@cubis/foundry 0.3.31 → 0.3.33

package/workflows/workflows/agent-environment-setup/platforms/copilot/skills/database-skills/skills/mysql/references/query-indexing.md

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+# MySQL — Query Optimization and Indexing
+
+## EXPLAIN workflow
+
+Always run `EXPLAIN` (or `EXPLAIN ANALYZE`) before and after index changes.
+
+```sql
+EXPLAIN SELECT * FROM orders WHERE user_id = 42 ORDER BY created_at DESC LIMIT 20;
+EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT ...;  -- MySQL 8.0+: shows actual row counts and timing
+```
+
+Key columns to read:
+
+| Column | Red flag |
+| --- | --- |
+| `type` | `ALL` = full table scan. Target: `ref`, `eq_ref`, `range`, or `const`. |
+| `Extra` | `Using filesort` = no index satisfying ORDER BY. `Using temporary` = costly in-memory or on-disk sort. |
+| `rows` | Estimated rows examined. Should be close to rows returned. |
+| `key` | Which index MySQL chose. `NULL` = no index used. |
+
+## Composite index design (leftmost prefix rule)
+
+- Column order is critical: **equality predicates first, then range, then sort**.
+- The planner can use any leading prefix of the index — trailing columns after a range stop being used.
+- **Good**: `(status, user_id, created_at)` for `WHERE status = 'open' AND user_id = 42 ORDER BY created_at`.
+- **Bad**: `(created_at, status)` for `WHERE status = 'open'` — planner must scan the whole index.
+
+```sql
+-- Supports: WHERE status = ? ORDER BY created_at
+-- Supports: WHERE status = ? AND user_id = ?
+CREATE INDEX idx_orders_status_user_created ON orders (status, user_id, created_at);
+```
+
+## Covering indexes
+
+Include all selected columns in the index to avoid a heap row lookup (index-only read).
+
+```sql
+-- Query: SELECT status, total FROM orders WHERE user_id = 42
+CREATE INDEX idx_orders_user_covering ON orders (user_id) INCLUDE (status, total);
+-- Or in older MySQL without INCLUDE, use a composite key that covers the columns
+```
+
+Range predicates in the key stop the index from being used for subsequent columns — use `INCLUDE`-style or a separate index for those.
+
+## Seek (cursor) pagination — avoid OFFSET
+
+`OFFSET N` forces MySQL to scan and discard N rows. On large tables this is catastrophically slow.
+
+```sql
+-- BAD: OFFSET pagination
+SELECT * FROM orders ORDER BY id LIMIT 20 OFFSET 10000;
+
+-- GOOD: Seek pagination using last seen ID
+SELECT * FROM orders WHERE id > :last_seen_id ORDER BY id LIMIT 20;
+
+-- For composite sort keys
+SELECT * FROM orders
+WHERE (created_at, id) < (:last_created_at, :last_id)
+ORDER BY created_at DESC, id DESC
+LIMIT 20;
+```
+
+## Function calls on indexed columns break index usage
+
+```sql
+-- BAD: function call prevents index use
+SELECT * FROM users WHERE YEAR(created_at) = 2025;
+
+-- GOOD: range predicate preserves index
+SELECT * FROM users WHERE created_at >= '2025-01-01' AND created_at < '2026-01-01';
+```
+
+## Index maintenance
+
+```sql
+-- Find unused indexes (after collecting stats for a while)
+SELECT object_schema, object_name, index_name, count_read
+FROM performance_schema.table_io_waits_summary_by_index_usage
+WHERE count_read = 0 AND object_schema NOT IN ('mysql', 'sys', 'information_schema')
+ORDER BY object_schema, object_name;
+
+-- Check index sizes
+SELECT table_name, index_name, stat_value * @@innodb_page_size / 1024 / 1024 AS size_mb
+FROM mysql.innodb_index_stats
+WHERE stat_name = 'size' AND database_name = DATABASE()
+ORDER BY size_mb DESC;
+```
+
+- Drop indexes with `count_read = 0` — every index adds write and lock overhead.
+- Use `ALTER TABLE ... ADD INDEX ..., ALGORITHM=INPLACE, LOCK=NONE` for online index changes.
+
+## Key guardrails
+
+- Avoid leading `%` in LIKE (`LIKE '%foo'`) — can't use a B-tree index.
+- Avoid `OR` across different indexed columns — use `UNION ALL` instead.
+- Avoid implicit type coercions in `WHERE` (e.g., `WHERE varchar_col = 123`) — breaks index usage.
+- Batch large INSERTs (500–5000 rows per statement) to reduce per-statement overhead.
+
+## Sources
+- Using EXPLAIN: https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.4/en/using-explain.html
+- Optimization and indexes: https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.4/en/optimization-indexes.html
+- LIMIT/OFFSET optimization: https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.4/en/limit-optimization.html
+- performance_schema index stats: https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.4/en/table-io-waits-summary-by-index-usage-table.html

package/workflows/workflows/agent-environment-setup/platforms/copilot/skills/database-skills/skills/mysql/references/replication.md

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+# MySQL — Replication
+
+## Replication basics
+
+MySQL replication streams changes from a **source** (primary) to one or more **replicas** (secondaries) using the **binary log (binlog)**.
+
+Common setups:
+- **Single primary + read replicas**: route writes to primary, reads to replicas.
+- **Group Replication / InnoDB Cluster**: multi-primary with automatic failover.
+- **Semi-sync**: primary waits for at least one replica to acknowledge before commit.
+
+## Binary log formats
+
+| Format | What it logs | Use for |
+| --- | --- | --- |
+| `ROW` (recommended) | Actual changed rows | Best consistency — exact row deltas |
+| `STATEMENT` | SQL statements | Smaller binlog size, but non-deterministic functions (`NOW()`, `UUID()`) unsafe |  
+| `MIXED` | Statement by default, row for unsafe statements | Compromise |
+
+```sql
+-- Check current format
+SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'binlog_format';
+
+-- Set to ROW (recommended for most setups)
+SET GLOBAL binlog_format = 'ROW';
+```
+
+## Check replication health
+
+```sql
+-- On replica
+SHOW REPLICA STATUS\G
+
+-- Key fields to monitor:
+-- Seconds_Behind_Source       → replication lag in seconds (0 = caught up)
+-- Replica_SQL_Running         → YES (must be YES)
+-- Replica_IO_Running          → YES (must be YES)
+-- Last_SQL_Error              → empty = no error
+-- Last_IO_Error               → empty = no error
+```
+
+Alert when `Seconds_Behind_Source > N` where N depends on your acceptable staleness (typically < 30s for OLTP).
+
+## GTID-based replication (MySQL 5.6+, recommended)
+
+GTID (Global Transaction Identifier) gives every committed transaction a unique ID. Enables:
+- Automatic failover without manually computing binlog coordinates.
+- Easier replica promotion.
+
+```ini
+# my.cnf on source and all replicas
+gtid_mode = ON
+enforce_gtid_consistency = ON
+```
+
+```sql
+-- Check GTID executed set on replica
+SHOW GLOBAL VARIABLES LIKE 'gtid_executed';
+-- Should match source's gtid_executed when fully caught up
+```
+
+## Read replica routing
+
+Route reads to replicas only for **eventually consistent** reads — data on the replica may be seconds behind the source.
+
+```ts
+// Example: separate pools per role
+const writePool = createPool({ host: PRIMARY_HOST });
+const readPool = createPool({ host: REPLICA_HOST });
+
+// Writes always go to primary
+await writePool.query('INSERT INTO orders ...');
+
+// Reads that can tolerate slight lag
+const orders = await readPool.query('SELECT * FROM orders WHERE ...');
+```
+
+**Never** route reads to replica for:
+- Reading immediately after a write in the same request ("read your own writes").
+- Writes that depend on current state (check-and-set patterns).
+
+## Replication lag and DDL impact
+
+DDL with `COPY` algorithm generates a full table rewrite in the binlog — the replica must replay every row. This causes massive lag on large tables.
+
+Best practices:
+- Use `ALGORITHM=INPLACE, LOCK=NONE` for all DDL when possible.
+- Schedule large `COPY`-algorithm DDL during off-peak.
+- Monitor `Seconds_Behind_Source` during DDL and pause if lag grows.
+- Consider gh-ost or pt-online-schema-change for zero-downtime DDL on replicas.
+
+## Binlog retention
+
+```sql
+-- How long binlogs are kept (days)
+SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'binlog_expire_logs_seconds';  -- MySQL 8.0
+SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'expire_logs_days';            -- MySQL 5.7
+
+-- Set retention (in seconds, MySQL 8.0)
+SET GLOBAL binlog_expire_logs_seconds = 604800;   -- 7 days
+```
+
+Keep binlogs long enough to:
+- Recover from a replica rebuild without a full dump.
+- Support point-in-time recovery.
+- Feed CDC (change data capture) consumers.
+
+## Semi-synchronous replication
+
+Prevents data loss on primary crash at the cost of slightly higher write latency.
+
+```sql
+-- Install and enable on source
+INSTALL PLUGIN rpl_semi_sync_source SONAME 'semisync_source.so';
+SET GLOBAL rpl_semi_sync_source_enabled = 1;
+
+-- Install and enable on replica
+INSTALL PLUGIN rpl_semi_sync_replica SONAME 'semisync_replica.so';
+SET GLOBAL rpl_semi_sync_replica_enabled = 1;
+```
+
+With semi-sync: source waits for at least one replica ACK per commit. If no replica ACKs within `rpl_semi_sync_source_timeout` ms, falls back to async automatically.
+
+## Monitoring replication in production
+
+```sql
+-- Source: check active replica connections
+SHOW PROCESSLIST;  -- look for "Waiting for semi-sync ACK" or "Binlog Dump"
+
+-- Replica: continuous lag check
+SELECT lag.seconds_behind_source
+FROM performance_schema.replication_applier_status_by_worker lag;
+
+-- Source binlog position
+SHOW BINARY LOG STATUS\G
+-- File, Position — use for replica setup without GTID
+```
+
+## Sources
+- Replication overview: https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.4/en/replication.html
+- GTID-based replication: https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.4/en/replication-gtids.html
+- Semi-sync replication: https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.4/en/replication-semisync.html

package/workflows/workflows/agent-environment-setup/platforms/copilot/skills/database-skills/skills/neki/SKILL.md

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+---
+name: neki
+description: Neki planning guidance for sharded Postgres architecture decisions and operational guardrails.
+---
+
+# Neki
+
+Neki is currently pre-GA (announced and under active development), so guidance is architecture-first and risk-aware.
+
+## Planning workflow
+
+1. Define shard key, tenant locality, and cross-shard boundaries.
+2. Map query classes to expected shard-local or cross-shard paths.
+3. Define migration milestones and fallback checkpoints.
+4. Preserve compatibility path with current managed Postgres baseline.
+
+## Performance planning focus
+
+- Prioritize shard-local access for hot request paths.
+- Plan read/write amplification expectations early.
+- Avoid hard assumptions about undocumented internals.
+
+## References
+
+- `references/architecture.md`
+- `references/operations.md`

package/workflows/workflows/agent-environment-setup/platforms/copilot/skills/database-skills/skills/neki/references/architecture.md

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+# Neki — Architecture and Pre-Sharding Design
+
+## What is Neki
+
+Neki is **sharded Postgres** built by PlanetScale — the company behind Vitess (the MySQL sharding system used at YouTube scale). Neki brings the same horizontal scaling approach to the Postgres ecosystem.
+
+> **Status as of early 2026**: Neki is not yet GA. Treat all behavioral assumptions as provisional until official docs stabilize. Re-verify after each preview update.
+
+## What Neki provides
+
+- **Horizontal sharding**: Distributes data across multiple Postgres nodes. Applications scale beyond single-node limits without sharding logic in application code.
+- **Managed by PlanetScale**: Operational experience from running Vitess at scale applied to Postgres.
+- **High availability**: PlanetScale-grade uptime with automatic failover.
+- **Postgres protocol compatibility**: Applications connect using standard Postgres drivers.
+
+## Architecture model (conceptual)
+
+Neki is architecturally adjacent to Vitess outcomes, but is **not a Vitess fork**. It is built from first principles for Postgres:
+
+- A **routing layer** (analogous to VTGate) intercepts queries and routes them to the correct shard.
+- A **shard key** is chosen at schema design time and determines which node stores each row.
+- Data is partitioned horizontally — each shard holds a subset of rows for every sharded table.
+- **Reference tables** (small lookup data) are replicated to all shards.
+
+## Pre-sharding design checklist
+
+Designing for Neki compatibility now means you won't need a painful migration later.
+
+### 1. Identify your shard key early
+
+Choose based on real query patterns — not theoretical. The shard key should appear in every high-QPS `WHERE` clause.
+
+Common choices: `tenant_id`, `org_id`, `user_id`, `account_id`.
+
+The shard key must be:
+- Present on every tenant-scoped table
+- High cardinality (even distribution across shards)
+- Immutable after insert (changing it requires data migration)
+
+### 2. Primary key design
+
+```sql
+-- Good: single-column PK that is the shard key
+CREATE TABLE users (user_id BIGINT PRIMARY KEY, ...);
+
+-- Good: composite PK with shard key leading on child tables
+CREATE TABLE orders (
+  user_id BIGINT NOT NULL,
+  id BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY,
+  PRIMARY KEY (user_id, id)
+);
+
+-- Bad: shard key not leading
+PRIMARY KEY (id, user_id)
+```
+
+Use UUIDs (prefer UUIDv7 for sortability) or app-generated monotonic IDs — global sequences across shards are a coordination bottleneck.
+
+### 3. Co-locate joined tables
+
+Tables frequently joined must share the same shard key and be co-located. Always include the shard key in join conditions.
+
+```sql
+-- Correct: shard-local join
+SELECT o.id, oi.product_id FROM orders o
+JOIN order_items oi ON oi.user_id = o.user_id AND oi.order_id = o.id
+WHERE o.user_id = $1;
+```
+
+### 4. Index design
+
+Lead all indexes with the shard key. Scope unique constraints to include it.
+
+```sql
+-- Correct
+CREATE INDEX idx_orders_user_status ON orders (user_id, status, created_at);
+ALTER TABLE orders ADD CONSTRAINT uq_order_number UNIQUE (user_id, order_number);
+
+-- Incorrect: missing shard key in leading position
+CREATE INDEX idx_orders_status ON orders (status, created_at);
+```
+
+### 5. Foreign keys
+
+- FKs within the same shard key (co-located data) may be supported.
+- Cross-shard-key FKs must become application-level enforcement before sharding.
+- Audit all FKs before planning a Neki migration.
+
+### 6. Query patterns
+
+Every query on sharded tables must include the shard key:
+
+```sql
+-- Correct: routes to single shard
+SELECT * FROM orders WHERE user_id = $1 AND status = 'pending';
+
+-- Incorrect: scatter — hits all shards
+SELECT * FROM orders WHERE status = 'pending';
+```
+
+For lookups by a non-shard column, maintain a mapping table and harden it with backfill + miss-rate monitoring.
+
+### 7. Transactions
+
+Keep transactions within a single shard key value. Cross-shard transactions require coordination and are significantly slower.
+
+### 8. Global aggregations
+
+`COUNT(*)`, `SUM()` across all shards are expensive. Scope to shard key, or maintain pre-computed rollup tables for global stats.
+
+### 9. Reference tables
+
+Small, rarely-changing lookup data (countries, currencies, feature flags ≲100K rows, rarely written, no tenant scoping) don't need a shard key — they get replicated to all shards.
+
+## Shard-readiness checklist
+
+- [ ] Shard key identified and present on every tenant-scoped table
+- [ ] Composite PKs with shard key leading; shard-safe IDs (UUIDv7 or app-generated)
+- [ ] Shard key in all queries, indexes (leading position), and join conditions
+- [ ] Unique constraints scoped to include shard key
+- [ ] Cross-shard FKs audited; plan for app-level enforcement
+- [ ] Transactions scoped to single shard-key value
+- [ ] Global aggregations identified; rollup/async plan in place
+- [ ] Migrations use online/revertible patterns — avoid long locks
+
+## When to evaluate Neki
+
+- Single Postgres node is hitting CPU or storage limits under real load.
+- Multi-tenant SaaS with tenant isolation requirements.
+- Write volume exceeds what vertical scaling can address.
+
+Always benchmark on production-like data volume before committing. Keep migration plans reversible and testable.
+
+## Sources
+- Neki product page: https://www.neki.dev/
+- PlanetScale announcement: https://planetscale.com/blog/announcing-neki

package/workflows/workflows/agent-environment-setup/platforms/copilot/skills/database-skills/skills/neki/references/operations.md

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+# Neki — Operational Guidance
+
+> **Status as of early 2026**: Neki is pre-GA. All operational assumptions are provisional. Re-verify behavior after each preview or doc update from PlanetScale.
+
+## Migration planning principles
+
+### Keep it reversible
+
+- Schema migrations should use online, non-blocking patterns (e.g., additive changes first, then backfill, then constraint).
+- Never cut data into Neki from a single-node Postgres setup without a proven rollback path to the original.
+- Stage the migration: dev → staging with production-like data → production with canary traffic.
+
+### Test with production-like data volume
+
+Behavior under 100K rows can be dramatically different at 100M rows. Before committing:
+1. Restore a production snapshot to a staging Neki environment.
+2. Run your full query workload against it.
+3. Measure cross-shard scatter rate, latency p99, and aggregation performance.
+4. Validate that all queries include the shard key.
+
+### Platform lock-in decision criteria
+
+Only commit to Neki when:
+- Benchmark results on Neki staging match or exceed your current single-node Postgres.
+- All high-QPS query paths are shard-key-scoped (no unresolved scatter queries).
+- Application code connects via standard Postgres driver with no sharding logic — confirm no changes needed.
+- A rollback path is documented and tested.
+
+## Connection setup
+
+Neki exposes a standard Postgres protocol endpoint. Connect the same way as any managed Postgres service:
+
+```
+host: <your-neki-host>
+port: 5432
+sslmode: require    (always use TLS in production)
+```
+
+No special driver needed. Use standard `pg`, `psycopg2`, `pgx`, etc.
+
+## Schema change workflow in Neki
+
+> Full DDL behavior docs pending GA. Apply conservative practices:
+
+1. **Additive changes first**: add nullable columns without defaults before backfill-and-constrain.
+2. **Online migrations**: use tools like `pg-osc` patterns — shadow table, backfill, atomic cutover.
+3. **Test on staging** with a representative data subset before production.
+4. **Monitor replication lag** during migrations — pause if lag grows unexpectedly.
+
+## Monitoring
+
+While Neki-specific observability tooling is not yet documented, apply standard Postgres monitoring:
+
+```sql
+-- Active connections and query state
+SELECT state, count(*) FROM pg_stat_activity GROUP BY state;
+
+-- Slow queries (requires pg_stat_statements extension)
+SELECT query, calls, total_exec_time, mean_exec_time
+FROM pg_stat_statements
+ORDER BY total_exec_time DESC
+LIMIT 10;
+```
+
+Additionally at the Neki platform level:
+- Monitor per-shard query distribution — uneven distribution suggests a poor shard key choice.
+- Track cross-shard query rate — high scatter rate is a signal to revisit schema or query design.
+
+## Guardrails
+
+- **Never run destructive operations** (`DROP TABLE`, `TRUNCATE`, mass `DELETE`) without explicit user confirmation and a verified backup.
+- **Avoid long-running transactions** — they block vacuum/maintenance on affected shards.
+- **Validate before lock-in**: run a full workload benchmark on production-like data before treating Neki as the primary datastore.
+
+## Sources
+- Neki product page: https://www.neki.dev/
+- PlanetScale announcement: https://planetscale.com/blog/announcing-neki

package/workflows/workflows/agent-environment-setup/platforms/copilot/skills/database-skills/skills/postgres/SKILL.md

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+---
+name: postgres
+description: PostgreSQL schema, indexing, pagination, query optimization, migrations, and operations.
+---
+
+# Postgres
+
+## Optimization workflow
+
+1. Baseline query with `EXPLAIN (ANALYZE, BUFFERS)`.
+2. Align index design to `WHERE + JOIN + ORDER BY` shape.
+3. Prefer keyset pagination for deep lists.
+4. Re-check planner stats (`ANALYZE`) and maintenance health (`VACUUM`, autovacuum behavior).
+5. Validate with production-like data skew.
+
+## Indexing techniques
+
+- Multicolumn indexes for common combined predicates.
+- Partial indexes for hot filtered subsets.
+- `INCLUDE` columns for index-only scans.
+- GIN for JSONB/search-like containment queries.
+- BRIN for append-mostly time-series style tables.
+
+## Pagination techniques
+
+- Prefer seek pagination: `WHERE (sort_col, id) > (...) ORDER BY sort_col, id LIMIT n`.
+- Keep deterministic ordering with unique tie-breakers.
+- Use offset only for shallow pages.
+
+## Performance guardrails
+
+- Avoid unused indexes; they increase write and vacuum cost.
+- Keep transactions short to reduce lock and bloat pressure.
+- Validate any planner-sensitive change on realistic row counts.
+
+## References
+
+- `references/schema-indexing.md`
+- `references/performance-ops.md`

package/workflows/workflows/agent-environment-setup/platforms/copilot/skills/database-skills/skills/postgres/references/connection-pooling.md

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+# Postgres — Connection Pooling
+
+## Why connection pooling is necessary
+
+Postgres spawns one process per connection, each consuming ~5–10 MB of RAM. At 200+ direct connections:
+- Memory pressure becomes significant.
+- Context-switching overhead increases.
+- Connection setup latency adds up (especially from serverless functions).
+
+**Rule**: almost every Postgres deployment in production needs a connection pooler in front.
+
+## PgBouncer — the standard choice
+
+PgBouncer is a lightweight, battle-tested TCP proxy for Postgres.
+
+### Pooling modes
+
+| Mode | How it works | Use for |
+| --- | --- | --- |
+| **Transaction** (recommended) | A server connection is held only for the duration of a transaction | Stateless apps, serverless, most OLTP |
+| **Session** | One server connection per client session until it disconnects | Apps that use session-level features (`SET`, `LISTEN`, advisory locks) |
+| **Statement** | Returns connection after each statement | Only for apps that don't use multi-statement transactions — rare |
+
+**Transaction mode caveat**: prepared statements are session-level in Postgres and break under transaction pooling. Use `pgbouncer_prepared_statements = 1` (PgBouncer 1.21+) or disable prepared statements in your client.
+
+### Typical PgBouncer configuration (`pgbouncer.ini`)
+
+```ini
+[databases]
+mydb = host=127.0.0.1 port=5432 dbname=mydb
+
+[pgbouncer]
+listen_addr = 0.0.0.0
+listen_port = 6432
+auth_type = scram-sha-256
+auth_file = /etc/pgbouncer/userlist.txt
+pool_mode = transaction
+max_client_conn = 1000        ; max connections from apps to PgBouncer
+default_pool_size = 20        ; max actual Postgres connections per database/user pair
+reserve_pool_size = 5         ; extra connections for spikes
+reserve_pool_timeout = 3
+server_idle_timeout = 600
+log_connections = 0           ; disable in production (log noise)
+```
+
+### Pool sizing formula
+
+```
+default_pool_size ≈ (num_postgres_cpu_cores × 2) + num_spindle_disks
+```
+
+For a 4-core managed Postgres: target ~10–15 server connections. App instances × client threads → PgBouncer → bounded Postgres connections.
+
+## Application-level connection pools
+
+Even with PgBouncer, application clients should pool connections to PgBouncer (not open/close on each request).
+
+### Node.js — `pg` / `node-postgres`
+
+```ts
+import { Pool } from 'pg';
+const pool = new Pool({
+  connectionString: process.env.DATABASE_URL,
+  max: 10,            // max connections from this app instance to PgBouncer
+  idleTimeoutMillis: 30000,
+  connectionTimeoutMillis: 5000,
+});
+// Use pool.query() directly or pool.connect() for transactions
+```
+
+### Python — SQLAlchemy
+
+```python
+engine = create_engine(
+    DATABASE_URL,
+    pool_size=10,
+    max_overflow=5,
+    pool_pre_ping=True,       # test connection health before use
+    pool_recycle=3600,        # recycle connections every hour
+)
+```
+
+### Prisma (Node.js)
+
+```
+# .env
+DATABASE_URL="postgresql://user:pass@pgbouncer-host:6432/mydb?pgbouncer=true"
+```
+
+The `?pgbouncer=true` flag disables prepared statements, which is required for transaction pooling.
+
+## Serverless / edge environments
+
+Serverless functions open and close connections per invocation — disastrous for direct Postgres connections.
+
+Options:
+1. **PgBouncer in transaction mode** — each function call uses a pool connection only during its transaction.
+2. **Supabase Transaction Pooler** — managed PgBouncer built into Supabase (port 6543).
+3. **Neon serverless driver** — uses HTTP instead of TCP; no persistent connection overhead.
+
+```ts
+// Neon serverless (HTTP-based, no connection overhead)
+import { neon } from '@neondatabase/serverless';
+const sql = neon(process.env.DATABASE_URL);
+const orders = await sql`SELECT * FROM orders WHERE user_id = ${userId}`;
+```
+
+## Monitoring connections
+
+```sql
+-- Current connection breakdown
+SELECT state, count(*) FROM pg_stat_activity GROUP BY state ORDER BY count DESC;
+
+-- Waiting connections (lock or connection wait)
+SELECT pid, state, wait_event_type, wait_event, query
+FROM pg_stat_activity
+WHERE wait_event IS NOT NULL;
+
+-- Max connections setting
+SHOW max_connections;
+
+-- Current utilization rate
+SELECT count(*) * 100.0 / current_setting('max_connections')::int AS pct_used
+FROM pg_stat_activity;
+```
+
+Alert when `pct_used > 80%` — before you hit the limit.
+
+## Common mistakes
+
+| Mistake | Fix |
+| --- | --- |
+| No pooler in serverless | Add PgBouncer or use HTTP driver |
+| `max_connections` set too high on Postgres | Lower it and pool instead |
+| Prepared statements in transaction pool mode | Disable at driver level |
+| App pool size > PgBouncer pool size | App waits; PgBouncer has no server connections left |
+| No `pool_pre_ping` / health check | Stale connections fail silently |
+
+## Sources
+- PgBouncer documentation: https://www.pgbouncer.org/config.html
+- PostgreSQL max_connections: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/runtime-config-connection.html
+- Prisma PgBouncer guide: https://www.prisma.io/docs/orm/prisma-client/setup-and-configuration/databases/postgresql#pgbouncer