@math.gl/geospatial 5.0.0-alpha.9 → 5.0.0-beta.1

package/src/geoarrow/kernels.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,1290 @@
+// math.gl
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) vis.gl contributors
+
+import type {
+  GeoArrowArray,
+  GeoArrowBounds,
+  GeoArrowColumn,
+  GeoArrowCoordinateLayout,
+  GeoArrowCoordinateMapper,
+  GeoArrowDimension,
+  GeoArrowEncoding
+} from './types';
+import {getGeoArrowDimensionSize, getGeoArrowGeometryType} from './types';
+import type {GeoArrowBuilderEncoding} from './builder';
+import {GeoArrowBuilder} from './builder';
+import {
+  getGeoArrowRowCount,
+  getGeoArrowVertexCount,
+  isGeoArrowValueValid,
+  visitGeoArrowCoordinates,
+  getListRange
+} from './layout';
+
+/** Resource limits applied before potentially expensive materialization or conversion. */
+export type GeoArrowResourceLimitOptions = Readonly<{
+  maximumRows?: number;
+  maximumCoordinates?: number;
+  maximumChunks?: number;
+  maximumNestingDepth?: number;
+  maximumOutputBytes?: number;
+}>;
+
+/** Coordinate-map options. */
+export type MapGeoArrowCoordinatesOptions = Readonly<{
+  dimension?: GeoArrowDimension;
+  coordinateLayout?: GeoArrowCoordinateLayout;
+  coordinateType?: 'preserve' | 'float32' | 'float64';
+  limits?: GeoArrowResourceLimitOptions;
+}>;
+
+/** Conversion options for native physical layouts. */
+export type ConvertGeoArrowColumnOptions = Readonly<{
+  encoding?: GeoArrowEncoding | 'native';
+  dimension?: GeoArrowDimension;
+  coordinateLayout?: GeoArrowCoordinateLayout | 'preserve';
+  coordinateType?: 'preserve' | 'float32' | 'float64';
+  offsetType?: 'preserve' | 'int32' | 'int64';
+  limits?: GeoArrowResourceLimitOptions;
+}>;
+
+/** Ring orientation requested by {@link rewindGeoArrow}. */
+export type GeoArrowRingOrientation = 'clockwise' | 'counter-clockwise';
+
+/** Rewind options. */
+export type RewindGeoArrowOptions = Readonly<{
+  outer?: GeoArrowRingOrientation;
+  limits?: GeoArrowResourceLimitOptions;
+}>;
+
+/** Returns XY bounds, or null when the column contains no finite coordinates. */
+export function getGeoArrowBounds(column: GeoArrowColumn): GeoArrowBounds | null {
+  if (column.encoding === 'geoarrow.box') return getGeoArrowBoxBounds(column);
+  let minimumX = Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+  let minimumY = Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+  let maximumX = Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+  let maximumY = Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+  visitGeoArrowCoordinates(column, coordinate => {
+    const x = coordinate[0];
+    const y = coordinate[1];
+    if (Number.isFinite(x) && Number.isFinite(y)) {
+      minimumX = Math.min(minimumX, x);
+      minimumY = Math.min(minimumY, y);
+      maximumX = Math.max(maximumX, x);
+      maximumY = Math.max(maximumY, y);
+    }
+    return coordinate;
+  });
+  return Number.isFinite(minimumX) ? [minimumX, minimumY, maximumX, maximumY] : null;
+}
+
+/** Computes exact XY bounds for each logical row without materializing geometry values. */
+export function getGeoArrowRowBounds(column: GeoArrowColumn): readonly (GeoArrowBounds | null)[] {
+  const rowCount = getGeoArrowRowCount(column);
+  if (column.encoding === 'geoarrow.box') {
+    const result: Array<GeoArrowBounds | null> = [];
+    for (const chunk of column.chunks) {
+      for (let rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < chunk.length; rowIndex++) {
+        if (chunk.kind !== 'struct' || !isGeoArrowValueValid(chunk.validity, rowIndex)) {
+          result.push(null);
+          continue;
+        }
+        const index = (chunk.offset || 0) + rowIndex;
+        const xmin = readPrimitiveNumber(chunk.children['xmin'], index);
+        const ymin = readPrimitiveNumber(chunk.children['ymin'], index);
+        const xmax = readPrimitiveNumber(chunk.children['xmax'], index);
+        const ymax = readPrimitiveNumber(chunk.children['ymax'], index);
+        result.push(
+          [xmin, ymin, xmax, ymax].every(Number.isFinite) ? [xmin, ymin, xmax, ymax] : null
+        );
+      }
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+  const minimumX = new Float64Array(rowCount).fill(Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY);
+  const minimumY = new Float64Array(rowCount).fill(Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY);
+  const maximumX = new Float64Array(rowCount).fill(Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY);
+  const maximumY = new Float64Array(rowCount).fill(Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY);
+  visitGeoArrowCoordinates(column, (coordinate, sourceRowIndex) => {
+    const [x, y] = coordinate;
+    if (Number.isFinite(x) && Number.isFinite(y)) {
+      minimumX[sourceRowIndex] = Math.min(minimumX[sourceRowIndex], x);
+      minimumY[sourceRowIndex] = Math.min(minimumY[sourceRowIndex], y);
+      maximumX[sourceRowIndex] = Math.max(maximumX[sourceRowIndex], x);
+      maximumY[sourceRowIndex] = Math.max(maximumY[sourceRowIndex], y);
+    }
+    return coordinate;
+  });
+  const bounds: Array<GeoArrowBounds | null> = [];
+  for (let rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < rowCount; rowIndex++) {
+    bounds.push(
+      Number.isFinite(minimumX[rowIndex])
+        ? [minimumX[rowIndex], minimumY[rowIndex], maximumX[rowIndex], maximumY[rowIndex]]
+        : null
+    );
+  }
+  return bounds;
+}
+
+function getGeoArrowBoxBounds(column: GeoArrowColumn): GeoArrowBounds | null {
+  let minimumX = Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+  let minimumY = Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+  let maximumX = Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+  let maximumY = Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+  for (const chunk of column.chunks) {
+    if (chunk.kind !== 'struct') continue;
+    const xmin = chunk.children['xmin'];
+    const ymin = chunk.children['ymin'];
+    const xmax = chunk.children['xmax'];
+    const ymax = chunk.children['ymax'];
+    if (!xmin || !ymin || !xmax || !ymax) continue;
+    for (let rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < chunk.length; rowIndex++) {
+      if (!isGeoArrowValueValid(chunk.validity, rowIndex)) continue;
+      const structIndex = (chunk.offset || 0) + rowIndex;
+      const bounds = [
+        readPrimitiveNumber(xmin, structIndex),
+        readPrimitiveNumber(ymin, structIndex),
+        readPrimitiveNumber(xmax, structIndex),
+        readPrimitiveNumber(ymax, structIndex)
+      ];
+      if (bounds.every(Number.isFinite)) {
+        minimumX = Math.min(minimumX, bounds[0]);
+        minimumY = Math.min(minimumY, bounds[1]);
+        maximumX = Math.max(maximumX, bounds[2]);
+        maximumY = Math.max(maximumY, bounds[3]);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return Number.isFinite(minimumX) ? [minimumX, minimumY, maximumX, maximumY] : null;
+}
+
+function readPrimitiveNumber(array: GeoArrowArray, index: number): number {
+  if (array.kind !== 'primitive' || !isGeoArrowValueValid(array.validity, index)) return Number.NaN;
+  const valueIndex = (array.offset || 0) + index * (array.stride || 1);
+  return Number(array.values[valueIndex]);
+}
+
+/** Maps every coordinate into newly allocated physical buffers while preserving column semantics. */
+export function mapGeoArrowCoordinates(
+  column: GeoArrowColumn,
+  mapper: GeoArrowCoordinateMapper,
+  options: MapGeoArrowCoordinatesOptions = {},
+  sourceDimension?: GeoArrowDimension
+): GeoArrowColumn {
+  assertGeoArrowResourceLimits(column, options.limits);
+  if (column.encoding === 'geoarrow.wkb' || column.encoding === 'geoarrow.wkt') {
+    throw new Error('Coordinate mapping requires native GeoArrow storage');
+  }
+  const dimension = options.dimension || column.dimension;
+  const layout = options.coordinateLayout || column.coordinateLayout || 'interleaved';
+  let rowOffset = 0;
+  const chunks = column.chunks.map(chunk => {
+    const mapped = mapArrayCoordinates(
+      chunk,
+      column.encoding,
+      rowOffset,
+      dimension,
+      layout,
+      mapper,
+      options.coordinateType || 'preserve',
+      options.dimension !== undefined,
+      options.coordinateLayout !== undefined,
+      sourceDimension
+    );
+    rowOffset += chunk.length;
+    return mapped;
+  });
+  return {...column, dimension, coordinateLayout: layout, chunks};
+}
+
+/**
+ * Maps coordinates and copies the result into caller-provided destination buffers.
+ *
+ * The destination must have the same physical topology as the mapped result. Topology, validity,
+ * offsets, and metadata in the destination are never replaced.
+ */
+export function mapGeoArrowCoordinatesInto(
+  target: GeoArrowColumn,
+  source: GeoArrowColumn,
+  mapper: GeoArrowCoordinateMapper,
+  options: Omit<MapGeoArrowCoordinatesOptions, 'coordinateLayout'> = {}
+): GeoArrowColumn {
+  const mapped = mapGeoArrowCoordinates(source, mapper, {
+    ...options,
+    coordinateLayout: target.coordinateLayout || undefined
+  });
+  const sourceLeaves = collectCoordinateLeaves(mapped);
+  const targetLeaves = collectCoordinateLeaves(target);
+  if (sourceLeaves.length !== targetLeaves.length) {
+    throw new Error('GeoArrow destination has different coordinate topology');
+  }
+  for (let index = 0; index < sourceLeaves.length; index++) {
+    const sourceLeaf = sourceLeaves[index];
+    const targetLeaf = targetLeaves[index];
+    if (sourceLeaf.length !== targetLeaf.length) {
+      throw new Error('GeoArrow destination coordinate buffer has a different length');
+    }
+    targetLeaf.set(sourceLeaf as never);
+  }
+  return target;
+}
+
+/** Converts separated native coordinates to interleaved tuples. Identity is returned unchanged. */
+export function interleaveGeoArrowCoordinates(column: GeoArrowColumn): GeoArrowColumn {
+  if (column.coordinateLayout === 'interleaved') return column;
+  if (!column.coordinateLayout) return column;
+  return mapGeoArrowCoordinates(column, coordinate => coordinate, {
+    coordinateLayout: 'interleaved'
+  });
+}
+
+/** Normalizes dense-union children by ascending type ID without changing dispatch buffers. */
+export function normalizeGeoArrowUnion(column: GeoArrowColumn): GeoArrowColumn {
+  if (column.encoding !== 'geoarrow.geometry') return column;
+  let changed = false;
+  const chunks = column.chunks.map(chunk => {
+    if (chunk.kind !== 'dense-union') return chunk;
+    const children = [...chunk.children].sort((left, right) => left.typeId - right.typeId);
+    changed ||= children.some((child, index) => child !== chunk.children[index]);
+    return children.every((child, index) => child === chunk.children[index])
+      ? chunk
+      : {...chunk, children};
+  });
+  return changed ? {...column, chunks} : column;
+}
+
+/** Converts between concrete/mixed encodings, dimensions, and coordinate layouts. */
+export function convertGeoArrowColumn(
+  column: GeoArrowColumn,
+  options: ConvertGeoArrowColumnOptions = {}
+): GeoArrowColumn {
+  const encoding =
+    options.encoding === 'native' || !options.encoding ? column.encoding : options.encoding;
+  const dimension = options.dimension || column.dimension;
+  const coordinateLayout =
+    options.coordinateLayout === 'preserve' || !options.coordinateLayout
+      ? column.coordinateLayout
+      : options.coordinateLayout;
+  const requestedOffsetType = options.offsetType || 'preserve';
+  const currentOffsetType = getColumnOffsetType(column);
+  if (
+    encoding === column.encoding &&
+    dimension === column.dimension &&
+    coordinateLayout === column.coordinateLayout &&
+    (requestedOffsetType === 'preserve' || requestedOffsetType === currentOffsetType) &&
+    (!options.coordinateType || options.coordinateType === 'preserve')
+  ) {
+    return column;
+  }
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.wkb' || encoding === 'geoarrow.wkt') {
+    throw new Error('Use encodeGeoArrowWKB or encodeGeoArrowWKT for serialized output');
+  }
+  assertGeoArrowResourceLimits(column, options.limits);
+  const needsCoordinateMap =
+    dimension !== column.dimension ||
+    coordinateLayout !== column.coordinateLayout ||
+    (options.coordinateType && options.coordinateType !== 'preserve');
+  const mapped = needsCoordinateMap
+    ? mapGeoArrowCoordinates(
+        column,
+        coordinate => coordinate,
+        {
+          dimension,
+          coordinateLayout: coordinateLayout || undefined,
+          coordinateType: options.coordinateType,
+          limits: options.limits
+        },
+        column.dimension
+      )
+    : column;
+  const offsetConverted =
+    requestedOffsetType === 'preserve'
+      ? mapped
+      : {
+          ...mapped,
+          chunks: mapped.chunks.map(chunk => convertArrayOffsets(chunk, requestedOffsetType))
+        };
+  if (encoding === column.encoding) return offsetConverted;
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.geometry') return promoteToDenseUnion(offsetConverted);
+  const promoted = promoteSingleFamily(offsetConverted, encoding, requestedOffsetType);
+  if (promoted) return promoted;
+  if (column.encoding === 'geoarrow.geometry') return demoteDenseUnion(offsetConverted, encoding);
+  throw new Error(`Rows cannot be represented as ${encoding}`);
+}
+
+/** Wraps a concrete family in one list level without copying its coordinate/topology buffers. */
+function promoteSingleFamily(
+  column: GeoArrowColumn,
+  encoding: GeoArrowEncoding,
+  offsetType: ConvertGeoArrowColumnOptions['offsetType']
+): GeoArrowColumn | null {
+  const sourceEncoding = column.encoding;
+  const validPair =
+    (sourceEncoding === 'geoarrow.point' && encoding === 'geoarrow.multipoint') ||
+    (sourceEncoding === 'geoarrow.linestring' && encoding === 'geoarrow.multilinestring') ||
+    (sourceEncoding === 'geoarrow.polygon' && encoding === 'geoarrow.multipolygon');
+  if (!validPair) return null;
+  const chunks = column.chunks.map(chunk => {
+    const OffsetArray =
+      offsetType === 'int64' || (offsetType === 'preserve' && findOffsetType(chunk) === 'int64')
+        ? BigInt64Array
+        : Int32Array;
+    const offsets = new OffsetArray(chunk.length + 1);
+    for (let index = 0; index <= chunk.length; index++) {
+      if (offsets instanceof BigInt64Array) offsets[index] = BigInt(index);
+      else offsets[index] = index;
+    }
+    return {
+      kind: 'list' as const,
+      length: chunk.length,
+      offsets,
+      child: chunk,
+      validity: chunk.validity
+    };
+  });
+  return {...column, encoding, chunks};
+}
+
+function resizeCoordinate(
+  coordinate: readonly number[],
+  sourceDimension: GeoArrowDimension,
+  targetDimension: GeoArrowDimension
+): number[] {
+  const sourceNames = getDimensionNames(sourceDimension);
+  return getDimensionNames(targetDimension).map(name => {
+    const sourceIndex = sourceNames.indexOf(name);
+    return sourceIndex >= 0 ? (coordinate[sourceIndex] ?? 0) : 0;
+  });
+}
+
+/** Rewinds polygon rings without changing non-polygon rows. */
+export function rewindGeoArrow(
+  column: GeoArrowColumn,
+  options: RewindGeoArrowOptions = {}
+): GeoArrowColumn {
+  assertGeoArrowResourceLimits(column, options.limits);
+  if (column.encoding === 'geoarrow.wkb' || column.encoding === 'geoarrow.wkt') {
+    throw new Error('Rewinding requires native GeoArrow storage');
+  }
+  const outerClockwise = (options.outer || 'counter-clockwise') === 'clockwise';
+  let changed = false;
+  const chunks = column.chunks.map(chunk => {
+    const clone = mapArrayCoordinates(
+      chunk,
+      column.encoding,
+      0,
+      column.dimension,
+      column.coordinateLayout || 'interleaved',
+      coordinate => coordinate,
+      'preserve'
+    );
+    changed ||= rewindArrayRings(clone, column.encoding, outerClockwise);
+    return clone;
+  });
+  return changed ? {...column, chunks} : column;
+}
+
+/** Throws when a column exceeds configured work or output limits. */
+export function assertGeoArrowResourceLimits(
+  column: GeoArrowColumn,
+  options: GeoArrowResourceLimitOptions = {}
+): void {
+  const rows = getGeoArrowRowCount(column);
+  if (rows > (options.maximumRows ?? Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY)) {
+    throw new Error(`GeoArrow row count ${rows} exceeds maximumRows`);
+  }
+  if (column.chunks.length > (options.maximumChunks ?? Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY)) {
+    throw new Error(`GeoArrow chunk count ${column.chunks.length} exceeds maximumChunks`);
+  }
+  const coordinates = getGeoArrowVertexCount(column);
+  if (coordinates > (options.maximumCoordinates ?? Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY)) {
+    throw new Error(`GeoArrow coordinate count ${coordinates} exceeds maximumCoordinates`);
+  }
+  if (options.maximumNestingDepth !== undefined) {
+    const depth = Math.max(0, ...column.chunks.map(getArrayDepth));
+    if (depth > options.maximumNestingDepth) {
+      throw new Error(`GeoArrow nesting depth ${depth} exceeds maximumNestingDepth`);
+    }
+  }
+  if (options.maximumOutputBytes !== undefined) {
+    const estimatedBytes = coordinates * getGeoArrowDimensionSize(column.dimension) * 8;
+    if (estimatedBytes > options.maximumOutputBytes) {
+      throw new Error(`GeoArrow estimated output ${estimatedBytes} exceeds maximumOutputBytes`);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/** Directly clones a physical array while rewriting only coordinate leaves. */
+function mapArrayCoordinates(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  encoding: GeoArrowEncoding,
+  rowOffset: number,
+  targetDimension: GeoArrowDimension,
+  targetLayout: GeoArrowCoordinateLayout,
+  mapper: GeoArrowCoordinateMapper,
+  coordinateType: 'preserve' | 'float32' | 'float64',
+  forceDimension = false,
+  forceLayout = false,
+  sourceDimension?: GeoArrowDimension,
+  rowIndicesOverride?: readonly number[]
+): GeoArrowArray {
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.geometry' && array.kind === 'dense-union') {
+    const childRowIndices = collectUnionRowIndices(array, rowOffset);
+    return {
+      ...array,
+      children: array.children.map((child, childIndex) => {
+        const childEncoding = child.encoding || getEncodingFromChildName(child.name);
+        const childDimension = forceDimension
+          ? targetDimension
+          : child.dimension || targetDimension;
+        const childLayout = forceLayout ? targetLayout : child.coordinateLayout || targetLayout;
+        return {
+          ...child,
+          data: mapArrayCoordinates(
+            child.data,
+            childEncoding,
+            rowOffset,
+            childDimension,
+            childLayout,
+            mapper,
+            coordinateType,
+            forceDimension,
+            forceLayout,
+            childDimension,
+            childRowIndices[childIndex]
+          ),
+          dimension: childDimension,
+          coordinateLayout: childLayout,
+          encoding: childEncoding
+        };
+      })
+    };
+  }
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.geometrycollection' && array.kind === 'list') {
+    return {
+      ...array,
+      child: mapArrayCoordinates(
+        array.child,
+        'geoarrow.geometry',
+        rowOffset,
+        targetDimension,
+        targetLayout,
+        mapper,
+        coordinateType,
+        forceDimension,
+        forceLayout,
+        sourceDimension,
+        rowIndicesOverride
+      )
+    };
+  }
+  const depth = getEncodingDepth(encoding);
+  const rowIndices = rowIndicesOverride || collectLeafRowIndices(array, depth, rowOffset);
+  return mapNestedArray(
+    array,
+    depth,
+    rowOffset,
+    targetDimension,
+    targetLayout,
+    mapper,
+    coordinateType,
+    rowIndices,
+    sourceDimension
+  );
+}
+
+function mapNestedArray(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  depth: number,
+  rowOffset: number,
+  targetDimension: GeoArrowDimension,
+  targetLayout: GeoArrowCoordinateLayout,
+  mapper: GeoArrowCoordinateMapper,
+  coordinateType: 'preserve' | 'float32' | 'float64',
+  rowIndices?: readonly number[],
+  sourceDimension?: GeoArrowDimension
+): GeoArrowArray {
+  if (depth === 0) {
+    return mapCoordinateLeaf(
+      array,
+      rowOffset,
+      targetDimension,
+      targetLayout,
+      mapper,
+      coordinateType,
+      rowIndices,
+      sourceDimension
+    );
+  }
+  if (array.kind !== 'list') return array;
+  return {
+    ...array,
+    child: mapNestedArray(
+      array.child,
+      depth - 1,
+      rowOffset,
+      targetDimension,
+      targetLayout,
+      mapper,
+      coordinateType,
+      rowIndices,
+      sourceDimension
+    )
+  };
+}
+
+function mapCoordinateLeaf(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  rowOffset: number,
+  targetDimension: GeoArrowDimension,
+  targetLayout: GeoArrowCoordinateLayout,
+  mapper: GeoArrowCoordinateMapper,
+  coordinateType: 'preserve' | 'float32' | 'float64',
+  rowIndices?: readonly number[],
+  sourceDimension?: GeoArrowDimension
+): GeoArrowArray {
+  const count = array.length;
+  const targetSize = getGeoArrowDimensionSize(targetDimension);
+  const sourceValues = new Array<number[]>(count);
+  for (let index = 0; index < count; index++) {
+    const coordinate = readCoordinateAt(array, index);
+    const mapped = coordinate
+      ? mapper(
+          sourceDimension
+            ? resizeCoordinate(coordinate, sourceDimension, targetDimension)
+            : coordinate,
+          rowIndices?.[index] ?? rowOffset
+        )
+      : new Array(targetSize).fill(0);
+    if (mapped.length !== targetSize) {
+      throw new Error(`Coordinate mapper returned ${mapped.length} values; expected ${targetSize}`);
+    }
+    sourceValues[index] = [...mapped];
+  }
+  const FloatArray = resolveCoordinateConstructor(array, coordinateType);
+  return makeCoordinateLeaf(
+    sourceValues,
+    targetDimension,
+    targetLayout,
+    FloatArray,
+    array.validity
+  );
+}
+
+/** Fills one row-index entry per coordinate in a concrete nested array. */
+function collectLeafRowIndices(array: GeoArrowArray, depth: number, rowOffset: number): number[] {
+  const output = new Array<number>(getLeafLength(array, depth)).fill(rowOffset);
+  for (let rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < array.length; rowIndex++) {
+    if (isGeoArrowValueValid(array.validity, rowIndex)) {
+      assignNestedRowIndices(array, rowIndex, depth, rowOffset + rowIndex, output);
+    }
+  }
+  return output;
+}
+
+function assignNestedRowIndices(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  index: number,
+  depth: number,
+  rowIndex: number,
+  output: number[]
+): void {
+  if (depth === 0) {
+    if (index >= 0 && index < output.length) output[index] = rowIndex;
+    return;
+  }
+  if (array.kind !== 'list') return;
+  const [first, last] = getListRange(array, index);
+  for (let childIndex = first; childIndex < last; childIndex++) {
+    assignNestedRowIndices(array.child, childIndex, depth - 1, rowIndex, output);
+  }
+}
+
+function collectUnionRowIndices(union: GeoArrowArray, rowOffset: number): number[][] {
+  if (union.kind !== 'dense-union') return [];
+  const output = union.children.map(child => {
+    const encoding = child.encoding || getEncodingFromChildName(child.name);
+    return new Array<number>(getLeafLength(child.data, getEncodingDepth(encoding))).fill(rowOffset);
+  });
+  for (let rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < union.length; rowIndex++) {
+    if (!isGeoArrowValueValid(union.validity, rowIndex)) continue;
+    const physical = (union.offset || 0) + rowIndex;
+    const childIndex = union.children.findIndex(child => child.typeId === union.typeIds[physical]);
+    if (childIndex < 0) continue;
+    const child = union.children[childIndex];
+    assignUnionRowIndices(
+      child.data,
+      child.encoding || getEncodingFromChildName(child.name),
+      union.valueOffsets[physical],
+      rowOffset + rowIndex,
+      output[childIndex]
+    );
+  }
+  return output;
+}
+
+function assignUnionRowIndices(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  encoding: GeoArrowEncoding,
+  index: number,
+  rowIndex: number,
+  output: number[]
+): void {
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.geometry' && array.kind === 'dense-union') {
+    const physical = (array.offset || 0) + index;
+    const childIndex = array.children.findIndex(child => child.typeId === array.typeIds[physical]);
+    if (childIndex >= 0) {
+      const child = array.children[childIndex];
+      assignUnionRowIndices(
+        child.data,
+        child.encoding || getEncodingFromChildName(child.name),
+        array.valueOffsets[physical],
+        rowIndex,
+        output
+      );
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.geometrycollection' && array.kind === 'list') {
+    const [first, last] = getListRange(array, index);
+    if (array.child.kind === 'dense-union') {
+      for (let childIndex = first; childIndex < last; childIndex++) {
+        assignUnionRowIndices(array.child, 'geoarrow.geometry', childIndex, rowIndex, output);
+      }
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+  assignNestedRowIndices(array, index, getEncodingDepth(encoding), rowIndex, output);
+}
+
+function getLeafLength(array: GeoArrowArray, depth: number): number {
+  let current = array;
+  for (let level = 0; level < depth; level++) {
+    if (current.kind !== 'list') return 0;
+    current = current.child;
+  }
+  return current.length;
+}
+
+function resolveCoordinateConstructor(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  coordinateType: 'preserve' | 'float32' | 'float64'
+): Float32ArrayConstructor | Float64ArrayConstructor {
+  if (coordinateType === 'float32') return Float32Array;
+  if (coordinateType === 'float64') return Float64Array;
+  if (array.kind === 'fixed-size-list' && array.child.kind === 'primitive') {
+    return array.child.values instanceof Float32Array ? Float32Array : Float64Array;
+  }
+  if (array.kind === 'struct') {
+    const child = array.children['x'];
+    if (child?.kind === 'primitive' && child.values instanceof Float32Array) return Float32Array;
+  }
+  return Float64Array;
+}
+
+function makeCoordinateLeaf(
+  coordinates: readonly (readonly number[])[],
+  dimension: GeoArrowDimension,
+  layout: GeoArrowCoordinateLayout,
+  FloatArray: Float32ArrayConstructor | Float64ArrayConstructor,
+  validity: GeoArrowArray['validity']
+): GeoArrowArray {
+  const size = getGeoArrowDimensionSize(dimension);
+  if (layout === 'interleaved') {
+    const values = new FloatArray(coordinates.length * size);
+    for (let index = 0; index < coordinates.length; index++) {
+      values.set(coordinates[index], index * size);
+    }
+    return {
+      kind: 'fixed-size-list',
+      length: coordinates.length,
+      size,
+      child: {kind: 'primitive', length: values.length, values},
+      validity
+    };
+  }
+  const children: Record<string, GeoArrowArray> = {
+    x: {kind: 'primitive', length: coordinates.length, values: new FloatArray(coordinates.length)},
+    y: {kind: 'primitive', length: coordinates.length, values: new FloatArray(coordinates.length)}
+  };
+  const names = getDimensionNames(dimension);
+  for (let component = 2; component < names.length; component++) {
+    children[names[component]] = {
+      kind: 'primitive',
+      length: coordinates.length,
+      values: new FloatArray(coordinates.length)
+    };
+  }
+  for (let index = 0; index < coordinates.length; index++) {
+    const coordinate = coordinates[index];
+    for (let component = 0; component < names.length; component++) {
+      const child = children[names[component]];
+      if (child.kind === 'primitive') child.values[index] = coordinate[component];
+    }
+  }
+  return {kind: 'struct', length: coordinates.length, children, validity};
+}
+
+function readCoordinateAt(array: GeoArrowArray, index: number): number[] | null {
+  if (!isGeoArrowValueValid(array.validity, index)) return null;
+  if (array.kind === 'fixed-size-list') {
+    const logicalIndex = (array.offset || 0) + index;
+    if (array.child.kind !== 'primitive') return null;
+    const values: number[] = [];
+    for (let component = 0; component < array.size; component++) {
+      const scalarIndex = logicalIndex * array.size + component;
+      values.push(
+        Number(
+          array.child.values[(array.child.offset || 0) + scalarIndex * (array.child.stride || 1)]
+        )
+      );
+    }
+    return values;
+  }
+  if (array.kind === 'struct') {
+    const logicalIndex = (array.offset || 0) + index;
+    const values: number[] = [];
+    for (const name of ['x', 'y', 'z', 'm'] as const) {
+      const child = array.children[name];
+      if (child?.kind === 'primitive') {
+        values.push(Number(child.values[(child.offset || 0) + logicalIndex * (child.stride || 1)]));
+      }
+    }
+    return values.length >= 2 ? values : null;
+  }
+  return null;
+}
+
+function getDimensionNames(dimension: GeoArrowDimension): Array<'x' | 'y' | 'z' | 'm'> {
+  switch (dimension) {
+    case 'xy':
+      return ['x', 'y'];
+    case 'xyz':
+      return ['x', 'y', 'z'];
+    case 'xym':
+      return ['x', 'y', 'm'];
+    case 'xyzm':
+      return ['x', 'y', 'z', 'm'];
+  }
+}
+
+function getEncodingFromChildName(name: string): GeoArrowEncoding {
+  const normalized = name.replace(/[^a-z]/gi, '').toLowerCase();
+  const encoding = `geoarrow.${normalized}` as GeoArrowEncoding;
+  if (
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.point' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.linestring' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.polygon' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.multipoint' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.multilinestring' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.multipolygon' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.geometrycollection'
+  ) {
+    return encoding;
+  }
+  throw new Error(`Unknown GeoArrow dense-union child ${name}`);
+}
+
+function getEncodingDepth(encoding: GeoArrowEncoding): 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 {
+  switch (encoding) {
+    case 'geoarrow.point':
+      return 0;
+    case 'geoarrow.linestring':
+    case 'geoarrow.multipoint':
+      return 1;
+    case 'geoarrow.polygon':
+    case 'geoarrow.multilinestring':
+      return 2;
+    case 'geoarrow.multipolygon':
+      return 3;
+    default:
+      return 0;
+  }
+}
+
+function promoteToDenseUnion(column: GeoArrowColumn): GeoArrowColumn {
+  if (column.encoding === 'geoarrow.geometry') return column;
+  const chunks = column.chunks.map(chunk => {
+    const typeId = getCanonicalTypeId(column.encoding, column.dimension);
+    const typeIds = new Int8Array(chunk.length);
+    typeIds.fill(typeId);
+    const valueOffsets = new Int32Array(chunk.length);
+    for (let index = 0; index < chunk.length; index++) valueOffsets[index] = index;
+    return {
+      kind: 'dense-union' as const,
+      length: chunk.length,
+      typeIds,
+      valueOffsets,
+      children: [
+        {
+          name: getGeoArrowGeometryTypeName(column.encoding),
+          typeId,
+          encoding: column.encoding,
+          dimension: column.dimension,
+          coordinateLayout: column.coordinateLayout,
+          data: chunk
+        }
+      ]
+    };
+  });
+  return {...column, encoding: 'geoarrow.geometry', chunks};
+}
+
+function demoteDenseUnion(column: GeoArrowColumn, encoding: GeoArrowEncoding): GeoArrowColumn {
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.geometry' || encoding === 'geoarrow.geometrycollection') return column;
+  if (!isConcreteEncoding(encoding)) throw new Error(`Rows cannot be represented as ${encoding}`);
+  const builderOptions = {
+    encoding,
+    dimension: column.dimension,
+    coordinateLayout: column.coordinateLayout || 'interleaved',
+    offsetType: getColumnOffsetType(column)
+  } as const;
+  const chunks = column.chunks.map(chunk => {
+    if (chunk.kind !== 'dense-union') throw new Error('Expected dense-union storage');
+    const replay = (builder: GeoArrowBuilder): void => {
+      for (let index = 0; index < chunk.length; index++) {
+        if (!isGeoArrowValueValid(chunk.validity, index)) {
+          builder.append(null);
+          continue;
+        }
+        const physical = (chunk.offset || 0) + index;
+        const child = chunk.children.find(
+          candidate => candidate.typeId === chunk.typeIds[physical]
+        );
+        const childEncoding = child && (child.encoding || getEncodingFromChildName(child.name));
+        const childIndex = chunk.valueOffsets[physical];
+        if (!child || !childEncoding || !isGeoArrowValueValid(child.data.validity, childIndex)) {
+          builder.append(null);
+          continue;
+        }
+        if (!isConcreteEncoding(childEncoding) || !canPromoteEncoding(childEncoding, encoding)) {
+          throw new Error(`Rows cannot be represented as ${encoding}`);
+        }
+        replayPhysicalGeometryIntoBuilder(
+          builder,
+          child.data,
+          childIndex,
+          childEncoding,
+          child.dimension || column.dimension,
+          encoding
+        );
+      }
+    };
+    const measure = new GeoArrowBuilder({...builderOptions, mode: 'measure'});
+    replay(measure);
+    const write = new GeoArrowBuilder({
+      ...builderOptions,
+      mode: 'write',
+      target: measure.allocateTarget()
+    });
+    replay(write);
+    return write.finish().chunks[0];
+  });
+  return {...column, encoding, coordinateLayout: builderOptions.coordinateLayout, chunks};
+}
+
+function replayPhysicalGeometryIntoBuilder(
+  builder: GeoArrowBuilder,
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  rowIndex: number,
+  sourceEncoding: GeoArrowBuilderEncoding,
+  sourceDimension: GeoArrowDimension,
+  targetEncoding: GeoArrowBuilderEncoding
+): void {
+  const targetType = getGeoArrowGeometryTypeName(targetEncoding) as
+    | 'Point'
+    | 'LineString'
+    | 'Polygon'
+    | 'MultiPoint'
+    | 'MultiLineString'
+    | 'MultiPolygon';
+  builder.beginGeometry(targetType, sourceDimension);
+  if (sourceEncoding === 'geoarrow.point') {
+    writePhysicalCoordinateIntoBuilder(builder, array, rowIndex, sourceDimension);
+  } else if (sourceEncoding === 'geoarrow.linestring' || sourceEncoding === 'geoarrow.multipoint') {
+    const [first, last] = requireListRange(array, rowIndex);
+    if (targetEncoding === 'geoarrow.multilinestring') builder.beginRing(last - first);
+    const leaf = (array as import('./types').GeoArrowList).child;
+    for (let index = first; index < last; index++) {
+      writePhysicalCoordinateIntoBuilder(builder, leaf, index, sourceDimension);
+    }
+  } else if (
+    sourceEncoding === 'geoarrow.polygon' ||
+    sourceEncoding === 'geoarrow.multilinestring'
+  ) {
+    const [first, last] = requireListRange(array, rowIndex);
+    if (targetEncoding === 'geoarrow.multipolygon') builder.beginPolygon();
+    const parts = (array as import('./types').GeoArrowList).child;
+    for (let partIndex = first; partIndex < last; partIndex++) {
+      const [partFirst, partLast] = requireListRange(parts, partIndex);
+      builder.beginRing(partLast - partFirst);
+      const leaf = (parts as import('./types').GeoArrowList).child;
+      for (let index = partFirst; index < partLast; index++) {
+        writePhysicalCoordinateIntoBuilder(builder, leaf, index, sourceDimension);
+      }
+    }
+  } else {
+    const [first, last] = requireListRange(array, rowIndex);
+    const polygons = (array as import('./types').GeoArrowList).child;
+    for (let polygonIndex = first; polygonIndex < last; polygonIndex++) {
+      builder.beginPolygon();
+      const [partFirst, partLast] = requireListRange(polygons, polygonIndex);
+      const parts = (polygons as import('./types').GeoArrowList).child;
+      for (let partIndex = partFirst; partIndex < partLast; partIndex++) {
+        const [ringFirst, ringLast] = requireListRange(parts, partIndex);
+        builder.beginRing(ringLast - ringFirst);
+        const leaf = (parts as import('./types').GeoArrowList).child;
+        for (let index = ringFirst; index < ringLast; index++) {
+          writePhysicalCoordinateIntoBuilder(builder, leaf, index, sourceDimension);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  builder.endGeometry();
+}
+
+function writePhysicalCoordinateIntoBuilder(
+  builder: GeoArrowBuilder,
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  index: number,
+  dimension: GeoArrowDimension
+): void {
+  if (array.kind === 'fixed-size-list' && array.child.kind === 'primitive') {
+    const logical = (array.offset || 0) + index;
+    const stride = array.child.stride || 1;
+    const scalarOffset = (array.child.offset || 0) + logical * array.size * stride;
+    const x = Number(array.child.values[scalarOffset]);
+    const y = Number(array.child.values[scalarOffset + stride]);
+    const third =
+      array.size > 2 ? Number(array.child.values[scalarOffset + 2 * stride]) : undefined;
+    const fourth =
+      array.size > 3 ? Number(array.child.values[scalarOffset + 3 * stride]) : undefined;
+    builder.writeCoordinateFromDimension(
+      x,
+      y,
+      dimension === 'xyz' || dimension === 'xyzm' ? third : undefined,
+      dimension === 'xym' ? third : fourth,
+      dimension
+    );
+    return;
+  }
+  if (array.kind === 'struct') {
+    const logical = (array.offset || 0) + index;
+    const read = (name: 'x' | 'y' | 'z' | 'm'): number | undefined => {
+      const child = array.children[name];
+      return child?.kind === 'primitive'
+        ? Number(child.values[(child.offset || 0) + logical * (child.stride || 1)])
+        : undefined;
+    };
+    builder.writeCoordinateFromDimension(read('x')!, read('y')!, read('z'), read('m'), dimension);
+    return;
+  }
+  throw new Error('Invalid GeoArrow coordinate storage');
+}
+
+function requireListRange(array: GeoArrowArray, index: number): [number, number] {
+  if (array.kind !== 'list') throw new Error('Invalid GeoArrow list storage');
+  return getListRange(array, index);
+}
+
+function canPromoteEncoding(source: GeoArrowEncoding, target: GeoArrowEncoding): boolean {
+  return (
+    source === target ||
+    (source === 'geoarrow.point' && target === 'geoarrow.multipoint') ||
+    (source === 'geoarrow.linestring' && target === 'geoarrow.multilinestring') ||
+    (source === 'geoarrow.polygon' && target === 'geoarrow.multipolygon')
+  );
+}
+
+function isConcreteEncoding(encoding: GeoArrowEncoding): encoding is GeoArrowBuilderEncoding {
+  return (
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.point' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.linestring' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.polygon' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.multipoint' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.multilinestring' ||
+    encoding === 'geoarrow.multipolygon'
+  );
+}
+
+function getCanonicalTypeId(encoding: GeoArrowEncoding, dimension: GeoArrowDimension): number {
+  const families = [
+    'point',
+    'linestring',
+    'polygon',
+    'multipoint',
+    'multilinestring',
+    'multipolygon',
+    'geometrycollection'
+  ];
+  const dimensions = ['xy', 'xyz', 'xym', 'xyzm'];
+  const family = encoding.replace('geoarrow.', '');
+  const familyIndex = families.indexOf(family);
+  const dimensionIndex = dimensions.indexOf(dimension);
+  return familyIndex < 0 || dimensionIndex < 0 ? 1 : familyIndex * 4 + dimensionIndex + 1;
+}
+
+function getColumnOffsetType(column: GeoArrowColumn): 'int32' | 'int64' {
+  for (const chunk of column.chunks) {
+    const found = findOffsetType(chunk);
+    if (found) return found;
+  }
+  return 'int32';
+}
+
+function findOffsetType(array: GeoArrowArray): 'int32' | 'int64' | null {
+  switch (array.kind) {
+    case 'list':
+    case 'serialized':
+      return array.offsets instanceof BigInt64Array ? 'int64' : 'int32';
+    case 'fixed-size-list':
+      return findOffsetType(array.child);
+    case 'struct': {
+      for (const child of Object.values(array.children)) {
+        const found = findOffsetType(child);
+        if (found) return found;
+      }
+      return null;
+    }
+    case 'dense-union':
+      for (const child of array.children) {
+        const found = findOffsetType(child.data);
+        if (found) return found;
+      }
+      return null;
+    default:
+      return null;
+  }
+}
+
+function convertArrayOffsets(array: GeoArrowArray, offsetType: 'int32' | 'int64'): GeoArrowArray {
+  const toOffsets = (
+    offsets: Int32Array | BigInt64Array,
+    offsetBase: number | bigint | undefined
+  ): {offsets: Int32Array | BigInt64Array; offsetBase?: number | bigint} => {
+    if (offsetType === 'int64') {
+      const result = new BigInt64Array(offsets.length);
+      for (let index = 0; index < offsets.length; index++) result[index] = BigInt(offsets[index]);
+      return {offsets: result, ...(offsetBase === undefined ? {} : {offsetBase})};
+    }
+    const result = new Int32Array(offsets.length);
+    const base = BigInt(offsetBase ?? 0);
+    for (let index = 0; index < offsets.length; index++) {
+      const value = BigInt(offsets[index]) - base;
+      if (value < -2147483648n || value > 2147483647n) {
+        throw new Error('GeoArrow offset cannot be represented as Int32');
+      }
+      result[index] = Number(value);
+    }
+    return {offsets: result, offsetBase: 0};
+  };
+  switch (array.kind) {
+    case 'list':
+      if (array.offsets instanceof (offsetType === 'int64' ? BigInt64Array : Int32Array)) {
+        return {...array, child: convertArrayOffsets(array.child, offsetType)};
+      }
+      return {
+        ...array,
+        ...toOffsets(array.offsets, array.offsetBase),
+        child: convertArrayOffsets(array.child, offsetType)
+      } as GeoArrowArray;
+    case 'serialized':
+      if (array.offsets instanceof (offsetType === 'int64' ? BigInt64Array : Int32Array))
+        return array;
+      return {...array, ...toOffsets(array.offsets, array.offsetBase)} as GeoArrowArray;
+    case 'fixed-size-list':
+      return {...array, child: convertArrayOffsets(array.child, offsetType)};
+    case 'struct':
+      return {
+        ...array,
+        children: Object.fromEntries(
+          Object.entries(array.children).map(([name, child]) => [
+            name,
+            convertArrayOffsets(child, offsetType)
+          ])
+        )
+      };
+    case 'dense-union':
+      return {
+        ...array,
+        children: array.children.map(child => ({
+          ...child,
+          data: convertArrayOffsets(child.data, offsetType)
+        }))
+      };
+    default:
+      return array;
+  }
+}
+
+function getGeoArrowGeometryTypeName(encoding: GeoArrowEncoding): string {
+  return getGeoArrowGeometryType(encoding) || encoding.replace('geoarrow.', '');
+}
+
+function rewindArrayRings(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  encoding: GeoArrowEncoding,
+  outerClockwise: boolean
+): boolean {
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.geometry' && array.kind === 'dense-union') {
+    let changed = false;
+    for (const child of array.children) {
+      if (
+        rewindArrayRings(
+          child.data,
+          child.encoding || getEncodingFromChildName(child.name),
+          outerClockwise
+        )
+      )
+        changed = true;
+    }
+    return changed;
+  }
+  if (encoding === 'geoarrow.geometrycollection' && array.kind === 'list') {
+    if (array.child.kind !== 'dense-union') return false;
+    let changed = false;
+    for (const child of array.child.children) {
+      if (
+        rewindArrayRings(
+          child.data,
+          child.encoding || getEncodingFromChildName(child.name),
+          outerClockwise
+        )
+      )
+        changed = true;
+    }
+    return changed;
+  }
+  if (encoding !== 'geoarrow.polygon' && encoding !== 'geoarrow.multipolygon') return false;
+  if (array.kind !== 'list' || array.child.kind !== 'list') return false;
+  let changed = false;
+  for (let rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < array.length; rowIndex++) {
+    if (!isGeoArrowValueValid(array.validity, rowIndex)) continue;
+    const [, rowEnd] = getListRange(array, rowIndex);
+    const rowStart = getListRange(array, rowIndex)[0];
+    if (encoding === 'geoarrow.polygon') {
+      const rings = array.child;
+      if (rewindRingGroup(rings, rowStart, rowEnd, outerClockwise)) changed = true;
+    } else {
+      const polygons = array.child;
+      for (let polygonIndex = rowStart; polygonIndex < rowEnd; polygonIndex++) {
+        const [ringStart, ringEnd] = getListRange(polygons, polygonIndex);
+        if (rewindRingGroup(polygons.child, ringStart, ringEnd, outerClockwise)) changed = true;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return changed;
+}
+
+function rewindRingGroup(
+  rings: GeoArrowArray,
+  firstRing: number,
+  lastRing: number,
+  outerClockwise: boolean
+): boolean {
+  if (rings.kind !== 'list') return false;
+  const leaf = rings.child;
+  if (leaf.kind !== 'fixed-size-list' && leaf.kind !== 'struct') return false;
+  let changed = false;
+  for (let ringIndex = firstRing; ringIndex < lastRing; ringIndex++) {
+    const [first, last] = getListRange(rings, ringIndex);
+    const area = getRingArea(leaf, first, last);
+    if (!Number.isFinite(area) || area === 0) continue;
+    const shouldClockwise = ringIndex === firstRing ? outerClockwise : !outerClockwise;
+    if (area < 0 !== shouldClockwise) {
+      reverseCoordinateRange(leaf, first, last);
+      changed = true;
+    }
+  }
+  return changed;
+}
+
+function getRingArea(leaf: GeoArrowArray, first: number, last: number): number {
+  let area = 0;
+  for (let index = first; index < last; index++) {
+    const current = readCoordinateAt(leaf, index);
+    const next = readCoordinateAt(leaf, index + 1 < last ? index + 1 : first);
+    if (!current || !next) return Number.NaN;
+    area += current[0] * next[1] - next[0] * current[1];
+  }
+  return area / 2;
+}
+
+function reverseCoordinateRange(leaf: GeoArrowArray, first: number, last: number): void {
+  const values: number[][] = [];
+  for (let index = first; index < last; index++) values.push(readCoordinateAt(leaf, index)!);
+  values.reverse();
+  for (let index = first; index < last; index++)
+    writeCoordinateAt(leaf, index, values[index - first]);
+}
+
+function writeCoordinateAt(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  index: number,
+  coordinate: readonly number[]
+): void {
+  if (array.kind === 'fixed-size-list' && array.child.kind === 'primitive') {
+    const logical = (array.offset || 0) + index;
+    for (let component = 0; component < array.size; component++) {
+      const scalar = (array.child.offset || 0) + logical * array.size + component;
+      array.child.values[scalar] = coordinate[component];
+    }
+  } else if (array.kind === 'struct') {
+    const logical = (array.offset || 0) + index;
+    const names = ['x', 'y', 'z', 'm'] as const;
+    for (let component = 0; component < names.length; component++) {
+      const child = array.children[names[component]];
+      if (child?.kind === 'primitive')
+        child.values[(child.offset || 0) + logical * (child.stride || 1)] = coordinate[component];
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+function collectCoordinateLeaves(column: GeoArrowColumn): Array<Float32Array | Float64Array> {
+  const leaves: Array<Float32Array | Float64Array> = [];
+  for (const chunk of column.chunks) collectArrayCoordinateLeaves(chunk, leaves);
+  return leaves;
+}
+
+function collectArrayCoordinateLeaves(
+  array: GeoArrowArray,
+  leaves: Array<Float32Array | Float64Array>
+): void {
+  switch (array.kind) {
+    case 'primitive':
+      if (array.values instanceof Float32Array || array.values instanceof Float64Array) {
+        leaves.push(array.values);
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'fixed-size-list':
+    case 'list':
+      collectArrayCoordinateLeaves(array.child, leaves);
+      break;
+    case 'struct':
+      for (const name of ['x', 'y', 'z', 'm']) {
+        const child = array.children[name];
+        if (child) collectArrayCoordinateLeaves(child, leaves);
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'dense-union':
+      for (const child of array.children) collectArrayCoordinateLeaves(child.data, leaves);
+      break;
+    default:
+      break;
+  }
+}
+
+function getArrayDepth(array: GeoArrowArray): number {
+  switch (array.kind) {
+    case 'list':
+    case 'fixed-size-list':
+      return 1 + getArrayDepth(array.child);
+    case 'struct':
+      return 1 + Math.max(0, ...Object.values(array.children).map(getArrayDepth));
+    case 'dense-union':
+      return 1 + Math.max(0, ...array.children.map(child => getArrayDepth(child.data)));
+    default:
+      return 1;
+  }
+}