Islami \\[La chirurgie à l'époque islamique\\]”, *Majalat al-Dirasat al-Islamiya* \\[Journal des études islamiques\\], vol. 3, Le Caire, 1988, p. 273.","author":"Al-Sayyed Muhammad Khalifa Hammad","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["chirurgie","cuivre","fonte de cuivre","hôpitaux","Instruments chirurgicaux","instruments médicaux","médecine","sciences"],"materials":["Fonte de cuivre."]},"a8a7b007-ba46-517e-94a2-c79734028dc9":{"name":"Scalpel chirurgical.","description":"Scalpel à longue poignée se terminant par une lame aiguisée. Des fouilles menées à Fustat – première capitale de l'égypte islamique fondée par Amr ibn al-'As en 21 H / 641 J.-C. – ont révélé une importante cache d'instruments chirurgicaux considérés comme les plus anciens de ce type. Cette collection illustre les remarquables progrès accomplis alors en égypte dans les domaines de la médecine et de la chirurgie.  \nLes musulmans excellaient en chirurgie dès le début de la période islamique. Des sources historiques et des manuscrits témoignent de l'avancement de cet art dans toutes les régions du monde islamique. Le grand médecin d'al-Andalus Abou al-Qasim Khalaf bin al-'Abbas al-Zahrawi (329-404 H / 940-1013 J.-C.) est le plus célèbre des chirurgiens musulmans d'alors. Il conseillait aux chirurgiens de se familiariser avec l'anatomie et mettait l'accent sur la dissection, moyen d'acquérir la connaissance du corps humain, pour connaître les causes de la mort et en tirer des bénéfices pour des cas similaires. Son œuvre la plus célèbre est une encyclopédie intitulée *Al-Tasrif liman 'ajaz 'an al-Taalif,* qui décrit et illustre plus de 150 instruments chirurgicaux et plusieurs modes de stérilisation de la zone de l'opération.  \nLes opérations chirurgicales faisaient déjà appel à l'anesthésie générale. On se servait alors d'une éponge imbibée d'un mélange d'huile de haschich, d'opium de ray-grass, de jusquiame et de belladone, mise à sécher au soleil puis humidifiée et placée sous le nez du patient pour l'insensibiliser. Les chirurgiens utilisaient des fils en boyau animal, de chat par exemple. Al-Zahrawi enseignait à ses étudiants comment refermer des blessures par une couture interne des plaies, couture similaire à celle utilisée par la chirurgie esthétique actuelle. Son encyclopédie couvre d'ailleurs la chirurgie esthétique et traite de la rectification des lèvres, de l'oreille, du nez et aborde la chirurgie des vaisseaux sanguins. Les médecins musulmans savaient réduire les fractures et utilisaient des attelles et des pansements pour le traitement des crânes et des membres fracturés. L'énorme quantité d'instruments médicaux et chirurgicaux retrouvés illustre peut-être les extraordinaires progrès accomplis en médecine et chirurgie aux premiers temps de la période islamique.","short_description":"Ce scalpel, découvert dans la ville de Fustat parmi une grande collection d'instruments chirurgicaux, témoigne de la large variété d'instruments utilisés par les médecins musulmans en traitement et en chirurgie.","holder":"Musée d’art islamique","dates":"IIIe siècle de l’Hégire (IXe siècle J.-C.).","location":"Le Caire","dimensions":"L. 16,50 cm.","method_for_datation":"Rapprochements avec des sources historiques sur les progrès accomplis dans les domaines de la médecine et de la chirurgie en égypte au cours de la période abbasside. Comparaison et analyse d'illustrations d'instruments chirurgicaux de l'encyclopédie de al-Zahrawi, intitulée *Al-Tasrif liman 'ajaz 'an al-Taalif,* ainsi que d'autres ouvrages médicaux contemporains représentant des scalpels de ce type.","method_for_provenance":"Il est probable que ce scalpel, ainsi que d'autres instruments chirurgicaux découverts lors de fouilles archéologiques à Fustat, a été fabriqué en égypte. Aucune source historique ne parle d'importation d'instruments médicaux. Par ailleurs, les domaines de la médecine et de la chirurgie connurent un fort développement au cours de cette période.","provenance":"Égypte.","obtention":"Objet découvert lors de fouilles archéologiques sur le site de Fustat.","bibliography":"–––––––, *Quand les sciences parlent arabe – VIIIe-XVe siècle ap. J.-C. / IIe-IXe siècle H,* catalogue d'exposition, Le Caire, 2003.  \n–––––––, “Catalogue Ishamat al-Hadara al-'Arabiya wa al-Islamiya fi al-'ouloum al-Tibiya \\[Catalogue des contributions de la civilisation arabe aux sciences médicales ”, *Makhtoutat Dar al-Koutoub al-Masriya* \\[Manuscrits de Dar al-Koutoub al-Masriiya\\], Le Caire, 2002.  \nSayour, S. A., “La Medicina en la época Islamica”, *Prisma, Magazine of the Ministry of Culture,* Le Caire,n° 12, 2001, p. 49.  \n'Awad, H. A., “Al-Jiraha fi al-'asr al-Islami \\[La chirurgie à l'époque islamique\\]”, *Majalat al-Dirasat al-Islamiya* \\[Journal des études islamiques\\], vol. 3, Le Caire, 1988.","author":"Salah Sayour","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["chirurgie","cosmétique","cuivre","Instruments chirurgicaux","médecine","scalpels"],"materials":["Fonte de cuivre."]},"ab91307f-d3d5-5f2a-88d0-9f2eb6934a29":{"name":"Plateau servant à la détermination de la qibla.","description":"Les musulmans doivent faire face à la *qibla*, la direction de la Kaaba à La Mecque, pendant leurs prières. Ils ont donc souvent besoin d'instruments pour leur indiquer cette direction. Le fond de ce plateau rond à bords relevés est divisé par des rayons concentriques. Au centre figurent les noms de l'artisan et du lieu de fabrication (\"fait par Sayyid Thabit à Damas\"). Les tables se présentent sous forme d'une suite d'anneaux concentriques qui contiennent le nom d'un certain nombre de villes indiquées dans trois de ces anneaux (Damas, Bagdad, Constantinople, Jérusalem, Téhéran, Kaboul…) et des lettres correspondant à des nombres qui indiquent des degrés d'angles. L'intérieur du bord est gradué, chaque gradation correspondant à 5°. Les quatre points cardinaux sont indiqués dans des demi-cercles.  \nLa surface extérieure du bord contient une explication en arabe sur la façon d'utiliser l'instrument. La formule est développée en deux lignes séparées par quatre médaillons dans lesquels il est écrit que ce plateau a été réalisé sur ordre du sultan Sélim Ier, \"le champion triomphant de la justice et souverain suprême \\[*khaqan*\\] qui est le fils du souverain suprême, roi des deux terres et des deux mers et serviteur des deux sanctuaires, que Dieu immortalise son règne\". Ces informations sont rédigées en écriture coufique noire sur fond blanc, le tout recouvert d'un engobe transparent.","short_description":"Le diagramme figurant sur ce plateau en céramique remplissait une importante fonction. La disposition schématique des noms de villes et de données trigonométriques permettait de trouver la direction de la Kaaba de La Mecque et donc celle de la prière. Il était particulièrement utile aux voyageurs.","holder":"Musée national de Damas.","initial_owner":"Sultan Sélim Ier (r. 918-926 H / 1512-1520 J.-C.).","dates":"918-926 de l'Hégire / 1512-1520 J.-C.","location":"Damas","dimensions":"Ø 18,5 cm, H. 3,5 cm.","method_for_datation":"L'inscription précise que ce plateau a été réalisé sur ordre du sultan Sélim Ier (r. 918-926/1512-1520 J.-C.).","method_for_provenance":"L'inscription précise que l'objet a été réalisé à Damas.","provenance":"Damas, Syrie.","obtention":"Achat en 1935.","bibliography":"Cluzan, S., et al. (éds), *Syrie : Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J. et Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, Londres, 2004.","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["Bagdad","céramique","Constantinople","Damas","détermination de la direction de la qibla","engobe transparent","Jérusalem","Kaaba","Kaboul","La Mecque","objets utilitaires","prières","qibla","Sayyid Thabit","sultan Salim (Sélim)","Téhéran","terre cuite"],"materials":["Céramique à peinture noire et bleue sur fond blanc","et glaçure transparente."]},"de4802a1-86e2-5973-8765-e8cc4ee04f98":{"name":"Astrolabe planisphérique.","description":"Cet astrolabe plat dont nous connaissons le nom de l'auteur et la dernière destination est en assez bon état. Il a conservé tous les éléments qui composent un astrolabe planisphérique : la partie principale ou mère ; l'alidade qui se trouve au dos de l'instrument ; trois tympans ou disques superposés placés au-dessus de la mère ; l'araignée ou plaque ajourée mobile (*chabaka*), qui représente la voûte des étoiles fixes tournant autour de la terre ; le trône ou élément de forme triangulaire pour la suspension. Il est parmi les premiers astrolabes portatifs qui aient été fabriqués en Occident sur le modèle du célèbre astronome de Tolède al-Zarqali, connu en Europe sous le nom d'Azarchel. Au dos du trône est gravé le nom de son facteur, qui n'est autre que le célèbre fabricant sévillan Mohamed ben al-Fatouh al-Khamayri, dont on connaît quatre autres astrolabes. Au dos de la mère, une inscription en caractères cursifs indique la mosquée à laquelle il était dédié : la mosquée des Andalous à Fès.  \n  \nInstrument scientifique indispensable aux anciens astronomes pour déterminer les heures de prières ou la hauteur des astres et établir des horoscopes, cet astrolabe est aussi un objet d'art particulièrement soigné, notamment dans la découpe des flammèches de l'araignée.","short_description":"Cet astrolabe plat possède tous les éléments qui composent les différentes parties d'un astrolabe planisphérique indispensable aux anciens astronomes pour déterminer les heures de prières, la hauteur des astres et établir des horoscopes. Il est parmi les premiers astrolabes portatifs d'Occident.","holder":"Musée du Batha.","initial_owner":"(Habous.)","dates":"614 de l’Hégire / 1217-1218 J.-C.","location":"Fès.","dimensions":"H. 22, 5 cm, Ø 21 cm.","method_for_datation":"L'inscription gravée sur la plaque de suspension donne le nom de l'artisan et la date de fabrication : “Ceci a été fait par Mohamed ben al-Fatouh al-Khamayri, en l'an 614”, ce qui correspond à 1218 ; les chiffres sont écrits en lettres selon la méthode Abajid.","method_for_provenance":"Par l'inscription qui figure au dos de l'astrolabe : “Il a été constitué en *habous* pour mériter les bienfaits et le pardon de Dieu le Suprême, au profit des *minbar* de la mosquée des Andalous de la ville de Fès, la protégée par Dieu le Suprême” (la mosquée des Andalous possédait en effet deux *minbar*, celui qui avait été commandité en 369/980 et un autre, qui fut fabriqué à l'époque almohade).","provenance":"Mosquée des Andalous, Fès.","obtention":"Récupération.","bibliography":"Amahane, A., *6000 ans d'art au Maroc* (catalogue),Paris, 1990.  \n  \nBergé, M., *Les Arabes*, *Histoire et Civilisation, des origines à la chute du Royaume de Grenade,* Paris*,* 1978.  \n  \nMichel  \n  \n, H., *Traité de l'astrolabe*, Paris, 1947.  \n  \nRenaud, P.J., “Astronomie et Astrologie marocaines”, *Hespéris,* XXIX, Rabat, 1942, pp. 42-63.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_MA_FR_001","author":"Naima El Khatib-Boujibar","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["décoration épigraphique","décoration géométrique","décoration végétale","habous","objet religieux","objet scientifique"],"materials":["Laiton gravé."]},"e98373dd-6e4e-5ada-9719-c553fa2337f9":{"name":"Récipient en verre, peut-être ustensile de chimie.","description":"Petit récipient utilitaire en verre sans ornement. Sa forme inhabituelle laisse penser qu'il était réservé à des usages très particuliers, à des pratiques de chimie par exemple. De sa panse ovoïde part un long tuyau incurvé qui se redresse rapidement à la verticale. Le diamètre de ce tube s'accroît vers son extrémité bordée d'une lèvre en quasi-entonnoir. Le verre est fin, blanc et translucide. Il ne présente aucun ornement, sans doute pour que l'on puisse observer la réaction chimique en cours.  \nLa période abbasside a connu une renaissance culturelle et scientifique et les archéologues ont découvert de nombreux objets en verre destinés à des usages très spécifiques.","short_description":"Le talent des artisans s'appliquait non seulement aux produit de luxe mais aussi à d'autres, plus utilitaires. Ce récipient en verre sans décor mais de haute qualité fut probablement utilisé pour des expériences chimiques.","holder":"Musée national de Damas.","dates":"Vers le IIIe-IVe siècle de l'Hégire (IXe-Xe siècle J.-C.).","location":"Damas","dimensions":"H. 22,2 cm, l. (panse) 9,6 cm.","method_for_datation":"La fabrication du verre se développa dans de nombreux centres d'Iran, d'Irak, de Syrie et d'égypte au cours de plusieurs périodes. Des fragments de verre ont été datés des débuts de la période abbasside. De nombreux objets de verre de cette période ont été trouvés dans la région de Raqqa lors de fouilles archéologiques conduites dans les palais abbassides sous la direction de Nasib Salibi au cours des années 1950 et par Michael Meinecke pendant les années 1990. Il est possible que ce petit récipient date de la première période abbasside.","method_for_provenance":"Les nombreuses découvertes d'objets en verre lors de fouilles archéologiques et le fait que cette zone était un centre de production verrière font penser que cet objet a pu être fabriqué à Raqqa, vaste ensemble urbain qui connut son apogée sous les Abbassides.","provenance":"Région de Raqqa, Syrie.","obtention":"Achat en 1919.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus*, Damas, 1969.  \nCarboni, S. et Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["chimie","Michael Meinecke","Nasib Salibi","Raqqa","récipients en verre","sciences","verre soufflé"],"materials":["Verre soufflé."]},"ff3db0a2-4bc7-576e-bbd7-b0882e3ea217":{"name":"Astrolabe.","description":"Cet astrolabe se compose d'une plaque de fond en cuivre rivetée à un bord extérieur relevé (le limbe) gravé de mentions en écriture coufique. La partie centrale (la mère) est découpée. En partie supérieure est fixée une attache à travers laquelle coulisse un anneau (le trône) par lequel l'instrument était suspendu perpendiculairement au sol afin d'obtenir une lecture. La plaque avant ajourée montrant la position des étoiles (l'araignée) est une pièce de remplacement datant du VIIe siècle H (XIIIe siècle J.-C.). Au dos figure une alidade à deux viseurs. L'astrolabe se démonte en défaisant la clavette (également pièce ultérieure) de l'axe central pour dégager sept plaques superposées sous la mère. Sur ces plaques gravées de la même écriture coufique simple que sur le limbe sont mentionnés 14 lieux différents dont La Mecque, Médine, Saragosse, Samarra, Cordoue, le Caire, Tolède et Constantinople, leurs latitudes et les heures du jour le plus long. Les plaques sont également gravées d'azimuts et d'almucantars, et de lignes indiquant les heures de prière. L'intérieur de la mère comporte également l'indication gravée de 66 degrés sur une plaque de coordonnées écliptiques, tandis que le dos de l'instrument affiche divers calendriers et échelles. La signature de l'artisan est gravée au dos de la mère.  \nL'astrolabe est un instrument en usage depuis au moins le IIe siècle H (VIIIe siècle J.-C.). Il illustre la notion d'un univers géocentrique et offrait de nombreuses fonctions. Outil de calcul astronomique au moyen de l'observation des hauteurs du soleil et des étoiles, il était indispensable aux navigateurs et permettait également de calculer le temps, et en particulier le moment précis des cinq prières quotidiennes du musulman.  \nDeux astrolabes contemporains de cette période sont parvenus jusqu'à nous, tous deux signés Muhammad ibn al-Saffar, celui-ci étant le plus ancien. Il est intéressant de noter que Ibn al-Saffar, frère de Muhammad ibn al-Saffar, fut l'auteur du premier traité sur les astrolabes connu en Espagne musulmane.","short_description":"Le monde musulman a hérité l’astrolabe de l’Antiquité. Il s’agissait d’un outil de calcul astronomique essentiel utilisé pour l’observation des étoiles, la navigation et pour savoir l’heure. Durant le IIe siècle H (VIIIe siècle J.-C.), il fut introduit en Europe à la suite à la conquête musulmane de l’Espagne.","holder":"National Museums of Scotland (NMS).","dates":"417 de l’Hégire /1027 J.-C.","location":"Édimbourg, Écosse","dimensions":"Ø 15,5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Cet astrolabe fabriqué en Europe par Muhammad ibn al-Saffar et daté 417/1027 est le plus ancien connu. Au verso, figure une inscription coufique qui est sa signature : “Œuvre de Muhammad bin [ibn] al-Saffar à Cordoue en l'an 17 et 400” (417/1027).","method_for_provenance":"L'inscription au dos de l'astrolabe indique pour lieu d'origine Cordoue.","provenance":"Cordoue, Espagne.","obtention":"Donné au Royal Museum (NMS) par James H. Farr, F.I.M.I., en 1959.","bibliography":"King, D. A., “Some Medieval Astronomical Instruments and their Secrets”, Mazzolini, R. G. (dir.), *Non-Verbal Communication in Science prior to 1900*, Florence, 1993, pp. 29-52.  \nMaddison, F. et Turner, A., *Science and Technology in Islam*, catalogue d'exposition, Londres 1976, pp. 104-106.  \nPhillips, P., *The Collectors' Encyclopaedia of Antiques*, Londres, 1973, p. 604, fig. a.  \nPlenderleith, R. W., “Discovery of an Old Astrolabe”, *The Scottish Geographical Magazine,* vol. 76, n° 1, 1960, p. 25.","author":"Ulrike Al-Khamis","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","translator":"Jacques Bosser (de l'anglais).","translation_copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","keywords":["astrolabe","Cordoue","écriture coufique","Muhammad ibn al-Saffar"],"materials":["Cuivre moulé incisé."]}}