@hztxi/cesium-engine 25.0.6 → 26.2.1

package/Source/Scene/decodeMVT.js

@@ -0,0 +1,877 @@
+// @ts-check
+import RuntimeError from "../Core/RuntimeError.js";
+
+// Mapbox Vector Tile specification:
+// https://github.com/mapbox/vector-tile-spec/tree/master/2.1
+
+/**
+ * @typedef {object} MVTPoint
+ * @property {number} x Tile-local x (0–extent)
+ * @property {number} y Tile-local y (0–extent)
+ * @ignore
+ */
+
+/**
+ * @typedef {object} MVTFeature
+ * @property {bigint|undefined} id Optional MVT feature ID.
+ * @property {"Point"|"LineString"|"Polygon"|"Unknown"} type
+ * @property {Array<MVTPoint>|Array<Array<MVTPoint>>} geometry
+ * @property {Record<string, string|number|boolean|bigint>} properties
+ * @ignore
+ */
+
+/**
+ * @typedef {object} MVTLayer
+ * @property {string} name
+ * @property {number} extent
+ * @property {MVTFeature[]} features
+ * @ignore
+ */
+
+/**
+ * @typedef {object} DecodedMVT
+ * @property {MVTLayer[]} layers
+ * @ignore
+ */
+
+/**
+ * @typedef {(string|number|boolean|bigint)} MVTValue
+ * @ignore
+ */
+
+/**
+ * @typedef {object} ReadTagResult
+ * @property {number} fieldNumber
+ * @property {number} wireType
+ * @property {number} newPos
+ * @ignore
+ */
+
+/**
+ * @typedef {object} ReadVarintResult
+ * @property {number} value
+ * @property {number} newPos
+ * @ignore
+ */
+
+/**
+ * @typedef {object} ReadBigVarintResult
+ * @property {bigint} value
+ * @property {number} newPos
+ * @ignore
+ */
+
+const textDecoder = new TextDecoder();
+
+// Geometry type enum from the MVT spec
+const GeomType = {
+  UNKNOWN: 0,
+  POINT: 1,
+  LINESTRING: 2,
+  POLYGON: 3,
+};
+
+// Tile message field numbers (spec §4.1)
+const TileField = {
+  LAYERS: 3,
+};
+
+// Layer message field numbers (spec §4.1)
+const LayerField = {
+  NAME: 1,
+  FEATURES: 2,
+  KEYS: 3,
+  VALUES: 4,
+  EXTENT: 5,
+};
+
+// Feature message field numbers (spec §4.2)
+const FeatureField = {
+  ID: 1,
+  TAGS: 2,
+  TYPE: 3,
+  GEOMETRY: 4,
+};
+
+// GeoVis compact vector-tile field numbers. GeoVis PBF is not standard MVT,
+// but it retains MVT's value, tag, and delta-coordinate encoding.
+const GeoVisLayerField = {
+  VALUES: 1,
+  FEATURES: 2,
+  NAME: 3,
+  KEYS: 4,
+  EXTENT: 5,
+};
+
+const GeoVisFeatureField = {
+  TYPE: 1,
+  GEOMETRY: 2,
+  TAGS: 3,
+};
+
+// Value message field numbers (spec §4.4)
+const ValueField = {
+  STRING: 1,
+  FLOAT: 2,
+  DOUBLE: 3,
+  INT64: 4,
+  UINT64: 5,
+  SINT64: 6,
+  BOOL: 7,
+};
+
+const geomTypeName = ["Unknown", "Point", "LineString", "Polygon"];
+
+/**
+ * Decode a Mapbox Vector Tile (MVT / .pbf) binary buffer into layers and
+ * features. Geometry coordinates remain in tile-local integer space
+ * (0 – layer.extent, typically 4096).
+ *
+ * @param {ArrayBuffer} arrayBuffer The raw .pbf tile binary
+ * @param {"mvt"|"geovis"} [format="mvt"] PBF schema used by the tile service.
+ * @returns {DecodedMVT}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function decodeMVT(arrayBuffer, format = "mvt") {
+  const bytes = new Uint8Array(arrayBuffer);
+  if (format === "geovis") {
+    return decodeGeoVisMVT(bytes);
+  }
+  const layers = [];
+  let pos = 0;
+
+  while (pos < bytes.length) {
+    const tag = readTag(bytes, pos, bytes.length);
+    const fieldNumber = tag.fieldNumber;
+    const wireType = tag.wireType;
+    pos = tag.newPos;
+
+    // Tile.layers = field 3, wire type 2 (length-delimited)
+    if (fieldNumber === TileField.LAYERS && wireType === 2) {
+      const layerLength = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, bytes.length);
+      pos = layerLength.newPos;
+      const layerEnd = advanceByLength(
+        pos,
+        layerLength.value,
+        bytes.length,
+        "layer",
+      );
+      layers.push(decodeLayer(bytes, pos, layerEnd));
+      pos = layerEnd;
+    } else {
+      pos = skipField(bytes, pos, wireType, bytes.length);
+    }
+  }
+
+  return { layers };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Decode GeoVis's compact PBF schema into the same normalized structure as MVT.
+ * GeoVis keeps the tile envelope (Tile.layers = field 3), but moves layer values
+ * to field 1, layer name to field 3, keys to field 4, and feature type/tags/
+ * geometry to fields 1/3/2 respectively.
+ *
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @returns {DecodedMVT}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function decodeGeoVisMVT(bytes) {
+  const layers = [];
+  let pos = 0;
+
+  while (pos < bytes.length) {
+    const tag = readTag(bytes, pos, bytes.length);
+    pos = tag.newPos;
+    if (tag.fieldNumber !== TileField.LAYERS || tag.wireType !== 2) {
+      pos = skipField(bytes, pos, tag.wireType, bytes.length);
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    const layerLength = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, bytes.length);
+    pos = layerLength.newPos;
+    const layerEnd = advanceByLength(
+      pos,
+      layerLength.value,
+      bytes.length,
+      "GeoVis layer",
+    );
+    layers.push(decodeGeoVisLayer(bytes, pos, layerEnd));
+    pos = layerEnd;
+  }
+
+  return { layers };
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} start
+ * @param {number} end
+ * @returns {MVTLayer}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function decodeGeoVisLayer(bytes, start, end) {
+  let pos = start;
+  let name = "";
+  let extent = 4096;
+  /** @type {string[]} */
+  const keys = [];
+  /** @type {Array.<string|number|boolean|bigint|undefined>} */
+  const values = [];
+  const rawFeatures = [];
+
+  while (pos < end) {
+    const tag = readTag(bytes, pos, end);
+    pos = tag.newPos;
+
+    if (tag.wireType === 2) {
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const fieldEnd = advanceByLength(
+        pos,
+        length.value,
+        end,
+        "GeoVis layer field",
+      );
+
+      if (tag.fieldNumber === GeoVisLayerField.VALUES) {
+        values.push(decodeValue(bytes, pos, fieldEnd));
+      } else if (tag.fieldNumber === GeoVisLayerField.FEATURES) {
+        rawFeatures.push({ start: pos, end: fieldEnd });
+      } else if (tag.fieldNumber === GeoVisLayerField.NAME) {
+        name = readString(bytes, pos, fieldEnd - pos);
+      } else if (tag.fieldNumber === GeoVisLayerField.KEYS) {
+        keys.push(readString(bytes, pos, fieldEnd - pos));
+      }
+      pos = fieldEnd;
+    } else if (
+      tag.fieldNumber === GeoVisLayerField.EXTENT &&
+      tag.wireType === 0
+    ) {
+      const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, end);
+      extent = value.value;
+      pos = value.newPos;
+    } else {
+      pos = skipField(bytes, pos, tag.wireType, end);
+    }
+  }
+
+  const features = rawFeatures.map(({ start: featureStart, end: featureEnd }) =>
+    decodeGeoVisFeature(bytes, featureStart, featureEnd, keys, values),
+  );
+  return { name, extent, features };
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} start
+ * @param {number} end
+ * @param {string[]} keys
+ * @param {Array.<string|number|boolean|bigint|undefined>} values
+ * @returns {MVTFeature}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function decodeGeoVisFeature(bytes, start, end, keys, values) {
+  let pos = start;
+  let geomType = GeomType.UNKNOWN;
+  /** @type {number[]} */
+  const tags = [];
+  /** @type {number[]} */
+  const geometryCommands = [];
+
+  while (pos < end) {
+    const tag = readTag(bytes, pos, end);
+    pos = tag.newPos;
+
+    if (tag.wireType === 0 && tag.fieldNumber === GeoVisFeatureField.TYPE) {
+      const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, end);
+      // GeoVis shifts the MVT geometry type by one.
+      geomType = value.value - 1;
+      pos = value.newPos;
+    } else if (tag.wireType === 2) {
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const fieldEnd = advanceByLength(
+        pos,
+        length.value,
+        end,
+        "GeoVis feature field",
+      );
+      const target =
+        tag.fieldNumber === GeoVisFeatureField.GEOMETRY
+          ? geometryCommands
+          : tag.fieldNumber === GeoVisFeatureField.TAGS
+            ? tags
+            : undefined;
+      if (target !== undefined) {
+        while (pos < fieldEnd) {
+          const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, fieldEnd);
+          target.push(value.value);
+          pos = value.newPos;
+        }
+      }
+      pos = fieldEnd;
+    } else {
+      pos = skipField(bytes, pos, tag.wireType, end);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** @type {Record<string, string|number|boolean|bigint>} */
+  const properties = {};
+  for (let i = 0; i < tags.length - 1; i += 2) {
+    const key = keys[tags[i]];
+    const value = values[tags[i + 1]];
+    if (typeof key === "string" && value !== undefined) {
+      properties[key] = value;
+    }
+  }
+
+  return {
+    id: undefined,
+    type: /** @type {"Point"|"LineString"|"Polygon"|"Unknown"} */ (
+      geomTypeName[geomType] ?? "Unknown"
+    ),
+    geometry: decodeGeometry(
+      geomType,
+      normalizeGeoVisGeometry(geometryCommands),
+    ),
+    properties,
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * GeoVis remaps MoveTo's command ID from 1 to 4 and LineTo's from 2 to 3.
+ * Coordinates and command counts remain the standard MVT delta representation.
+ *
+ * @param {number[]} commands
+ * @returns {number[]}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function normalizeGeoVisGeometry(commands) {
+  const normalized = [];
+  let pos = 0;
+  while (pos < commands.length) {
+    const command = commands[pos++];
+    const count = command >>> 3;
+    const commandId = command & 0x7;
+    let mvtCommandId;
+    if (commandId === 4) {
+      mvtCommandId = 1;
+    } else if (commandId === 3) {
+      mvtCommandId = 2;
+    } else if (commandId === 7) {
+      mvtCommandId = 7;
+    } else {
+      return [];
+    }
+
+    normalized.push((count << 3) | mvtCommandId);
+    if (mvtCommandId === 7) {
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    const coordinateCount = count * 2;
+    if (pos + coordinateCount > commands.length) {
+      return [];
+    }
+    for (let i = 0; i < coordinateCount; i++) {
+      normalized.push(commands[pos++]);
+    }
+  }
+  return normalized;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} start
+ * @param {number} end
+ * @returns {MVTLayer}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function decodeLayer(bytes, start, end) {
+  let pos = start;
+  let name = "";
+  let extent = 4096;
+  /** @type {string[]} */
+  const keys = [];
+  /** @type {Array.<string|number|boolean|bigint|undefined>} */
+  const values = [];
+  const rawFeatures = [];
+
+  while (pos < end) {
+    const tag = readTag(bytes, pos, end);
+    const fieldNumber = tag.fieldNumber;
+    const wireType = tag.wireType;
+    pos = tag.newPos;
+
+    if (fieldNumber === LayerField.NAME && wireType === 2) {
+      // name
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const stringEnd = advanceByLength(pos, length.value, end, "layer name");
+      name = readString(bytes, pos, length.value);
+      pos = stringEnd;
+    } else if (fieldNumber === LayerField.FEATURES && wireType === 2) {
+      // feature
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const featureEnd = advanceByLength(pos, length.value, end, "feature");
+      rawFeatures.push({ start: pos, end: featureEnd });
+      pos = featureEnd;
+    } else if (fieldNumber === LayerField.KEYS && wireType === 2) {
+      // key
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const stringEnd = advanceByLength(pos, length.value, end, "key");
+      keys.push(readString(bytes, pos, length.value));
+      pos = stringEnd;
+    } else if (fieldNumber === LayerField.VALUES && wireType === 2) {
+      // value
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const valueEnd = advanceByLength(pos, length.value, end, "value");
+      const value = decodeValue(bytes, pos, valueEnd);
+      values.push(value);
+      pos = valueEnd;
+    } else if (fieldNumber === LayerField.EXTENT && wireType === 0) {
+      // extent
+      const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, end);
+      extent = value.value;
+      pos = value.newPos;
+    } else {
+      pos = skipField(bytes, pos, wireType, end);
+    }
+  }
+
+  const features = rawFeatures.map(({ start: featureStart, end: featureEnd }) =>
+    decodeFeature(bytes, featureStart, featureEnd, keys, values),
+  );
+
+  return { name, extent, features };
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} start
+ * @param {number} end
+ * @param {string[]} keys
+ * @param {Array.<string|number|boolean|bigint|undefined>} values
+ * @returns {MVTFeature}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function decodeFeature(bytes, start, end, keys, values) {
+  let pos = start;
+  let id;
+  let geomType = GeomType.UNKNOWN;
+  const tags = [];
+  const geometryCommands = [];
+
+  while (pos < end) {
+    const tag = readTag(bytes, pos, end);
+    const fieldNumber = tag.fieldNumber;
+    const wireType = tag.wireType;
+    pos = tag.newPos;
+
+    if (fieldNumber === FeatureField.ID && wireType === 0) {
+      const value = readBigVarint(bytes, pos, end);
+      id = value.value;
+      pos = value.newPos;
+    } else if (fieldNumber === FeatureField.TYPE && wireType === 0) {
+      // geometry type
+      const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, end);
+      geomType = value.value;
+      pos = value.newPos;
+    } else if (fieldNumber === FeatureField.TAGS && wireType === 2) {
+      // tags (packed uint32)
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const tagEnd = advanceByLength(pos, length.value, end, "feature tags");
+      while (pos < tagEnd) {
+        const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, tagEnd);
+        tags.push(value.value);
+        pos = value.newPos;
+      }
+    } else if (fieldNumber === FeatureField.GEOMETRY && wireType === 2) {
+      // geometry (packed uint32 commands)
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const geometryEnd = advanceByLength(
+        pos,
+        length.value,
+        end,
+        "feature geometry",
+      );
+      while (pos < geometryEnd) {
+        const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, geometryEnd);
+        geometryCommands.push(value.value);
+        pos = value.newPos;
+      }
+    } else {
+      pos = skipField(bytes, pos, wireType, end);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Build properties from tags
+  /** @type {Record<string, string|number|boolean|bigint>} */
+  const properties = {};
+  for (let i = 0; i < tags.length - 1; i += 2) {
+    const key = keys[tags[i]];
+    const value = values[tags[i + 1]];
+    if (typeof key !== "string" || value === undefined) {
+      continue;
+    }
+    properties[key] = value;
+  }
+
+  const geometry = decodeGeometry(geomType, geometryCommands);
+
+  return {
+    id,
+    type: /** @type {"Point"|"LineString"|"Polygon"|"Unknown"} */ (
+      geomTypeName[geomType] ?? "Unknown"
+    ),
+    geometry,
+    properties,
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Decode MVT geometry commands into coordinate arrays.
+ * @param {number} geomType
+ * @param {number[]} cmds
+ * @returns {*}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function decodeGeometry(geomType, cmds) {
+  let i = 0;
+  let x = 0;
+  let y = 0;
+
+  if (geomType === GeomType.POINT) {
+    const points = [];
+    while (i < cmds.length) {
+      const cmd = cmds[i++];
+      const cmdId = cmd & 0x7;
+      const count = cmd >> 3;
+      if (cmdId === 1) {
+        // MoveTo
+        for (let c = 0; c < count; c++) {
+          x += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+          y += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+          points.push({ x, y });
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    return points;
+  }
+
+  if (geomType === GeomType.LINESTRING) {
+    const lines = [];
+    let current = null;
+    while (i < cmds.length) {
+      const cmd = cmds[i++];
+      const cmdId = cmd & 0x7;
+      const count = cmd >> 3;
+      if (cmdId === 1) {
+        // MoveTo - start new line
+        if (current !== null) {
+          lines.push(current);
+        }
+        current = [];
+        x += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+        y += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+        current.push({ x, y });
+      } else if (cmdId === 2) {
+        // LineTo
+        for (let c = 0; c < count; c++) {
+          x += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+          y += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+          current.push({ x, y });
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    if (current !== null) {
+      lines.push(current);
+    }
+    return lines;
+  }
+
+  if (geomType === GeomType.POLYGON) {
+    const rings = [];
+    let current = null;
+    while (i < cmds.length) {
+      const cmd = cmds[i++];
+      const cmdId = cmd & 0x7;
+      const count = cmd >> 3;
+      if (cmdId === 1) {
+        // MoveTo - start ring
+        if (current !== null) {
+          rings.push(current);
+        }
+        current = [];
+        x += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+        y += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+        current.push({ x, y });
+      } else if (cmdId === 2) {
+        // LineTo
+        for (let c = 0; c < count; c++) {
+          x += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+          y += zigzag(cmds[i++]);
+          current.push({ x, y });
+        }
+      } else if (cmdId === 7) {
+        // ClosePath
+        if (current !== null && current.length > 0) {
+          current.push({ x: current[0].x, y: current[0].y });
+          rings.push(current);
+          current = null;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    if (current !== null) {
+      rings.push(current);
+    }
+    return rings;
+  }
+
+  return [];
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} start
+ * @param {number} end
+ * @returns {string|number|boolean|bigint|undefined}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function decodeValue(bytes, start, end) {
+  let pos = start;
+  while (pos < end) {
+    const tag = readTag(bytes, pos, end);
+    const fieldNumber = tag.fieldNumber;
+    const wireType = tag.wireType;
+    pos = tag.newPos;
+    if (fieldNumber === ValueField.STRING && wireType === 2) {
+      const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, end);
+      pos = length.newPos;
+      const stringEnd = advanceByLength(pos, length.value, end, "string value");
+      return readString(bytes, pos, stringEnd - pos);
+    } else if (fieldNumber === ValueField.FLOAT && wireType === 5) {
+      // float
+      advanceByLength(pos, 4, end, "float value");
+      const v = new DataView(
+        bytes.buffer,
+        bytes.byteOffset + pos,
+        4,
+      ).getFloat32(0, true);
+      return v;
+    } else if (fieldNumber === ValueField.DOUBLE && wireType === 1) {
+      // double
+      advanceByLength(pos, 8, end, "double value");
+      const v = new DataView(
+        bytes.buffer,
+        bytes.byteOffset + pos,
+        8,
+      ).getFloat64(0, true);
+      return v;
+    } else if (fieldNumber === ValueField.INT64 && wireType === 0) {
+      const value = readBigVarint(bytes, pos, end);
+      return toSafeNumber(value.value);
+    } else if (fieldNumber === ValueField.UINT64 && wireType === 0) {
+      const value = readBigVarint(bytes, pos, end);
+      return toSafeNumber(value.value);
+    } else if (fieldNumber === ValueField.SINT64 && wireType === 0) {
+      const value = readBigVarint(bytes, pos, end);
+      return toSafeNumber(zigzagBigInt(value.value));
+    } else if (fieldNumber === ValueField.BOOL && wireType === 0) {
+      const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, end);
+      return value.value !== 0;
+    }
+    pos = skipField(bytes, pos, wireType, end);
+  }
+  return undefined;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} pos
+ * @param {number} limit
+ * @returns {ReadTagResult}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function readTag(bytes, pos, limit) {
+  const value = readVarint32(bytes, pos, limit);
+  return {
+    fieldNumber: value.value >>> 3,
+    wireType: value.value & 0x7,
+    newPos: value.newPos,
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} pos
+ * @param {number} limit
+ * @returns {ReadVarintResult}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function readVarint32(bytes, pos, limit) {
+  const value = readBigVarint(bytes, pos, limit, 5);
+  if (value.value > 0xffffffffn) {
+    throw new RuntimeError("Invalid MVT uint32 varint.");
+  }
+  return {
+    value: Number(value.value),
+    newPos: value.newPos,
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} pos
+ * @param {number} limit
+ * @returns {ReadVarintResult}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function readVarintLength(bytes, pos, limit) {
+  const value = readBigVarint(bytes, pos, limit);
+  if (value.value > BigInt(Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER)) {
+    throw new RuntimeError("Invalid MVT length varint.");
+  }
+  return {
+    value: Number(value.value),
+    newPos: value.newPos,
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} pos
+ * @param {number} limit
+ * @param {number} [maxBytes=10]
+ * @returns {ReadBigVarintResult}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function readBigVarint(bytes, pos, limit, maxBytes) {
+  let result = 0n;
+  let shift = 0n;
+  let byteCount = 0;
+  const byteLimit = maxBytes ?? 10;
+
+  while (true) {
+    if (pos >= limit || pos >= bytes.length) {
+      throw new RuntimeError("Invalid MVT: truncated varint.");
+    }
+    const byte = bytes[pos++];
+    result |= BigInt(byte & 0x7f) << shift;
+    byteCount++;
+    if ((byte & 0x80) === 0) {
+      break;
+    }
+    if (byteCount >= byteLimit) {
+      throw new RuntimeError("Invalid MVT: varint is too long.");
+    }
+    shift += 7n;
+  }
+
+  return {
+    value: result,
+    newPos: pos,
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} pos
+ * @param {number} len
+ * @returns {string}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function readString(bytes, pos, len) {
+  const end = advanceByLength(pos, len, bytes.length, "string");
+  return textDecoder.decode(bytes.subarray(pos, end));
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {number} pos
+ * @param {number} length
+ * @param {number} limit
+ * @param {string} fieldName
+ * @returns {number}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function advanceByLength(pos, length, limit, fieldName) {
+  if (!Number.isFinite(length) || length < 0) {
+    throw new RuntimeError(`Invalid MVT ${fieldName}: invalid length.`);
+  }
+  const end = pos + length;
+  if (!Number.isFinite(end) || end < pos || end > limit) {
+    throw new RuntimeError(
+      `Invalid MVT ${fieldName}: length exceeds available bytes.`,
+    );
+  }
+  return end;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
+ * @param {number} pos
+ * @param {number} wireType
+ * @param {number} limit
+ * @returns {number} newPos
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function skipField(bytes, pos, wireType, limit) {
+  if (wireType === 0) {
+    return readBigVarint(bytes, pos, limit).newPos;
+  } else if (wireType === 1) {
+    return advanceByLength(pos, 8, limit, "fixed64 field");
+  } else if (wireType === 2) {
+    const length = readVarintLength(bytes, pos, limit);
+    return advanceByLength(
+      length.newPos,
+      length.value,
+      limit,
+      "length-delimited field",
+    );
+  } else if (wireType === 5) {
+    return advanceByLength(pos, 4, limit, "fixed32 field");
+  }
+  throw new RuntimeError(`Unsupported protobuf wire type: ${wireType}`);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Decode a zigzag-encoded signed integer.
+ * @param {number} n
+ * @returns {number}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function zigzag(n) {
+  return (n >>> 1) ^ -(n & 1);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {bigint} n
+ * @returns {bigint}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function zigzagBigInt(n) {
+  return (n >> 1n) ^ -(n & 1n);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {bigint} value
+ * @returns {number|bigint}
+ * @ignore
+ */
+function toSafeNumber(value) {
+  if (
+    value <= BigInt(Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER) &&
+    value >= BigInt(Number.MIN_SAFE_INTEGER)
+  ) {
+    return Number(value);
+  }
+  return value;
+}
+
+export default decodeMVT;